ANTI-GLOBALIZATION VOICES:

A SELECT STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY INDIAN WRITINGS

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN

ENGLISH

By P. KARKUZHALI

Under the guidance of Dr. T. MARX

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY PUDUCHERRY - 605014

May 2013 CONTENTS

Certificate iii Declaration iv Acknowledgements v Abstract vii Note on Documentation ix

CHAPTERS

I Introduction 1

II Globalization: Culture as Commodity 53

III Economic Globalization: The Challenge of Change 113

IV Global Bio-Invasions: Narrativising Native Voices 170

V Conclusion 237

Works Cited 248

ii

Dr. T. Marx Department of English Reader Pondicherry University

Puducherry – 605014

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify, that the thesis entitled, ‘Anti-Globalization Voices: A Select

Study of Contemporary Indian Writings,’ submitted to Pondicherry

University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in English, is a record of original work done by Ms. P.

Karkuzhali, during the period of her study 2009-2013 in the Department of English,

Pondicherry University, under my supervision and guidance and that the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any Degree/ Diploma/ Associateship/ Fellowship or any other similar titles.

Signature

Place: Puducherry Date: 02.05.2013 (Dr. T. MARX)

Signature

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

iii

P. Karkuzhali Department of English Research Scholar Pondicherry University Puducherry – 605014

DECLARATION

I, hereby declare, that the thesis entitled, ‘Anti-Globalization Voices: A Select

Study of Contemporary Indian Writings’, submitted to Pondicherry

University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in English, is a record of original work done by me under the supervision and guidance of Dr. T. Marx and that it has not formed the basis for the award of any Degree/ Diploma/ Associateship/ Fellowship or any other similar titles.

Signature Place: Puducherry Date: 02.05.2013 (P. KARKUZHALI)

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am glad to owe my heartfelt thanks and gratitude to a number of people without whom this three years journey of Ph.D research work would not have been possible. I am truly indebted and thankful to my supervisor, Dr. T. Marx for his patient guidance, valuable and constructive suggestions in the process of my research work. I would like to owe my sincere and earnest thanks to my doctoral committee members,

Dr. Clement S. Lourdes and Prof. A. Chellaperumal, the Head of the Department of

Anthropology for their invaluable suggestions and strong encouragement in all stages of my research work.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to the Head of the Department of

English,

Prof. Sujatha Vijayaraghavan and offer a special thanks to Prof. N. Natarajan for his invaluable suggestion and useful advice. I also extend my thanks to all other faculty members of the Department of English: Prof. S. Murali, Dr. P. Bhaskaran Nair, Dr. H.

Kalpana, Dr. Lakhimai Mili, Dr. Binu Zachariah, Dr. S. Visaka Devi, Dr. Ujjwal Jana and Dr. K. Reshmi for their support. I would like to express my gratitude to

Anandarangapillai library, Pondicherry University, Madras Institute of Development

Studies and Connemara Public Library, Chennai for providing excellent resources for my research.

I am particularly grateful for the assistance given by Prof. Ramaswamy

Murugan and Mr. M. Mohan, Department of Physics. I wish to express my deep

v gratitude for their concern and enthusiastic encouragement. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents for their unconditional love and unfailing support both in my ups and downs. My special thanks are also extended to my friends: K.

Muruganandan, V. Dhivya, R. Indumathy, Biju Manjaly Antony, D. Sakthi Brinda, C.

Devi Annapoorani, S. Malarvizhi, P. Mohanambika, N. Senthilnayaki, R. Lalitha,

N. Chandra, M. Parimala and Vasundhra Srivastava for their constant support, suggestion and help in material collection. I once again express my heartfelt thanks to each and every one who walked along with me in my journey of research work for their myriad forms of support without which I would not have been successfully completed my thesis.

vi ABSTRACT

The thesis seeks to explore the negative impact of globalization on the society, culture, economy and environment of developing nations in general and India in particular. seven contemporary Indian writings such as Chetan Bhagat’s One Night at the Call Center (2005), Anjum Hasan’s Neti, Neti – Not This, Not This (2009),

Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger (2008), Vikas Swarup’s Q and A (2005), Indra

Sinha’s Animal’s People (2007), Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh Air (2002) and

C.K. Janu’s Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu (2004) have been selected for analysis.

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

This Chapter introduces the topic taken for discussion. It includes a short biographical note on the authors and a critical summary of their works. The theoretical framework of this thesis will include writings on globalization and neo-colonialism.

An attempt will be made to establish connection between the argument and the writings of the critics.

Chapter Two

GLOBALIZATION: CULTURE AS COMMODITY

In this chapter, the researcher attempts to establish the negative impact of the spread of the global capitalist monoculture on Indian society and culture. it explores the forces that mould the minds, tastes and values of Indian youth. It also explores how people in the contemporary world find it difficult to come to terms with the rapid

vii transformation of the 21st century. The researcher has selected Chetan Bhagat’s One

Night at the Call Center and Anjum Hasan’s Neti Neti – Not This, Not This to substantiate the argument.

Chapter Three

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: THE CHALLENGE OF CHANGE

Chapter three demonstrates the negative consequences of economic globalization on the less developed nations. It unfolds the dangerous consequences of the widening gap between the rich and the poor in developing nations. Aravind

Adiga’s The White Tiger and Vikas Swarup’s Q and A are selected for the study.

Chapter Four

GLOBAL BIO-INVASIONS: NARRATIVISING NATIVE VOICES

This chapter deals with the adverse effects of globalization on the environment in the developing countries. It explores how the LPG model has not only deteriorated the ecosystem, but also displaced tribal people and poor agricultural peasants from their lands and left them with less livelihood options. Indra Sinha’s Animal’s People,

Amulya Malladi’s A breath of Fresh Air and C.K. Janu’s Mother Forest: The

Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu have been taken for analysis.

Chapter Five

CONCLUSION

The concluding chapter sums up what has been analysed in the previous chapters. It briefs the major argument, the research findings and presents a list of research areas for future study.

viii NOTE ON DOCUMENTATION

All reference and bibliographic details in this project have been completed in accordance with the MLA handbook for Writers of Research Papers (Seventh

Edition). Secondary source references have also been provided in accordance with the parenthetical documentation specifications of the MLA handbook.

ix 1

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Globalization is, in fact, the ultimate enclosure-of our minds, our

hearts, our imaginations, and our resources.

-- Vandana Shiva

The function of literature has always been the source of fierce debate for at least three millenniums. There have been several philosophical discourses in the western metaphysics down the centuries about the form and function of arts and the institution of literature in particular. Much against Plato’s rejection of literature as an unworthy and vicious medium for the ‘republic state’, the Greco-Roman philosophers from Aristotle and Horace defended its utilitarian function for expressing truth and achieving social progress. The function of literature was defined in the best sense of renaissance in this line by Philip Sidney, who in his

Apology for Poetry posits: “Literature can teach and delight in a manner that other methods of communication do not possess” (138).

In form, the term ‘literature’ commonly refers to a piece of ‘creative writing’ such as poetry, prose, drama, fiction and short fiction. These forms created by the different characteristics of language have the best possibility to entertain and appeal to the people, which, according to Sidney, must be used to instruct people, thereby articulating what is best and desirable for the society. The view of literature as an entirely isolated aesthetic artifact has been largely contended by the modern and postmodern theories also, which range from Marxism, formalism and structuralism to new historicism. The literature, as established by these theories, is

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a product of the complex social process and power relations which shape and get shaped by one another. Literature’s inextricable connection with the social, economic, cultural and political forces have always been strongly advocated since the ancient times, the present approaches to literature have brought out this fact vividly in different realms such as social, linguistic, historical and artistic.

Terry Eagleton remarks that one needs a different kind of approach to define literature. Since literature foregrounds language, it is the literary language that distinguishes it from other forms of discourse. The literary devices such as imagery, meter, rhythm, rhyme, and syntax and narrative techniques produce an estranging and defamiliarizing effect (2-3). This formalist approach also lays emphasis on the function of literature as a catalyst to the social change by attracting the ordinary people to react to the social evils and events. Most of the literary theorists and critics deny the school of thought that the sole function of literature is to amuse its readers. These critics reject the aesthetic function of literature that ‘art for art sake’ and believe in the commitment of art to the betterment of the society. As W.B. Yeats in his “Hopes and Fears of Irish

Literature” remarks, “Literature must be the expression of conviction, and be the garment of noble emotion, and not an end in itself.” From the above definitions of literature, one can understand that literature is a medium through which the society articulates to itself.

Thus, throughout the history of literature, one can find an interesting umbilical cord between literature and society. The hypothesis of this thesis depends mostly on a definite conviction that literature’s relationship with the society is vitally important. Indeed, a study of the relationship between the literature and the society may deepen one’s aesthetic response to work apart.

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Wilbur Scott in his Five Approaches of Literary Criticism rightly observes, “art is not created in a vacuum; it is the work not simply of a person, but of an author fixed in time and space answering to a community of which is an important, because articulate art” (123). Popular sociological critics like Raymond Williams and Lucian Goldman who have established the sociological value of literature believed that a work of art can best be understood only with reference to its socio- cultural background. A piece of literature is not autonomous or self-explanatory but excess in dynamic relation to the society which produced it, influenced it and is influenced by it. Harry Levin’s argument proves this point thus: “the relations between literature and society are reciprocal. Literature is not only the effect of social causes it is also the cause of social effects.” French historian Hippolitye

Taine also asserts that, “Literature is that consequence of the movement, the race and the milieu” (qtd. in Scott 123). Taine is of the view that the work of art is determined by a totality of the general state of mind and surrounding manners.

This view holds its validity even today.

The economic structure is the base of the society that holds the super structure and its elements. As one of the few non-literary figures who influenced literature, Karl Marx remarks, “the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness” (Marxists.org). Literature, one of the elements of superstructure changes when there is a change in economic structure. While at the same time, it influences the economic base. Art and literature, according to Marx, are elements of historic continuity and contradictions. In his opinion, the essence, origin, development and social role of art would be understood only through analysis of the social system as a whole.

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Marx, along with Engels defines art as a form of social consciousness and the reason for it should be sought in the social existence. Literature often operates as social control by influencing the attitude and behaviour of people. The writer employs literature as a tool to serve social purposes by portraying human life, reflecting social contradictions and educating mankind. While celebrating love, valour and good values of the society on one side, it also reflects social evils such as subjugation, resistance and social injustices meted out to the poor so as to caution the society of its fault to make amends. Some thought provoking literary texts have time and again altered the ways of living and social functioning, and have led to the transformation of the human life to a better stage. A classic example for this change is found in the Victorian England’s social history made through several social novels of Charles Dickens. His Oliver Twist (1838) and other novels brought to light the numerous cruelties meted out to the orphan children in the homes and work houses. His novels also shattered the middleclass imaginations about the criminals, and led to a wide range of social reforms in the mid-nineteenth century England. What Karl Marx had to say about Dickens fits well to any writer with social consciousness: “… issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together” (qtd. in Kucich and Sadoff 155). The socio- economic and political transformations of a society alter human minds which in turn affect literature, the creation of mankind. Hence, it is evident that literature which is created by the society contributes to its promotion.

Each new century in the world’s history has undergone various levels of changes in the economic structure of the society which in turn influences the elements of superstructure such as the way of living, cultural values, literature,

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ecology and politics. Like the past centuries, the 21st century has undergone a rapid economic transformation which has a significant impact on the superstructure. This transformation in the economic sphere has led to a tremendous change not only in the forms of social, cultural and political lives of people, but also has significant impact on ecology, arts and literature. The impact and implications of globalization on literature is manifold. In the recent decades, as the emergence of information and communication technology has transcended time and space, everything has become globalized in this world. With the rapid growth of World Wide Web, the information technology has provided greater access to the literary texts, and people from all over the world have greater opportunity to read a wide range of literary texts that have come from different and distinctive socio-cultural backgrounds particularly the third world nations. The literary world has detached itself from euro-centrism and has started embracing transnational literature. The emergence of a wide spread new literatures have gained global appeal. The cyber culture that connects the world erases the national and geographical boundaries and disrupts the Eurocentric nature of canonical literature to accommodate literature from other parts of the world. Thus, in the era of globalization, the literary distance has been shrinking to a larger extent.

As India is known as a land of ‘unity in diversity,’ it has a wide range of rich literatures from different and distinctive socio-cultural backgrounds. It is not only Indian readers, but also the world audience who have been introduced to a variety of Indian literary texts along with the world literary texts. These distinctive literary texts of the 21st century delve into the issues of globalization such as global economy, free market trade, cultural integration, terrorism, and environmental

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degradation, thereby responding to globalization and its impact on the developing nations.

It is not an easy task to date precisely the beginning or end of a long historical process like globalization. There are contradictory opinions about the emergence of the process of globalization. As environmental activists, socio- cultural and political critics such as Thomas L. Friedman, John Tomlinson and

Vandana Shiva argue that the process of globalization is an old phenomenon that began at the time of colonial expansion itself. To the contrary, the modern economists like Joseph E. Stiglitz, Manfred B. Steger and Jagdish Bhagwati claim that it is a new phenomenon which has emerged in early 1990s immediately after the end of the cold war between the United States and Soviet Union. Although there are divergent views about the origin of the process of globalization, it is widely believed that the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989, the subsequent end of the cold war in 1991 and the rise of the United States as the single superpower mark the beginning of the process of globalization, as it facilitates and accelerates the exchange of capital, labour, information, technology, goods and services across boundaries ever before in the history of humankind. Therefore, keeping this as a baseline, the researcher has approximately bifurcated the post-independence Indian writings into pre-globalization and post-globalization era. No Indian writer can escape the influences of either Postcolonial or Post-globalisation Indian atmosphere. After all, every writer is a product of his/her age. The writings of an individual echo the society in various ways and in the case of Post-globalization period literary works can be better understood only with a proper understanding of the socio-economic, political and cultural tensions of the times. In Marx’s opinion,

“Man’s aesthetic sense is not inborn but a socially-acquired quality” (Marx and

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Engels 18). Hence, the researcher considers the socio-economic and the cultural milieu in which the recent Indian novels were created.

The thesis seeks to explore the negative impact of globalization on the society, culture, economy and environment of developing nations in general and

India in particular. In the recent decades, the process of globalization has led to a rapid transformation in the economic structure which is the base of the society.

This transformation in the economic structure has a significant impact on the elements of superstructure such as language, literature, culture, economy, politics and environment of the developing nations like India. When compared to developed nations, developing countries are more vulnerable to the negative consequences of free trade and market economy. Although the process of globalization has both positive and negative consequences on the world, an attempt has been made to unfold the negative impact of globalization on the developing countries as they become the victims of global economy. Globalization and the rapid transformation in the socio-cultural, economic and political spheres could also be viewed as the stage of neo-colonialism. An attempt has also been made to view the socio-cultural, economic and political dominance of the global powers as neo-colonialism.

Globalization being a widely studied area of research across all disciplines, any attempt that tries to incorporate them in a single stretch would be incomplete.

Culture, being another richly researched area, might pose greater difficulties when attempted to evaluate in the light of globalization. Given these limitations, the present study attempts to provide a brief exploration of the socio-economic and cultural impacts of globalization on developing nations in general and India in particular. The theoretical framework of the thesis includes the writings on

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‘globalization’, ‘neoliberalism’, ‘neo-colonialism’, ‘power’, and ‘subalternity’, for the better understanding of the works that reflect the anti-globalization voices.

The Post-independence Indian writings started dealing with either national issues such as communal violence, post-partition issues, unemployment issues or domestic issues like man-woman relationships and family violence. R.K.Narayan’s

Swami and Friends, and Malgudi Days, Raja Rao’s The Cat and Shakespeare,

Bapsi Sidhwa’s Ice-Candyman and Khushwant Singh’s Train to Pakistan are some of the pre-globalization Indian writings dealing with domestic and national issues.

This trend of writing continues till the advent of globalization. After the introduction of LPG (Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization) model, there has been a great thematic shift in the Post-global Indian writings. The recent Indian writers have shifted their focus from the domestic issues to the problems pertaining to globalization. However, some of the contemporary writers like Anita Desai,

Kiran Desai and Shashi Deshpande continue to focus on the pre-global themes.

Only a very few recent writers like Bharati Mukherjee, Amitav Ghosh, Aravind

Adiga, Chetan Bhagat and Vikas Swarup respond to the issues of globalization both in positive and in negative ways. Although globalization has positive impacts on the developing nations, it has more negative consequences on them compared to developed nations. Hence, many progressive writers such as Anjum Hasan,

Aravind Adiga, Indra Sinha and C.K. Janu explore these adverse impacts of globalization which include the socio-cultural conflicts, the widening gap between the rich and the poor and ecological destruction.

The researcher has selected seven contemporary Indian writings such as

Chetan Bhagat’s One Night at the Call Center, Anjum Hasan’s Neti, Neti – Not

This, Not This, Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger, Vikas Swarup’s Q and A, Indra

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Sinha’s Animal’s People, Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh Air and C.K. Janu’s

Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu to substantiate the proposed argument.

The researcher has meticulously chosen these works from distinct authors for they vividly portray the contemporary Indian scenario after the introduction of

LPG model. These seven writers address the issues pertaining to the three main aspects of globalization such as culture, economy and ecology. A few other writers like Amitav Ghosh and Bharati Mukherjee deal with migration, one of the aspects of globalization, thereby addressing issues related to the theme of hybridity and multiculturalism. The select works share the common theme of the negative consequences of globalization on the society. These writings depict the socio- cultural, economic and political dominance of the neo-colonial powers over the rest of the world in the name of global development.

A brief note on the literary career of the novelists selected for the study will be the main part for the study of the respective texts with the view to evaluate and analyse them in the light of the social background. Since no writer can escape the influences of the contemporary environment, it becomes indispensable to delve into the social background. Chetan Bhagat, one of the finest contemporary novelists in India, is well-known for his five blockbuster novels such as Five Point

Someone (2004), One Night at the Call Center (2005), The Three Mistakes of My life (2008), Two States (2009), and Revolution 2020 (2011). He is not only a column writer in leading English and Hindi newspapers, but also has become a motivational speaker by delivering nearly forty inspiring talks. His novels have been the best-sellers ever since their release. As Donald Greenlees remarks,

“become the biggest-selling English-language novelist ever in India.” while talking

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about the success of his best-selling novels, Bhagat comments, “I think people really took to the books mainly because there is a lot of social comment in there”

(New York Times March 14, 2008). He is regarded as a ‘youth icon’ as his novels revolve around the most inspiring youth subjects. Greenlees comments:

But Bhagat has touched a nerve with young Indian readers and has

acquired almost a cult status, and this undoubtedly says a great deal

about their tastes, attitudes and hopes. Bhagat might not be another

Vikram Seth, Salman Rushdie or Arundhati Roy, but he has

authentic claims to being one of the voices of a generation of

middle-class Indian youth facing the choices and frustrations that

come with the prospect of growing wealth. (New York Times March

14, 2008)

Two of his best-selling novels, One Night at the Call Center and Five Point

Someone, have been adapted into Bollywood films Hello and Three Idiots respectively. In these two books, he explores the life at the Indian Institute of

Technology and at the Call Center. He discloses their pressures, frustrations, choices and attitude towards life in the contemporary competitive world. Greenlees remarks, “His argument is that for the current generation of young Indians those pressures are greater than ever before” (New York Times March 14, 2008).

Out of Bhagat’s five blockbuster novels, the researcher has selected One

Night at the Call Center as it reflects the life in the contemporary global world. It narrates the story of six people working in a call center named ‘Connexions’ in

Gurgaon. The story revolves around three male characters, Shyam, Varun and

Military Uncle, and three female characters, Esha, Priyanka and Radhika. Through

Shyam’s narration, the story discloses their frustrations and pressurized life in a

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call center. It unfolds both their personal and professional traumas such as their joy and happiness, pain and sorrow and ambitions and love-life. In short, it is the story of one particular night that has transformed their life forever.

“Almost every reviewer calls Anjum Hasan’s novels quiet and well-written, a phrase that veers between praise, parody and put-down” (Tehelka Oct 17, 2009).

Anjum Hasan is another finest contemporary Indian writer from Shillong,

Meghalaya India. As a poet and a novelist, her writings represent the literature of

North East India. Anjum Hasan’s debut collection of poems Street on the Hill

(2006) won the Sahitya Academi award. Her debut novel Lunatic in My Head

(2007) has been shortlisted for Crossword Book Award 2007. After reading

Lunatic in My Head, critic Chandrahas Choudhury remarks, “She cares for language, for the beauty of sentences. Tender and empathetic, but funny”

(Tehelka Oct 17, 2009) Her second novel Neti, Neti – Not This, Not This (2009) has been long-listed for the DSC prize for South Asian Literature 2011 and short- listed for the Hindu Best Fiction Award 2010. Her latest short fiction collection

Difficult Pleasures has published in 2012 by penguin books. Apart from poetry and novels, she experiments with other notable genre like prose pieces. Some of her essays are published in famous magazines and in edited volumes.

Of Hasan’s work, the researcher has chosen her second novel Neti, Neti –

Not This, Not This (for subsequent references only Neti, Neti will be used) for the analysis. In this novel, she focuses on an unexplored phenomenon in which an

Indian migrates to other parts of India. It is a story of a young woman who moves to Bangalore from Shillong for her career. It discloses the tale of Sophie Das, a young liberated woman’s struggle and traumatic experience to come to terms with a new culture in a maddening city like Bangalore. Although the protagonist

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explores the multi-facets of the city such as life in call center, night clubs, pubs and shopping malls, she feels a sense of alienation and dislocation in the money- minded city like Bangalore. In essence, as the title suggests, it is the story of a young woman who rejects all her choices in search of her identity in the contemporary globalized world.

Aravind Adiga is yet another noteworthy contemporary Indian writer and a journalist, who is well-known for his debut novel The White Tiger (2008) which won the Man Booker Prize of the year. His articles have been published in The

New Yorker, The Sunday Times, The Financial Times and The Times of India. His latest novel Last Man in Tower has published in 2011. The researcher has selected his Man Booker Prize winning novel The White Tiger for the analysis. In this novel, he juxtaposes two Indias, ‘India of light’ and ‘India of darkness’. He vividly depicts the dark India which is unaffected by the rapid economic transformation.

Uma Mahadevan remarks:

The White Tiger, Adiga’s Man Booker Prize-winning debut novel,

is the story of this underclass and its life – begging for food,

sleeping under concrete flyovers, defecating on the roadsides,

shivering in the cold, struggling, in the 21st century, for its freedom.

(Frontline Nov 7, 2008)

It is the success story of Balram Halwai, an underbelly who becomes a successful business and social entrepreneur, a pot-bellied man by murdering his boss on a rainy day. Akash Kapur comments:

Balram Halwai, the narrator of Aravind Adiga’s first novel, “The

White Tiger,” is a modern Indian hero. In a country inebriated by its

newfound economic prowess, he is a successful entrepreneur, a self-

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made man who has risen on the back of India’s much-vaunted

technology industry. In a nation proudly shedding a history of

poverty and underdevelopment, he represents, as he himself says,

“tomorrow.” (New York Times Nov 7, 2008)

Vikas Swarup, a diplomat is yet another finest contemporary writer well- known for his debut novel Q and A (2005). When he was posted in London,

Swarup wrote his first novel Q and A within two months. This blockbuster novel has been published in 42 languages. It has been short-listed for the Best First Book by the Commonwealth Writers Prize. It won the South Africa’s exclusive Boeke

Prize 2006; the Paris Book Fair’s Reader’s Prize, the Prix Grand Public in 2007 and won the Best Travel Read (fiction) at the Heathrow Travel Product Award

2009. It has been voted the Most Influential Book of 2008 in Taiwan. This popular fiction has been turned into a blockbuster film titled Slumdog Millionaire which won more than 70 awards including four Golden Globes, seven BAFTAS and eight

Oscars. Swarup’s second novel, Six Suspects has been published in the year 2008.

He also has contributed a short story titled ‘A Great Event’ to “The Children’s

Hours: Stories of Childhood”.

Vikas Swarup’s debut Novel Q and A has been selected for the analysis as it discloses the untouched life of the underclass in the global era. It exposes how the rapid economic growth of 21st century has erected a socio-economic wall, thereby dividing the rich and the poor. It is the story of an underbelly, Ram

Mohammad Thomas who has been arrested for winning the famous quiz show,

‘Who Will Win a Billion’ (W3B):

A cheery picaresque in which an orphaned, ill-educated boy

abandoned to hardscrabble existence in the teeming slums of

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Dharavi, India, wins a billion rupees on a nationally televised quiz

show—and then is forced to defend himself against charges of

cheating (Kirkus Review May 1, 2005).

Ram Mohammad Thomas, although has answered all the twelve questions correctly with his past life experience, he has been accused of having cheated for a poor orphan who had not gone to school, could never answer the questions of intellectuals. Since the producer of the quiz show W3B is short of money, he conspires with the police to torture Ram Mohammad Thomas to sign the confession statement that he has cheated and has no right to claim the money.

Smita Shah, a young lawyer comes to his rescue and frees him from the charges against him.

Indra Sinha is one of the noteworthy writers of English and Indian descent and is positioned one among the top ten British copywriters. The Cybergypsies

(1999), The Death of Mr Love (2004) and Animal’s People (2008) are some of his notable works. He also engages himself in translating ancient Sanskrit texts.

Animal’s People, the recent work of Sinha has been short-listed for the Man

Booker Prize in 2007 as well as Regional Commonwealth Writer’s Prize in 2008.

Since 1993 he has been campaigning for the justice of the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy and making advertisements for the Bhopal Medical Appeal. Later, he quits from the agency and becomes a full-time writer.

The researcher has selected Sinha’s Animal’s People for the analysis as the novel explores the irreversible loss, pain and sufferings of the surviving victims of the world’s most eco-catastrophic event of Bhopal. On the night of 3rd December

1984, the release of more than 40 tons of Methyl Isocyanate from Union Carbide, an American transnational pesticide manufacturing plant has killed and injured

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thousands and thousands of people in Bhopal at the time of the great disaster and in the following years. Animal, the narrator of the novel discloses the miserable and sorrowful life of the surviving victims of Bhopal and their never-ending struggle for proper medical care and justice. Sinha uses the fictional city Khaufpur for Bhopal and Company for the multinational Union Carbide pesticide plant.

Ligaya Mishan comments:

Khaufpur — and its very convincing Web site — is the creation of

Indra Sinha, a former advertising copywriter, who uses it as a stand-

in for Bhopal, the site of one of the worst industrial accidents in

history, the 1984 gas leak from a Union Carbide chemical plant that

caused the deaths of thousands of people and sickened hundreds of

thousands more. It is also the setting for his fiercely polemical —

and unexpectedly bawdy — novel “Animal’s People.” (New York

Times March 9, 2008)

Amulya Malladi is yet another contemporary writer who deals with the themes of love, marriage, betrayal and so on. The Sound of Language (2007), Song of the Cuckoo Bird (2005), Serving Crazy with Curry (2004), The Mango Season

(2004) and A breath of Fresh Air (2003) are some of Malladi’s notable works. Of these writings, the researcher has chosen A Breath of Fresh Air as the story revolves around the struggles and miseries of a surviving victim and her dying son.

Anjali, the protagonist of the novel is a poison victim who suffers asthma throughout her life as a result of her inhalation of the poisonous gas. The lethal

Methyl Isocyanate has not only ruined her life, but also adversely affected her son

Amar’s health, who has born a few years after the dreadful disaster. Malladi depicts the deep feelings and emotions of a mother who could do nothing to save

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her son, but to let him die at the age of 12. In an interview, when Indu Sundaresan enquires about the choice of her subject in A Breath of Fresh air, Malladi explains,

“For me the Bhopal gas tragedy is part of my life, my childhood and its images stay with me even now, after so many years.” In 1984 she was nine-years old when her father, an army officer posted in the EME Center Bhopal. There she has witnessed the world’s most industrial disaster and even now she remembers the victims who had breathed in the poisonous gas described it as chilli powder in their lungs. She further remarks:

So this became a story I wanted to tell but I had no idea how to. I

didn’t want to write about the statistical millions, but the one, the

few who were affected. I thought that would make the tragedy more

real than saying’ x’ number died and ‘y’ number survived”

(amulyamalladi.com).

C. K. Janu is an activist in Kerala campaigning for the distribution of lands to the landless Adivasis. She is the head of Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha, a social movement that demands lands for the landless Adivasis. Although she lacks formal education, she learns to read and write through a literacy campaign. In 1994, she has been given a State Award in honour for her persistent efforts in this field.

However, she returned it as a sign of criticising the negligent attitude of the government towards the landless adivasis. In 2003 she led the occupation of wild forest at Muthanga. However, this illegal occupation ended with the police violence in which a tribe was killed and others were injured. This event came to be named as ‘Muthanga incident’. C. K. Janu’s Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C. K. Janu (2004) unfolds the story of a young woman activist’s struggles and efforts to restore the lands of adivasis which have been taken away from the tribes

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for ‘development.’ As they have been alienated from their mother forest, the tribes fear that they would lose their identity and livelihood options. This work gives an account of C. K. Janu’s childhood days and her intimate life with the mother forest, her life as a party worker in CPM and her break from it, her resistance and protests against the government to distribute lands to the landless adivasis. The researcher has chosen this work of C. K. Janu as it portrays how the tribes are displaced in the name of development from their mother forest which protects and feeds them.

Thus, the seven works of seven distinct contemporary Indian writers explore the negative consequences of globalization on less developed countries in general and

India in particular.

In human history, the beginning of any new century represents a symbolic change in the lives of human beings. In the 18th and 19th century, humankind had experienced a great shift in its way of living thanks to the agricultural and industrial revolution. The 21st century is no exception to this phenomenon of change. The present century is experiencing tremendous changes in economic, social, cultural and political spheres which are often referred to as ‘globalization’.

It is a dynamic process of liberalization and international integration of markets and technology. The study of globalization has emerged as an area of interdisciplinary interest from literature to economics, history, philosophy and sociology. For modern historians, sociologists, anthropologists and literary critics, globalization has become a prominent field of investigation. However, centuries before in his Communist Manifesto of 1848 Marx anticipated essential features of globalization process:

The need of a constantly expanding market for its products

chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It

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must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish

connections everywhere. The bourgeoisie has, through its

exploitation of the world market, given a cosmopolitan character

to production and consumption in every country. …In place of

the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have

intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of

nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The

intellectual creations of individual nations become common

property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become

more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and

local literatures, there arises a world literature. (Marx 476-477)

Before moving on to the unending debate of the definition of the complex term ‘globalization’ and its driving forces, it becomes essential to discuss the origin or beginning of the process of globalization for it plays a significant role in comprehending the hypothesis of this thesis. As Stuart Hall in “The West and The

Rest: Discourse and Power” puts it, “long historical processes have no exact beginning or end, and are difficult to date precisely” (280). It is hard to date exactly the beginning of the process of globalization. In The World is Flat: A Brief

History of the Twenty-first Century, Thomas L. Friedman remarks that globalization is an old phenomenon, which began at the time of colonial expansion and elaborates the three stages of globalization. The first phase of globalization began in the year 1492 “when Columbus set sail, opening trade between the Old

World and the New World —until around 1800. … It shrank the world from a size large to a size medium.” The military power, muscle power and horse power were the driving forces of this first era of globalization. In short, it involved the

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globalization of countries. The second stage of globalization lasted from 1800 to

2000 “interrupted by the Great Depression and World Wars I and II. This era shrank the world from a size medium to a size small.” The driving force that involved in this era of globalization was the emergence of multinational companies. These multinational companies explored the globe in search of markets and labour force. The first half of the second stage of globalization was marked by industrial revolution and the fall in transportation costs due to the invention of steam engine and railroad. In the second half, the global integration was powered by falling telecommunication costs due to the “diffusion of the telegraph, telephones, the PC, satellites, fiber-optic cable, and the early version of the World

Wide Web” (9). In essence, this stage of globalization has involved in the global integration of companies.

The world has entered into the third phase of globalization since 2000. The dynamic force of this era of globalization is “the force that gives it its unique character—is the newfound power for individuals to collaborate and compete globally and the phenomenon that is enabling, empowering, and enjoining individuals and small groups to go global so easily” (10). In this era, individuals globalize themselves which is made possible “by the Apple and Windows-enabled

IBM PCs and their many clones. They are the tools that gave individuals the power to author, shape, and disseminate information at their fingertips” (57). Thus,

Friedman’s theory on the origin of globalization indicates that globalization is not a new phenomenon, and it is a long historical process which has reached its pinnacle in the third phase of globalization.

However, many other critics like Manfred B. Steger, Joseph E. Stiglitz and

Jagdish Bhagwati explicate that the beginning of globalization is marked by the

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fall of Berlin Wall in 1989 and the end of cold war in 1991. While discussing the neoliberal ideology and the birth of globalization in Neoliberalism: A Very Short

Introduction, Manfred B. Steger and Ravi K. Roy comment, “… globalization unfolded not merely on the material plane of commerce and technology. It was also a direct consequence of the worldwide dominance of neoliberal ideology following the 1989-91 collapse of Soviet communism” (52-53). In

“Globalization”, Shalmali Guttal shares similar thought as, “The fall of the Berlin

Wall, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the end of the Cold War hastened the acceptance by nations of capitalism as the only viable economic order that could create wealth” (525). Although Friedman classifies globalization into three stages, the third phase of globalization which flattens the world becomes his focal point.

While he discusses the ten significant factors that led to globalization and flattening of the world, he also remarks about the significance of the fall of Berlin

Wall as:

The fall of the Berlin Wall didn’t just help flatten the alternatives to

free-market capitalism and unlock enormous pent-up energies for

hundreds of millions of people in places like India, Brazil, China,

and the former Soviet Empire It also allowed us to think about the

world differently—to see it as more of a seamless whole Because

the Berlin Wall was not only blocking our way, it was blocking our

sight—our ability to think about the world as a single market, a

single ecosystem, and a single community Before 1989, you could

have an Eastern policy or a Western policy, but it was hard to think

about having a “global” policy.” (54)

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The reason for why the modern economists regard that the fall of Berlin Wall plays a significant role in the beginning of the process of globalization can be best understood by knowing the facts about the Berlin Wall. As per the Potsdam agreement after World War II, Germany was divided into four zones and each one was occupied by the allied powers such as The United States, The United

Kingdom, France and Soviet Union. Soon after the disintegration of the relationship between Soviet Union and the other three allied powers, the Berlin

Wall was erected in 1961 by Soviet Union between West Berlin and East Germany to prevent emigration to the west and to establish a communist society. The Berlin

Wall erected during the cold war has not only stood as a physical boundary between West Berlin and East Germany, but also represented a symbolic rampart between the two economic systems such as capitalism of the United States and the communism of Soviet Union. Hence, from the above elucidations, it is revealed that although the process of globalization can be traced back to the ancient times, the fall of Berlin Wall is widely accepted as the first and the foremost influencing factor that has led to the beginning of globalization.

Globalization is an umbrella term which has a variety of qualities such as

“the compression of time and space, the increased interconnectivity of human groups, the increased volume of the exchange of commodities, people and ideas.

…” (Turner 5). The general definition of globalization as the movement towards global integration of markets and technology gives a very little account of the remaining qualities of the process of globalization. The following influential definitions which describe the distinct characteristics of the globalization process would help to comprehend its various features. Fredric Jameson defines globalization as: “The concept of globalization reflects the sense of an immense

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enlargement of world communication, as well as of the horizon of a world market, both of which seem far more tangible and immediate than in earlier stages of modernity” (qtd. in Steger 10).

On the other hand, the process of globalization intensifies social relationships transcending the socio-economic, cultural and geographical boundaries by accelerating social exchanges and activities through the wide spread information and communication technology. Anthony Giddens, the director of the

London School of Economics comments on this dimension of globalization as,

“the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (64). In this globalized era, everything moves fast and distance shrinks in a very impressive manner. James Mittelsman refers to this aspect of globalization as, “Globalization compresses the time and space aspects of social relations” (qtd. in Steger 10). Hence, from the above definitions, one can identify some of the essential qualities of the process of globalization. Incorporating all the above aspects of globalization, Steger remarks:

Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of social processes

that create, multiply, stretch, and intensify worldwide social

interdependencies and exchanges while at the same time flustering

in people a growing awareness of deepening connections between

the local and the distant. (13)

In other words, globalization refers to the process of transnational interconnectedness and interrelatedness across all spheres such as the social, the cultural, the economical, the political and the ecological milieu. Since the term

‘globalization’ is elastic in nature, any attempt to provide a precise definition of

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globalization would face a danger of excluding some of its main features. David

Held offers an inclusive definition of globalization as:

… a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation

in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions -

assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity, and impact

— generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks

of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power. (Held et al 16)

All the above definitions indicate that globalization is a multidimensional process which includes all spheres and influences the socio-cultural, economic, political, cultural and ecological existence of the world’s living and non-living subjects.

However, often the term ‘globalization’ is associated with ‘economic globalization’ which indicates the process of production distribution and consumption of goods and services. In other words, it refers to the free flow of goods, services, capital, labour and information. Steger describes the term

‘economic globalization’ as: “… Gigantic flows of capital and technology have stimulated trade in goods and services. Markets have extended their reach around the world, in the process creating new linkages among national economies” (37).

He further remarks that the emergence of huge transnational corporations, powerful international economic institutions, and large regional trading systems have become the major building blocks of the 21st century’s global economic order (37).

Free trade and globalization of markets that operate around the clock across the globe are the core component of the global economy. In other words, the global market economy is the basis of global economic dependency pattern. Patrik Aspers and Sebastian Kohl elucidate this interconnectedness and interrelatedness of

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market economy through an example in which a student from Austin, Texas looks for a used and rare Gibson guitar and decides to go for the one in Germany that has been put out for sale by the retired rock musician in Trier. She orders the Gibson guitar with her debit card in US Dollars. The rock musician will soon see the amount that he requires in Euro registered on his account. This single transaction is made possible by the market for foreign exchange. As Patrik Aspers and Sebastian kohl remark:

This economic relation ties these two persons with different

interests together because one has an item for sale that the other is

willing to pay for. But since firms and those employed by these

firms, have made sure that the package, quite regardless of its

content, gets to the right address in Austin. Many actors and

institutions are involved in the process of taking the guitar in one

direction and money in the other. However, in the global economy

money travels only as accounts, that is, only as registration of

numbers, and never as actual physical money. (Turner 43-44)

This extremely complicated transaction between the student in Austin and the rock musician in Germany is made possible by the middlemen or the firms, who are motivated by profit. Hence, it is evident that the interdependence in the global economy is made possible by the transnational organizations or firms, whose ultimate aim is to maximize profit.

Aspers and Kohl also point out the reason for this rapid growth of interdependency in global market economy as, “The human desire to explore, learn, and acquire objects that make life easier and more pleasurable has contributed to human journeys and trade, and we have, as a result, increasingly

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become dependent on one another” (Turner 44). Steger, in his preface to

Globalization: A very Short Introduction offers an answer for the question why globalization is often associated with economy. He remarks that it is the superficial knowledge of the common readers about the international trade policy, global financial markets, the world wide free flow of capital, labour, goods and services, foreign direct investment, new international economic institutions, transnational corporations, make the reader to think of globalization as primarily an economic phenomenon. Although the economy forms the significant part in the comprehensive account of the process of globalization, confining the multidimensional process of globalization into a single thematic framework would pose complication in the better understanding of globalization. As discussed earlier that the rapid transformation in the base economic structure would have its impacts on the elements of superstructure. Steger points out this rapid transformation in all spheres as, “the transformative powers of globalization reach deeply into the economic, political, cultural, technological, and ecological dimensions of contemporary social life” (xi). Since the term globalization corresponds to the notion of change and denotes the transformation of present conditions, any attempt to explore the dynamics of globalization would incorporate the theme of social changes.

In Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts, globalization is defined as,

“the process whereby individual lives and local communities are affected by economic and cultural forces that operate world-wide. In effect it is the process of the world becoming a single place” (Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 100). The above words indicate that globalization has brought massive changes not only in the economic sphere, but also in the socio-cultural values of human lives.

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While there is a significant development in the study of economic globalization on the one side, there are equally important developments in the theories of socio-cultural dimensions of globalization on the other side. In recent decades, anthropologists, sociologists and human geographers have wrestled with the task of theorising the cultural dimensions of globalization. Turner comments:

This has proven to be even more complicated and problematic than

theorizing the economics of globalization. Although most scholars

of globalization accept that the spatial stretching of production lines

and the expansion of capital and free markets comprise a central

component of globalization, it has been much more difficult to

establish the social and cultural implications of these seemingly

self-evident shifts in political economy. (23)

Globalization has not only brought massive changes in the economic sphere, but also in the cultural values of human life. The transnational migrations, free flow of consumer goods across the globe and the wide spread information and communication technology (ICT) are the core components of globalization that have led to the rapid cultural transformation. Steger explains the core components associated with the multidimensional aspects of globalization. He points out that the economic dimension of globalization is associated with “the production, exchange, and consumption of commodities.” Discussion on the political dimension of globalization is concerned with the “practices related to the generation and distribution of power in societies.” The cultural dimension deals with “the symbolic construction, articulation, and dissemination of meaning.” As language, music, and images constitute the major forms of symbolic expression, they acquire special significance in the sphere of culture. He defines cultural

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globalization as, “the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe. Obviously, ‘culture’ is a very broad concept; it is frequently used to describe the whole of human experience” (69).

The ever increasing cultural interconnectedness and interdependency in recent decades seem to have appeared as if it is the core component of contemporary globalization. The wide spread information and communication technology (ICT) such as world wide web, mass media and satellite television facilitate the spread of global culture across the world. Steger comments, “As images and ideas can be more easily and rapidly transmitted from one place to another, they profoundly impact the way people experience their everyday lives”

(70). Internet which plays a significant role in the growth of worldwide interconnectedness in the socio-economic, cultural and political spheres has become the part and parcel of human life in the contemporary world that even a minor problem or a break down in internet would result in a great communication catastrophe. The new forms of expressions such as e-mails, blogs and social networks are now become a part of everyday life for a wide range of populations across the world. With its new forms of expressions, internet promotes a unique culture. As Manuel Castells points out, “it is open source, free posting, decentralized broadcasting, serendipitous interaction, purpose oriented communication, and shared creation that find their expression on the internet”

(200).

In the last decade, almost all countries of the world have the internet infrastructure and it is accessible even in remote parts of the world. Internet intensifies the interdependence patterns of globalization as it could reach diverse people, institutions, ideas and information across the world. It promotes individual

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freedom of choice and freedom of expression by offering a wide variety of opportunities and choices. The ever increasing global interaction shrinks the geographical distance and promotes social interrelatedness thereby increasing solidarity over great distances. In the contemporary world, the popular culture, media events, sports, movies, music and television shows have been increasingly interconnected across the world. The production and consumption of popular culture, which are the two opposing and complementary processes, have a significant role in shaping the relation between the global and the local. On the one side, the production of popular culture is vested in the hands of a few multinational organisations, whose profit depends on globalization. On the other side, in consumption, the audiences take new roles in the processes of production, distribution and reception, thus further undermining the traditional structure of the cultural industries. Hence, it is evident that internet has profound effects on many aspects of social life as it integrates socio-economic, cultural and political structures of human life.

The process of globalization is driven not only by the advancement in communication and information technology, but also by the neoliberal policy that emerged after the collapse of Soviet Union. As Shalmali Guttal remarks:

Globalisation as we know and experience it today is not simply an

inevitable outcome of scientific advancement and technological

progress, and there is little that is ‘natural’ or even autonomous

about it. Rather, it is the result of specifically conceived, planned,

and targeted neo-liberal policy and structural measures that sought

to bring all aspects of social, economic, and political life under the

rubric of market capitalism. (525)

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Without a brief account of “neoliberalism,” which constitutes the core ideology of globalization, the study would become incomplete. ‘Neoliberalism’ refers to an economic model which propagates and promotes a set of ideological and political principles that emphasize privatization, free market and free trade. In

Neoliberalism: A Very Short Introduction, Steger and Roy comment, “The 1991 demise of the Soviet Union and the acceleration of market-oriented reforms in communist China led to the unprecedented dominance of the neoliberal model in the 1990s” (10). A brief explanation of the three fundamental dimensions of neoliberalism such as an ideology, a mode of governance and a policy package would lead to a better understanding of the concept of neoliberalism. The concept of ‘ideologies’ refers to “systems of widely shared ideas and patterned beliefs that are accepted as truth by significant groups in society” (11). The global power elites such as executives of transnational organizations, corporate lobbyists, influential journalists, celebrities and top entertainers, state bureaucrats, and politicians play a crucial role in framing the ideology of neoliberalism. “Self-regulating free market” is celebrated as the model for neoliberal mode of governance. It operates on the basis of “entrepreneurial values such as competitiveness, self-interest, and decentralization” (12). The neoliberal policy package is based on ‘D-L-P formula’

(Deregulation of the economy, liberalization of trade and industry and privatization of state-owned enterprises) (14). Thus, neoliberalism, the basis of globalization shifts the control and power from the state to the tycoon and transnational corporations. In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman asserts this shift in power as, “Like all revolutions, globalization involves a shift in power from one group to another. In most countries it involves a power shift from the state and its bureaucrats to the private sector and entrepreneurs” (336).

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This neo-liberal economic globalization has come to be known as

Washington Consensus. The free-market economist John Williamson coined the term “Washington Consensus” to refer to the global neoliberal development agenda which is primarily based on the ‘structural adjustment programmes’ and international free-trade agreements. Although there may be endless debates on the origin and concept of globalization, many critics agree that this new global economic model is the outcome of the fall of Berlin wall and the end of cold war.

In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman elucidates, “Globalization is not just some economic fad, and it is not just a passing trend. It is an international system-- the dominant international system that replaced the Cold War system after the fall of the Berlin Wall” (7).

It was at the time of the cold war that the world was divided into three camps: western bloc (The United States with its Allies), communist bloc (the

Soviet Union with its allies) and the neutral or non-aligned nations. The Berlin wall, the symbol of the cold war indicates the clash between the two superpowers - the clash between communism and capitalism. The disintegration of Soviet Union has led to the emergence of one supreme power with the birth of single global market economy. Since communism failed to deliver the promising results, the world nations seek for an alternative economic model to uplift themselves from poverty. Moises Naim in “Fads and Fashion in Economic Reforms: Washington

Consensus or Washington Confusion” also points out:

It coincided with the sudden collapse of the Soviet system and its

ideological apparatus. The disenchantment with socialist ideas and

central planning, which had also pervaded many developing

countries outside the Soviet bloc, created an urgent and widespread

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need for an alternative set of ideas about how to organise economic

and political life. (509)

The collapse of the Soviet Union accelerated the world nations to adhere this new economic model by following its ten commandments such as “Budget deficits. ... should be small enough to be financed without recourse,” “Public expenditure should be redirected from politically sensitive areas that receive more resources than their economic return can justify. ... toward neglected fields with high economic returns and the potential to improve income distribution, such as primary education and health, and infrastructure”, “Tax reform ... so as to broaden the tax base and cut marginal tax rates,” “Financial liberalization, involving an ultimate objective of market-determined interest rates,” “A unified exchange rate at a level sufficiently competitive to induce a rapid growth in non-traditional exports,”

“Quantitative trade restrictions to be rapidly replaced by tariffs, which would be progressively reduced until a uniform low rate in the range of 10 to 20 percent was achieved”, “Abolition of barriers impeding the entry of FDI (foreign direct investment)”, “Privatization of state enterprises”, “Abolition of regulations that impede the entry of new firms or restrict competition” and “The provision of secure property rights, especially to the informal sector” (Williamson 196). The

Washington-based global economic institutions such as the International Monetary

Fund and the World Bank impose the neoliberal policies heavily on the developing nations. The assertion that the global integration of markets and technology is inevitable makes it easier for the global powers to convince the less developed nations to accept the neoliberal policies to prosper and survive in the era of globalization. While discussing the inevitable and irreversible process of globalization, critics like Friedman claims, “But, in the end, if you want higher

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standards of living in a world without walls, the free market is the only ideological alternative left. One road, Different speeds. But one road” (104).

The Neoliberal global economic model promises the developing countries that SAPs would bring unprecedented growth and prosperity to the developing and under developed nations and also lift the less developed nations out of poverty.

“Poverty alleviation” is the magical term used by the global economic institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to justify its imposition of the “Structural Adjustment Programmes” on developing countries

(Steger and Roy 53). In essence, it is viewed as a proper model for economic development. However, SAPs has failed to produce the promised material benefits, export revenues, economic growth, freedom from debt and reduction in poverty.

Instead, it has brought “economic stagnation and increased unemployment, income poverty, economic vulnerability, and environmental destruction” (Guttal 527).

Many critics argue that SAPs is not a promising model for all as it benefits the developed nations the most, while indirectly forcing the less developed nations to incur huge debt and poverty. As Guttal comments:

Private corporations, national elites, and those able to access higher

education have reaped benefits, to be sure. But for hundreds of

millions across the world, the actual effects of neo-liberal policies

have been inequality, poverty, hunger, increased susceptibility to

disease and sickness, and economic and political marginalisation.

(530)

Therefore, it is evident that the global elites and transnational organizations advocate the global economic framework which includes privatization, liberalization and deregulation of markets through international economic

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institutions for they are the principal beneficiaries of single global market economy and free trade.

Globalization and the rapid transformation in the socio-cultural, economic and political spheres represent neo-colonialism, the new form of imperialism or colonialism. The word ‘imperialism’ refers to as “the formation of an empire, … in which one nation has extended its domination over one or several neighbouring nations” (Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 111). The term ‘colonialism’ refers to the specific forms of exploitations by the expansion of Europe over the last 4 centuries. Edward said distinguishes between the terms ‘imperialism’ and

‘colonialism’ as, “the term, “imperialism” means the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory;

“colonialism,” which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on distant territory” (8). As Michael Parenti comments on imperialism “process whereby the dominant politico-economic interests of one nation expropriate for their own enrichment the land, labour, raw materials, and markets of another people” (1). Colonies have been established primarily for the socio-economic and political benefits of the colonisers that are to satisfy their demand for raw materials and the need for markets to sell the finished goods. The imperial powers subjugate, enslave and exploit the human resources of the colonised territories. They have looted the wealth of the colonies and exploited its manpower exclusively to maximise their profits. They justify their violent exploitations and unjust processes as an act of civilizing the barbaric community.

Hiding behind such an innocent phrase, the colonialist countries engage themselves in the unlimited extraction and exploitation of both the natural and human

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resources of the colonised nations. As Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin, In Post-

Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts remark:

The colonialist system permitted a national idea of improvement for

the colonized, via such metaphors as parent/child, tree/branch, etc.,

which in theory allowed that at some future time the inferior

colonials might be raised to the status of the colonizer. But in

practice this future was always endlessly deferred. (42-43)

Many critics argue that the origin of the process of globalization can be traced back to the colonial expansion of the dominant powers of Europe. As Guttal puts it,

“Impelled by the search for new markets and new sources of wealth, and fanned by the industrial revolution, colonialism resulted in the establishment of international commodity markets and mercantilist trade” (525). Although the colonised countries have been liberated from their colonial powers, the old-fashioned colonialism has not come to an end. It has not been abolished completely for it continues to operate in new forms. As John Tomlinson in Cultural Imperialism: A

Critical Introduction comments:

… all the discourses of cultural imperialism we have encountered

can be interpreted in terms of a different configuration of global

power that is a feature of these ‘new times’. This configuration

replaces the distribution of global power that we know as

‘imperialism’, which characterised the modern period up to, say,

the 1960s. What replaces ‘imperialism’ is ‘globalisation’. (175)

Colonialism, the instrument of imperialism has been replaced by neo-colonialism in the contemporary globalized world. As Aspers and Kohl remark:

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Contemporary globalization is imperialism, recolonization or

dependency by other name. Debt, conditionalities of the

international financial institutions, and McDonaldization in the

cultural sphere, all point in this direction. Domination is now

exercised through financial and economic regimes. (qtd. in Turner

99)

The term neo-colonialism refers to the continuation of the form of colonial dominance. It is the informal or indirect hegemonic control of the powerful or developed nations over the developing and underdeveloped countries in the name of free market economy and freedom of choice. Kwame Nkrumah, the political theorist and political activist for African rights, in his book, Neo-Colonialism:

The Last Stage of Imperialism comments on neo-colonialism as, “The essence of neo-colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside”

(Marxists.org). Generally, neo-colonialism operates from outside the neo-colonial state. Its power is often exercised through economic or monetary means. Nkrumah points out that neo-colonial powers “operate not only in the economic field, but also in the political, religious, ideological and cultural spheres” (Marxists.org).

He further elucidates the principle on which neo-colonialism functions. He says that unlike colonialism, it breaks up former large united colonial territories into a number of small non-viable states. Although these states are liberated from its colonial powers, they are incapable of independent development as they were entirely exploited by the colonisers. In other words, the liberated countries encounter various issues pertaining to the establishment of national economy,

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elimination of poverty, illiteracy and other vestiges of the colonial past. Hence, they must rely on the imperial powers for financial support to initiate the process of development. He remarks, “Their economic and financial systems are linked, as in colonial days, with those of the former colonial ruler” (Marxists.org). While discussing the concept of globalization, Guttal also points out, “globalisation is a form of capitalist expansion that entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy” (523). Free trade and freedom of communication are the instruments of neo-colonialist powers or the global powers to exploit the resources of the developing nations. Like colonial powers, the neo-colonial strategies are portrayed as the aiding hands to enhance the socio-economic growth of the developing countries. Nkrumah explicates that those neo-colonialist nations covering themselves under such phrase, “devises innumerable ways to accomplish objectives formerly achieved by naked colonialism. It is this sum total of these modern attempts to perpetuate colonialism while at the same time talking about ‘freedom’, which has come to be known as neo-colonialism” (Marxists.org).

Nkrumah asserts the fact that any under-developed country will not be developed through the generosity of the neo-colonialist powers. It can rather develop only through “a struggle against the external forces which have a vested interest in keeping it undeveloped” (Marxists.org). Earlier the resources of the colonized countries were exploited in the name of civilizing the barbaric societies, whereas now it is being done through free market and freedom of choice. Vandana

Shiva explicates that free trade is not a new innovation or a new phenomenon in the history of Indians. She asserts, “It does not herald the end of history, merely its repetition. It does not create new liberties for the ordinary Indian. It can only lead

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to re- colonization. … and instead of one large corporation, we now have many multinational corporations” (qtd. in Lurie 2). Nkrumah refers to neo-colonialism as the worst form of imperialism. He comments:

For those who practise it, it means power without responsibility and

for those who suffer from it, it means exploitation without redress.

In the days of old-fashioned colonialism, the imperial power had at

least to explain and justify at home the actions it was taking abroad.

In the colony those who served the ruling imperial power could at

least look to its protection against any violent move by their

opponents. With neo-colonialism neither is the case. (Marxists.org)

Hence, it is evident that the process or the set of processes of globalization represent neo-colonialism, a new form of imperialism. It is particularly significant to observe the popular discourses used to often justify, manipulate and neutralize this exploiting process of neo-colonialism. Literary productions confronting the positive claims of neo-colonialism or globalization (as it is referred to) have largely unearthed the hypocrisy and implicit imperialist agendas involved in such discourses. For a fuller understanding of the claims put forth for and against this neo-colonial mechanism of globalization, one has to but trace the discourses surrounding this politico-economic and sociocultural mission.

This perception of globalization leads to yet another significant question whether globalization is a boon or a curse. An elaborate discussion on this subject is essential for comprehending the arguments of the thesis. As Bryan S. Turner remarks, the globalization studies is characterised by either extreme pessimism or naive optimism (6). Like the two faces of a coin, the processes of globalization have brought both positive and negative consequences upon the whole world,

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especially upon the less developed countries. The utopian and dystopian versions are the two core divisions of globalization. The utopian version of globalization focuses on the “important opportunities for global justice, human rights and cosmopolitanism,” Whereas dystopian version emphasizes “the destruction of local cultures, the dominance of consumerism, and the growth of international terrorism and crime” (Turner 10). In Inequality and Economic Integration,

Francesco Farina and Ernesto Savaglio remark:

In the last two decades, the acceleration in economic integration has

affected the quality of life and the standard of living. The

elimination of barriers to trade in goods and services, the

liberalization of capital markets, the transnational mobility of

workers, the worldwide diffusion of information and

communication technologies boosting Foreign Direct Investment

(FDI) and the outsourcing of production processes in newly

developing areas constitute an unprecedented clustering of

technological and institutional innovations. (1)

In the recent decades, the multidimensional process of globalization has accelerated growth, offered a variety of choices and promoted the welfare of the state. In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman elucidates globalization in this way:

It is the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and

technologies to a degree never witnessed before--in a way that is

enabling individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach around

the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before. (9)

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It offers ample opportunities to the developing nations to integrate themselves into the global market economy. Friedman claims that since the free-market capitalism is the core feature of globalization, the more the less developed nations open their economy to free trade the more efficient and nourishing their economy will be (9).

This worldwide interconnectedness is not just the integration of capital, labour, goods, services and people, but the assimilation of diverse and distinct cultural values and beliefs beyond territories. This global integration has led to the formation of unified or homogeneous community, thereby reducing cultural conflicts. Globalization plays a significant role in the advancement and protection of global justice, human rights, ethnic diversity, gender equality and environmental awareness. Integration of market economies, introduction of transnational corporations, ever increasing transnational migrations and wide spread information and communication technologies have facilitated and opened up tremendous employment and educational opportunities, thereby promoting the living standards of the people in developing nations like India. As Friedman asserts:

When it comes to the question of which system today is the most

effective at generating rising standards of living, the historical

debate is over. The answer is free-market capitalism. Other systems

may be able to distribute and divide income more efficiently and

equitably, but none can generate income to distribute as efficiently

as free-market capitalism. (104)

Generally, less developed nations lack the financial back up or the capital to establish new domestic firms to increase employment opportunities. Hence, the foreign direct investment and the emergence of transnational corporations are considered a boon to developing nations for they aid in the establishment of new

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multinational firms, thereby offering wide range of employment opportunities.

These foreign investments also increase the reserve of foreign exchange in less developed countries.

Consumer culture is yet another advantage of globalization. Consumerism is the product of global competition in which the consumer or the customer is the king. No matter whether transnational or domestic, each firm must satisfy their customers by providing quality products so as to survive in the global market.

Hence, the global competition among the firms has led to the improved quality of products and higher customer satisfactory levels to outdo the rivals. Information and communication technology is also one of the benefits of globalization.

Effective communication and immediate access to information on a mass scale is made possible only with the development of information and communication technologies. This instantaneous access to ideas, images, content and information along with goods and services reduces the consumption of time and energy involved in the process. Moreover, these advance technologies have significantly reduced the cost of access to information. In the past, the knowledge of new technological inventions, medicines and technical know-how are confined to a particular geographical space or a territory, whereas now the access to all sorts of information is made possible by the advent of globalization. In essence, ICT facilitates all kinds of information pertaining to socio-economic, cultural, political and ecological spheres. It is also said that there has been a considerable reduction in poverty and child labour due to globalization.

Apart from the above benefits, globalization has two noteworthy benefits such as wide spread educational opportunities and advancement in gender equality. The spread of educational opportunities are considered a boon to youth of

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developed and less developed nations. As Amartya Sen, an Indian economist comments, “If I celebrate the fall of the wall, it is because I am convinced of how much we can learn from each other Most knowledge is learning from the other across the border” (qtd. in Friedman 54). In the global era, one can freely move to any part of the world in search of better educational facilities. It not only provides quality education, but also offers a wide range of courses for the students to select one based on their interests. Even people from various sectors ranging from workers to top level managers move to acquire special skills that require making them professionals in their fields. Many do specialization in subjects unique to particular countries and utilize their knowledge for the development of their motherland.

Advancement in gender equality is another benefit of globalization. Sen claims that globalization plays a significant role in women’s freedom. He asserts that it “promotes women’s literacy, tends to reduce fertility and child mortality and increase the employment opportunities for women, which then affects the political dialogue and gives women the opportunity for a greater role in local self- government” (qtd. in Friedman 54). The wide spread educational opportunities not only aids in eradicating illiteracy, but also promotes women’s education. In recent decades, women get equal employment opportunities in all fields. This has led to the transformation of role play of man and woman that is man is the bread-winner of the family and woman is the care-giver of the family. Tremendous educational and employment opportunities make women independent, thereby emancipating themselves from the rigid hands of patriarchy.

Globalization, although has some positive impacts on less developed nations, a deep study would unfold its negative consequences through which the

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developing countries suffer greater risks and uncertainties endlessly. In other words, people in less developed nations become vulnerable to the catastrophic effects of globalization. In order to understand the multidimensional impacts of globalization, one should know the concept of vulnerability. The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2003 Report on the World Social Situation comments on vulnerability, “exists at all levels and dimensions of society and forms an integral part of the human condition, affecting both individuals and society as a whole” (14). Many critics and anti-global movements disclose the disastrous effects and catastrophic features of globalization such as the widening gap between the rich and the poor, uneven development within the nation, social unjust, destruction of indigenous cultures and environmental degradation.

Globalization is an uneven process of development. In the multidimensional process of globalization, the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. As Nkrumah remarks:

The result of neo-colonialism is that foreign capital is used for the

exploitation rather than for the development of the less developed

parts of the world. Investment under neo-colonialism increases

rather than decreases the gap between the rich and the poor

countries of the world. (Marxists.org)

Since globalization is a new form of capitalism, it works under the principle that the core gets benefited through the exploitation of the periphery. In other words, it mostly benefits the global powers or the developed nations and has a detrimental effect on the less developed or under developed countries. Wallerstein and other world-systems theorists argues that core/periphery binary opposition is based on the exploitative capitalist relationships in which the core (United States and

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Europe) extracts and exploits both the natural and human resources of the periphery (the so-called “developing” or “third world”) in an interdependent exchange that keeps the periphery poor and the core wealthy, while the semi- periphery, a buffer group (qtd. in Turner 26).

Critics like Immanuel Wallerstein and Gary Gereffi have discussed on the global inequality relations between rich and poor countries. They comment that often wealthy nations located in northern hemisphere and the poor countries located in the southern hemisphere. The relationship between them is based on a dependency pattern as they each other to establish themselves. However, their relationship is characterised by asymmetry as most of the wealth has ended up in the already developed countries (qtd. in Turner 49). Steger agrees that some national economies have increased their productivity as a result of free trade.

There are some benefits that accrue to societies through specialization, competition, and the spread of technology. However, he remarks, “But it is less clear whether the profits resulting from free trade have been distributed fairly within and among countries. Most studies show that the gap between rich and poor countries is widening at a fast pace” (41). Although globalization has led to a tremendous range of employment opportunities in India, it has erected the socio- economic wall between the rich and the poor, thereby preventing the entry of the under privileged into the spheres of the elite class. In short, economic globalization has divided India into two nations, “the India of light” and “the India of darkness.”

The pro-globalization critics argue that the multifaceted nature of globalization promotes women empowerment by providing educational, employment and legal rights to them, but the anti-globalization theorists argue other way round. Although they agree that humankind is heading towards the

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advancement of gender equality, they remark that women are by no means completely emancipated from patriarchy. In the globalized contemporary world, they encounter the problems of double burden. They are forced to cope up with the responsibilities of a wife and a professional woman without getting any help or recognition from the male members of the house. Aspers and Kohl comment on this new phenomenon of patriarchal domination as:

Economic globalization and its effects reinforce patriarchy shifting

more work onto women as men become redundant or

underemployed due to the new economic orientation. Cuts in state

programs and protections often make women’s lives more

burdensome and diminish their ability to resist further oppressions.

(qtd. in Turner 78)

The cultural dimension of globalization has severe consequences in the cultural sphere of the less developed nations. As Turner points out, “Contemporary cultural theories recognize that standardization is a very unlikely (and certainly an unpromising) outcome of the global system, because the global/local dynamic will tend to produce a fluid and unstable hybridization of cultures” (6). Cultural globalization poses a great threat to the diverse and distinctive cultures of the developing countries. In the culturally globalized world, nation ceases to be the source of cultural identity. Beck and Sznaider comments that an intensification of cosmopolitanism, both as an aesthetic experience and as a growing awareness of the intensifying mixing of cultures on a global level makes national cultures worldwide gradually lose their monopolistic status (qtd. in Turner 69). Steger also points out the views of many pessimistic hyper globalizers’ on impacts of cultural globalization. They suggest that “we are not moving towards a cultural rainbow

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that reflects the diversity of the world’s existing cultures. Rather, we are witnessing the rise of an increasingly homogenized popular culture underwritten by a Western ‘culture industry’ based in New York, Hollywood, London, and

Milan” (70). The widespread information and communication technology facilitates the so-called superior global or western culture to occupy the centre by pushing the other small diverse cultures into the periphery. This spread of global capitalist monoculture is a new strategy used by the neo-colonial powers to control and dominate other distinctive cultures of the developing world. This new form of cultural imperialism which spreads through the information and communication technology is uncontrollable in the globalized era.

The power of mass media is vested in the hands of a very few transnational corporations. These global powers are interested in spreading the images, products, symbols, music, information, and ideas that are favourable to them. Steger comments, “Music, video, theatre, books, and theme parks are all constructed as

American image exports that create common tastes around common logos, advertising slogans, stars, songs, brand names, jingles, and trademarks” (73).

Hence, it is evident that through cultural globalization, the neo-colonialist powers not only accumulate wealth, but also destroys the minor diverse cultures of the rest of the world.

Corporate Globalization results in the destruction and degradation of the environment. The intense production and consumption of goods accelerates pollution, thereby disrupting the ecosystem. As Steger elucidates:

Everywhere on this planet are inextricably linked to each other

through the air they breathe, the climate they depend upon, the food

they eat, and the water they drink. In spite of this obvious lesson of

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interdependence, our planet’s ecosystems are subjected to

continuous human assault in order to secure wasteful lifestyles. (86)

The spread of American life style and its consumer culture play a crucial role in polluting the ecosystem. It is intentionally spread across the globe at a high speed for it maximizes the profits of the neo-colonial powers. The ultimate aim of corporate globalization is accumulation of wealth by the enclosure of common property. Enclosure of commons is not a new phenomenon of 21st century. It began at the time of colonial expansion. The colonial powers started enclosing the forests and wastelands and denying the indigenous people of their access to their lands in the colonized nations, whereas now in the era of globalization, the enclosure of commons is done in a more advanced way through the privatization of water, patenting of seeds and biodiversity. As Shiva in Earth Democracy:

Justice, Sustainability and Peace explicates:

The enclosure of biodiversity and knowledge is the latest step in a

series of enclosures that began with the rise of colonialism. Land

and forests were the first resources to be enclosed and converted

from commons to commodities. Later, water resources were

enclosed through dams, groundwater mining, and privatization

schemes. Now it is the turn of biodiversity and knowledge to be

“enclosed” through Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). (39)

The transnational corporations and multinational industries produce goods and services with high ecological, social and economic costs and sell them at terribly low prices. Shiva remarks that corporate globalization involves the destruction of biological and cultural diversity of the commons, thereby looting their lives and livelihoods. She claims:

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As alternatives to the suicidal, globalized free market economy

based on plundering and polluting the earth’s vital resources, which

displaces millions of farmers, craftspeople, and workers,

communities are resolutely defending and evolving living

economies that protect life on earth and promote creativity… In

fact, globalization’s transformation of all beings and resources into

commodities robs diverse species and people of their rightful share

of ecological, cultural, economic, and political space. (2)

Hence, it is evident that corporate globalization over-exploits the natural resources by turning the commons into commodities to create wealth.

The structural adjustment programmes of the neoliberal development agenda facilitate the transnational organizations to shift their highly polluting industries from developed nations with high environmental standards to the less developed countries with low environmental regulations. These industrial hazardous wastes mainly contribute to the air and water pollution in less developed nations. The rapid emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, sulphur oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons intensifies global warming and climate change. This leads to an increase in the global average temperature and partial melting down of polar ice caps which in turn results in rising sea level. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) describes climate change as, ‘“the greatest challenge that humankind has ever faced’ with the very survival or our children’s and their children’s generations ‘hanging in the balance’” (qtd. in Turner 121). Peadar Kirby remarks:

Climate change is therefore both a result of globalization and also a

challenge to the intense transnational interconnectedness of our

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global economy today as we become aware of the extent of carbon

emissions generated by international trade, not least by the food and

drink products on which the lifestyle of the world’s wealthy depend.

(Turner 121)

Deforestation, soil erosion, desertification of agricultural lands, green house gas, global warming, climate change, etc represents the irreversible loss of the ecosystem in the contemporary world. Thus, the above explanations indicate that globalization has adverse effects on the world in general and less developed countries in particular.

Imperialism, colonialism, capitalism, neo-colonialism and globalization are nothing but the various names given to forms of power that operates the world.

Man’s desire to have power to control the fellow-being is the root cause for all the activities of the world. the concept of discourse, and its relationship between power and knowledge would help in the understanding of the ways in which power structure help to maintain one set of meaning dominate over the other.

The term “discourse” means a general speech, or a conversation, “but became increasingly used to describe a more formal speech, a narration or a treatment of any subject at length, a treatise, a dissertation or a sermon” (Ashcroft

62). In other words, it represents the exchange of ideas, thoughts and beliefs. The word ‘discourse’ is derived from Foucault’s concept which means a system of statements that represent the world. The ideas reflected in these sets of statements would lead to historical transformation. Hence, it plays a significant role in the social, cultural, economic and political constructions of the society.

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Through language, a discourse produces meanings that constitute knowledge along with social practices and forms of power relations. Foucault refers to the language pattern of discourse as:

… whenever, between objects, types of statement, concepts or

thematic choices, one can define a regularity (an order, correlations,

positions and functionings, transformations), we will say…that we

are dealing with a discursive formation. (38)

He argues that changes in medical discourse will influence the whole network of medical institutions. Likewise, transformation in any discourse will have a significant impact on the specific sphere. Hence, discourse plays a vital role in the transformation of ideas, thoughts and beliefs through which they constructs and reconstructs knowledge and forms of power. Foucault rejects the idea of power as sovereign or coercion and views it as omnipresent. He remarks, “Power is everywhere” and “comes from everywhere” (63). It is this indirect or informal power that operates in the contemporary globalized world controls the globe through global institutions and information and communication technologies.

The pervasiveness of power surely leads to subjugation and the emergence of subaltern groups. The central focus of the subaltern study is subordination.

According to Antonio Gramsci, the term refers to the subordination in terms of caste, class, race, gender, language, and culture. Subaltern group may include

“peasants, workers and other groups denied access to hegemonic power”

(Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 198). Gyan Prakash in ‘The Impossibility of

Subaltern History’, explains, “In dominant discourses the subaltern appears as a figure that resides outside authorized categories, signifying a pure externality

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beyond the realm of reason” (287). The researcher has divided the thesis into five chapters. The gist of the chapters is given below:

Chapter one i.e. the present chapter introduces the topic taken for discussion. It includes a short biographical note on the authors and their works.

The theoretical framework of this research paper will include writings on globalization, Neoliberalism, neo-colonialism, power and subalternity. An attempt will be made to establish connection between the argument and the writings of the critics.

Chapter two entitled “Globalization: Culture as Commodity” deals with the negative consequences of globalization on Indian culture and society. In the recent decades, people have been experiencing tremendous changes in the socio-cultural milieu. Globalization though offers benefits in the development of culture and society, some of its aspects create serious problems. It discloses the western cultural dominance over the third world nations through mass communication, media, language, food and living style. This kind of cultural dominance of the first world nations or the colonial powers over the third world countries can be viewed as cultural neo-colonialism which indicates the continuation of cultural imperialism through neo-colonial strategies in the global age. An attempt will be made to unfold the socio-cultural dominance of the neo-colonialist countries on the rest of the world, particularly India. In short, it explores the forces that mould minds, tastes and values of Indian youth. It also explores how people in the contemporary world find it difficult to come to terms with the rapid transformation of the 21st century.

Chapter three titled as “Economic Globalization: The Challenge of

Change” focuses on the negative impact of economic globalization on Indian

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society. It unfolds the dangerous consequences of the widening gap between the rich and the poor in developing nations. Neoliberal policy is the first and foremost strategic tool of neo-colonial powers to control and exploit both material and human resources of the developing countries for their own benefits. Although economic globalization has some positive outcomes such as high per-capita income, high standard of living and advancement of gender equality, it is the cause of several social evils in the developing nations such as increasing poverty, corruption and crime. it increases the mutual dependency among countries and thereby perpetuate economic imperialism in a new dimension. An attempt will be made to disclose the voice of the under privileged, the victims of the life- threatening consequences of economic globalization such as economic disparity, poverty, corrupt politics, poor health services and corrupt education system.

Chapter four entitled “Global Bio-invasions: Narrativising Native Voices” unfolds the adverse effects of globalization on the environment in the less developed countries. Globalization focuses mainly on trade and economy rather than on the environment. The intense production and consumption of goods and services in a globalised world contributes to various forms of ecological destruction and environmental degradation such as deforestation, climate change, global warming, ozone depletion and pollution. Trade liberalization has created a favourable condition for the transnational organizations to establish their corporate and harmful industries in the developing nations. The hazardous wastes and pollutants from these harmful industries contaminate the air, water bodies and land resources which in turn affects the human and nonhuman populations of the developing nations. The developmental projects and urbanization contribute to the destruction of agricultural lands and forests. This hub of activities results in the

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displacement of tribes and deprives them of their homelands and affects their livelihood options. An attempt will be made to explore how the trade liberalization and developmental programs such as construction of dams and industries pose a great threat to the natural environment, human and nonhuman populations in the developing nations.

Chapter five sums up what has been analysed in the previous chapters. It briefs the major argument and the research findings. It presents a list of research areas such as the impact of globalization on the lives of women and subaltern groups through literature, a study of ecology and globalization as expressed in tribal writings and an exploration of Indian villages as represented in literature after globalization which could serve as the crucial factors to be explored for future study.

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CHAPTER 2

GLOBALIZATION: CULTURE AS COMMODITY

The phrase, the world wants to be deceived, has become truer than

had ever been intended. People are not only, as the saying goes,

falling for the swindle; if it guarantees them even the most fleeting

gratification they desire a deception which is nonetheless

transparent to them.

-- Theodor W. Adorno

In this chapter, the researcher attempts to establish the negative impact of the spread of the global capitalist monoculture on the Indian society and culture.

In the recent decades, people have been experiencing a tremendous amount of change in the socio-cultural milieu. Globalization though offers benefits in the development of culture and society, some of its aspects create serious problems. It discloses the western cultural dominance over the third world nations through mass communication, media, language, food and living style. This kind of cultural dominance of the first world nations or the global powers over the third world countries can be viewed as cultural neo-colonialism which indicates the continuation of cultural imperialism through neo-colonial strategies in the global age. An attempt will be made to unfold the socio-cultural dominance of the neo- colonialist countries on the rest of the world, particularly India. In short, it explores the forces that mould the minds, tastes and values of Indian youth. It also explores how people in the contemporary world find it difficult to come to terms with the rapid transformation of the 21st century.

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It is vital to understand the term culture before we proceed to the main argument of the chapter. Defining culture is not an easy task as Raymond Williams suggests:

Culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in the

English language. This is so partly because of its intricate historical

development, in several European languages, but mainly because it

has now come to be used for important concepts in several distinct

intellectual disciplines and in several distinct and incompatible

systems of thought. (87)

Oxford English Dictionary: Indian Edition offers different levels of explanations for the term ‘culture’. It defines culture as “intellectual and artistic achievement or expression, refined appreciation of arts, customs and civilization of a particular time or people and improvement by mental or physical training” (175).

Nineteenth century British Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor refers to culture as “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (qtd. in Lentricchia and McLaughlin 225). Many people associate the term

‘Culture’ with art, music, painting, fashion and literature as Raymond Williams remarks, “culture is music, literature, painting and sculpture, theatre and film. A

Ministry of Culture refers to these specific activities, sometimes with the addition of philosophy, scholarship, history.” He also points out the three broad usage of the term: First, as a description of a “general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic development”, second as an indication of a “particular way of life, whether of a people, a period, a group, or humanity in general”, and finally refers to “the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity” (90). In

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essence, the term culture refers to a particular way of life which includes the intellectual and artistic expressions of a particular group of people.

Globalization has brought massive changes not only in the economic sphere, but also in the socio-cultural values of human lives. The transformations that the cultures of the world undergo in the era of globalization are intensely important amidst the propagation and promotion of multi-cultural social structures.

Images, symbols, values and beliefs of diverse cultures are transmitted across the globe through information technology. The spread of communication and information technology has led to a wide and rapid cultural interaction among the subjects of the universe. As a result, diverse and distinct cultures of the world share cultural norms, beliefs and values with each other. This in turn results in “altering the beliefs and norms of others. Cultural interaction and the cultural change produced by it have created a situation of “cultural hybridization”” (Ervin and

Smith 35). In other words, it influences the “lifestyles, religion, language, and all other components of culture” (Rothkopf 42). The widespread American pop culture is an example of cultural hybridization which leads to cultural globalization.

On the one hand, many believe that cultural globalization is a positive process for it represents an expression of individual freedom. The free global markets diffuse the best cultural norms and offer freedom of choice to the individuals in deciding what values and beliefs to consume and what to ignore. The process of globalization promotes and endorses the spread of uniform culture across the world. As David Rothkopf in “In Praise of Cultural Imperialism” observes, “It is also the first time in history that virtually every individual at every level of society can sense the impact of international changes. They can see and

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hear it in their media, taste it in their food, and sense it in the products that they buy” (38). Moreover, it has been argued that the homogenizing effects of cultural globalization lead humanity to a basic understanding of the values and beliefs of diverse and distinct cultures of the world, thereby reducing cultural conflicts. As

Rothkopf asserts, “More importantly, the decline of cultural distinctions may be a measure of the progress of civilization, a tangible sign of enhanced communications and understanding” (41). Rothkopf broadly classifies cultural conflicts into three categories such as ‘religious warfare’ that occurs between

Hindus and Muslims, Christians and Muslims, Muslims and Jews, and Christians and Jews; ‘ethnic conflict’ that takes place between Normans and Saxons, Chinese and Japanese, Chinese and Vietnamese, and Chinese and Malays; and conflict between ‘cultural cousins’ that occurs between Britain and France, Libya and

Egypt, and France and Germany, (40). The common knowledge about different and distinct cultures of the world eliminates the cultural barriers and these cultural conflicts. As Ervin and Smith in Globalization: A Reference Handbook point out,

“it is cultural interaction that can diminish the threat of conflict and offer solutions to collective problems” (37). Thus, Rothkopf praises globalization as, it “is a vital step toward both a more stable world and better lives for the people in it” (39).

On the other hand, an alternative perspective claims that cultural globalization is a form of cultural imperialism. It is a neo-colonial strategy of the global powers to control and dominate other cultures of the world. Any discussion on cultural globalization will be incomplete without mentioning the primary concepts: “cultural imperialism” and “cultural homogenization”. Ervin and Smith refer to Cultural imperialism as:

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The efforts of dominant cultures to control information and

communication in an attempt to subvert diverse cultural norms and

traditions. Cultural imperialism causes cultural homogeneity, or a

decrease in cultural diversity. Cultural diversity is replaced by

global cultural standardization and uniformity. Cultural imperialism

and homogenization, according to critics, are strategies intended to

dominate the meaning and interpretation of social, economic, and

political forces. (37-38)

Cultural imperialism is not a new phenomenon. The onset of the process of cultural imperialism is tough to mention exactly. However, the beginning of the process of colonial expansion of the European nations could be marked as the birth of cultural imperialism. Some dominant cultures forcefully occupy the central position by pushing the other vulnerable cultures into the periphery. This unequal treatment of cultures is the outcome of historical circumstances and events. One such historical event is the process of colonialism where the western or the European nations impose their cultural norms, values and beliefs on the conquered people of African,

Asian colonies in the name of civilizing the barbaric societies. Hall comments on this worldwide expansion of Europeans as, “The Europeans had outsailed, outshot and outwitted peoples who had no wish to be ‘explored’, no need to be

‘discovered’ and no desire to be ‘exploited’” (294).

In other words, it could be argued that cultural imperialism is the outcome of capitalism. First world countries enjoy economic benefits due to the emergence of capitalism. The capitalist countries have to concentrate not only on the economic but also on the cultural aspects in order to expand and maintain their trade (production and consumption of goods and services) and accumulated wealth.

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As a result, the colonized countries consciously and unconsciously consider themselves inferior to the west in all spheres of life. In short, the socio-cultural and economic notions of the west have provided fixed standards for the rest of the world’s cultures by which they measure their sense of being. As Hall puts it, “the

West was the model, the prototype and the measure of social progress. It was western progress, civilization, rationality and development that were celebrated”

(313).

In the era of globalization cultural imperialism still operates in the name of freedom of choice and free market economy. In the previous era, cultural imperialism operated in the form of civilizing the barbaric communities of the world, whereas nowadays it continues to work through media, modern satellite technology and internet. Anthony D. smith in “Towards a Global Culture?” comments:

Those pre-modern cultural imperialisms were neither global nor

universal. They were ultimately tied to their places of origin, and

carried with them their special myths and symbols for all to

recognize and emulate. Today’s emerging global culture is tied to

no place or period. It is context-less, a true melange of disparate

components drawn from everywhere and nowhere, borne upon the

modern chariots of global telecommunications systems.

(Featherstone 177)

In Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, John Tomlinson refers to the present day cultural imperialism as, “For what is involved in this spread is a process, not of cultural imposition, but of cultural loss” (173). Unlike the colonial powers, the neo-colonial or global powers use primarily the soft power to dominate

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and exploit the rest of the world. Joseph Nye, an international relations expert coined the term ‘soft power’ in his book named, Bound to Lead: The Changing

Nature of American Power. Steger and Roy elucidate the difference between hard power and soft power as:

Hard power refers to military and economic might that gets other

nations or political players to change their positions. It rests on

inducements and threats. Soft power, on the other hand, refers to the

use of cultural and ideological appeals to affect their desired

outcomes without commanding allegiance. (55)

In the era of globalization, America becomes the dominant super power. As

Thomas L. Friedman in The Lexus and the Olive Tree remarks, “In the globalization system, the United States is now the sole and dominant superpower and all other nations are subordinate to it to one degree or another” (13). Hence, it is clear that being the greatest global power, the United States exerts the soft power to dominate the rest of the world.

In the recent decades, as a global economic and political power, the United

States is constantly intruding into the cultures of the world through transnational media and communication industries. The modern information and communication technology has enabled the multinational corporations to spread the values and beliefs of certain privileged cultures over other cultures of the world. Each and every communication medium contributes to the wide spread American products and culture. As Rothkopf remarks, “American music, American movies, American television, and American software are so dominant, so sought after, and so visible that they are now available literally everywhere on the Earth. They influence the tastes, lives, and aspirations of virtually every nation” (43). For instance,

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Traditional attire and Indigenous culture are being replaced by Blue jeans and

American pop culture; coke and Pepsi substitute the local fruit drinks; the local heroes are replaced by superman and Spiderman.

Some critics assert that the spread of American culture is a positive process, which is beneficial to the entire world. Rothkopf claims, “we work for integration and in support of a unifying global culture ensuring individual rights and enhancing international stability: It is also the ultimate realpolitik, the ultimate act of healthy self-interest” (52). Globalization generates a new global culture which offers freedom of choice to the individuals across the world. While summarizing the argument of Dorfman and Mattelart, Martin Barker states,

“American capitalism has to persuade the people it dominates that the ‘American way of life’ is what they want. American superiority is natural and in everyone’s best interest” (279). Pro-globalization critics argue that the process of globalization, which homogenizes culture, does not tend to damage or detriment the diverse cultures around the world. As George Ritzer and Todd Stillman remark, “The thrust of globalization theory asserts that Americanization is only one of many global forces. Furthermore, even if the US activity makes up a large portion of transnational activity, it poses less of a threat to local and national cultures than others might think” (Beck, Sznaider and Winter 42).

On the contrary, many other critics view it as a process of cultural imperialism, a threat to diverse cultures across the world. They claim that the widespread American pop culture, which dominates the world culture, is in the service of global capitalism. Cultural practices and the process of capitalism are intertwined with each other. The global capitalism spreads a uniform culture to lure the diverse and distinct cultures into the global capitalist system. Global

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capitalism produces cultural homogenization, which in turn serves as a tool for the spread of global capitalism. R. Salinas and L. Paldan Comment: “dependent industrialization, accompanied by accelerated urbanization . . . can be seen as a drive toward cultural homogenization” (Nordenstreng and Schiller 92). The diverse and distinct cultural systems of the world are under threat due to ‘cultural synchronization’ or cultural homogenization. The term ‘cultural synchronization’ was coined by the critic of cultural homogenization Cees J. Hamelink. In his book,

Cultural Autonomy in Global Communications, he talks over the concept of cultural synchronization, which is the product of global capitalism. He acknowledges the fact that throughout history, distinct cultures from different parts of the world always interact and influence one another and rich cultural traditions have emerged out of the interaction between different cultures and civilizations such as Sudan, Athens, the Indus Valley and Mexico. He argues that the modern cultural synchronization is different from earlier cultural interactions, which has two-way exchanges. He claims:

In the second half of the twentieth century, a destructive process

that differs significantly from the historical examples given above

threatens the diversity of cultural systems. Never before has the

synchronization with one particular cultural pattern been of such

global dimensions and so comprehensive (4).

Although Friedman asserts that globalization is the key to elevate people from poverty, he does acknowledge the threat it pose to the diverse cultures of the world. He comments:

The biggest threat today to your olive tree is likely to come from the

Lexus--from all the anonymous, transnational, homogenizing,

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standardizing market forces and technologies that make up today’s

globalizing economic system. There are some things about this

system that can make the Lexus so overpowering it can overrun and

overwhelm every olive tree in sight--breaking down communities…

(34)

John Tomlinson accentuates the kind of culture that emerges out of synchronization. He remarks, “It is quite different to object to the spread of something bad - uniform badness - than to object to the spread of uniformity itself”

(113). He claims that the products offered by the global capitalist culture are not

“generally, worth having: junk food, junk television, tobacco, a routine dependence on manufactured analgesics, bottle-feeding as against breastfeeding, and so on”

(120). Thus, cultural synchronization, the instrument of global capitalism becomes a great threat to the rich diversity of cultures.

The consumer culture becomes the centre and dominant form of global capitalist culture. Tomlinson elucidates that all people from diverse and distinct cultures consume, but “‘consumer culture’ or of ‘consumerism’ is a culture whose central preoccupation seems to be that of consuming” (122). The wide spread global capitalist consumer culture claims that the customer is the king of consumer culture and it offers a wide variety of opportunities and choices for the good-will of the consumers. However, Theodor W. Adorno discards this claim by asserting that “… the masses are not primary, but secondary, they are an object of calculation; an appendage of the machinery. The customer is not king, as the culture industry would have us believe, not its subject but its object” (99). Clauss

Offe also criticizes the overwhelming options and choices available for the people in the consumer culture as, “Deluged by ‘options’, modern consumers find it

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difficult to choose, recognise and maintain needs as their own” (qtd. in Tomlinson

134).

The multinational corporations play a crucial role in spreading the uniform global capitalist culture across the world. As Hamelink asserts, “The principal agents of cultural synchronisation today are the transnational corporations, largely based in the United States, which are developing a global investment and marketing strategy” (3). The TNCs and MNCs spread uniform homogenized culture through their uniform products and world brands. America, as the representative of the global powers in the transnational trades, sells all its products and commodities through its values, beliefs and living style. This wide spread

American culture results in cultural homogenization which indicates the American cultural hegemony over the small diverse cultures of the world. Tomlinson comments on the wide spread American culture as “a dreadful American mono- culture” (125). The advertisement practices of the transnational organizations play a significant role in spreading the consumer culture, which dominates the global capitalist culture. Hamelink criticizes the transnational advertisements for they aim to exploit and manipulate the people of the third world nations economically and introduce undesirable products, which in turn suppress the traditional products. He comments, “Supported by extensive advertising campaigns, products are sold that falsely claim to have a quality superior to products lacking trademarks” (14). The transnational advertisements tend to impose false consciousness on the people of the third world nations. People often fail to recognize their true and false needs because of the deception created by the spread of false consciousness. Douglas

Kellner differentiates between true and false needs as:

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If a commodity after critical scrutiny, reveals itself to be life

enhancing, truly useful, well-constructed, and fairly priced, then a

need for it can be said to be a ‘true need’. If the commodity fails to

offer the satisfactions promised, if it is not beneficial, life-enhancing

and useful, but, rather needless, poorly constructed and overpriced,

then a need for it can be said to be a ‘false need.’ (77)

Many critics argue that the practices of mass culture belong to the category of false needs. Herbert Marcuse briefs the false needs as:

‘False’ are those which are superimposed upon the individual by

particular social interests in his repression: the needs which

perpetuate toil, aggressiveness, misery and injustice. Most of the

prevailing needs to relax, to have fun, to behave and consume in

accordance with the advertisements, to love and hate what others

love and hate, belong to this category of false needs. Such needs

have a societal content and function which are determined by

external powers over which the individual has no control. (19)

Pro-globalization critics claim that only the individuals have the freedom to answer the question of true and false needs. Marcuse responds to the claim of the pro-globalization critics as, “As long as they are kept incapable of being autonomous, as long as they are indoctrinated and manipulated (down to their very instincts), their answer to this question cannot be taken as their own” (20).

He asserts that people in the global capitalist consumer culture lack the ability to properly judge their needs, since they are manipulated by transnational advertisements through mass media and communication industries. In essence, capitalist consumer culture offers a false satisfaction to the individuals. Thus,

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global capitalism spreads its consumer culture as a tool to entice the less developed countries across the world into the global economic system so as to maximize the profit.

The cultural experiences and practices are commodified under the global capitalist consumer culture. It becomes crucial to know the concept of ‘cultural industry’ for the better understanding of the commodification of cultural forms.

The German philosophers Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer coined the term ‘cultural industry’ and used it for the first time in their book, Dialectic of

Enlightenment in 1947. They replaced the term ‘mass culture’ with the expression

‘cultural industry’ for two reasons. First, they cast-off the term ‘mass culture’ to reject the notion that mass culture emerges from the masses; Secondly, the critics prefer the expression ‘cultural industry’ to denote that the dominant pop culture of global capitalism is like an industry commodifies and standardizes the cultural forms and artistic objects for the consumption by masses (98). Since these commodified cultural forms produce an earning for their creators, their artistic expressions are undermined by the appetite for profit. As Adorno remarks:

The entire practice of the culture industry transfers the profit motive

naked onto cultural forms. Ever since these cultural forms first

began to earn a living for their creators as commodities in the

market-place they had already possessed something of this quality.

But then they sought after profit only indirectly, over and above

their autonomous essence. (99)

He uses the term industry not to refer to the production process, but to indicate “the standardization of the thing itself — such as that of the Western, familiar to every movie-goer — and to the rationalization of distribution techniques, but not strictly

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to the production process” (100). He further claims, “It is industrial more in a sociological sense, in the incorporation of industrial forms of organization even when nothing is manufactured” (Bernstein 101). Hence, it is evident that culture becomes an industry in which the cultural forms are turned into cultural products and commodities, ready for consumption by the masses. Hence, from the above elucidations, it is evident that the commodification of culture and the practices of consumer culture are the strategies of neo-colonialist powers to trap the developing nations into the global capitalist economic system and to manipulate them for their own benefits.

Since Americanization and cultural homogenization have led to cultural issues and identity crisis in the contemporary globalized world, culture has emerged as a central domain for debate “not only because of its intrinsic significance, but precisely because it has become so bound up with the most fundamental questions of human Identity in its many dimensions: personal, ethnic, religious, social and national” (Lieber and Weisberg 275). The homogenizing influence of globalization tends to prioritize certain privileged cultures over the rest of the small diverse cultures of the world and puts an end to those minor distinct cultures of the globe. It has become a difficult task to resolve the issues related to culture. As Robert J. Lieber and Ruth E. Weisberg point out,

Other issues on the globalization agenda, especially economic

problems of trade, aid, investment and poverty, are more readily

subject to negotiation and compromise. But precisely because

culture has become a signifier for other more deep-seated and

intractable issues, the problems it poses are harder to resolve. (291)

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Hence, in the developing countries like India, the rapid transformation of economic, social and cultural spheres intensify the notion that the small diverse and distinct cultures are under threat.

Literary writings, being the product of the age it belongs to, respond to various levels of socio-cultural issues prevailing in that society. Therefore, the contemporary Indian Writings demonstrate the wide and dominant spread of global capitalist monoculture across the world, and its effects and implications on the diverse cultures of the world, India in Particular. These recent writings observe and reproduce the forces of the global cultural hegemony that enslave and exploit the minds and tastes of Indian youth as well as the psychological conflicts associated with cultural assimilation experienced by the people of the newly globalized society which undergoes rapid socio-cultural transformations. Chetan Bhagat’s

One Night at the Call Center and Anjum Hasan’s Neti, Neti explore the socio- cultural dominance of the neo-colonial powers over the developing world like

India in the name of global development and different levels of mental, physical and intellectual exploitations of Indian youth.

Chetan Bhagat’s One Night at the Call Center is the tale about call center, which has become the symbol of India’s newly globalised economy. It revolves around the thwarted lives of six young people (three male and three female) working through nightshift in a call center named connexions in Gurgaon. It portrays a series of unpleasant events encountered by the six call center agents in a single night and the divine call which helps them to win over their struggle.

On one level, the novel unfolds the problems and pains, sorrows and sufferings, attitudes and ambitions of the six call center agents both in their personal and professional lives. On the other level, it discloses how their life in call

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center has created a tremendous change in their way of life, food habits and the way they dress up:

Bhagat’s tone is pitch-perfect, his observer’s eye keenly focused on

nuance and detail. Verisimilitude is all: the first two-thirds of the

novel evokes, indeed reproduces, the way the young call centre

workers think, talk, eat, drink, date, dress and behave. (Hindu Feb

26, 2006)

An attempt has been made to explore the exploitations of young Indians in all dimensions through the neo-colonial strategies by the global powers. It throws light on the uncertainty of their jobs and the intellectual, mental and physical exploitations of Indian youth by the neo-colonial powers.

The six call center agents, Shyam Mehra, Varun Malhotra, Esha Singh,

Radhika, Priyanka and Military uncle work together in the same Bay named “the

Western Appliances Strategic Group or WASG” (One Night at the Call Center

508). They work through nightshift handling phone calls from American consumers who are having problems in operating their home appliances:

While traditional India sleeps, a dynamic young cohort of highly

skilled, articulate professionals works through the night, functioning

on U.S. time under made-up American aliases, pretending

familiarity with a culture and climate they’ve never actually

experienced. (Hindu Feb 26, 2006)

They are called “the strategic bay” because they “specialise in troublesome customers” (508). Along with their routine professional pressures in the call center such as reaching targets, looming lay-offs and managing incompetent boss, they have their own personal problems to handle. On the surface level, it could be said

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that the personal problems of the six call center agents could be ignored as it is considered a common phenomenon in human life. However, a deep analysis would make us understand that those sorrows and sufferings are in a way an outcome of the rapid transformation of the 21st century.

“This novel so effectively depicts, most see a job in a call centre as a passport to a better life, one offering more possibilities and choices than were available to the previous generation” (Hindu Feb 26, 2006). Though the six call center agents are cornered by different and diverse reasons to take up a call center job, their ultimate aim of settling down well in near future unite them under one roof. As Friedman in The World is Flat elucidates, “it is much easier and more satisfying for them to work hard in Bangalore than to pack up and try to make a new start in America In the flat world they can stay in India, make a decent salary, and not have to be away from families, friends, food, and culture At the end of the day, these new jobs actually allow them to be more Indian” (28). Shyam, the narrator of this novel worked in the website department of an ad agency before the call center job. Everything went out of order, when he quit the ad agency job because of the poor salary and office politics. In order to make things better, he joined Connexions in Gurgaon. He believes that only money can earn him a respectable position in the society which is revealed through his words, “I left and all hell broke loose at home. That’s when I became the black sheep. I saved myself by joining Connexions. With money in your wallet the world gives you some respect” (500). However, all his hopes to yearn respect from the society turns up side down. For instance, he doesn’t receive a warm welcome from Priyanka’s relatives, when she introduces him to her doctor cousin: “… Priyanka told her

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doctor cousin I worked at a call centre and I think he was less interested in talking to me after that” (One Night at the Call Center 514).

Moreover, his relationship with Priyanka has come to an end due to the postponement of his promotion to the position of team leader which is exhibited through the conversation between Shyam and Priyanka:

‘You want to dump me, don’t you? I’m not good enough for your

family.’ it isn’t like that, Shyam. She married my dad, who was just

a government employee, because he seemed like a decent human

being. But her sisters waited and married better-qualified boys, and

they are richer today. Her concern for me comes from that. She is

my mother. It’s not as if she doesn’t know what’s good for me. I

want someone doing well in his career too.’ ‘So your mother is not

the only cause for the strain in our relationship. It’s you as well.’

(559)

Hence, it is evident that not only people look down upon him for he is a call center agent, but also a delay in his career growth has shattered down his love life.

Priyanka, the former lover of Shyam also works in the same group. She has joined this job, right after her college so as to save some money to open her dream nursery school. She is always torn between her longings and her mother’s desires.

Like all mothers, Priyanka’s mother wants her to live a comfortable and content life. Hence, she compels her daughter to walk out of her relationship with Shyam and marry Ganesh Gupta who is working at Microsoft in the United States.

The wide spread information and communication technology has led to the development of many professions in the global age. One such flourishing industry is modelling. Many Indian girls wish to take up modelling as their career. Esha

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Singh is no exception to it. She aspires to become a model against her parents’ wishes. She ran away from home to achieve her dream. Though she lacks moral support, she gets financial support from her job in a call center. “During the day she tries to get modelling assignments. She’s taken part in some low-key fashion shows in West Delhi, but apart from that, nothing big has come her way so far”

(One Night at the Call Center 502). She prepares her mind to sleep with a forty- year old designer in order to get a break in a major fashion show, but unfortunately, after being exploited by the designer for his filthy desire, she is disqualified for the reason that she is too short to be a catwalk model.

In the recent decades, globalization has created a tremendous impact on the lives of women. It has created a large number of employment opportunities and a sense of liberation among women. In essence, women actively participate in all fields and become economically independent. However, the attitude towards women and their role in the family have not undergone much change. As Geeta in

Gender remarks:

Take even contemporary media messages to women. They

grudgingly accept that the world is a changed place, and women are

increasingly visible in positions of power and responsibility. Yet,

time and again, we are told-through the worn-out cliches of film

earn an income and yet be nurturing and home-loving. The ideal

woman is one who works at home, at her profession, and yet finds

time to keep a good house, attend to her husband and children’s

needs, all of which she manages without appearing ruffled or tired.

(22)

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Radhika Jha is the only married woman in the strategic group. She is working in a call center through nightshift so as to provide income to her family, thereby supporting her husband financially. Since it is the primary duty of a woman to look after her family, Radhika along with her career responsibility, shoulders the entire burden of domestic chore with little help from other members of her family. She is forced to spend more time and energy on the household duties which is revealed through the narration:

‘Nothing. I was making almond milk for my mother-in-law and it

took longer than I thought to crush the almonds,’ she said, leaning

back exhausted in her seat in the middle.

‘Ask Mother-in-law to make her own milk,’ I suggested.

‘C’mon, Shyam,’ she said, ‘she’s so old, it’s the least I can do.’

‘Yeah, right,’ I shrugged. ‘Just that and cooking three meals a day

and household chores and working all night and ...’

‘Don’t talk about it,’ she said. (One Night at the Call Center 501)

The Pressure of reaching targets, satisfying the expectations of the customers or the higher authorities in the work environment and pressures in the family environment such as unsupportive family members and primary responsibility for elders are some of the reasons for “work-family” conflicts experience by Radhika as a career woman. She is constantly under pressure as she has to manage multiple roles. This leads to stress and deterioration in the couple’s relationship which is exhibited through the narration:

‘It’s Anuj. Sometimes he can be so unreasonable,’ Radhika said and

passed her phone to Esha. On the screen was a text message. ‘Read

it out,’ she said as she fumbled through her bag for her antimigraine

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pills. … ‘Show elders respect. Act like a daughter-in-law should.

Good night.’

‘ What did I do wrong? I was in a hurry, that’s all,’ Radhika

mumbled to herself as she took her pill with a sip of water. (One

Night at the Call Center 534)

As Radhika’s in-laws are old fashioned and traditional, she finds it difficult to cope up with her dual responsibilities at home and at work place. However Radhika’s love for her husband provides her the confidence to manage any situation. While she sacrifices all her happiness and works hard all day and night for the betterment of the family, he betrays her by having an extra-marital relationship with his girlfriend Payal which is disclosed through Vroom’s conversation with Anuj as radio jockey, “‘And I don’t pay anything? Thanks, Interflora,’Anuj said. ‘No, my friend, no payment at all. So do you have the name and address of your special person?’ ‘Yes, sure. I’d like to send it to my girlfriend, Payal” (567). She is heartbroken and burst into tears, when she comes to know about her husband’s infidelity:

She sat back down on her chair, stunned. A few seconds later she

broke down in tears. Vroom looked at Radhika. ‘Damn, Radhika, I

am so sorry,’ he said. Radhika didn’t answer, she just cried and

cried. In between, she lifted the half-knitted scarf to wipe away her

tears. (568)

In the case of Vroom, it is the peer pressure which forced him to prefer call center job for other jobs. “‘Well, that’s the problem: they all have rich dads. I have to work hard to match their lifestyle. If only my dad hadn’t walked out on us’” (One

Night at the Call Center 583). He worked as journalist trainee before joining as the

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call center agent. Although he hates the call center job and the American employers, he has to negotiate himself so as to keep up his standard of living.

Otherwise, he might lose his respect and status in front of his friends. He feels that only money can make a man powerful and dominant in the society for he believes,

“the only reason Americans have a say in this world is because they have cash. So, the first thing we have to do is earn money” (514).

Military uncle is the oldest person in their group. After retiring from military service, he used to live with his son and daughter-in-law. A petty family conflict forces him to walk out of the family and live on his own even in his old age which is an uncommon phenomenon in India a few decades back. This is mainly because the process of globalization and westernization in the recent years which has badly influenced Indian families to lose its values such as love and affection between couples, care for children, concern for elders and tolerance.

Since military uncle’s pension is inadequate to meet his needs, he tries to supplement it by working in the call center. Although he walks out of his family, his heart craves for their love and affection. He gets hurt when his son rebuked him for sending mails to his grandson.

Most of the time the term ‘call center’ reminds people of its highly sophisticated buildings, extensive work space, flexible furniture, advanced technologies and of course its door pick up and door drop facility. They often forget to think of the most important asset of the call center, the human resources without which a call center cannot survive. The novel vividly portrays a varieties of ways through which the human resources of developing countries are exploited and manipulated. The invasion of American business can be viewed as the invasion by the American capitalist mono-culture for it influences the cultural forms of

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developing nations such as arts, dress, cuisine and the way of living. The novel sends out the message that it is a form of cultural colonialism which disrupts the established patterns of life, value systems and exploits the human resources of the third world countries. As mentioned in “Farewell to Spice and Curry”, “Bhagat, himself formally active in the IT field, denounce this new lifestyle as a kind of re- colonisation of his country — only this time, it operates not by means of violence, but instead by exploiting bodily desires” (Hindu Feb 04, 2007). In short, the novel discloses that unlike the imperialist powers, the United States is exercising primarily the soft power to exploit the human and natural resources of the developing nations. When compared to other sectors, high levels of labour exploitations are prevalent in BPOs and call center industries. People working in government and private sectors other than call centers think that it is good to work in a call center for the employees enjoy comfort travel. Cabs are arranged to pick them from their door step, but they fail to notice that the agents should be at their pick up points nearly two hours before their shift time. It is one of the ways of

MNCs to achieve optimum utilization of manpower.

The young generation of India undergoes a series of exploitations. The process of ruination begins by making them act like Americans. The call center agents are expected to train themselves and stick with the major components so as to act like an American. First the agent should announce his/her American identity to his customers. The fake American names are provided to them by their boss. It is said that the reason for giving American identity to the Indian call center agents is that they are dealing with people having English as their first language who cannot pronounce the agents real name. Bhagat points out the use of fake

American identity through the words of Shyam. “By the way, I am Shyam Mehra,

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or Sam Marcy as they call me at my workplace, the Connexions call centre in

Gurgaon. American tongues have trouble saying my real name and prefer Sam”

(498). Like Shyam, his colleagues have American names. For instance, Esha Singh is named as Eliza Singer, Varun Malhotra as Victor Mell and Radhika Jha as

Regina Jones. Whether the agents adopt the fake identities through emulation or imposition, the ultimate aim is to assimilate individual into the unified culture or the homogenized American capitalist culture. The adaption of fake American identity has led to two distinct debates. A few people remark that it is a symbol of prestige and a means of status enhancement. It unifies global cultures, thereby reducing cultural conflicts (Rothkopf 52). The other side of the debate views it as a deliberate affront to one’s self identity and dignity. In other words, it is a process of cultural neo-colonialism which threatens the core identity of diverse and distinct cultures (Friedman 34). In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman, who claims that call centers could be a ‘huge boon’ for the developing nations, is not happy to learn that Indian call center agents “assume Western names and reportedly pick up the twang of the region they cover” (50). Along with the quality service, the establishment of American Identity becomes the prime requisite for the call center agents. The reason for concentrating more on the identities of the agents is that only if they spread the uniform capitalist culture across the world, could they accumulate wealth by selling their uniform commodities and branded products. It is evident when Friedman in The World is Flat mentions, “India’s growing economy is creating a demand for many more American goods and services” (29).

Another component which helps the agents to act out like an American for their work is voice and accent. As English has become an international language for trade and politics, nearly ninety percent of the communication media such as

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internet, news channels like CNN are dominated by English language. Having

English as an international language the US moves the rest of the world towards a common language and thereby develops common information and common values with which Americans are comfortable. In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman comments on the loss of diverse languages in the era of globalization as:

today languages are being lost at an alarming rate-- within a

generation or two. When we lose a language, it is like dropping a

bomb on the Louvre’, laments Ken Hale of the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology. As languages disappear, cultures die. The

world becomes inherently a less interesting place, but we also

sacrifice raw knowledge, the intellectual achievements of millennia.

(304)

Hence, it is evident that language and culture are inseparable and the destruction of a language indicates the death of that particular culture. Through its language, the United States impose its super power over the rest of the diverse cultures of the world. The transnational corporations play a significant role in spreading American English through their employers or the agents who have to undergo intense voice and accent training which includes voice modulation, grammar, American diction and rhythm. For instance, while assisting their customers, Radhika, Esha and other agents speak with American accent and sound different from the way they normally speak. Vroom explains the difficulty involved both in teaching and learning American accent, “‘you can’t teach Delhi people to speak like Americans in a week.’ ‘Just as you can’t train Americans to speak with a Punjabi accent,’ … ‘Anyway, go train-train, leave your brain’” (One

Night at the Call Center 511).

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The components needed to act like an American does not end with the announcement of American identity and speaking American accent. The employers provide the agents a script so as to maintain discipline and control. As Alex

Hudson in “Are Call Centres the Factories of the 21st Century?” points out, “if just phoning up a call centre was stressful, imagine working with a pre-determined script and repeating it day after day” (BBC News March 10, 2011). Most of the time, the script increases the emotional and mental strain of the agents rather than reduces their stress and tension. The agents are expected to abide by the script which offers a set of rules about the manner of speech like what to speak, how to speak and to whom to speak. For instance, they should ask may I help you instead of can I help you. Vroom’s conversation with the customer reveals the choice of words used by the agents: “Calls began at 10.31 p.m. Numbers started flashing on our common switchboard as we picked up calls one after the other. Good afternoon, Western Appliances, Victor speaking, how may I help you?’” (509).

Apart from the manner of speech, the script also informs the agents about the

American current events, sports and weather. Vroom is reminded of the American thanks giving day by the script: “‘Yes, Ms Paulson, of course we remember you.

Happy Thanksgiving, I hope you’re roasting a big turkey in our WA100 model oven,’ Vroom said, reading from a script that reminded us about the American festival of the day” (510).

Managing a variety of customers at a stretch is not an easy task. Based on their attitudes, the customers are grouped into four categories. First is the playful customer who flirts or chats up without serious intension. Second one is the

Prospective customers. They are the valuable customers without whom the call center cannot function profitably. Next comes the Doubtful customers who have

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no faith or confidence and always in a confused state of mind. And the last category is the irate customers. Most of the time, they turn out a cool discussion into a heated one and always use abusive language. Of these four varieties, the first two are manageable and create less issue. The third one requires patience and tolerance to handle them, but the fourth and the final variety demands extreme mental stamina to tackle them. It is Vroom who always bumps into such troublesome customers. Bhagat vividly portrays the emotional and mental struggles involved in handling the troublesome customers through the conversation between Vroom and Ms Paulson:

‘You see, madam,’ Vroom was still with Ms Paulson, ‘I understand

your turkey didn’t fit and you didn’t want to cut it, but you should

not have opened up the equipment... I suggest you take the oven to

your dealer,’ Vroom said firmly. ‘And next time, get a smaller

turkey . . . and yes, a ready-made turkey would be a good idea for

tonight . . . No, I don’t have a dial-a-turkey number. Thank you for

calling, Ms Paulson, bye. ‘Vroom ended the call. He banged his fist

on the table.

‘Everything ok?’ I said, not looking up from my papers.

‘Yeah. Just a psycho customer,’ he mumbled. (One Night at the

Call Center 510)

Another instance which makes vroom to lose his temper is his conversation with

Mr William Fox. Although he gets offended by Mr Fox’s abusive language, he has to stay quiet without reacting to the situation and continue his conversation politely by using the suggestions one after the other to handle such adverse situation:

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‘Sir, do you remember when you last changed the dust bags?’

Vroom said.

‘Like f-k I remember when I changed the bags. It’s just a crap

machine, you dumb-ass.’

Vroom took three deep breaths and remembered the suggested line

to use in such situations.

‘Sir, I request you not to use that language.’

‘Oh really? Then make your f—king hoover work.’

Vroom pressed a button on his phone before he spoke again. ‘You

son of a bitch,’ he said.

… He pressed the button again and said, ‘Sir, you need to change

the dust bags when they are full.’ (One Night at the Call Center

547)

Hence, it is evident that the agents are required to suppress their feelings, emotions, identities and the notion about their selves so as to maintain the quality of the service management. These continuous repressions of frustrations and pressures would result in severe health hazards to the agents.

The US clients refer to the agents as resources and not as human beings through which they extract wealth. The stunning truth is that the Indian bosses or people from the elite class also emulate this attitude for their career benefits.

Bakshi is one such boss who prefers to call the agents by their fake American names and refers to them as resources:

‘Oh hello, Sam. Please come in.’ Bakshi liked to call us by our

Western names.

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… He loved to talk in manager’s language or ‘Managese’, which is

another language like English and American.

‘So, how are the resources doing?’ Bakshi said, swivelling on his

chair. He never referred to us as people; we were all ‘resources.’

(515)

It is evident that TNCs and MNCs treat the people of less developed nations not as human beings, but merely as resources to exploit them at the fullest.

Handling incompetent and self-centered boss is another problem encountered by the agents. Each and every action of Bakshi indicates his managerial art of getting things done for his own Reputation and profit. He postpones Shyam’s promotion to the position of team leader by writing in his review that he is not a go-getter. Although he aspires for career enhancement, he can’t get out of the agent position. Bakshi on one side demotivates Shyam and blocks his path for career enhancement. On the other side, makes him to work several hours outside his shift time and also forces him to do boring, tedious and unskilled jobs in the name of strategic exposure and career enhancement. For instance:

‘Shyam, as you are free tonight, can you help me with some

strategic documents? It will give you some exposure.’

‘What is it, sir?’ I said, not happy about sacrificing my night.

‘I’ve just printed out ten copies of monthly data sheets,’ Bakshi

said, holding up some documents. ‘For some reason the sheets are

no longer in order. There are ten page ones, then page twos and so

on. Can you help fix this?’ (One Night at the Call Center 527)

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On top of being exploited through various ways, Shyam and vroom are betrayed by Bakshi for his own career advancement. By giving them false hopes such as providing sufficient professional training and career path, he makes them to prepare the website manual. In addition to that he submitted the western computers website manual to Boston as his own without crediting Shyam and vroom for their back-breaking work.

‘He passed off our work as his, Shyam. Do you realise that?’ he

said.

I stared numbly at the first page of our, or rather Bakshi’s, manual.

This time he had surpassed himself. My head felt dizzy and I fought

to breathe.

‘Six months of work on this manual alone,’ said and closed the file,

i never thought he’d stoop this low.’

‘And?’ Vroom said.

‘And what? I don’t really know what to do. I’m in shock. And on

top of all this, there’s the fear he may downsize us,’ I said. (562)

Although Bakshi is incompetent, his managerial skills to get things done by others assist him in climbing up the corporate ladder, whereas even though the agents possess the required competence, their career paths are blocked by Bakshi so as to exploit their skills for his promotion and reputation:

Bakshi falls into the most dangerous category. He is stupid and he is

evil,’ Vroom said. ‘We’ve underestimated him. He’s like a blind

snake: you feel sorry for it, but it still has a poisonous bite. He is

stupid, hence the call centre is so mismanaged, but he is also evil, so

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he’ll make sure all of us go down instead of him.’ (One Night at the

Call Center 563)

In essence, the call center industry provides neither sufficient training to develop professional competency nor career path for the agents. Ass Bob Gills, President of

Call Center Careers states:

One of the leading causes of job dissatisfaction among call center

employees is a lack of career advancement opportunities.

Satisfaction can be increased by developing the professional

competencies of the employee, giving them the wherewithal to

develop a career within their company and within the industry.

Unfortunately, many companies within the call center industry

provide neither sufficient training nor a career path for the

employee, and that hurts the industry. As a result, call centers are

viewed as an industry with few opportunities for career

advancement. (Highbeam Research Aug 1, 2002)

Downsizing is yet another issue which increases their work pressure. In The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Friedman elucidates the economic insecurities encountered by the people of less developed nations in the age of globalization as:

The turtles are all those people who got sucked into the Fast World

when the walls came down, and for one reason or another now feel

economically threatened or spurned by it. It is not because they all

don’t have jobs. It is because the jobs they have are being rapidly

transformed, downsized, streamlined or made obsolete by

globalization. And because this global competition is also forcing

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their governments to downsize and streamline at the same time, it

means many of these turtles have no safety net to fall into. (331)

Connexions exclusively depend on its client Western computers and appliances for its survival. As call volumes are low at connexions, it has been decided to downsize the agents to save costs. At the time of financial crisis the call center industries would rather wish to cut down costs by downsizing the employees than to improve the sales growth. This is revealed through the conversation between

Vroom and Bakshi:

‘Sir, but cost-cutting is useless if we have no sales growth. We need

more clients, not nonstop cuts until there’s no company left,’

Vroom said after Bakshi had finished his lecture. … ‘A sales force

is too expensive,’ Bakshi said. ‘Sir, we can create a sales force. We

have thousands of agents. I’m sure some of them are good at

selling. We talk to customers every day, so we know what they

want.’ (One Night at the Call Center 577)

Bakshi appreciates Vroom for his input. However, he rejects his idea of improving sales growth saying that it is not a good idea because, if it is a good idea, someone would have thought about it before. When he announces the plan to downsize the employees, he does it without any concern for the employees as he always considers them just resources and not humans:

‘How many people will lose their job, sir? What percentage?’

Radhika said, her first words in the meeting.

Thirty to forty is the plan, as of now,’ Bakshi said in a calm voice.

‘That’s hundreds of people,’ Vroom said. As if it was. A difficult

calculation.

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‘Such is corporate life, my friend,’ Bakshi said and got up,

indicating that the meeting was over. ‘You know what they say: it’s

a jungle out there.’ (One Night at the Call Center 578)

Thus, handling troublesome customers, consciously acting like an Americans, tackling incompetent and self-centered boss, lack of opportunities for career enhancement and the fear of downsizing add fuel to the fire of work pressure. The unceasing repression of their frustrations and the stressful environment would lead to severe health hazards to young Indians working in TNCs and MNCs.

Few decades back, majority of the population is employed in government organization where the employees experience stressless and pressureless work environment. In recent decades, the process of globalization has opened up tremendous employment opportunities through the establishments of multinational corporations. Unlike the government organizations, the employees work under impossible deadlines and tackle unbearable workloads. Lucas, a trained psychologist remarks:

Attrition rates are high at Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)

centres because of high stress levels, which bring about sleep

disorders and depression. The stress builds up as young people

from traditional Indian backgrounds are pitch-forked into jobs

which need them to work late into the night, talk with a foreign

accent, dress smart and with peer pressure to waste’. (Hindu Sept

22, 2006)

So as to become rich within a short period of time, an Indian youth prefers call center jobs to other varieties of jobs. Call center culture offers not only a huge sum of money, but also a variety of pressures and stressful work environment to

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the young Indian generation. More than a deadly disease, extreme monitoring of work, high levels of stress due to unreachable targets, disturbed sleep due to wrong working hours and insufficient breaks make people unhealthy and depressed. Stress is the key factor for major health problems. Dr. Thanikachalam explains the physiological transformations that occur when people are stressed:

Nitric oxide, secreted by the inner lining of the blood vessels to

thin the flow of blood, is, in high-stress situations, reduced. Organs

do not receive the extra blood supply they need. A 25-year old

BPO employee, on the America shift’ working nights, had to be

treated after he complained of acute chest pain early this year.

(Hindu Sept 26, 2006)

Working through nightshift is not a new phenomenon to Indians. The domestic late night jobs adopt rotation method wherein the workers are provided with a chance to recharge their energy through periodic interval. On the contrary, multinational corporations provide no such space for their workers to recharge themselves. As a result, working through nightshifts in MNCs severely affects the biological clock of the human body. This biological clock regulates and alters various body functions such as hormone secretions, chemical reactions, sleep-wake patterns and other physiological processes according to the changes in the day- night cycle of the environment. Working at nightshift disturbs the perfect rhythm of the biological clock which in turn results in sleeping disorders, psychological disorders, behavioural changes and depression. As Ananth Krishnan in “You can’t

Sleep over these Problems” points out:

Sleep patterns are determined by the production of the hormone

melatonin, which the body secrets in response to darkness. While in

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most other late night jobs, workers are required by law to go

through rotation cycles to avoid consecutive late night duties, giving

the body a chance to recharge, BPOs are an exception to the rule.

Continuously working at night alters the body’s production of

hormones, and this can affect normal body functions. (Hindu April

24, 2008)

Due to high levels of stress and tension, people working in MNCs become irritable and unsociable. They lose their ability to socialize with their family and relations. For instance, Shyam’s relatives are gathered at his home to attend his cousin’s marriage. His unreactive and cold responses to their queries and jokes indicate that he has lost the ability to enjoy and be friendly with his family and relatives:

“‘Auntie, can I use the bathroom for five minutes? I need to get

ready for the office,’ I said.

‘Oh, Hello, Shyam. Woke up finally?’ my mother’s sister said.

‘Office? Aren’t you coming to the wedding?’

‘No, I have to work. Can I have the bath –’

‘Look how big Shyam has become,’ my maternal aunt said. ‘We

need to find a girl for him soon.’

Everyone burst into giggles. It was their biggest joke of the day.

‘Can I please—’ I said.” (One Night at the Call Center 499)

It also indicates that Shyam has no social life or casual interaction with his family members. The stressful work environment makes Radhika graceless, exhausted, anxious and depressed. It further leads to relationship problems and family discordance. She has reached a fatal point which indicates her awful situation that

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she could live the rest of her life only with the support of antimigraine pills. She becomes irritated, when the Chemist asks for the prescription before giving her the antidepressant drugs. Extreme level of frustration, anger and irritation are some of the symptoms of drug addiction. Her total dependency to the antidepressant drugs for her survival is revealed through her words:

‘Yes, Fluoxetine is Prozac. Except it’s the Indian version, so it’s

cheaper.’

‘But it’s dangerous to take it without medical supervision,’

Priyanka said, isn’t it addictive?’

It’s legal addiction. I can’t live without it and, yes, it’s really bad for

you. But it’s still better than having to deal with my life.’

‘Leave them, Radhika, they’ll harm you,’ Military Uncle said.

I have cut down, Uncle. But sometimes you need a bigger dose.

(One Night at the Call Center 583)

Therefore, it is evident that stress is the key factor in creating severe health issues such as insomnia, headache, chronic fatigue, restlessness, nervousness, anxiety, frustration, depression and heart diseases. In order to cope up with their stressful environment, the call center agents use harmful and unhealthy ways as coping mechanisms. As Ramya Kannan points out, “When under pressure, people take up smoking, drinking and even overeating as coping mechanisms” (Hindu Sept 26,

2006). For instance, a fast ride on his bike helps vroom to get out of his stressful situation. He also takes up smoking as his tool to manage high levels of stress in the work environment. “‘I arrived twenty minutes ago, man,’ Vroom said. He extinguished his cigarette and showed me the butt. ‘This was my first.’ Vroom was trying to cut down to four cigarettes a night. However, with Bakshi in our life, it

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was impossible” (506). In order to bring down their stress both men and women in call center industries take up beverages as coping mechanism. It is exhibited through the words of Esha:

‘Long Island Iced Tea, please,’ Esha said…

‘Long Island? Want to get drunk quick or what?’ I said.

‘Come on. I need to de-stress. I ran around like mad last month

chasing modelling agencies. Besides, I have to wash down last

week’s one thousand calls,’ Esha said.

‘That’s right. Twelve hundred calls for me,’ Vroom said. ‘Let’s all

have Long Islands.’ (One Night at the Call Center 537)

Frequent visit to bars is inevitable in call center jobs as the number of pressures experienced by them increase day by day. It is a disturbing night to every one of them. They are experiencing a highly stressful situation where both their family and work pressure has reached its peak. Radhika has found that her husband is cheating her while she is working day and night for her husband and his family.

Esha could not get a fair break even when she sleeps with weird men. Bakshi has betrayed Shyam and Vroom by passing on their work to Boston as his own without crediting them. Military uncle experiences an appalling pain after reading his son’s harsh heart-breaking words. Priyanka is pressurized to marry Mr. Ganesh soon after his arrival. On top of these, they experience the pressure of downsizing. They have decided to go for a drive to the new lounge bar Bed in order to get out of their highly stressful situation:

Vroom went to say hi to DJ Jas and returned with twelve kamikaze

shots. Military Uncle declined, and Vroom took Uncle’s extra shots

and drank them in quick succession.

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We had barely finished when a woman came up to us with another

six drinks. ‘Long Island Iced Teas,’ she said, ‘courtesy of DJ Jas.’

‘Nice. You have friends in the right places,’ Radhika said as she

started gulping her Long Island like it was a glass of water.

‘These Long Islands are very strong,’ I said after a few sips. I could

feel my head spin. (One Night at the Call Center 585)

Thus it is evident that the call center agents use harmful and unhealthy methods to free themselves from their stressful situations. In recent years call centers employ psychiatrists so as to prevent their employees from the adverse effects of stress and work pressure. “For, India’s younger urban populations in particular are exposed to enormous social mutations. Increasing numbers of call centres are hiring full-time psychologists as the parallel existences of their employees — here global lifestyle, there traditional social roles — is taking a psychic toll.” (Hindu Feb 04, 2007). In essence, Dr. Ramachandran remarks, “IT is bringing money to India but we are bleeding our youth” (Hindu Sept 26, 2006).

The corporate controlled food system which spreads through globalization is a fatal threat to public health of the developing nations. A chain of multicuisine restaurant and multinational fast-food restaurants such as McDonalds, KFC and

Pizza hut form the significant icon of the newly globalized India. As Carlos

Gigoux and Colin Samson point out, “the exchange of healthy wild foods for unhealthy junk foods is a key element of the ‘new’ globalization” (Turner 291).

The recent sudden shift from the consumption of traditional food to junk food is one of the remarkable transformations of the global capitalist American monoculture which enslaves the tongues of Indian youth, thereby exploiting them physically and monetarily. Since everything from the West is celebrated (Hall

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213), the widespread American junk food is considered the best of all cuisines and is consumed on a daily basis without evaluating the adverse health issues inherent to it. As Shiva comments on the adverse effects of the global spread of the US- style of industrial food culture:

With globalization, this bad food culture dominated by profits has

spread worldwide. As McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, and Pepsi expand

their markets, they destroy healthy, local eating habits. The obesity

epidemic of the US begins to spread globally with industrial, junk

food. In China, 30 percent of children in 12 schools were found to

be obese. In India, nearly 7.5 percent of all children are obese. In

Chennai, 18 percent are overweight. (37)

The change in the lifestyle of the younger generation has altered the food habits which accelerates the health issues among youth. The novel explores the consumption of fast-food and the irregular food habits which are predominant in the call center culture that contributes to their health hazards. Most of the time people working in nightshifts skip their breakfast and have lunch at dinner time as they sleep during the day. This may result in gastric problems such as acidity. As physician V. Jinadas points out, “Gastric problems like acidity are common because BPO workers eat at odd times in the night,” he further adds, “They should make sure that they don’t go without food for long periods, day or night, and immediately seek treatment when acidity crops up” (Hindu April 24, 2008).

Bhagat points out this irregular food habits through the words of Shyam, “I was hungry, but there was nothing to eat. They’d be getting food at the wedding, so my mother felt there was no need to cook at home” (One Night at the Call Center

499). Generally, call centre industries provide a bright dining room for employee

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motivation. The employees are served with American food such as cheese sandwich, chocolate cake, chips and coco-cola for motivational reasons. Obviously they have no other go, but to accept the unhealthy food provided by the BPOs. The multinational corporations play a significant role in spreading the uniform

American monoculture. By offering American food in the cafeteria, they mould the tastes of Indian youth to American junk food. Their sedentary life style coupled with the consumption of heavy food especially fatty and spicy food during night leads to indigestion and obesity. A. Ramachandran, Director, Diabetes Research

Centre, points out the reasons for health issues as, “Typically, sleep rhythms are disrupted and the pressure of deadlines, and frequent consumption of fatty and fast foods are high. Add to this, a sedentary lifestyle” (Hindu Sept 26, 2006). For instance, the unhealthy food habits of Indian youth are revealed through a conversation between vroom and Priyanka:

‘Isn’t it unhealthy?’ Radhika asked.

‘No way. Pizzas are the ultimate balanced diet. Look at the

contents: grain in the crust, milk protein in the cheese, vegetables

and meat as toppings. It has all the food groups. I read it on the

Internet: pizza is good for you.’

Vroom got all his information off the Internet.

‘Pizzas are not healthy. I gain weight really fast if I eat a lot of it,’

Priyanka said, ‘especially with my lifestyle. I hardly get time to

exercise and on top of that I work in a confined space.’ (536)

The given passage reveals the power of communication and information technology in promoting and propagating the US-style of industrial food culture is

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highly nutritious and is the best to consume. The unhealthy food habits of Indian youth are exhibited through another incident:

‘Order chocolate brownie and ice cream,’ she said…

The waiter brought the chocolate brownie and placed it in front of

Priyanka—half a litre of chocolate sauce dripping over a blob of

vanilla ice cream on top of a huge slice of rich chocolate cake. It

was a heart attack served on a plate. Priyanka had two spoons and

slid the dish towards me. (One Night at the Call Center 557-558)

Thus, it is evident from the illustrations cited from the novel that the corporate controlled food system is predominant in the globalized Indian society and the rejection of healthy diet in favour of unhealthy junk food, which proliferates the

Western diseases, poses a great threat to the public health of the developing nations.

Another notable aspect of call center industries is its attractive salary. The call center employees earn much higher than Indians working in other sectors.

However, it is much lesser than what an American would earn. “earning salaries that were undreamt of by their elders (but a fraction of what an American would make” (Hindu Feb 26, 2006). The neo-colonial powers establish their transnational corporations in developing nations like India not out of goodwill or generosity, but to avail the optimum level of man power at cheap cost. Indian youth work more and earn less than Americans who work less and earn more. The novel unfolds this idea through the words of Vroom:

‘C’mon, you get good money. Significantly more than the eight

grand you made as a journalist trainee,’ I said.

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‘Yes,’ Vroom said. ‘We get paid well, fifteen thousand a month.

That’s almost twelve dollars a day. Wow, I make as much a day as a

US burger boy makes in two hours. Not bad for my college degree.

Not bad at all. Nearly double what I made as a journalist anyway.’

(One Night at the Call Center 538-539)

The true intension behind the establishment of call centers in developing nations by American firms is not to enhance the economic prospects of the developing countries, but to maximize their profit. As Guttal claims, “outsource much of their processing to selected developing countries such as India, to take advantage of a skilled and educated labour force that costs a fraction of what these establishments would pay in their home countries” (524). Highly skilled, English speaking young generation and inexpensive work force are the motivational factors which attract the U.S. firms to setup their business in India. This is ironically represented in the novel through the conversation between the agents:

Vroom pointed to a US politician who had spoken out in support of

the war. ‘Look at him. He’d nuke the whole world if he could have

his way’

‘No, not the whole world. I don’t think they’d blow up China,’

Priyanka said, sounding high. ‘They need the cheap labour.’

‘Then I guess they won’t blow up Gurgaon either: they need the call

centres,’ Radhika said.

‘So we’re safe,’ Esha said. ‘Welcome to Gurgaon, the safest city on

earth.’

The girls started laughing and even Military Uncle smiled. (585)

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On one side, the younger generation is well aware of the fact that they are being exploited by the neo-colonial powers in order to maximize their profit. However, they could not walk out of their dreadful situation for they are obsessed with the high salary and the western life style as vroom said, “‘Yes, this salary has hooked me. Every night I come here and let people f—k me,’… ‘And the funny thing is, I let them do it. For money, for security, I let it happen’” (One Night at the Call

Center 580). On the other side, people feel that call center jobs are good because sitting in an air-conditioned office, talking over the phone; they can earn more than what others could make outside. They fail to realize the fact that “‘an air- conditioned sweatshop is still a sweatshop’” (587). This kind of attitude among young generation indicates that, though not physically, the neo-colonialist powers colonized the minds of the young generation.

The novel sends out the message that young Indians’ talents and knowledge are made to be wasted in serving the Americans and the multi-national companies.

It reinforces this thought through the words of vroom that “an air-conditioned sweatshop is still a sweatshop”. “For, Bhagat, it turns out, doesn’t like call centres.

He sees them as soul-destroying sweatshops soaking up the talents and energies of young Indians who could and should be doing better for themselves and their country” (Hindu Feb 26, 2006).

The story begins with the description of Shyam’s nightmare:

I was splashing my hands helplessly in the sea. I can’t even swim in

a pond, let alone in the Indian Ocean. While I was in the water, my

boss Bakshi was in a boat next to me. He was pushing my head

down in the water. I saw Priyanka drifting away in a lifeboat. I

screamed as Bakshi used both his hands to keep my head

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submerged. Salt water was filling my mouth and nostrils when I

heard loud beeps in the distance.

My nightmare ended as my cell phone alarm rang hard in my left

ear and I woke up to its ‘Last Christmas’ ringtone. (498)

This nightmare symbolically represents the exploitations of the Indian youth and the cell phone alarm indicates the god’s call or the inner call which rescue them.

After listening to their inner voice, the agents wish to live a meaningful life. They no longer want to snuggle in their comfort zone. They understand that any career which makes them compromise their morals is not worthy and aspire to take up a career which allows them to show their potential.

Global capitalism is hegemonically spreading the US identity through its call center industries, cultural and technological invasions of entertainment media, consumer goods and services and fast food chains. Nowadays, in the neo-colonial era, the term identity refers not to “who we are”, but to “who the global powers want us to be”. Call centers and BPOs play a major role in spreading American culture throughout the world, especially among the younger generation of the developing countries. Through subtle and unconscious ways they build and reinforce the notion that American culture is superior to other diverse cultures of the world, thereby enticing them to adapt American culture and lifestyle. The process of spreading American culture begins when the call centers announce

American identity to the agents and train them with American accent. The process does not end with it. It continues in the name of employee motivation. They maintain a well-built bright cafeteria or dining hall for motivational reasons. Only

American soft drinks like coke, foods like cheese sandwich, hotdog, burger and

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pizza are served in the cafeteria. Indian youth are moulded in such a way that even outside the work place they prefer American food for Indian food.

Fashion parade is yet another way through which they spread American culture. It is conducted once in six months for employee motivation. People at call center vote for various titles such as cutie award and hottest chick award:

Esha wants to become a model. She’s hot, at least according to

people at the call centre. Two months ago, some agents in the

Western Computers bay conducted a stupid poll around the office.

People voted for various titles, like who is hot, who is handsome

and who is pretty. Esha won the title of the ‘hottest chick at

Connexions’. She was very dismissive of the poll results…

Priyanka is nice-looking, and she did get a nomination for the ‘call-

centre cutie award’, but she didn’t win. Some girl in HR won that.

(One Night at the Call Center 502)

Frequent visit to pubs, discotheque and attending late night parties are part of call center culture. These night clubs or discotheques are meant for entertainment which operates late night. It has a dance floor and a DJ booth where the DJ plays recorded music such as heavy metal, trance, techno and pop music.

Younger generation’s frequent visit to discotheques and pubs indicates the successful invasion of American capitalist culture. Their frequent visit is revealed through Shyam’s narration:

Vroom went to the bartender to collect our drinks while I scanned

the disco. A remixed version of ‘Dil Chahta Hai’ played in the

background. As it was Saturday night, the disco had more than three

hundred customers. I noticed some stick-thin models on the dance

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floor. Their stomachs were so flat; if they swallowed a pill you’d

probably see an outline of it when it landed inside. Esha’s looks are

similar. Vroom came back with our drinks and we said ‘cheers’,

trying to sound lively and happy, as people at a disco should. (537)

Moreover, these night clubs have an entry criteria based on which the hostess or the doormen decide who can enter the club. The entry criteria also insist on the dresscode of the customers. Sometimes the customer’s entry can be denied simply because of their dresscode. This is evident through the narration:

‘You know Jas?’ the hostess said, her voice warmer now.

‘School buddy of seven years. Tell him Vroom is here,’ Vroom

said.

‘Cool. Why didn’t you tell me that before, Vroom?’ the hostess said

and flashed him a flirtatious smile. She leaned over to release the

velvet ropes.

‘Can we go in now?’ Esha asked the hostess in a monotone.

‘Yes. Though, Vroom, next time, please tell your friends to dress up

for Bed,’ the hostess said and glanced meaningfully at Priyanka and

Radhika. (One Night at the Call Center 584)

As S. Ambirajan in “Globalization, Media and Culture” remarks, “more efficient the media is in communicating, the more effective it is in stabilising or destabilising existing social, political, cultural, economic, legal, religious and moral arrangements” (2141). Mass media is yet another strongest vehicle which spreads American culture. As ambirajan comments, “The television is obviously playing a greater part in moulding opinion than other media forms” (2144).

American channels such as MTV and CNN predominantly spread American life

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style and its views and opinions to the rest of the world. The novel hints on the media influence as, “There were two flat LCD screens in front of our bed, one tuned to MTV and the other to CNN. A Bollywood number was being played on

MTV as part of its ‘Youth Special’ programme. The news breaking on CNN was about the US invasion of Iraq. I noticed Vroom staring at the news.

Vroom pointed to a US politician who had spoken out in support of the war” (One Night at the Call Center 585). Television broadcasts such as entertainment programmes, educational programmes, telemarketing, advertisements and news have tremendous impact on the younger generation.

Through these programmes, the US hegemonically imposes its cultural values, beliefs and its life style to the rest of the world. In short, it dictates the way one should eat, drink, speak, behave and dress up. As S. Ambirajan points out,

“Information that comes through the media is invariably slanted. Sometimes it is just to boost circulation by highlighting certain bizarre and titillating aspects of an event” (2147). Often the US firms convince the rest of the world of the superiority of American culture so as to sell their products. They succeed in their attempt to convince the consumers by associating American products with modernity. As a result, the younger generation of the developing countries aspires to live like an

American and consume its products simply because it is associated with modernity. Hence, it is evident that entertainment media hegemonically spreads the

American culture, thereby obtaining power over other diverse cultures of the world.

Thus, the novel exhibits the dominant spread of the United States uniform culture, language, values and beliefs through which it exploits and enslaves the

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minds and tastes of Indian youth as well as crushes the values and beliefs of other diverse cultures of the world.

Another important aspect of globalization is migration. There is an uneven development within the country due to globalization in recent decades. Certain parts of the country are benefited by modernization while the rest remaining unchanged. As Catarina Kinnvall in “Globalization and Religious Nationalism:

Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security” remarks, “a number of factors related to globalization seem to increase the gaps between those who have reaped the benefits of the global market and those who have been left behind”

(742). Technological advancements play a vital role in the rapid transformation of human lives. Today people rely more on the technological innovations such as

MP3 players, iPods, cell phones, laptop computers and internet. Again the process of globalization widens the gap between those who have been benefited by the technological innovations and those who have been left behind. For instance, in developed countries 439 people per thousand accessed the internet in 2005, whereas in developing countries, only 83 people per thousand surf the internet in

2005. Another example is the use of mobile phones. In developed countries, 780 people per thousand used mobile phone in 2005, whereas in the same year 225 people per thousand used mobile phones in developing nations. In short,

“Technology has spread benefits to many people, but not equally” (Ervin and

Smith 34). As a result, people from under developed sites move to other places to seek better economic opportunities. Venay Gidwani and K. Sivaramakrishnan in

“Circular Migration and the Spaces of Cultural Assertion” point out that both

Marxist and Marginalist identify the uneven spatial development of capitalist economy as the motive force of migration (189).

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In a totally new circumstance, the migrants experience a sense of loss, fear, insecurity and self-alienation. As Kinnvall comments:

Migration… is both a structural and a psychological process. It is

often characterized by a sense of powerlessness and dependence as

insecurity is increasing among many migrants. This is frequently

mixed with an acute anxiety about their new circumstances and

strong feelings of homelessness. (747)

The term ‘home’ is always associated with a sense of security, whereas,’ homelessness’ denotes loss, fear and insecurity. In order to experience a secure feeling, the migrant should rediscover him/her and redefine his/her identity in the new circumstances. In “Cultural Identity and Diaspora”, Hall points out two common, but opposite approaches to the notion of identity construction. In the first sense, he defines cultural identity as, “one, shared culture, a sort of collective

‘one true self’, hiding inside the many other, more superficial or artificially imposed ‘selves’, which people with a shared history and ancestry hold in common” (223). In short, the definition of cultural identity refers to oneness, sameness, belongingness and unity. In the second approach, identity is viewed as a process of becoming. It is constantly changing along with the transformations of socio-cultural, economic and political milieu. He puts it as:

Cultural identity, in this second sense, is a matter of ‘becoming’ as

well as of ‘being’. It belongs to the future as much as to the past. It

is not something which already exists, transcending place, time,

history and culture. Cultural identities come from somewhere, have

histories. But, like everything which is historical, they undergo

constant transformation. (225)

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Both the approaches explain the same concept, but differently. The first one views identity as a fixed one and biologically pre-given to a person, while the second avoids fixation and emphasizes positioning oneself within different points of time and settings, “identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past” (Hall 225).

One of the notable features of globalization is its high demand of employment opportunities for women. They have started entering into a number of new professions, which are exclusively meant for men. Like men, they migrate to new places in search of new opportunities and experience a sense of loss, anxiety and alienation. As Kinnvall remarks, “It is a world where many people feel intensified levels of insecurity as the life they once led is being contested and changed at the same time” (742). It is this psychological struggle of a woman to rediscover her identity in the age of globalization is fore grounded in Anjum

Hasan’s Neti, Neti.

Neti, Neti is a novel of a young liberated woman from Shillong who lost herself in the midst of new materialistic and commercialized city like Bangalore:

The book Neti Neti tells the story of 25-year-old Sophie Das, who

has moved from Shillong to Bangalore. Here, she and her friends

explore the city’s many facets: its nightlife and call centres, the rock

concerts and homes of the newly rich. But the young woman soon

begins to feel alienated in the “money-mad city. (Hindu Oct 22,

2010)

It is a portrayal of a young woman’s journey of rediscovering herself in the globalized world. It discloses the process of rejecting everything in order to search the ultimate happiness. The protagonist Sophie Das has left Shillong, a rural quiet

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hill town and migrated to Bangalore with a hope to get editing job in a publishing house. She didn’t get what she expected; instead she got a job in BPO transcribing

Hollywood movie subtitles.

The novel opens with an overwhelming experience of Sophie Das, a young

Shillong girl in an urban, chaotic, materialistic city like Bangalore. For the first time, she feels liberated and independent in the new city. In her apartment, “She could cook what she liked, smoke to her heart’s content, put every object exactly where she wanted it to be and know it would not move unless she moved it. For the first time in her life she was free” (Neti, Neti 30). Her liberated and independent life in the globalized city like Bangalore represents the freedom and autonomy offered by globalization to its people. However, on the other side, she finds it difficult to maintain a smooth relationship with her conservative landlord. He often admonishes her for her unruly behaviour. “The scolding she got always had a moral edge to it. He would not mind, for instance, if the boys hung out underwear to dry, whereas in her case it implied a shocking looseness of character” (19). On seeing her new curtain, Mr. Bhatt delivers “a lecture on the idiocy of those who shopped without comparing prices,” (19) which indicates the prevailing mindless consumer behaviour in the age of globalization. She is often rebuked for coming home any time at night, smoking on the balcony in full public view, and for letting her bad-mannered friends into her apartment. Mr. Bhatt’s intruding behaviour snatches away her privacy from her and intensifies her restlessness and uneasiness.

Hence, it is evident that her apartment, which should have helped her to develop a sense of belongingness, turns out to be alienated.

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Sophie’s total rejection of western style of living is exposed through her habit of newspaper reading. The newspaper depicts the ostentatious and pretentious ways of living of the rich in the city. For instance:

She would read them, furious at people who described their beach

holidays, their self-designed bungalows, and their favourite night

clubs. She ground her teeth learning about wine appreciation

evenings in swanky hotels, salsa competitions, champagne brunches

and tips on where to get the best lounge furniture. Massive idiots,

she would say out loud to those who considered going on cruise

trips in the Mediterranean de rigueur. (Neti, Neti 24)

Since they have been influenced by western culture, they make an attempt to construct their identity and seek their happiness mainly through external exploration. Her total rejection of these kinds of show-offs strongly exhibits her search for self and true happiness.

A series of events encountered by Sophie Das in a lifeless materialistic city contribute to her sense of loss and fear. She experiences an oppressive environment in the metropolitan city and fears that traffic jams, accidents, gorgeous night clubs, late night parties would drown her. For instance:

Sophie was obsessed with traffic accidents. She recognized well the

sickening, explosive crunch of a bike spinning out of its rider’s

control and hitting the road, an SUV colliding with a scooter, a lorry

crumpling a small car like a ball of paper. She’d seen people die on

these streets, or knocked unconscious, or with their legs gone.

…Nobody else seemed to think much about it, while Sophie had to

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work hard to suppress the idea, when she was out, that in the end

everyone on the roads simply wanted to die. (Neti, Neti 38)

Another important facet of the city which deepens her insecure feeling is the predominant mindless consumer culture. She witnesses a death of a child in a shopping mall and the bereavement of the child’s parents. The mesmerizing influence of the capitalist consumer culture on the child’s parents and other customers in the shopping mall takes away the life of an innocent child. The author vividly describes the deepened sorrow experienced by Sophie Das:

Got herself a coffee, found an empty table, poured a sachet of sugar

into her cup, stirred it, blew on it, took a sip and shut her eyes. Her

claustrophobia had given way to an intense sadness. She tried to

focus on the matter of the gifts before the shops closed but all she

could think of now was the dead child, the murdered, secret brother

of Mani’s and the unmoved and un moveable car onto which he had

fallen. (74)

The term ‘murdered’ in the given extract strongly denotes that the child’s death is not merely an accident, but a ruthless murder committed by the insane consumer behaviour of the contemporary globalized society. Sophie’s encounters with constant road accidents, people defaulting on loans, the death of a child in a shopping mall due to mindless consumerism and finally the murder committed by

Ringo Saar make her feel insecure and alienated in the chaotic metropolitan city.

“Sophie Das is somebody who moves from a place of security to a place unknown, a phenomenon that could be replicated anywhere” (Hindu Oct 22, 2010).

Immediately after her migration to Bangalore, she has been disembedded from her cuisine, language and a soothing hilly region. Neither her travels nor her

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encounters with a series of incidents give her a sense of belongingness. As

Friedman in The Lexus and the Olive Tree remarks, “without a sense of home and belonging, life becomes barren and rootless. And life as a tumbleweed is no life at all” (32). She has completely lost herself and experiences a sense of homelessness, alienation, existential fears, insecurity, loss and despair in a new location. Giddens in Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the late Modern Age says:

Globalization tends to break down the protective framework of the

small community and of tradition replacing these with many larger,

impersonal organizations. The individual feels bereft and alone in a

world in which she or he lacks the psychological support and the

sense of security provided by more traditional settings. (33)

Whenever she is overwhelmed with a sense of homelessness and alienation, she tries to recreate her lost self and security by reconstructing or redefining her identity. She strives to recreate her identity by re-establishing connections with her past through nostalgia. As Kinnvall comments:

Going back to an imagined past by using reconstructed symbols and

cultural reference points is, in other words, a response to the

destabilizing effects of changing patterns of global mobility and

migration. It is an attempt to recreate a lost sense of security. (744)

As Bernard J. Siegel in “High Anxiety Levels and Cultural Integration: Notes on a Psycho-Cultural Hypothesis” comments, “Assuming that anxiety states are painful, especially when experienced intensely, it is expectable that some opportunities are necessary to relieve tensions and to dispel them temporarily”

(43). One may have various options to relieve his/her pain temporarily. Connecting with the past may help one to reduce his/her anxiety level in a foreign land. The

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most widely used method to connect with the past is remembering. Since Sophie

Das feels herself as an ‘out of place’ individual, often she connects herself with her past through her memories. Her delightful encounters with Mani, the grandson of her landlord reminds Sophie of her attraction with her baby sister Mukulika. “she remembered her fascination with her baby sister and something from those years, some residue of tenderness and amusement, flared up in her” (Neti, Neti 20). Her moral tussles with Mr. Bhatt remind Sophie of her school moral science classes.

Throughout the novel, she clings on to three books: Swami and Friends,

Vivekananda: Awakener of Modern India and Madame Bovary. The memories associated with these books take her back to “Shillong, her home town” away from her “present home”. Through her memory, she traces and reconstructs her lost identity, which provides her a sense of security to her insecure life in the maddening city.

Ironing is yet another way which Sophie uses to withdraw herself from an imperfect world into a flawless universe: “She started to smooth out a pair of cotton trousers. Ironing was her peculiar obsession - a way of withdrawing from a faulty world into a perfectionist’s universe” (78). She attempts to seek pleasure through minor things as all the major things in the city ruin her peace and happiness. She gradually learns to content herself with minor things such as “the smell of flowers coming from pushcarts late in the evening, the view of a palm tree from an open window, … seeing one’s things neatly arranged in a room” (36). As

Giddens refers to ontological security:

Person’s fundamental sense of safety in the world and includes a

basic trust of other people. Obtaining such trust becomes necessary

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in order for a person to maintain a sense of psychological well-

being and avoid existential anxiety. (qtd. in Kinnvall 746)

In a cosmopolitan city like Bangalore, one can feel the sense of absence and insecurity so desperately and distressingly. Sophie is no exception to this anxiety and desperation caused by a psycho-cultural isolation constructed and nurtured by globalization. She frequently experiences a sense of loss and absence, but in the company of Swami, she feels the presence and experiences a secure feeling. She gifts him one of her favourite books Swami and Friends as he has once reflected the fictional Swami of the novel. Both the fictional character and her boyfriend

Swami strive to escape from the intractable adult world of rules and responsibilities. Sophie loves his laid-back nature and his laziness. They both share their comments on the stupidity and crazy attitude of the people in the metropolitan city. Sophie’s intimacy with Swami starts diminishing as he joins a call-center job and becomes one in the frenzy community. She hopes that his reading of Swami and Friends would bring some changes in him and she could possess him whole heartedly:

Sophie believed that if he did, some kind of irreversible mutation

would take place in Swami - the same that had taken place in her

when she read Swami and Friends at the age of nine… He might

become more like that Swami and less like the Swami that was

hardening, leaving his sangfroid behind. It was all because of that

call centre he’d joined, thought Sophie for the hundredth time.

(Neti, Neti 37)

Hence, it is evident that once again she is left alone in the lifeless materialistic city.

All her efforts to reconstruct her identity yield no desirable result. Moreover, she

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lacks the feeling of recognized kinship which provides a sense of security to people in a new location. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s comments on the necessary function of kinship in one’s ‘self’ is significant in this context: “In the field of rational analysis, a feeling of recognized kinship is more desirable than nationalism” (773). As she lacks the feeling of recognized kinship, she decides to go back to Shillong for a week to recreate her lost identity and happiness. She misses the beauty of her quiet rural hill town and longs for it: “… the light slowly changed and the yellow cast of morning deepened, and sunlight transformed the air of ancient sadness that hung over the scene - the lonely shouts of the boys, the milky mist, the cold, sleeping houses on the hill - into an ordinary morning.

Bangalore, on the other hand, possessed a great zest for ugliness. Everyone just wanted to obscure the view, blot out the sky, erase the gaps” (Neti, Neti 35-36).

When she shares her thought of going home for a week with her boss Maya and her boyfriend Swami, she experiences a sudden and strange sense of happiness. I’m going to Shillong for a week, “she said evenly, trying, as she’d done with Maya, to suppress the sudden, absurd sense of happiness” (66). On her journey from Bangalore to Shillong, she thinks, “I won’t go back to India” (181).

This statement of Sophie indicates her eagerness to rest herself in peace away from the chaotic world and also reminds that north-east is often not considered as part of

India. Sophie’s overwhelming happiness to find her peaceful life in Shillong turns upside down. The life which she finds in her home town is not what she wants. She believes that her calm and unruffled home would remain unchanged, but all her hopes and dreams about her home town get shattered as it becomes a smaller reflection of Bangalore. Her parents’ relationship is not what she imagined to be.

They want to break up and live the rest of their lives in their separate spiritual

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ways. Her sister also lives in her own world of imagination. Her disintegrating family represents the dominant western culture which intrudes and destroys the traditional institutions such as family. The Internet cafes, westernized values, people’s obsession with Bob Dylan and the chaos it creates in the quiet hilly town intensify her sense of loss. Neither her town nor her home seems to console her.

Even the beauty of her hilly town, which she misses, is not enough to comfort her.

She feels that “She was alone from now on. She was her own context” (236). It is only after Ribor’s rejection of Sophie’s love and affection for him, she understands the concept of dharma-karma which her mother has been talking about: “Everyone has a duty in life, sometimes you may think your duty is taking you on the wrong path, but even then you have to do your duty first and think of the consequences afterwards. You can’t be happy all the time, but you can do your duty” (258).

She realizes that the life is offering far more than what it takes away from her. It is with this insight she returns to Bangalore. Her new attitude towards life offers a resolution for her confused state of mind: “She felt fine. Nothing frightened her anymore - not walking into a shop in a plush mall, trying on clothes and then buying nothing. Not waking up in the middle of the night and being unable to go back to sleep. Not seeing a man crushed to death on the street” (278).

C. Flora and J. Flora remark, “Once the removal from a group setting occurs, integration and acceptance of values consistent with capitalism or monopoly capitalism can take place” (qtd. in Tomlinson 105). The moment she feels alienated from her family, friends and society, Sophie das starts integrating herself with the new city like Bangalore, which is dominated by global capitalism.

Thus Anjum Hasan’s Neti, Neti is a story of alienation and homelessness. It discloses the dilemmas of a young Indian woman and her search for self and

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identity in the face of globalization. Away from ‘home’ – Shillong, in a foreign land – Bangalore, Sophie experiences a sense of loss and lacks the protective cocoons of home. Her confrontations with constant road accidents, glitzy shopping malls, late night parties and mindless consumerism make her feel insecure in a globalized cosmopolitan city. She wishes to go back to Shillong for a week to escape from the oppressive environment of the metropolitan city, but unfortunately all her attempts to recreate her lost identity and happiness prove to be a failure as

Shillong becomes a smaller reflection of Bangalore. As a result Sophie decides to negotiate with her new life in the metropolitan city, “I don’t want to feel the knife edge of anything ever pressing into me again” (287). Hence, Anjum Hasan’s Neti,

Neti exposes the struggles of a young liberated Indian woman to recreate or redefine her lost self and identity in the new face of globalization.

Hence, the select novels exhibit the fact that in recent decades, being the super power, the United States has been intruding into the cultures of the world and threatening their existence with its hegemony. In the name of free market economy and freedom of choice, the US manipulates and moulds the minds, tastes and values of the rest of the world. It moves the world towards a unified language, cultural values and beliefs which results in the destruction of other distinct cultures across the world. As Adam Hochschild in “Globalisation and Culture” remarks,

Any great imperial system is always accompanied by declarations

of noble purpose. 19th century colonialism was justified as the

white man’s burden; the Soviet grip on Eastern Europe was justified

as upholding the proletariat against the bourgeoisie; the rule of the

multinationals, the new imperialists of our age, is justified as

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levelling the international playing field and allowing fair

competition. (1235)

The wide spread American culture, its life style, and its products do not concern noble ideas. Indeed, the global power maximizes its profits and accumulates wealth (Golding and Murdock 222). Hence, it is evident that the people in the developing nations undergo social and cultural exploitations in the name of freedom of choice and free global market.

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CHAPTER 3

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: THE CHALLENGE OF CHANGE

To many in the developing world, globalization has not brought the

promised economic benefits. A growing divide between the haves

and the have-nots has left increasing numbers in the Third World in

dire poverty, living on less than a dollar a day.

-- Joseph E. Stiglitz

This chapter attempts to demonstrate the negative consequences of economic globalization on the less developed nations. It also unfolds the dangerous consequences of the widening gap between the rich and the poor in developing nations. Neoliberal policy is the first and foremost strategic tool of neo-colonial powers to control and exploit both material and human resources of the developing countries for their own benefits. In recent decades, economic globalization has created tremendous opportunities for both men and women in the developing nations. It enhances free flow of capital, free international trade among the countries across the world and freedom of choice. Although economic globalization has some positive outcomes such as high per-capita income, high standard of living and advancement of gender equality, it is the cause of several social evils in the developing nations such as increasing poverty, corruption and crime. It increases the mutual dependency among countries, thereby perpetuating economic imperialism in a new dimension. An attempt will be made to disclose the voice of the under privileged, the victims of the life-threatening consequences of economic globalization such as economic disparity, poverty, corrupt politics, poor health services and corrupt education system.

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It will be worthwhile to know the concept of ‘economic globalization’ and the debates over its pros and cons before moving on to the analysis of the texts.

The term ‘economic globalization’ refers to:

Integration of national economies into the international economy

through trade, direct foreign investment (by corporations and

multinationals), short-term capital flows, international flows of

workers and humanity generally, and flows of technology…

(Bhagwati 1)

In other words, economic globalization integrates the world’s economies and allows the free flow of goods, services, labour and capital. In his book,

Contemporary Economic Sociology: Globalization, Production, Inequality, Fran

Tonkiss elucidates:

Economic globalisation describes the processes through which

distant and diverse spaces are integrated through economic

exchanges, production systems, communication flows and

commodity chains … this common usage points to the way that

current markets in goods, information, labour, money and images

tend to operate on an expanding international scale, such that the

contemporary economy integrates much, although certainly not all,

of the globe. (4-5)

The advancements of information and communication technology, production and transport technology and the transnational corporations have a significant role in the promotion and propagation of the processes of economic globalization. These technical and institutional drivers of economic globalization enhance all the economic activities that operate on a global scale.

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The establishment of multinational corporations have opened up tremendous employment opportunities for both men and women, provides high standard of living, reduces unemployment and poverty and promotes gender equality. in essence, this economic integration benefits all, the rich and the poor.

As Jagdish Bhagwati, the pro-globalization economist remarks, “in fact, the various social causes that we all embrace, such as advancement of gender equality and reduction of poverty, are advanced, not set back, by globalization” (4).

Although it has some positive impacts, there are some life-threatening consequences of economic globalization which have to be addressed. Economic globalization is generally portrayed as an aiding hand which enhances the socio- economic growth of the developing countries. Hiding behind such innocent phrase, the neo-colonial powers exploit all the resources of the developing nations for their own benefits. The free flow of foreign capital is used for the exploitation rather than for the growth and progress of the developing and underdeveloped nations of the world. Economic globalization rather increases the gap between the rich and the poor within and among the nations of the world. As Guttal comments,

“Globalisation is also contradictory in its effects. Its assumed ‘integrative nature’ is belied by severe and growing inequalities both within and among nations” (529).

In other words, it divides the nations into two different spheres – one with high standard of living, good education and healthcare, and the other with no proper place to live, inadequate food, lack of sanitation, corrupt education and poor health.

Arundhati Roy in The Alzebra of Infinite Justice sceptically enquires, “Is corporate globalization going to close the gap between the privileged and the underprivileged, between the upper castes and the lower castes, between the

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educated and the illiterate?” (200) She vehemently argues that corporate globalization does no good to the commons. It has been told that the single global economy would bring overall growth and prosperity to the world, but instead it has brought unprecedented poverty. As Joseph E. Stiglitz in Globalization and Its

Discontents explicates:

Despite repeated promises of poverty reduction made over the last

decade of the twentieth century, the actual number of people living

in poverty has actually increased by almost 100 million. This

occurred at the same time that total world income actually increased

by an average of 2.5 percent annually. (5)

Hence, it is evident that globalization, which promises poverty reduction, has actually increased it. The term ‘poverty’ refers to economic deprivation or the lack of material needs. Often economists measure poverty by either absolute or relative deprivation. Absolute poverty denotes the lack of basic human needs such as nutritious food, safe drinking water, proper clothing and shelter. To be more precise, it refers to “a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to social services” (Spicker, Leguizamon and Gordon 7). On the other hand, relative poverty defines poverty “in terms of its relation to the standards which exist elsewhere in society” (Spicker, Leguizamon and Gordon 169). Townsend elucidates the relative deprivation of poverty as, “the absence of inadequacy of those diets, amenities, standards, services and activities which are common or customary in society” (qtd. in Spicker, Leguizamon and Gordon 169). Since there is a close link between poverty and inequality, economists prefer relative rather

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than an absolute method to measure poverty and the widening gap between the rich and the poor.

Increasing economic inequality, which is the negative outcome of globalization, has adverse effects on the lives of millions in the developing nations.

Pro-globalization critics assert that economic globalization promotes holistic development and offer freedom of choice to all to enhance their living standards, but in reality, it has curbed the freedom of more than half of the populations of developing nations to achieve their well-being. A brief discussion of the terms

‘achievement’, ‘freedom of achievement’, ‘agency’ and ‘well-being’ will be useful for the better comprehension of the argument. In Inequality Reexamined, Amartya

Sen distinguishes between achievement and freedom of achievement as,

“Achievement is concerned with what we manage to accomplish, and freedom with the real opportunity that we have to accomplish what we value” (31). The primary goods or the resources form the basic means to enhance the freedom to achieve one’s well-being. Sen does not deny this fact, but claims:

… it must be recognized at the same time that equalizing ownership

of resources or holdings of primary goods need not equalize the

substantive freedoms enjoyed by different persons, since there can

be significant variations in the conversion of resources and primary

goods into freedoms. The conversion problems can involve some

extremely complex social issues, especially when the achievements

in question are influenced by intricate intragroup relations and

interactions. (33)

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Hence, it is evident that a person’s freedom to achieve something that contributes to one’s well-being depends both on the social as well as economic conditions of that person.

Sen further differentiates between the aspects of ‘agency freedom’ and

‘well-being freedom’. Agency freedom refers to one’s freedom to achieve general goals and objectives which need not be necessarily connected with one’s well- being, whereas well-being freedom indicates the freedom to achieve things that exclusively contribute to one’s own well-being. Although the aspects of agency and well-being are separate, they are interdependent. Sen elucidates this quality as,

“The pursuit of well-being can be one of the important goals of the agent. Also, the failure to achieve well-being goals can lead to frustration and thus to a loss of well- being” (56-57). In essence, Sen argues that poverty cannot be measured merely by economic deprivation, but the lack of capability, housing environment, access to education, limited opportunities and safety should be taken into account to define poverty.

The LPG model of the neoliberal policy merely favours and benefits the elite class while leaving behind millions to suffer in poverty. As Guttal comments:

Private corporations, national elites, and those able to access higher

education have reaped benefits, to be sure. But for hundreds of

millions across the world, the actual effects of neo-liberal policies

have been inequality, poverty, hunger, increased susceptibility to

disease and sickness, and economic and political marginalisation.

(530)

This growing economic disparity and poverty within the developing nations have dreadful effects on the lives of millions, particularly on the development of

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children. In Children and the Dark Side of Human Experience: Confronting Global

Realities and Rethinking Child Development, James Garbarino elucidates:

Poverty early in life is a special threat to development, at the most

basic level because it can compromise a child’s biological and

psychological systems … poor children live in the kind of

environments that generate multiple threats to development, threats

that lead to high rates of academic failure, maltreatment, and

learning disabilities. (70)

As they become the victims of economic disparity, they are deprived of their basic rights to have safe drinking water, nutritious food and basic sanitation. Persistent poverty deteriorates only the socio-psychological well-being of the children, but also affects their life chances in future. The widening gap between the rich and the poor becomes ever more blatant with the widespread information and communication technology. As Garbarino points out, “Poverty is hardly ennobling, particularly in a society in which the contrasts between rich and poor are reinforced daily in the mass media” (77). As a result, children in poverty feel abashed and embarrassed for being poor which may misguide them to indulge in criminal activities to uplift themselves from deprivation.

Poor children are more likely to be exposed to a series of abuses such as physical, sexual and psychological maltreatment than children live in affluent societies. Child abuse refers to any act that hurts and violates the basic rights of a child such as bodily integrity, psychic safety and nurturance. Garbarino defines child abuse as, “acts of omission or commission by a parent or guardian that are judged by a mixture of community values and professional expertise to be inappropriate and damaging” (43). The physical, sexual and psychological abuses,

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which the child experiences in poverty, produce more negative outcomes. As

Garbarino remarks:

many deleterious outcomes—depression, sexual dysfunction,

economic failure, learning disabilities, physical injury, and death—I

am drawn to the role of child maltreatment in setting off a chain of

events that leads to problems with antisocial violence and

aggression in childhood that become the basis for lifelong problems

with antisocial and criminal behaviour, what is called conduct

disorder in the psychiatric field. (44)

In short, the victimised child will exhibit aggressive behaviour, indulge in criminal activities and violate the human rights of others in the society. Children grow in poverty are more vulnerable to trafficking than children from affluent societies.

While addressing on trafficking and international trade, Ms Velma Veloria, the head of the Trade and Economic Development Committee of Washington state claims, “trafficking has become the third largest underground industry” in the modern globalized era (Hindu Jan 14, 2004). In Trafficking in Women and

Children in India, P. M. Nair and Sankar Sen define trafficking as:

a trade in something that should not be traded in for various social,

economic or political reasons … The concept of human trafficking

refers to the criminal practice of exploiting human beings by

treating them like commodities for profit. Even after being

trafficked, victims are subjected to long term exploitation. (2)

Personal circumstances which make children vulnerable to trafficking are limited or no access to livelihood options or economic opportunities, dysfunctional family

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environment, family pressures, physical abuse, sexual abuse and children in substitute care (7). The socio-structural factors which lead to vulnerability are:

Industrialisation and globalisation, economic crises, economic

decline, disruption or underdevelopment, economic policies such as

privatisation, liberalisation, the withdrawal of subsidies and the

commercialisation of agriculture. (Nair and Sen 8)

Hence, it is evident that the negative outcomes of globalization such as widening economic disparity, increasing poverty, and child trafficking and child abuse have dreadful effects on the socio-economic and psychological developments of children grow in poverty.

Literary writing, one of the contributing factors for the betterment of the society, has always been a tool to unveil the injustices meted out to the underprivileged of that particular age so as to instruct the society of its faults and to make amends. At the same time, the literature of a particular age is shaped by the complex powers competing for hegemony. Literature becomes a medium to the voiceless masses to speak out these evils and sufferings for the ultimate benefit and profit of a few companies and individuals making the global imperial empire. The recent Indian writings are no exception to this phenomenon. The select contemporary Indian novels such as Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger and Vikas

Swarup’s Q and A explicate the common theme of the severe consequences of economic globalization and the voices of its victims. The novels exhibit the voice of the underprivileged by depicting the two different India: ‘an India of light’ and

‘an India of darkness’ simultaneously.

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Adiga’s The White Tiger is the story of an unpleasant life of the underclass in the dark India. The novel articulates the voice of the marginalized or the underclass which is:

… the result of our polity, bureaucratic set-up, poverty, illiteracy,

unemployment, caste and culture conflict, superstitions, social

taboos, dowry practice, economic disparity, Zamindari system,

corrupt education system, poor health services, police and judicial

working. These forces collectively operate to perpetuate the

underclass. This underclass constitutes Dark India. (Singh 99)

Balram Halwai, the protagonist of the novel The White Tiger, represents the voice of the underprivileged such as farmers, landless labourers, prostitutes, beggars, jobless youth, drivers and servants. The chairperson of the Booker Prize Jury

Michael Portillo puts it as, “The White Tiger, a searing exploration of the underbelly of India’s economic boom, impressed the judges with its power to

“knock your socks off”” (Hindu Oct 16, 2008). The novel exposes the rich and the poor divide of India in the era of globalization. Adiga juxtaposes two different

India: “one of ‘light’ with access to education, health care, good roads, electricity, running water, as well as hope and justice, and the other of ‘Darkness’, where there is only deprivation and injustice” (Frontline Nov 7, 2008).

The novel is written in epistolary form. Balram recounts his life story, the story of the underclass and their struggle to dismantle poverty and economic disparity to the Chinese Premier through a series of seven letters. It exhibits the true face of modern India:

… through the eyes of a driver. Those belonging to this profession

have perhaps the most privileged perspective on the paradoxes of

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the contemporary situation. They work in the new India of

prosperity but go back home to the India of slums and poverty.

Theirs is the India that stands and waits in the parking lots of the

new glittering shopping malls. (Hindu July 6, 2008)

Balram Halwai becomes an entrepreneur by murdering his master Ashok and stealing his red bag full of money – Rs. 700,000. His ambition to free himself from the age-old slavery which is metaphorically portrayed as ‘rooster coop’ is the reason for his violent behaviour. Social injustice, inequality and corruption are the driving forces for his anger and frustration which in turn results in cold-blooded murder:

His anger, protest, indulgence in criminal acts, prostitution,

drinking, chasing, grabbing all the opportunities, means fair or foul

endorse deep-rooted frustration and its reaction against the “haves”.

Bloody acts, opportunism, entrepreneurial success of Balram,

emergence of Socialists in India alarm that the voice of the

underclass cannot be ignored for long. (Singh 98)

The novel depicts the true pictures of the rural and urban societies of the modern

India, where one could witness well-furnished apartment buildings, glittering shopping malls, well-equipped hospitals, high-rise IT parks and good education system on one side and poverty, exploitation of farmers and landless labourers, poor health services, corrupt education system and prostitution on the other side.

This economic disparity, unequal distribution of wealth, corruption and injustice exist in this society even before the advent of globalization. Neo-liberalization policy, which promises overall development has led to an increase in unequal development and has encouraged a small group to prosper at the expense of silent

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majority. As Guttal remarks, “Globalisation has integrated rich, affluent, and educated classes, but has fractured working classes and marginalised the poor, who do not have the skills and economic clout to profit from open markets” (529). As a result, “These days, there are just two castes: Men with Big Bellies, and Men with

Small Bellies. And only two destinies: eat—or get eaten up” (The White Tiger 64).

“Poverty is much more complex than simply income deprivation. Poverty entails lack of empowerment, lack of knowledge and lack of opportunity as well as lack of income and capital” (Hindu Dec 04, 2001). Poverty refers to the condition in which a person or a community lacks the basic needs required for the minimum standard of living. Ever increasing poverty is the outcome of globalization. It is this extreme poverty perpetuates the sufferings and the survival struggles of the under privileged. The dreadful life of the people in the poverty-stricken society is portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai. He belongs to the village of

Laxmangarh which represents the dark India. The life in Laxmangarh is marked by socio-economic deprivation, especially the basic necessities of life such as nutritious food, clean drinking water, proper clothing, shelter and sanitation.

Balram Halwai was born and brought up in this darkness where every one’s life is entrapped within the poverty circle. The vicious circle of poverty is nothing but a continuous circle in which the poor or the under privileged do not have an opportunity to improve their standard of living. In such an impoverished society, no one bothers to name one’s own children as they struggle to earn the necessities of their daily living. Balram’s family is no exception to this. They just call him

‘munna’ which means boy.

Adiga explores the multifaceted nature of poverty, which impedes the progress of the living condition of the poor. The socio-economic disadvantages

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of poverty are the outcome of the persistent lack of income. Families with low income experience a wide range of problems and poor developmental outcomes.

Economic disadvantage of poverty refers to the economic deprivation of basic material needs such as food, safe drinking water, clothing and shelter. Extreme poverty or persistent poverty has severe detrimental effects on the lives of the poor, particularly on children from poor families. As Daniel Toole, UNICEF Regional

Director for South Asia remarks, “We now have a better understanding of the real depth of how poverty affects children — not just as a side effect of their parents’ income but their own profound deprivation” (Hindu Nov 04, 2009). Children in families with low income are more likely to experience a wide range of problems such as poor health, behavioural problem, issues related to emotional wellbeing and cognitive development than children from rich families. Poor children often exhibit low height and weight for their age, as a result of substandard nutritional status. It is malnutrition, which is the outcome of poverty, affects a child’s mental and physical well-being. As Daniel Toole comments, “poverty and under-nutrition damages a child’s chance to thrive and also hampers the potential of countries to develop” (Hindu Nov 04, 2009). Balram points out this inadequate nutritious food and safe drinking water as: “electricity poles-defunct. Water tap-broken. Children- too lean and short for their age, and with oversized heads from which vivid eyes shine, like the guilty conscience of the government of India” (The White Tiger 20).

The report for the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) says that tens of millions of children in developing nations do not have access to basic human needs such as food, water and sanitation. The study found some startling truths:

… more than half of all children living in the developing world are

living in severe deprivation, while 674 million are in absolute

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poverty. A third of all children in the survey lived in a dwelling

with more than five people to a room, or with only a mud floor. A

similar proportion had no kind of toilet facility and one in five had

no access to safe drinking water. More than one in ten children aged

seven to eighteen had never been to school, and one in seven was

severely malnourished. (Independent Oct 22, 2003)

People from poor families often wear threadbare or dirty clothes as persistent poverty never let them to pay out money on fine clothes. The depth of their poverty is reflected not only through their lean and hungry look, but also through the way they dress up. Throughout their life time, people in dark India have never had a chance to wear a fine clothe. This is manifested through Balram’s description of his mother’s funeral:

My mother’s body had been wrapped from head to toe in a saffron

silk cloth, which was covered in rose petals and jasmine garlands. I

don’t think she had ever had such a fine thing to wear in her life.

Her death was so grand that I knew, all at once, that her life must

have been miserable. (16)

The term ‘home’ often reminds us of the happy and cheerful environment associated with it. It also stands as a symbol of safety and protection (Dupuis And

Thorns, 28-30). In the poverty stricken society, none has had an opportunity to experience such a delightful environment as poverty is inextricably linked with an increased rate of homelessness and substandard housing. Balram’s narration throws light on this negative condition of poverty:

Thousands of people live on the sides of the road in Delhi. They

have come from theDarkness too—you can tell by their thin bodies,

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filthy faces, by the animal-like way they live under the huge bridges

and overpasses, making fires and washing and taking lice out of

their hair while the cars roar past them. These homeless people are a

particular problem for drivers. (The White Tiger 119-120)

Next is the social disadvantage of poverty which has a vital role in perpetuating the poverty circle. Limited or no access to education and health services is the social disadvantages of poverty encountered by the underclass (Spicker, Leguizamon and

Gordon 7). Poor children are less likely to be in school than children from affluent society. Since poor parents do not have proper job and income to fulfil the basic needs of the families, millions of children are forced to work in tea shops, hotels and brothels to help their families. Hence, these children lack the opportunity to access education. However, Balram is fortunate to attend school in his dark village while the rest of the children working in tea shops. Unlike other parents, his father wishes to send him to school for he believes that education would provide an opportunity to escape from the poverty circle and to lead a respectable life in future. It is evident, when he articulates, “whole life, I have been treated like a donkey. All I want is that one son of mine—at least one—should live like a man”

(30).

In addition to the low-quality child care and inadequate health care, a family’s lack of income has a significant impact on the education of their child.

The entry level behaviour or school readiness greatly influences a child’s educational or academic achievement. School readiness of a child refers to the physical and emotional well-being, competence and social knowledge, cognition development and language skills of a child. Poverty has an adverse effect on the school readiness of a child which in turn affects the child’s academic achievement.

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Family or the housing environment, neighbourhood and school contribute to the socio-emotional, physical and intellectual development of a child. Family plays an essential role in a child’s readiness for school. In “Family Poverty, Welfare

Reform, and Child Development,” Greg J. Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn elucidate, “A first important pathway is the quality of a child’s home environment.

Warmth of mother-child interactions, the physical condition of the home, and especially opportunities for learning account for a substantial portion of the effects of family income on cognitive outcomes in young children” (190). It is the responsibility of the family to develop listening and communication skills through interactions and to provide a rich and stimulating environment for learning.

However, Balram lacks such a motivating and inspiring environment at home.

Everyone at home except his father, wants Balram to work and earn money. It is revealed through the words of Kusum, “he’s a coward, and he eats too much. Put him to work in the tea shop and let him make some money” (The White Tiger 28).

Since the entire community is living in darkness, neither his neighbourhood nor his community could enhance his behavioural and cognitive competencies. As Duncan and Brooks-Gunn remarks:

Low income may lead to residence in extremely poor

neighbourhoods characterized by social disorganization (crime,

many unemployed adults, neighbours who do not monitor the

behaviour of adolescents), and few resources for child development

(playgrounds, child care, health-care facilities, parks, after-school

programs). (190)

Next to the family and community, school has a significant impact on child’s education. Poor children have no access to good quality school. Often schools in

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poorer communities are under resourced. These under resourced schools have poor infra-structure facilities, inadequate resource persons and materials required to provide a high-quality learning environment. This is revealed through Balram’s narration:

The man in the blue safari suit—the inspector—pointed his cane at

holes in the wall, or the red discolorations, while the teacher

cowered by his side and said, “Sorry sir, sorry sir.”

“There is no duster in this class; there are no chairs; there are

no uniforms for the boys. How much money have you stolen

from the school funds, you sister-fucker?” (33-34)

Although all the key factors contributing to a child’s school readiness fail to enhance Balram’s knowledge and skills, he proves to be a good learner. He could read and write well, while his classmates couldn’t. Despite lacking a rich and stimulating environment, he excels all his fellow beings. The school inspector has given him the title ‘The White Tiger’ as a reward for his outstanding performance:

The inspector pointed his cane straight at me. “You, young man, are

an intelligent, honest, vivacious fellow in this crowd of thugs and

idiots. In any jungle, what is the rarest of animals—the creature that

comes along only once in a generation?”

I thought about it and said:

“The white tiger.”

“That’s what you are, in this jungle.” (35)

The inspector also promises to arrange scholarship for him to have good education in a proper school.

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Extreme poverty has adverse effect on children’s concentration, memory and cognitive development which in turn affect their learning skills (Garbarino 70).

Balram may be the exception, but his classmates represent the majority of the poor children who lack the ability to learn. Although Balram excels all his fellow beings and has showed his potential, fate has other plan to put him down. Concepts like

‘opportunity cost’ play a crucial role in the education of poor children. Garbarino refers to opportunity cost as, “the difference in dollars earned from choosing to invest one’s time in “productive” activity (e.g., putting in an hour working) versus

“non-productive” activity (e.g., attending your child’s school play)” (75). Children grow in poverty are often pulled out of schools to work for the family: “As poor children who are enrolled grow older, the opportunity cost (their lost labour and the forgone income it may entail) becomes greater, thus increasing the likelihood of abandoning school.” (Hindu Dec 04, 2001)

In order to repay the debt taken from the landlord to perform his cousin’s marriage,

Balram is drawn out of school to work in a tea shop. Though he proves to be a good learner, he has to leave school because his family needs his wage. This is the destiny of every poor child in dark India. Balram remarks, “Me, and thousands of others in this country like me, are half-baked, because we were never allowed to complete our schooling. Open our skulls, look in with a penlight, and you’ll find an odd museum of ideas” (The White Tiger 10). Hence, it is obvious that the persistent poverty has a significant impact on children’s education, thereby resulting in severe negative outcomes such as poor academic achievement

(Garbarino 70) and school drop outs.

Academic achievement at school level has a significant impact on earnings in future life. It becomes a difficult task to obtain secure and well-paid job in

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future, if a child does not possess the required skills and competencies. Good quality education, therefore, provides an opportunity to poor children to break the vicious circle of poverty and to lift themselves up in future. However, most often children in poverty lack the opportunity to access quality education. If at all they get a chance to enrol in school, they will never be allowed to complete their education. This inadequate education perpetuates the poverty circle by reducing poor children’s opportunity to have a stable future. Children with poor academic achievement and school drop outs have no other options except to accept poor quality and low income jobs for their survival. Getting even a worse job in dark

India is hard and tricky. The poor in dark India fight among each other for they have only limited opportunity. Balram recounts this struggle for survival:

The stupid ones have gathered in a field in the centre of the town.

Every now and then a truck comes by, and all the men in the field

rush to it with their hands outstretched, shouting, “Take me! Take

me!”

Everyone pushed me; I pushed back, but the truck scooped up only

six or seven men and left the rest of us behind. They were off on

some construction or digging job—the lucky bastards. Another half

hour of waiting. Another truck came. Another scramble, another

fight. After the fifth or sixth fight of the day, I finally found myself

at the head of the crowd, face-to-face with the truck driver. (The

White Tiger 55)

On the other side, things are different in the India of light. People have tremendous employment opportunities. Businessmen and entrepreneurs are busy hunting smart men for their jobs. Balram reports:

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Go to any pub or bar in Bangalore with your ears open and it’s the

same thing you hear: can’t get enough call-centre workers, can’t get

enough software engineers can’t get enough sales managers. There

are twenty, twenty-five pages of job advertisements in the

newspaper every week (54).

Lack of health care is yet another social disadvantage encountered by impoverished people. The cycle of poverty and ill-health is hard to break as they intertwine with each other. In essence, the link between abject poverty and poor health is inseparable. World Health Organisation (WHO) defines ‘health’ as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well- being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (World Bank 4). Often the physical and emotional well-being of the under privileged is threatened by the hazards of poverty. The first and the foremost cause for poor health is lack of food and malnutrition. The World

Bank report points out, “Hunger and malnutrition are seen as underlying causes of many diseases. They cause weakness and exhaustion, and make people more susceptible to infections” (6). Lack of safe drinking water is another cause for ill- health. Broken pipe-lines, inadequate maintenance of wells and bore-wells deprive their access to safe drinking water which in turn causes infectious diseases. Poor sanitation is yet another hazard of poverty that creates serious health issues to the poor particularly among poor children. Balram’s narration exhibits the unhealthy environment in which they live in:

Down the middle of the main road, families of pigs are sniffing

through sewage—the upper body of each animal is dry, with long

hairs that are matted together into spines; the lower half of the body

is peat-black and glistening from sewage. Vivid red and brown

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flashes of feather—roosters fly up and down the roofs of the house.

Past the hogs and roosters, you’ll get to my house—if it still exists.

(The White Tiger 20)

The poor are more likely to be exposed to health risks as the place they live in, the water they drink, the food they eat are polluted, contaminated and adulterated respectively. In short, lack of income, malnutrition, unsafe drinking water, hunger, overcrowding, lack of sanitation and poor housing condition form the socio- economic determinants of ill-health which is the never-ending problem experienced by the poor. Balram points out this unceasing issue as, “The Muslim men kept adding newspapers to the ground, and the line of diseased eyes, raw wounds, and delirious mouths kept growing” (49). A fit and strong body is an asset to the poor, but due to abject poverty, most of them have a sick and weak body which is a liability for both the individuals and their family members. Balram gives an account of the physique of the poor by distinguishing it from the physique of the rich:

A rich man’s body is like a premium cotton pillow, white and soft

and blank. Ours are different. My father’s spine was a knotted rope,

the kind that women use in villages to pull water from wells; the

clavicle curved around his neck in high relief, like a dog’s collar;

cuts and nicks and scars, like little whip marks in his flesh, ran

down his chest and waist, reaching down below his hip bones into

his buttocks. The story of a poor man’s life is written on his body,

in a sharp pen. (The White Tiger 26-27)

Poor health services have a dreadful effect on the lives of the poor. As the World

Bank Reports:

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Health care services are vital to their survival and livelihood.

However, the significance that the poor attach to health services is

muted by their widespread disappointment - in some cases anger -

at the bad quality of service and the difficulties of accessing care.

These difficulties include the direct cost of doctors’ fees, medicines

and bribes, and the indirect cost of transport to health services and

time lost waiting for treatment. (17)

They are susceptible to infectious diseases such as diarrhoea, tuberculosis, malaria, etc. these curable diseases are intensified and turned into life killing deadly disease due to lack of basic health care and attention. Balram depicts the inadequate health care, lack of medicine and equipment, doctor’s habitual absence from their responsibility and duty as:

Kishan and I carried our father in, stamping on the goat turds which

had spread like a constellation of black stars on the ground. There

was no doctor in the hospital. The ward boy, after we bribed him

ten rupees, said that a doctor might come in the evening. The doors

to the hospital’s rooms were wide open; the beds had metal springs

sticking out of them, and the cat began snarling at us the moment

we stepped into the room. “It’s not safe in the rooms—that cat has

tasted blood.” (The White Tiger 48)

Like poor quality education, ill-health becomes both the cause and effect of poverty which has a hand in perpetuating the poverty circle. As the World Bank report comments, “When access to care is constrained, illness is likely to persist or worsen. Crucially, this may stop people working and force them to sell assets and fall into debt, leading to a cycle of dependency and poverty” (18). Generally, poor

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families are more concerned about the health of the bread-winner than other members of the family. When he/she becomes ill, the work productivity of the family decreases. If the bread-winner needs an expensive medical treatment, the family is forced to sell their assets to meet the costs of the treatment. While describing the concept of “well-being” the World Bank report mentions three types of well-being. They are:

material well-being, often expressed as having “enough”; bodily

well-being, i.e., to be strong, healthy and good-looking; and social

well-being, which includes having children and caring for them,

self-respect, security and confidence in the future, freedom of

choice and action, and being able to help others. (15)

Bodily well-being has a significant impact on the material and social well-being of the poor. It is good health that determines the good quality life of the poor. A strong and healthy physique becomes an asset of the poor, but most often this assets is turned into liability by illness. In other words, it affects their livelihood options and threatens their economic survival. After the death of Balram’s father, the bread-winner of the family, the work productivity of his family has decreased.

In order to rectify the sudden loss in income, Balram is forced to find out a better job. As discussed earlier, getting even a bad quality job in dark India is a difficult task. In addition to limited livelihood options, their poor health plays a crucial role in getting those limited jobs. It is evident through Balram’s narration:

“Everyone!” he shouted. “Take off your shirts! I’ve got to see a

man’s nipples before I give him a job!”

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He looked at my chest; he squeezed the nipples—slapped my butt—

glared into my eyes— and then poked the stick against my thigh:

“Too thin! Fuck off!”

“Give me a chance, sir—my body is small but there’s a lot of fight

in it…” He swung his stick; it hit me on the left ear. I fell down,

and others rushed to take my place. I sat on the ground, rubbed my

ear, and watched the truck leave in a big cloud of dust. (The White

Tiger 55)

The deprivation of livelihood options in turn affects the social well-being of the poor, thereby perpetuating poverty. The World Bank report points out, “Illness can reduce household savings, lower learning ability, reduce productivity and lead to a diminished quality of life, thereby creating or perpetuating poverty” (23).

In addition to the miseries and sufferings, they are doomed to taste the wretchedness of slavery in the master-servant relationship. Feudal lords and tribal heads are mainly responsible for the existence of poverty so as to enjoy the benefits of servitude. Adiga vividly depicts the reality of rural India where everyone is subjected to the power and authority of the landlords. The village of

Laxmangarh is no exception. It is completely under the control of the four landlords who squeeze money from the poor villagers. In “Aravind Adiga’s The

White Tiger: The Voice of Underclass: A Postcolonial Dialectics,” Krishna Singh comments, “Zamindari practice is also a powerful source of exploitation and subjugation of underclass. Buffalo, Stork, Wild Boar and Raven are four landlords who got their names from the peculiarities of appetite that had been detected in them” (105). Stork, one of the four landlords owns the river. People who use the river to fish or transport goods have to pay him. For growing crops, the villagers

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have to pay the Wild Boar who owns all the good agricultural lands. Raven owns the worst land and extracts money from the goatherds who graze their cattles there.

Buffalo, the greediest of all owns the road and squeeze money from the rickshaw pullers who use the road.

These landlords treat their servants like slaves and expect them to be obedient, humble and loyal to his master and his family. Balram’s grandmother offers him six hundred rupees to learn the art of driving thinking that the family’s income would increase if he gets a job as a driver. Fortunately, he becomes the driver for Ashok, the son of Stork one of the landlords in the village of

Laxmangarh. Balram’s relationship with his master cannot be compared with the employee-employer relationship, where the employee works under the authority of the employer with dignity and self-respect. It is more like a master-slave relationship where the servant is expected to do all kinds of menial works. It is the duty of Balram to massage Stork’s legs softly and gently:

I had to heat water on the stove, carry it into the courtyard, and then

lift the old man’s feet up one after the other and immerse them in

the hot water and then massage them both gently. (70)

The servants are often abused verbally or physically by their masters. The physical or verbal abuse is the age-old strategy used by the feudal lords to exhibit their power and authority on one hand and to keep them under their control on the other hand. Balram reports this mean behaviour of the masters:

A minute later he hit me on the head again.

“Tell him what it was for, Father. I don’t think he knows. Fellow,

you’re pressing too hard. You’re too excited. Father is getting

annoyed. Slow down.”

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“Yes, sir.”

“Do you have to hit the servants, Father?”…

“They expect it from us, Ashok. Remember that—they respect us

for it.”

(The White Tiger 71-72)

While people from dark India suffer starvation, infectious diseases, and harmful living environment due to lack of income, inadequate food, unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation, rich men who have accumulated wealth at the expense of voiceless populace in the India of light spend lavishly on parties, fashion accessories and even on pets such as dogs to maintain their prestige and reputation in the society. In fact, the servant of a rich man gets inhuman and ruthless treatment, while the pet animal receives a respectable and princely treatment.

Balram throws light on this fact:

There were two white Pomeranians in the house—Cuddles and

Puddles. The rich expect their dogs to be treated like humans, you

see—they expect their dogs to be pampered, and walked, and

petted, and even washed! And guess who had to do the washing? I

got down on my knees and began scrubbing the dogs, and then

lathering them, and foaming them, and then washing them down,

and taking a blow dryer and drying their skin. Then I took them

around the compound on a chain while the king of Nepal sat in a

corner and shouted, “Don’t pull the chain so hard! They’re worth

more than you are! (78)

Thus, it is evident that Balram has to do all types of menial jobs like massaging the master, entertain them with liquor and women, and washing their pets.

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The rich people often make fun of the servants’ use of English language specially the way they pronounce the language. The cultural ethos of the rich is predominantly constructed and differentiated from the rest of the society through the language they use. This cultural distinction is carefully nurtured in the process of economic discriminations in the urban space in various levels. The ridiculing of the poor is much a reflexion of the economic hegemony and social superiority achieved through wealth. This kind of harassment with persistent criticism or carping for the lack of an English education is not new to Balram. In order to amuse themselves, Ashok and Pinky humiliate Balram for his bad pronunciation.

The Pizza episode is a good example for this kind of humiliation:

“Ashok,” she said. “Now hear this. Balram, what is it we’re

eating?”

I knew it was a trap, but what could I do?—I answered. The two of

them burst into giggles.

“Say it again, Balram.”

They laughed again.

“It’s not pijja. It’s pizza. Say it properly.” (The White Tiger 154)

The above extract symbolically represents the superior attitude of the English speaking elite class to look down upon the non-English speaking underclass. They not only humiliate Balram for his lack of an English language, but also for not having basic general knowledge. Most often this kind of humiliation begins in a polite way. When Mr. Ashok politely asks him questions like “how many planets are there in sky?” “who was the first prime minister of India?” he gave the answer as best as he could. On hearing his answers, Ashok ridiculed his lack of knowledge and scornfully calls him ‘half-baked man’. These kinds of ridicules and

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humiliations associated with language and knowledge vividly depicts the widening gap between the educated and the illiterate, which is one of the negative outcomes of the ever growing divide between the rich and the poor that perpetuates the vicious circle of poverty.

The rich people are not generous, kind and liberal, especially when it comes to their servants. The material wealth which they possess provides them the power to exert authority over the underprivileged. The socio-cultural and political dominance and power of the rich is backed up by their economic status. Hence, it becomes essential for them to impede the progress of the poor at any cost so as to maintain their superiority. The thrifty attitude of the rich is one of the conscious ways to retain their servants as poor so as to uphold and extend their socio-cultural and political power. The saying, “penny wise pound foolish” is apt to portray the stingy and mean character of the rich. This penny-pinching and thrifty attitude of the rich is exhibited through the lost coin episode. Balram reports that the

Mongoose screwed and humiliated him for not retrieving a rupee coin which he lost while getting out of the car: “the Mongoose tapped his pockets, looked confused for a moment, and said, “I’ve lost a rupee.” He snapped his fingers at me.

“Get down on your knees. Look for it on the floor of the car.” “He got down on his knees and sniffed in Between the mats like a dog, all in search of that one rupee.””

The Mongoose was too much worried about that single rupee coin after bribing half a million rupees:

“What do you mean, it’s not there? Don’t think you can steal from

us just because you’re in the city. I want that rupee.”

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“We’ve just paid half a million rupees in a bribe, Mukesh, and now

we’re screwing this man over for a single rupee. Let’s go up and

have a scotch.”

“That’s how you corrupt servants. It starts with one rupee. Don’t

bring your American ways here.” (The White Tiger 139)

As he couldn’t find that coin, he took a rupee coin from his pocket, “dropped it on the floor of the car, picked it up, and gave it to the Mongoose” (139).

His humiliations and sufferings reach the climax when pinky kills a child on the road in drunken driving. He is forced to accept full responsibility for the accident made by Pinky:

whomsoever it may concern,

i, balram halwai, son of vikram halwai… do make the

following statement of my own free will and intention:

that i drove the car that hit an unidentified person, or

persons, or person and objects, on the night of january 23rd

this year. … that i was alone in the car, and alone responsible for all

that happened.

i swear by almighty god that i make this statement under no duress

and under instruction from no one. (168)

It not only indicates the traumatic experience of Balram in particular, but also the painful experience of the servants in general. He makes fun of democracy and ridicules it.

A poor man is not only deprived of his basic needs, but also his basic human right to enter a shopping mall. Generally, the entry of a poor person wearing sandals to the shopping malls is denied:

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The glass doors had opened, but the man who wanted to go into

them could not do so. The guard at the door had stopped him. He

pointed his stick at the man’s feet and shook his head—the man had

sandals on his feet. … But everyone who was allowed into the mall

had shoes on their feet.

Instead of backing off and going away …the man in the sandals

exploded, “Am I not a human being too?” He yelled it so hard that

the spit burst from his mouth like a fountain and his knees were

trembling. (The White Tiger 148-149)

This instance indicates the inhuman treatment of the poor. It is this effect of persistent humiliation which makes him feel degraded and insecure to enter a shopping mall:

I was sure, until the last moment that I would be caught, and called

back, and slapped and humiliated there.

Even as I was walking inside the mall, I was sure someone would

say, hey! That man is a paid driver! What’s he doing in here? … It

was my first taste of the fugitive’s life. (152)

The trustworthiness of the servants and their unquestioned subjugation to their masters has a significant role in perpetuating the master-servant relationship. In

India masters trust their servants with diamonds not because they are honest, but because they are trapped in the rooster coop like chickens:

Hundreds of pale hens and brightly coloured roosters, stuffed tightly

into wire- mesh cages, packed as tightly as worms in a belly,

pecking each other and shitting on each other, jostling just for

breathing space; … The roosters in the coop smell the blood from

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above. They see the organs of their brothers lying around them.

They know they’re next. Yet they do not rebel. They do not try to

get out of the coop. The very same thing is done with human beings

in this country. (The White Tiger 173-174)

Balram claims that even if a servant is entrusted with a bag containing a million dollars, he will never touch a single penny. The reason for his honesty is the Indian family which traps and ties the servant to the coop. his entire family will be in trouble if he misbehaves. “only a man who is prepared to see his family destroyed—hunted, beaten, and burned alive by the masters—can break out of the coop. That would take no normal human being, but a freak, a pervert of nature”

(176-177).

The hegemonic power of the elite class confines the underprivileged to an ignorant existence which binds and restricts them from knowing their subordinate condition. The hegemonic power destroys the consciousness about their potential by imposing certain way of life on them. For instance, Balram explains the kinds of gods foisted on them:

an image of a saffron-coloured creature, half man half monkey: this

is Hanuman, everyone’s favourite god in the Darkness. … He was

the faithful servant of the god Rama, and we worship him in our

temples because he is a shining example of how to serve your

masters with absolute fidelity, love, and devotion. (19)

They are trained in such a way to remain loyal and dedicated to their masters. For instance, Balram reports that even though Mr. Ashok has not asked him to massage his feet, he rushed to do so because “the desire to be a servant had been bred into me: hammered into my skull, nail after nail, and poured into my blood, the way

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sewage and industrial poison are poured into Mother Ganga” (193). There is no choice and therefore no confusion. Ignorance is bliss. That is why, the poor blindly accepts the blissful existence without questioning the hegemony. In essence, 99.9 percent of Indians have been conditioned or trained by a handful of elite men as

“strong, as talented, as intelligent in every way—to exist in perpetual servitude; a servitude so strong that you can put the key of his emancipation in a man’s hands and he will throw it back at you with a curse.” (The White Tiger 176)

Rotten democracy and the corrupt politics is yet another key factor that perpetuates poverty and inequality in India. As Roy elucidates,

Over the past fifty years, ordinary citizens’ modest hopes for lives

of dignity, security and relief from abject poverty have been

systematically snuffed out. Every ‘democratic’ institution in this

country has shown itself to be unaccountable, inaccessible to the

ordinary citizen, and either unwilling or incapable of acting in the

interests of genuine social justice. (289-290)

While talking about election, one of the great pillars of democracy, Adiga comments that Typhoid, Cholera and election fever are the three main diseases of this country among which the last is the worst. Great politicians glorify democracy which offers people to cast their vote to determine their future in full freedom, but in reality, Balram claims, “I am India’s most faithful voter, and I still have not seen the inside of a voting booth” (102). The politicians work little yet they keep winning year after year. They use mean ways to win the election. As Singh remarks, “Money-bags, muscle power, police, strategic alignment of various factions and power to woo the underclass assure the victory in the political game”

(102). Balram elucidates the significant role played by money in the election:

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I had to be eighteen. All of us in the tea shop had to be eighteen, the

legal age to vote. There was an election coming up, and the tea shop

owner had already sold us. He had sold our fingerprints—the inky

fingerprints which the illiterate person makes on the ballot paper to

indicate his vote. I had overheard this from a customer. This was

supposed to be a close election; he had got a good price for each

one of us from the Great Socialist’s party. (The White Tiger 97)

Balram also reports what would happen to a man in darkness if he wants to cast his vote on the day of election:

Vijay and a policeman had knocked the rickshaw-puller down, and

they had begun beating him; they hit him with their sticks, and

when he thrashed at them they kicked him. They took turns. …the

body of the rickshaw-puller stopped wriggling and fighting back,

but they kept stamping on him, until he had been stamped back into

the earth. (102)

As a result of this victory, the politicians enjoy unlimited powers and wealth, but the fate of the voiceless remains unchanged. Kiran Desai also ridicules the corrupt political system in India, “Not one truthful politician in the whole country. Yes, our, parliament is made of thieves, each one answerable to the Prime Minister, who is the biggest thief of them all” (20).

The rotten democracy with its corrupt politicians has led to an increased rate of corruption in all fields. As Singh comments, “Politics is the last refuge for scoundrels. Government doctors, entrepreneurs, tax payers, industrialists all have to befriend a minister and his sidekick to fulfil their vested interests” (102). In the village of Laxmangarh, the landlords align themselves with the politicians for their

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own selfish motives. They bribe the politicians to exploit the limited resources for their own benefit and also to evade tax. Balram narrates the negotiation between

Stork’s family and the great socialist:

A million and a half is a lot, sir. We’ll be happy to come to a

settlement with you.” “Bullshit. You’ve got a good scam going

here—taking coal for free from the government mines. You’ve got

it going because I let it happen. You were just some little village

landlord when I found you—I brought you here—I made you what

you are today: and by God, you cross me, and you’ll go back there

into that village. I said a million and a fucking half, and I mean a

million and. ... (The White Tiger 104-105)

On the other side, doctors bribe the politicians to get job in public sector as it is easy to make more money. In return, the doctor can keep the rest of his government salary and work in some private hospital for the rest of the week:

“Forget the village. Because according to this ledger you’ve been there. You’ve treated my wounded leg. You’ve healed that girl’s jaundice” (50). Besides rich landlords and doctors, the school teacher also employs corrupt ways to loot money.

The school teacher has stolen the money allotted for the supply of free food and has sold the free uniforms sent by the government to school as he had not been paid his salary for so long. The corrupt and defunct health services and education system darkens the lives of the under privileged.

The rotten democracy, corrupt politicians and greedy rich men play a significant role in the wide spread corruption throughout the country. The limited resources of the country are misused and misgoverned in the name of globalization by the rulers and administrators for their own benefits. The allocated funds are not

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properly utilized for the welfare of the people. Developing countries generally depend on the indirect taxes which is the major source of revenue. This income is used for development programs and welfare of the people. When the rich and elite men evade taxes by bribing the politicians, the revenue of the nation decreases. As a result, the developmental programs and welfare schemes are not carried out properly, and the lives of the under privileged remain unchanged. As Roy remarks:

… every strategy for real social change, land reform, education,

public health, the equitable distribution of natural resources, the

implementation of positive discrimination-has been cleverly,

cunningly and consistently scuttled and rendered ineffectual by

those castes and that class of people who have a stranglehold on the

political process. And now corporate globalization is being

relentlessly and arbitrarily imposed on an essentially feudal society

tearing through its complex, tiered social fabric, ripping it apart

culturally and economically. (290)

Hence, it is evident that a small group prospers at the expense of the silent majority.

Balram claims that he was corrupted “from a sweet, innocent village fool into a citified fellow full of debauchery, depravity, and wickedness” (The White

Tiger 197). Having been a witness to all the corrupt practices of the rich, he learns and practises the art of making money through mean ways such as siphoning petrol and selling, giving inflated bills and turning his master’s car into a freelance taxi.

Though he is ashamed of his misdeeds, Balram’s words express his rage instead of guilt:

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The strangest thing was that each time I looked at the cash I had

made by cheating him, instead of guilt, what did I feel? Rage.

The more I stole from him, the more I realized how much he had

stolen from me.

To go back to the analogy I used when describing Indian

politics to you earlier, I was growing a belly at last. (230)

Balram’s experience with India of darkness and India of light makes him understand the two kinds of people those who eat and those who are eaten up. He decides to become an eater for he wants “to know, just for a day, just for an hour, just for a minute, what it means not to be a servant” (321). He decides to break out of the rooster coop in which he is caged like a chicken to quench his thirst for freedom. The mean and ironic behaviour of the rich, corrupt society, social injustices meted out to the under privileged, the abuses that he has undergone as a child and his bitter experiences as a servant drive him crazy for vengeance. As

Garbarino remarks, “the consequences of violating the child’s basic human right to live free of abuse are often dreadful, for the child as well as the larger community.

The development of conduct disorder in childhood puts children on the fast track for becoming seriously violent delinquents, and eventually adult criminals” (47).

His vengeance and his ambition result in the theft and murder of Mr. Ashok. A white tiger can no longer stay in a cage, so he decides to break out of the rooster coop of misery at the expense of his family.

The Murder Weekly, which Balram refers to, has a significant role in shaping his plan of murdering Ashok. This magazine is popular among all servants of the city. The servants may be of any kinds. They may be cooks, children’s

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maids, gardener or drivers. Each and every one of them secretly fantasizes to murder their masters. Balram claims,

Of course, they’d like to. Of course, a billion servants are secretly

fantasizing about strangling their bosses—and that’s why the

government of India publishes this magazine and sells it on the

streets for just four and a half rupees so that even the poor can buy it

(125).

Finally, he murders his master and loots his red bag full of money. Adiga vividly describes Balram’s justification for murdering his master and stealing Rs. 700,

000:

Go on, just look at the red bag, Balram—that’s not stealing, is it?

I shook my head.

And even if you were to steal it, Balram,

it wouldn’t be stealing. How so? I

looked at the creature in the mirror.

See—Mr. Ashok is giving money to all

these politicians in Delhi so that they

will excuse him from the tax he has to

pay. And who owns that tax, in the end?

Who but the ordinary people of this

country—you! (The White Tiger 244)

Since the socio-economic disadvantages encountered by him curbs his freedom to achieve good education and a decent, well-paid job that contribute to his well- being, he murders his master to accomplish his goal to live like a human. He admits that what he did was wrong and the crime which he committed has

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darkened his soul. He remarks that “All the skin-whitening creams sold in the markets of India won’t clean my hands again” (318). Yet he explains that he committed this dreadful crime not for glory, but for “the chance to be a man” and for that, he claims, “one murder was enough” (318). He begins a new life with the amount looted from his master. Though he justifies his heinous crime, he could not escape from the agony for he claims, “I am not a politician or a parliamentarian.

Not one of those extraordinary men who can kill and move on, as if nothing had happened. It took me four weeks in Bangalore to calm my nerves” (295).

He breaks out of his fate as a servant and becomes Ashok Sharma, a successful business entrepreneur in Bangalore. Although he has practised all the mean and corrupt ways of the politicians and rich men to live like a human, he proves to be different from them:

Once I was a driver to a master, but now I am a master of drivers. I

don’t treat them like servants—I don’t slap, or bully, or mock

anyone. I don’t insult any of them by calling them my “family,”

either. They’re my employees, I’m their boss, that’s all. I make

them sign a contract and I sign it too, and both of us must honor that

contract. That’s all. …When the work is done I kick them out of the

office: no chitchat, no cups of coffee. A White Tiger keeps no

friends. It’s too dangerous. (The White Tiger 302)

Balram is different from Ashok as he never manipulates or deceives his servants for his selfish motives. He treats them as his employees and not his servants or slaves. Once his well-being is achieved, he ponders over the general goal which is not connected with his own well-being, but something that promotes or elevates people from poverty. Unlike the rich who perpetuate poverty through various ways

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for their own benefits, he has plans to start ‘an English language school’ for poor children in Bangalore. It is a school:

… where you won’t be allowed to corrupt anyone’s head with

prayers and stories about God or Gandhi—nothing but the facts of

life for these kids. A school full of White Tigers, unleashed on

Bangalore! We’d have this city at our knees, I tell you (319-320).

Thus Adiga juxtaposes two Indias, ‘India of light’ and ‘India of darkness’ to unfold the dangerous consequences of rich-poor divide in the age of globalization.

Through Balram, Adiga recounts the traumatic experiences of the poor in India.

The novel discloses the fact that the widening gap between the rich and the poor would lead to unimaginable disasters if not addressed properly.

Q and A is yet another heart wrenching story of the under belly who even fights for his survival in a society which undergoes rapid economic growth:

More than a billion people live on less than a dollar a day. News

like that could ruin your whole latte, but most of us are adept at

ignoring such conditions or pretending they’re inevitable. … Vikas

Swarup provides a strange mixture of sweet and sour in this

erratically comic novel. Q & A is about a poor waiter from Dharavi,

India -- “not a place for the squeamish” -- who’s won a billion

rupees on a game show.” (Washington Post July 31, 2005)

The novel records a series of injustices meted out to the deprived community which perpetuate and accelerate the gap between the rich and the poor in globalized India. It discloses how the counter act of the under privileged is thwarted by the elite class in the globalized era. The novel is written in a non- chronological episodic structure which recounts the impoverished lives of the

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under privileged and their struggles to break out of the poverty circle. Like

Aravind Adiga, Vikas Swarup in his novel Q and A throws light on the darker side of India. As A.J. Sebastian in “Voicing Slum-Subaltern in Slumdog

Millionaire” remarks, “Swarup has been very vibrant in his social criticism like

Aravind Adiga in The White Tiger. Social inequality and injustice keep accelerating the poor-rich divide in society, leading to escalation of violence, crime and evils of all magnitudes” (904). The booming economic transformation has built a social wall between the rich and the poor, thereby intensifying the miseries of the people living in poverty-stricken society.

Vikas Swarup, through the story of Ram Mohammad Thomas, portrays the India of darkness in which the poor are suppressed, enslaved and exploited by the elite class for their own benefits. He unfolds the issues pertaining to abject poverty, various forms of social injustices meted out to the underclass and the violence against the victims of economic disparity. It deals with abuses such as child abuse, sexual and physical harassment, social evils such as child labour, prostitution and communal riots.

Q and A is based on an Indian version of the American TV reality quiz show “W3B” (Who Will Win a Billion). None can deny the obsession created by

Kaun Banega Crorepati hosted by Amitabh Bhachan in the recent past which is an Indian version of the American reality game show. The previous chapter has elaborately discussed the dominance of the western global capitalist culture over the rest of the world. Hiding behind the mask of globalization, the United States spreads its cultural values and beliefs across the globe. W3B is one such example which stands for the widespread domination of the American monoculture over the rest of the cultures of the world. In short, it indicates the acceptance of so-

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called superior western culture and the destruction of the small diverse cultures in the name of globalization.

The novel discloses the traumatic experiences of Ram Mohammad Thomas, the protagonist of the story who has participated in the Indian version of an

American reality game show “who will win a billion” (W3B) and wins a billion rupees. Although ram lacks the formal education, he could answer all the questions as a result of his past life experiences. As Linda Herrick remarks, “This young man may be barely educated, impoverished, even a killer, but he has lived a tumultuous life and his quick wits have absorbed an enormous amount of information” (New

Zealand Herald Sept 03, 2005). Since the producer does not have enough money to pay Ram, he accuses him of having cheated and gets him arrested.

The opening lines of the novel sums up the injustice meted out to a subaltern:

I have been arrested. For winning a quiz show.

They came for me late last night, when even the stray dogs had

gone off to sleep. They broke open my door, handcuffed me and

marched me off to the waiting jeep with a flashing red light.

There was no hue and cry. Not one resident stirred from his

hut. Only the old owl on the tamarind tree hooted at my arrest.

(Q and A 11)

It reveals that the police often falsely accuses and arrests the poor for they have no one to protect them. The rich often conspires with the corrupt police to keep the poor in their subaltern state. According to the W3B script, the winner is not credited for at least eight months. The producer would use this time gap to recoup the money through add revenues. By answering all twelve questions, Ram has shattered the plan of the producer. So in order to save

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himself from bankruptcy, the producer bribes the commissioner to prove that

Ram cheated on the show.

The novel unfolds the widespread assumption of the elite that knowledge is something which is exclusively attributed to them and the poor have no access to it. Further it is believed that only well-educated elite can have access to English, the master’s language and a slum dweller lacks the ability to speak English. Therefore, based on this false assumption, the organisers of the show accuse him that there is no way he could have won the top prize as he has no formal education and has never read a newspaper. This preconceived notion about the knowledge and the capabilities of the slum dwellers is revealed when Ram reports:

There are those who will say that I brought this upon myself.

By dabbling in that quiz show. They will wag a finger at me

and remind me of what the elders in Dharavi say about never

crossing the dividing line that separates the rich from the poor.

After all, what business did a penniless waiter have to be

participating in a brain quiz? The brain is not an organ we are

authorized to use. We are supposed to use only our hands and

legs. (Q and A 12)

In essence, the rich men believe that Ram Mohammad Thomas is only good for serving chicken fry and whisky in a restaurant and live “life like a dog, and die like an insect” (12).

As the organiser of the show states, “the biggest tease in the world is not sex. It’s money. And the greater the sum of money, the bigger the tease” (16). The power of money is superior to all in the world. Accepting ten per cent as bribe, the

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commissioner instructs Godbole to use any means to extract a confession statement from him that he has cheated and therefore withdraw his claim to the top prize. Since Godbole’s promotion depends on this, he employs a variety of methods to torment Ram to make him sign the confession statement. Ram narrates the series of tortures which he undergoes as:

Godbole has been punishing me for more than an hour but he has

still not finished. Every half- hour or so he comes up with a new

instrument of torture. First he inserted a wooden rod into my anus.

With chilli powder smeared on it. It felt as if a molten, searing spike

was being driven through my backside. I choked and gagged with

pain. Then he thrust my head into a bucket of water and held it there

till my lungs were about to explode. I spluttered and gasped and

quite nearly drowned.

Now he is holding a live wire in his hand like a sparkler on Diwali.

He dances around me like a drunken boxer and suddenly lunges at

me. He jabs at the sole of my left foot with the naked wire. The

electric current shoots up my body like hot poison. I recoil and

convulse violently. (Q and A 23-24)

The series of tortures, which he endures under the police custody, reveal what will happen to one who crosses the dividing line that separates the rich from the poor.

He could do nothing, but to suffer the agony for he has neither power nor money to defend himself from the corrupt police and the greedy rich men. This unequal distribution of social and economic power is exhibited when he narrates:

We were always told never to pick a quarrel with the police. Street

boys like me come at the bottom of the food chain. Above us are the

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petty criminals, like pickpockets. Above them come the

extortionists and loan sharks. Above them come the dons. Above

them come the big business houses. But above all of them are the

police. They have the instruments of naked power. And there is

nobody to check them. Who can police the police? So I will sign the

statement. After ten, maybe fifteen more slaps. After five, perhaps

six, more shocks. (25)

Ram’s torment ends when Smita Shah, a young lawyer comes to his rescue.

He recounts the rest of his story as a confession to the lawyer. His heart-wrenching story is non-chronologically narrated in episodes which give the answer to the question how a poor illiterate person has won the famous quiz show that is meant for literates. India which undergoes a rapid transformation in the age of globalization, still could not rescue a majority of its population from the smashing hands of abject poverty. It is this India of darkness which is exposed when ram narrates his story to Smita Shah.

Ram’s mother has abandoned him in the clothes bin of St Mary’s Church which runs an orphanage and an adoption agency. Even his adopted parents have deserted him. He spent the formative years of his childhood under the care and affection of father Timothy. He taught him how to speak and read English. It is after the death of Father Timothy, he is sent to the juvenile home which marks the beginning of his traumatic life. The various stages of Ram’s life reflect the brutal injustices of the society. It discloses how the under privileged is left to suffer in darkness and how the elite class exploits and enslaves the vulnerable for their own benefits. Various forms of violence against the victims of the poor-rich divide are revealed through Ram’s narration.

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The story focuses on the social evils such as child abuse, child trafficking, sexual harassment, prostitution and communal riots which are even more prevalent in the globalized India due to the ever increasing gap between the rich and the poor. It explores the negative impacts of abject poverty on the lives of poor children. They become vulnerable to all kinds of abuses which adversely affect their social, physical and emotional well-being. “A 2007 study by the Ministry of

Women and Child Development (MWCD) found that 53.22 per cent of India’s children have experienced some form of sexual abuse” (Hindu July 14, 2010).

Children under the age of eighteen are bruised and sexually harassed by the elders.

Female children are often subjected to sexual harassment either by their family members or by strangers. Ram narrates the heart-wrenching story of Gudiya who is harassed by her father Shantaram. Being a drunkard, he often batters and throws “a peppershaker, a glass, a plate. At his wife, his daughter, her cat.” One night he

“throws a piping-hot cup of tea at his wife. Gudiya tries to shield her mother and the burning liquid falls on her” (Q and A 77). In addition to all the sufferings and tortures inflicted by him, Shantaram exceeds all his limits and tries to molest his daughter Gudiya:

‘You are more beautiful than all the stars and planets. You are my

moon. You are my Gudiya, my doll. Yesterday you evaded me, but

today I will not let you leave me,’ he says.

‘Don’t worry, Gudiya, there is nothing wrong in my love for you.

Even Shahjahan, the great emperor, fell in love with his own

daughter, Jahan Ara. And who can deny a man the privilege of

gathering fruit from a tree he himself has planted.’ (83)

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It is not only young girls, but also young boys are prone to sexual abuses.

“The MWCD report, which surveyed 12,447 children, found the majority of victims (52.94 per cent) was boys” (Hindu July 14, 2010). The perverts sexually exploit young boys to quench their lust in public toilets, municipal gardens, in dark halls and juvenile homes. Ram describes three different occasions where he becomes the witness of the sex exploitation of the children. He narrates his first sight of sexual abuse in St. Mary’s church, where Father John Little attempts to exploit Ian the son of Father Timothy. This pervert act results in the murder of both the clergymen in the hands of each other leaving behind Ian and Ram in the world of misery. He witnesses similar incident in the juvenile home where everyone is forced to fulfil the homosexual desire of Gupta the deputy warden. When Salim’s turn comes, he could do nothing but to comply. Fortunately, the piercing scream let out by Ram rescued Salim from the filthy desire of the deputy warden. He recounts a similar incident encountered by Salim in the theatre:

I see that the bearded man’s left hand has moved on. It is now

placed in Salim’s lap and rests there gently. Salim is so engrossed in

the death scene he does not register it. The old man is emboldened.

He rubs his palm against Salim’s jeans. As Armaan takes his last

few breaths, the man increases his pressure on Salim’s crotch, till he

is almost gripping it. Salim erupts. ‘You bloody motherfucker! You

filthy pervert! I am going to kill you!’ he screams and slaps the

man’s face. Hard. (Q and A 43)

Hence, it is evident that poor children are more likely to be sexually exploited by their custodians in places such as orphanages, religious institutions, and juvenile homes.

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In the juvenile home no one attempts to raise a finger against the deputy warden as they are equally corrupt and dishonest in their own ways. Ram reports:

It has a classroom with ramshackle desks and a cracked blackboard.

And teachers who haven’t taught in years. It has a sports ground

where grass grows as tall as wickets and. … There is a sports

instructor in crisp white cotton bush shirt and knife- edge pressed

trousers. He keeps cricket and badminton equipment in a nice glass

case, but never allows us to touch it. …the surly head cook sells the

meat and chicken that is meant for us to restaurants, and feeds us a

daily diet of vegetable stew and thick, blackened chapattis. He picks

his nose constantly and scolds anyone who asks for more. (Q and A

91)

The novel throws light on the untold miseries of the children in orphanages and juvenile homes. They undergo inhuman treatment and brutal punishments for no real fault of themselves. While recollecting his life in the juvenile home, Ram points out the greater contribution of the corrupt police in retaining the subordinate position of the poor children.

I came to fear the police. They were the ones responsible for

sending most of the boys to the Juvenile Home. Boys caught

stealing bread from a roadside stall or hawking black-market tickets

at a theatre, and unable to bribe the constable. Or, most often,

framed simply because the inspector didn’t like their faces. (93)

Child trafficking, one of the social evils, which is more prevalent in the age of globalization is elaborately discussed in the novel. By throwing a small amount of money to the warden and by producing false records, Sethji and his men adopt

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children from the juvenile homes. He scrutinises the children and select the suitable one for the profession of begging. The children are told that Sethji is running a school for children where he trains them with useful skills and groom them for success. It is with this great hope, Salim and Ram move to Maman’s house. Maman arranges a music teacher to teach them several devotional songs and the bhajans of Surdas. Once they excel the art of singing, maman and his group decides to blind them on the following night. Fortunately they escape from maman’s house, but a majority of them still remain to suffer the rest of their lives.

Economic deprivation play a crucial role in making the poor children more vulnerable to trafficking. As P. M. Nair and Sankar Sen In Trafficking in Women and Children in India assert, “Almost all the reviewed studies and reports stated that a high percentage of trafficked people belonged to low income groups. The greater the degree of impoverishment, the higher the risk of falling preys to trafficking” (7). Ram reports the pathetic condition of the poor children in the hands of evil powers:

One by one the children start trickling in, and instantly challenge

our definition of hell. I see boys with no eyes, feeling their way

forward with the help of sticks; boys with bent and misshapen

limbs, dragging themselves to the table; boys with two gnarled

stumps for legs, walking on crutches; boys with grotesque mouths

and twisted fingers, eating bread held between their elbows. Some

of them are like clowns. Except they make us cry instead of laugh.

(Q and A 108)

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Hence, it is evident that poor children are not only deprived of their basic needs, but also tormented, brutally punished and mutilated to extract maximum benefits from them.

Prostitution is yet another social evil depicted in the novel. It is prevalent in the India of darkness. The plight of the prostitutes is portrayed through the character Nita. She is forced to take up prostitution as her profession immediately after her puberty, thereby becoming a victim to the customary practice of her community. Nita explicates how her stunning beauty turns into fatal curse:

my beauty became a bane. My mother had the right to decide which

of her two daughters would marry and which one would become a

prostitute. She chose me to become the Bedni. Perhaps if I had been

plain looking, like my sister, I would not have been sent here. I

might have gone to school, married and had children. Now I am in

this brothel. This is the price I have to pay for beauty. So don’t call

me beautiful. (305)

Prostitutes are not only deprived of their human status, but also treated as pleasure giving objects. She very well knows that there is no dignity in flesh trade.

This is revealed through Nita’s words,

She chuckles. You have come to a brothel, Sahib, not a marriage

bureau. Prostitutes don’t have surnames. Like pet cats and dogs, we

are called only by our first names. Nita, Rita, Asha, Champa,

Meena, Leena, take your pick. She says this in a matter-of-fact tone,

without any rancour or regret (Q and A 299).

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She sounds more professional by abandoning her feelings and emotions, and by renting her body like a machine to gratify the sexual desires of strange men. She is not ashamed or feeling embarrassed to be a sex worker and claims:

Look, this is a profession for me, not a hobby. It gives me enough to

feed me and my entire family. If I was not doing this, my family

would have died from hunger long ago. We prostitutes know about

AIDS. But it is better to die of disease tomorrow than hunger today,

don’t you agree? (300)

Often Women and young girls from economically deprived communities are forced to become sex workers so as to feed them and their family. As Nair and Sen point out, “Usually women and girls belonging to the most disadvantaged sections of society are found in prostitution. Nearly 50 per cent are from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and 12 to 27 per cent from other backward classes” (14). In her Bedia tribal community, the birth of a girl is considered an asset and an occasion for celebration as she is going to earn and feed the family, whereas the birth of a boy indicates liability as he is good for nothing except to drink alcohol and play cards. Although she takes pride in supporting her family, it indicates the brutal hands of poverty which makes women and children engage in flesh trade for mere survival.

Sexual violence against women is yet another social issue discussed in the novel. Being a prostitute, Nita could do nothing, but to undergo the violence committed against her. She is harassed and physically injured by Prem Kumar the host of W3B. She reports:

He tied me up and did all this to me. What you see on my face is

nothing. See what he did to my body.’

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Nita turns on her side and I see deep red welt marks on her slim

back, as if someone has used a horsewhip. Then she pushes up her

blouse and I almost die. There are cigarette burn marks all over her

chest, looking like ugly pockmarks on the smooth brown flesh of

her breasts. I have seen this before. (Q and A 328-329)

Often the real cause for the unrest or turbulent situation of a country is the growing divide between the rich and the poor. Adiga explicates that these heightened economic tension may take up different forms such as communal riots, ethnic or religious protests, but the underlying truth is often economic disparity

(Independent Nov 10, 2008). The novel discloses the traumatic experiences of

Muslims who are the victims of communal riots. These riots evolve out of the fanatic Hindu’s hatred for Muslims. They will never miss out an opportunity to destroy their lives and their property. Roy elucidates that “religious hatred and falsified history including unfactual or wildly exaggerated accounts of the rape and pillaging of Hindu women and Hindu temples by Muslim rulers in the pre-colonial period” has been indoctrinated (276). Salim is the victim of this barbaric act. He has come from a poor family in a village in Bihar. Although the village is predominantly Hindu, there lived a couple of poor Muslim families. Someone breaks into the sanctum sanctorum of the Hanuman temple and damages the idol of the monkey god. The priest suspects the Muslims as perpetrators. This spark of doubt is more than enough to burn the Muslim families alive. In front of Salim,

“they set fire to the hut. He heard his mother’s shrieks, his father’s cries, his brother’s wails, but the mob would not allow anyone to escape. His whole family was burnt to death in the inferno” (Q and A 95). Fortunately Salim manages to escape from the rampant Hindus by jumping into the train which takes him to

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Delhi “with no food, no clothes and not one familiar face. He lay on the platform for two days, cold and hungry, delirious with fever and grief, before a constable discovered him and sent him to the Juvenile Home” (95). From then on he begins to hate and fear all Hindus.

Salim’s identity as a Muslim poses a constant threat to his survival. While travelling on a bus, he gets caught up in the midst of a communal riot. The ruffians announce that they are out to take revenge for one of the Hindu houses being burnt by a Muslim mob. The Hindu passengers are allowed to step out after scrutinising each one of them. When his turn comes, Salim frightens and remains tongue-tied.

The fervent mob decides to burnt him alive and cry out:

No. Killing him would be too easy. We will burn this motherfucker

alive in this bus. Then he and his community will learn never to

touch our homes, said the leader, and laughed. Another man opened

a can of petrol and started sprinkling it inside the bus. I used to love

the smell of petrol, but since that day I associate it with burning

flesh. (229)

An armed man named Ahmed Khan rescues Salim from the ruffians and hence, he manages to escape alive. Roy sarcastically remarks on the communal riots between

Hindus and Muslims as, “let’s buy expensive guns and explosives to kill each other with. Let the British arms dealers and the American weapons manufacturers grow fat on our spilled blood” (278-279). The novel realistically documents the communal violence against Muslims. It unfolds the innate hatred of Hindus against

Muslims which pose a great threat to their lives as well as indicates the monetary benefits attained by the global powers through their arms and amenities by fuelling religious hatred and ethnic conflicts across the world. In other words, the

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developing nations are further pushed to the periphery as the neo-colonial powers or the global powers suck in the capital that they have invested in the developing nations in the name of economic growth.

The novel revolves around the socio-economic disadvantages of poverty which indicate the deprivation of basic requirements such as food, safe drinking water, clothes and shelter: “Sewage-filled streets, vermin-infested hovels, hordes of dying beggars -- they’re all here, but what interests the author most is the absurdity of such poverty, where a million people are “packed in a two-hundred- hectare triangle of swampy urban wasteland”” (Washington Post July 31, 2005). In a poverty-stricken society people live in substandard houses with no sanitation and protection. This debased life of the slum dwellers is revealed through Ram’s narration:

Dharavi is not a place for the squeamish. Delhi’s Juvenile Home

diminished us, but Dharavi’s grim landscape of urban squalor

deadens and debases us. Its open drains teem with mosquitoes. Its

stinking, excrement-lined communal latrines are full of rats, which

make you think less about the smell and more about protecting your

backside. Mounds of filthy garbage lie on every corner, from which

rag-pickers still manage to find something useful. And at times you

have to suck in your breath to squeeze through its narrow,

claustrophobic alleys. But for the starving residents of Dharavi, this

is home. (Q and A 157)

In essence, they live like animals and die like insects. The under privileged are neglected and ignored by the elite class of the society. Ram comments on this indifferent attitude of the society towards their existence:

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I am the only one not smiling. Granted, we servants are invisible

people, not to be heard during parties and family occasions, but to

be left out even from our country’s head count is a bit too galling.

And I do wish the Taylors would stop their snobbish references to

‘bloody Indians. (Q and A 125)

It does not just refer to the negligent attitude of the elite class. It unravels the underlying truth about the process of globalization that the rapid economic growth, which promises overall development and assures the elevation of the underclass from poverty, has merely benefited the rich leaving behind the poor in abject poverty (Stiglitz 5). It is this slackness of the process of globalization is portrayed through the negligent attitude of the rich.

Money has become the biggest tease in the globalized world as the power and authority provided by economic well-being play a significant role in generating socio-cultural and political dominance. It is the lack of money which is responsible for the sufferings and debased life of the under privileged. Ram comments on the power of money as “It taught me a very valuable lesson. That dreams have power only over your own mind. But with money you can have power over the minds of others” (180). The neo-colonial powers or the leading global capitalist nations which manipulate and mould the minds of people across the world, accentuates the predominant power of money. He describes the kind of respect he has received when the news about his winning seeps out, “the grouchy manager smiled indulgently at me and finally gave me my back wages. He didn’t call me a worthless bastard that night. Or a rabid dog” (13).

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In another occasion, Ram elucidates the power of English, the language of the elite which guards him from the brutal hands of the officials in the juvenile home. He exclaims:

Without even trying, I became their leader. Not because I was

bigger, not because I was more aggressive, but because I spoke

English. I was the orphan boy who could speak and read the magic

language, and its effect on the officials was electric. The head

warden would ask how I was doing from time to time. The sports

teacher allowed me to set up a makeshift cricket pitch in the front

courtyard, where we got in four or five decent games before Munna

broke the warden’s window and all sports were banned. The stern

cook occasionally obliged me with a second helping. Gupta never

called me to his room at night. (93-94)

Ram realistically depicts the widespread pre-conceived notion of the elite class about the underclass and their way of living. He claims that if a rich man searches for a slum dweller like him, he would probably look for him:

among the dozens of street children stretched out on the smooth

concrete floor in various stages of rest and slumber. You might even

imagine me as an adolescent hawker, peddling plastic bottles

containing tap water from the station’s toilet as pure Himalayan

aqua mineral. You could visualize me as one of the sweepers in

dirty shirt and torn pants shuffling across the platform, with a long

swishing broom transferring dirt from the pavement on to the track.

Or you could look for me among the regiments of red-uniformed

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porters bustling about with heavy loads on their heads. (Q and A

173-174)

For the first time in his life, he breaks the pre-conceived notion of the rich by crossing the dividing line between the rich and the poor. After collecting his salary of Rs. 50000 from the Taylore, he is travelling to Mumbai in the sleeper class with a proper reservation and with million dreams about his future. Overwhelming with happiness, he claims:

I am no longer an outsider peeping into their exotic world, but an

insider who can relate to them as an equal, talk to them in their own

language. Like them, I too can now watch middle- class soaps, play

Nintendo and visit Kids Mart at weekends. (178)

However, his happiness does not last long, since all his earnings are robbed by a dacoit at gun point. He could do nothing except to “stare dumbly and watch fifty million dreams being snatched away from me, dumped into a brown gunny sack where they jostle with middle-class bangles and wallets” (186). He is greatly disappointed as all his efforts to cross the dividing wall erected between the rich and the poor and his dreams to taste the exotic life of the rich are crushed down.

He undergoes great torments when he once again attempts to cross the dividing line between the rich and the poor by participating in the quiz show, where he wins a billion rupees by answering all questions of the intellect. Although he is being tortured by the corrupt police, who are the supporting system of the rich, he succeeds in getting a billion rupees with the help of his lawyer Smita Shah.

While talking about the ever widening gap between the haves and have- nots, Adiga remarks:

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… the heightened tension within the country that’s caused by the

growing gap between the rich and the poor. The flare-ups can often

take the form of ethnic or regional protests, but the underlying

grievances are often economic.... Fixing the economic disparities

has to be part of any attempt to address India’s growing unrest.

(Independent Nov 10, 2008)

Thus, the novels The White Tiger and Q and A unfold the negative consequences of economic globalization by depicting the neglected and ignored lives of the underclass. The stories realistically portray the uneven distribution of wealth and justice in the Indian society by articulating the voice of the victims of the life- threatening consequences of economic globalization.

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CHAPTER-4

GLOBAL BIO-INVASIONS: NARRATIVISING NATIVE VOICES

The enclosure of each common displaces and disenfranchises

people which create scarcity for the many, while generating

“growth” for the few. Displacement becomes disposability, and in

its most severe form, the induced scarcity becomes a denial of the

very right to live.

--Vandana Shiva

This chapter unfolds the adverse effects of corporate globalization on the environment in the developing countries. Globalization focuses mainly on trade and economy rather than on the environment. The intense production and consumption of goods and services in a globalized world contributes to various forms of ecological destruction and environmental degradation such as deforestation, climate change, global warming, ozone depletion and pollution. An attempt will be made to explore how the trade liberalization and developmental programs such as construction of dams and industries pose a great threat to the natural environment, human and nonhuman populations in the developing nations.

Contemporary literary writings observe and replicate the environmental crisis associated with the process of globalization so as to create awareness of the invaluable treasure of nature among global community. The recent Indian writings record the adverse effects of globalization on the environment of developing nations, India in particular. The select writings such as Indra Sinha’s Animal’s

People, Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh Air and C.K. Janu’s Mother Forest:

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The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu elucidate the detrimental effects of globalization on the environment in less developed countries particularly India. The works disclose the adverse effects of free market economy, foreign investment dependence and developmental projects which are the root cause of ecological destruction and environmental degradation.

Trade liberalization has created a favourable condition for the transnational organizations to establish their corporate and harmful industries in the developing nations. The hazardous wastes and pollutants from these harmful industries contaminate the air, water bodies and land resources which in turn affect the human and nonhuman populations of the developing nations. The developmental projects and urbanization contribute to the destruction of agricultural lands and forests. This results in the displacement of tribes who are dispersed from their livelihood options. Ecological scarcity or environmental degradation is one of the most dangerous problems faced by the humankind in the 21st century. The reason for this rapid disappearance and destruction of the ecological wealth is the rapid economic activity which involves intense extraction, exploitation and conversion of natural resources. As Shiva elucidates:

The globalized free market economy, which dominates our lives, is

based on rules that extinguish and deny access to life and

livelihoods by generating scarcity. This scarcity is created by the

destruction of nature’s economy and the sustenance economy,

where life is nourished, maintained, and renewed. (13-14)

It becomes essential to know about ecosystem and its services which nurtures human life for the better understanding of the impact of globalization on the environment. Oxford English Dictionary: Indian Edition defines the term

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‘ecosystem’ as “A biological community of interacting animals and plants and their environment” (235). In other words, ecosystem refers to the A biotic (non- living) environment and the biotic (living) communities such as humans, plants and animals, and the interactions between them. In Capitalizing on Nature, Edward

B. Barbier, An environmental and resource economist puts it as, “a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their non-living environment, interacting as a system. Ecosystems encompass all organisms within a prescribed area, including humans.”

The wide-ranging services of ecosystem contribute to the welfare of the human beings. These services include the abundant flow of energy, raw materials, water supply and purification, nutrient cycling, climate maintenance, soil erosion control, coastal protection, flood control and pollution reduction. While talking about the value of ecosystem, Gretchen C. Daily, Tore Soderqvist, Sara Aniyar et al point out:

… the world’s ecosystems are capital assets. If properly managed,

they yield a flow of vital services, including the production of goods

(such as seafood and timber), life support processes (such as

pollination and water purification), and life-fulfilling conditions

(such as beauty and serenity). (395)

Barbier refers to the services of ecosystem as, “nature makes a contribution to human welfare, either entirely on its own or through joint use with other human inputs, then we can designate this contribution as an “ecosystem service.”” In essence, the overall human welfare depends on the diverse ecological benefits provided by the ecosystem. Another notable point is that nature provides these benefits and services to humans for free. He comments that since these natural

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assets have been provided freely to humans, they take advantage of the natural resources available to them.

Globalization and its rapid economic transformations have created wealth through the unlimited extraction and over exploitation of the natural resources. As

Barbier remarks, “Economic development cannot proceed without exploiting natural resources for raw material and energy inputs or using the environment to assimilate pollution and other waste by-products.” The over exploitation of the resources of the ecosystem has led to serious environmental crisis such as global ecological scarcity and environmental pollution which pose a great threat to the lives of the human and non-human populations. He refers to ecological scarcity as, “the loss of the myriad contributions that ecosystems make to human well- being - or ecosystem services for short - as these natural systems are exploited for human use and economic activity.” Industrialization, urbanization, increasing human population and the growing demand for land, food, fresh water and raw materials are the reasons for the rapid disappearance and destruction of many ecosystem services. Joel Kovel, an environmental activist, in his book The Enemy of Nature: The End of Capitalism portrays the global capitalist economic system as the enemy of nature and elucidates the acute effects of globalization on the environment as:

… species were vanishing at a rate that has not occurred in 65

million years. Fish were being taken at twice the rate as in 1970.

Forty percent of agricultural soils had been degraded. Half of the

forests had disappeared. Half of the wetlands had been filled or

drained. One-half of US coastal waters were unfit for fishing or

swimming. (8)

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The environmental impacts of globalization are likely to be more severe in developing nations than in developed nations. Foreign Investment Dependence and the growing demand for new lands are the two major factors that pose a great threat to the ecosystems and human health in developing countries. As the economy of many developing nations depend on the free flow of foreign investment, they engage themselves in creating attractive business conditions for the transnational organizations and foreign investors. Andrew K. Jorgenson, an environmentalist and sociologist comments:

These attractive business conditions include lower domestic

environmental regulations than developed countries. Less developed

countries are less likely than developed countries to ratify

international environmental treaties. With these emergent political-

institutional conditions, many social scientists argue that a large

proportion of foreign investment in less developed countries

finances highly polluting, ecologically inefficient, and labour-

intensive

manufacturing processes and facilities outsourced from developed

countries. (139)

Since polluting industries in developed countries with high environmental standards have to bear higher regulatory costs, they tend to migrate to developing nations with low environmental regulations, thereby increasing pollution in less developed countries. Another reason for shifting multinational firms to developing nations is to obtain maximum profit by reducing production costs. Copeland and

Taylor refer to this dirty act of migrating pollution-intensive transnational firms and industries to developing nations as ‘Pollution Haven Hypothesis’ (PHH) (9).

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This hypothesis also indicates that free trade and market economy favours the developed nations to benefit from pollution free environment, while indirectly forces the developing countries to suffer high environmental threats.

As Bornschier and Chase-Dunn point out that the free flow of foreign investments make a less developed country more vulnerable to different global political-economic conditions and lea to negative consequences for domestic populations within investment-dependent nations (qtd. in Jorgenson 138). The highly polluting multinational manufacturing industries and firms contaminate the air, water bodies and land resources of the developing nations, thereby affecting the environment and the health of human and non-human populations. As

Jorgenson remarks:

… foreign investment dependence contributes to the emission of

carbon dioxide gas and the emission of industrial organic water

pollutants. These two outcomes have serious consequences for the

environment and health of human and nonhuman populations. (138)

The transnational corporations largely invest in the manufacturing industries which produce the polluting goods such as chemicals and pesticides. The hazardous wastes or the toxic pollutants produced by these harmful industries contaminate the air and water in developing countries. The human and non-human populations of the developing nations are more likely to be exposed to these hazardous or toxic air and water pollutants than people from developed nations. The higher the exposure, the higher will be the adverse effects. Carbon Monoxide, carbon dioxide, O3 and sulphur dioxide are some of the hazardous air pollutants produced by manufacturing industries, motor vehicles and fossil fuel use. While examining the dreadful effects of air pollution, Hill remarks that exposure to these hazardous

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pollutants result in causing irritation to eyes, nose, throat, asthma or bronchitis, lung cancer and heart problems.

Water pollution is yet another life-threatening environmental issue faced by the people in developing nations. The hazardous organic wastes from the manufacturing firms and industries controlled by foreign investments pollute the water bodies of the developing nations. For instance, Adiga in The White Tiger refers to the contamination of the holy river through the protagonist: “No!—Mr.

Jiabao, I urge you not to dip in the Ganga, unless you want your mouth full of feces, straw, soggy parts of human bodies, buffalo carrion, and seven different kinds of industrial acids” (8). The pollution-intensive industries include chemical, pesticide, steel, pulp and paper manufacturing, food processing and textile production. Jorgenson remarks, “Many of these organic materials are highly toxic and capable of remaining in the environment for long periods of time. This is most common with organic chemicals that are resistant to biodegradation and decomposition” (139). He further sums up the human health consequences as:

Exposure to organic pollutants in water is associated with various

types of cancer, birth defects, and spontaneous abortion. When

these toxins accumulate in the fatty tissues of women, they can be

transferred to infants and young children through breast feeding,

which leads to acute health problems for the latter, sometimes

resulting in death. (140)

These hazardous water pollutants not only cause adverse effects on human health, but also create acute illness in aquatic creatures.

The reason for the increasing environmental impacts of transnational organization is the use of less pollution control technologies. Hill observes that the

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carelessness, lack of prevention, unwillingness to invest in good technology are some of the factors that aggravate hazardous industrial pollutions and wastes. As

Jorgenson comments, “power generation techniques and facilities used by transnational corporations and domestic populations in many less-developed countries are considerably less ecoefficient” (139). Architect William McDonough and chemist Michael Braungart also remark, “Pollution is a symbol of design failure” (qtd. in Hill n.p). Hence, it is evident that the desire of the multinational corporations to maximise profit by reducing production costs is the cause of serious human health and environmental consequences in developing nations.

The devastating effects of transnational organizations on the environment in developing nations reached its climax, when the catastrophic explosion occurred in Bhopal India on 3rd December, 1984. The release of more than forty tons of methyl isocyanate from the pesticide manufacturing factory owned by Union

Carbide, an American transnational corporation killed more than 20,000 people and about 5.7 lakh Suffered adverse health issues. Subodh Varma states,

Many who breathed the highly toxic cocktail that night suffered a

horrible death with multiple organ failure. Those who survived have

suffered multiple diseases for 25 years. A report of the Gas Tragedy

Relief Department of the state says that the morbidity rate

(occurrence of ailments) is nearly 20% among gas-affected persons

compared to about 5% among the unaffected population (Times of

India Dec 3, 2009).

In addition to this, more than 40% of women, who were pregnant at that time, had miscarriages. Hill explicates that even after 20-years, thousands and thousands of them remained chronically ill with severe lung and respiratory

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problems, eye damage and neurological disorders. On the day of the deadly explosion, BBC describes the chaotic situation as, “Mothers didn’t know their children had died, children didn’t know their mothers had died and men didn’t know their whole families had died” (BBC Dec 3, 1984). Joel Kovel elucidates that methyl isocyanate, the poisonous gas which killed and mutilated not one but thousands of lives do not exist in nature until the deadly explosion introduced it into the ecosphere (32). Hence, it is obvious that the developing nations are more vulnerable to devastating industrial and environmental crisis than developed nations.

Foreign investment dependence is the root cause of the world’s worst industrial disaster. India like many other developing nations, engages itself in creating an attractive business condition for the foreign investors and the transnational corporations so as to compete with its rivals in the global market.

Indian industrial and foreign exchange policies encourage the foreign investors and transnational organizations to set up their manufacturing industries in India. As the demand for pesticides increased due to green revolution in 1970s, Indian government has encouraged Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), an American transnational corporation to set up a pesticide manufacturing plant, Union Carbide

India Ltd (UCIL) in the city of Bhopal. In “Bhopal Plant Disaster”, M.J. Peterson states, “UCIL expanded into making fertilizers and pesticides in the 1960s as the government encouraged local production to supply farmers with the chemicals needed to raise the new hybrid types of rice, wheat, and cotton” (2).

Until 1978, the union carbide produced its pesticide Sevin without directly using methyl isocyanate (MIC), but later it began to use the deadly intermediate to produce pesticides more cheaply and started to manufacture MIC in Bhopal itself.

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Knowing the hazardous nature of the substance the local authorities urged Union

Carbide to build its plant in an industrial zone out of range of population, but

Carbide refuses by saying that it would be more expensive. Joel Kovel remarks that in developed nations the same pesticide is produced without the use of the toxic volatile substance. For instance, Bayer, the German corporation manufactured the pesticide Sevin without Mic in a safer and more expensive way

(37). Peterson remarks:

By 1982 as construction of the methyl isocyanate unit was moving

to completion, UCIL and Union Carbide both realized that the plant

was not economically viable because of changes in the market.

Local demand for UCIL’s pesticides had dropped significantly after

1977 as Indian farmers shifted to cheaper local products. (4)

As the demand for pesticides decreased, the plant started to cut costs which include less stringent safety and quality control. it used carbon steel valves that corroded when exposed to acids. Kurzman unfolds the various ways by which the

Union Carbide cut its costs:

… a pipe leaked? Don’t replace it, employees said they were told.

Just patch it up. MIC workers needed more training? They could do

with less (including using instruction manuals in English, which

few could read). Promotions were halted, seriously affecting

employee morale and driving some of the most skilled to seek work

elsewhere. (qtd. in Joel Kovel 37)

It is reported that instead of twelve operators, only six were working with MIC.

“The numbers of supervisory personnel also had been halved; while there was no

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maintenance supervisor on the night shift. Thus, indicator readings were checked every two hours rather than hourly, as required” (Joel Kovel 37-38).

The lower safety standards and quality controls posed a great threat to the lives of human and non-human populations of Bhopal. However, Union Carbide brushed aside the constant warnings from US and Indian experts. As a result, in

1981, inhalation accidents began to appear at the plant. In 1982, five workers were hospitalized because of a leak in the MIC storage tank. The workers who protested the safety hazards were ignored and the one who “went on a fifteen-day hunger strike was fired” (Joel Kovel 38). On the night of December 3 1984, a leaking carbon-steel valve allowed the water to slip into the tank 610 where nearly 40 tons of Methyl isocyanate was stored. The four main safety systems of the plant could have stopped the catastrophe if worked properly. While discussing about the safety systems of the Carbide plant, Peterson reports:

… the flare, which would handle larger leaks via flame

neutralization, lacked sufficient capacity to deal with a major leak.

It had been shut down a few weeks earlier for replacement of a

corroded pipe, and all relief pipes in the plant were directly

connected to the gas vent scrubber. The refrigeration system

designed to keep MIC storage tanks cool had been turned off

several months before and the Freon drawn off for use elsewhere in

the plant. The firewater spraying systems designed to deal with

fires, cool down overheated equipment, or provide supplementary

water neutralization of gasses was operational but the spray could

not reach the top of the flare stack. (5)

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In short, as a result of the company’s efforts to cut costs, “Virtually every relevant safety instrument, from shutdown devices, to monitoring tools, to temperature gauges, was either in short supply, or malfunctioning, or designed improperly”

(Joel Kovel 38). Although the Carbide knew that all the safety systems in the plant were not in good operating condition, it did nothing about it. Hence it is evident that “Despite the crocodile tears and bleating protestations, Union Carbide stands revealed as precisely the “archetypal multinational villain”” (Joel Kovel 39).

Anvesh Cherukupally refers to the Bhopal disaster as, “It’s a story of betrayal and an American dream that turned into an Indian nightmare with a terrifying legacy” (Global Research Oct 19, 2011). The select novels, Indra sinha’s

Animal’s People and Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh Air depict this devastating ecocatastrophic event that occurred on December 3rd 1984 in Bhopal and its aftermath. As Peterson comments, “Though there was defoliation of trees and some additional contamination of soil and lakes, the main impact of the accident was death and injury to humans and animals” (6). These novels unfold the never-ending pain and struggle of the victims of Bhopal for good medical care and compensation.

Kamila Shamsie comments on Indra Sinha’s Animal’s People as, “the novel, for all its pain, is a work of profound humanity” (Guardian Sept 15, 2007).

The novel uses the fictional city of Khaufpur as its setting to unravel the miseries and sufferings of the victims of the earth-shattering industrial disaster in the city of

Bhopal. Union Carbide, an American transnational pesticide corporation which spewed out the poisonous gas, methyl isocyanate in the city of Bhopal is mentioned as ‘company’ in the novel. Animal, one of the victims of the poisonous gas narrates the heart-wrenching story of the city of Khaufpur. He was born a few

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days before the disaster. The deadly explosion has not only killed his parents, but also twisted his spine and makes him walk on all fours. Murrough O’Brien comments on the crippled narrator as:

“Animal”, the narrator, has been crippled by the resultant toxins to

such a degree that he is forced to walk on all fours. As if in mocking

echo of this affliction, his nature is crabbed, savage, self-regarding.

Having given up on hope, he commits his time to lurid fantasies,

erotic and murderous. (Independent Jan 27, 2008)

Animal unfolds the detrimental effects of the deadly gas on the people of the city of Khaufpur by recounting his own story. He used to walk upright once, but ever since that dreadful night when the company spreads the deadly gas all over the soil, air and water, he has been walking on all fours. He reports,

It was so bad I could not lift my head. I just couldn’t lift it. The pain

gripped my neck and forced it down. I had to stare at my feet while

a devil rode my back and chafed me with red hot tongs. The burning

in the muscles became a fever, when the fevers got bad I was taken

to the hospital, they gave me an injection. It did no good. After that

my back began to twist. Nothing could be done. It was agony, I

couldn’t straighten up. … (Animal’s People 15)

The news that animal used to walk once does not seem to comfort him. He ridicules it as, “Is it kind to remind a blind man that he could once see? The priests who whisper magic in the ears of corpses, they’re not saying, ‘Cheer up, you used to be alive’” (1). This scornful remark indicates his bitterness and the irreversible loss that he could never walk upright. Although he yearns to walk upright and feels envious towards anything that stands on two legs, he never admits it. His persistent

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cravings for the life of an ordinary human being is exhibited through his words, “if this pipe had been mended, that wheel tightened, I might have had a mother and father, I might still be a human being” (32). Ever since that time, he calls himself as ‘Animal’ and even declares that he is “not a fucking human being,” and “have no wish to be one” (Animal’s People 23). When Farouq rebukes him that he claims to be an Animal merely to escape from the responsibility of a human being,

Animal retorts him by saying that people call him ‘Animal’ and treat like one. He further remarks:

if I agree to be a human being, I’ll also have to agree that I’m

wrong-shaped and abnormal. But let me be a quatre partes animal,

four-footed and free, then I am whole, my own proper shape, just a

different kind of animal from say Jara, or a cow, or a camel. (208)

The above extracts exhibit that animal, through his rude tongue and harsh behaviour, expresses his anger and resentment for the company which has ruined his life.

He refers to the haunting past and the intense pain associated with that horrible night that has killed and deformed thousands and thousands of Khaufpuris as, “…that night, which no one in Khaufpur wants to remember, but nobody can forget” (1). While talking about the hazardous nature of methyl isocyanate (MIC) and its devastating effects on humans, the US environmental Protection Agency reports:

Being denser than air, MIC vapor does not dissipate but settles on

whatever is nearby. If exposed to water-bearing bodily tissues, it

reacts violently, leading to changes that cannot be contained by the

normal protective devices of the affected organism … Put simply,

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the body suffers severe burns, especially of exposed tissues rich in

water, such as lungs and eyes. Chest pain, breathlessness and severe

asthma result immediately. If the exposure is high, blindness, severe

bacterial and eosinophilic pneumonia, or laryngeal edema and

cardiac arrest follow. (qtd. in Joel Kovel 31-32)

Animal unfolds various types of acute health issues associated with methyl isocyanate by exploring the personal world of Khaufpur. It is impossible to convey the sufferings caused by MIC. Different levels of exposure to MIC results in different types of deformity and disorders. Animal portrays various levels of ailment caused by the fatal gas. Although Animal survives the disaster, he suffers neurological disorders such as motor skills. He narrates a handful of stories that depict the long-lasting pain and struggle of the survivors of the deadly disaster. He recounts the story of Pandit Somraj, a great singer of Kaufpur whose musical career has been put to an end by the lethal gas. As discussed earlier, exposure to

MIC causes severe lung and respiratory problems Such as breathlessness, chronic bronchitis, emphysema and asthma. Pandit Somraj, ‘the Voice of Khaufpur’ has lost his breath along with his wife and baby son. Until that night, he sang in radio and gave best concerts that made him one of the greatest singers of Khaufpur, but later he could only listen to the records of other musicians. While talking about her father’s irretrievable loss Nisha utters, “when the Kampani stole away her father’s breath it also stole his life, because breath is the life of a singer. From that night on he would listen to other people’s records, but never his own. He became a solemn and private man” (Animal’s People 33). When Pandit Somraj tries to demonstrate the chakra breathing (breathing in circles) to Animal, “he’s coughing, he can’t stop…” On seeing the pathetic life of a great singer who struggles to catch his

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breath, Animal disdainfully remarks, “thus do the Kampani’s gases rob him of his singing breath” (130).

Other than lung and respiratory disorders, MIC has caused neurological and psychological disorders such as memory loss, anxiety and depression. On that night, all the Khaufpuris must have lost all kinds of things for sure. Ma Franci, one of the nuns of the orphanage in Jyotinagar near the factory, has lost her knowledge of all languages except French. Animal reports this unique loss as:

She’d gone to sleep knowing it as well as any Khaufpuri, but was

woken in the middle of the night by a wind full of poison and

prophesying angels. In that great mela of death, those rowdy,

unforgettable festivities, her mind was wiped clean of Hindi, and of

Inglis too, which she had also been able to speak i sa maniere, she

forgot all languages except her childhood speech of France.

(Animal’s People 37)

This lethal gas has not only erased the knowledge of languages off from her memory, but also made her more anxious than ever before. She fears that the fist of god would continue and therefore, she prays day and night in a loud voice for the suffering people.

Aliya, the little girl, friend of Animal is also one of the victims of the deadly gas. Although she was born a few years after the disaster, she has been suffering from chronic fever. It is because those who have affected pass on the poison to their younger generation. Aliya is the only grandchild of Huriya Bi and

Hanif, who was left blind for twenty years by the poison. They say, “all they have in the world after their daughter, her mother, died after how many years of lung- rotting illness, she’s their joy” (42).

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Animal gives a glimpse of other impacts of MIC on Khaufpuris by exposing the devastating lives of I’m Alive and his neighbours. I’m Alive runs a shop in Khaufpur. His real name is Uttamchand, but people call him ZindaBhai,

Zinda which means ‘I’m Alive’. He is alive, but not healthy. Through this character, Sinha vividly portrays the miserable lives of the people of Khaufpur, who just live in pain as they could not die. When Animal makes fun of I’m Alive that he doesn’t need clinic as he can’t die, he articulates the following words:

‘Oh but I do need,’ says he, fussing around to gather my small list

of wants. ‘If the upstairs one hasn’t called me yet, does it mean I

should live in pain? My eyes are failing, chest is bad, plus I don’t

know how many times in the night I have to get up for the latrine,

there is a numbness to the left leg, fingers also tingle, so many times

I’ve thought, Uttam, your time is up, but always the one above has

his eye on someone else. (109)

Then he starts his narration of the painful stories of his dead neighbours. Nafisa, one of his neighbours, cannot lift her arms as she has swelling and pain in her neck. Rafi has spent all his money on medicine, but it did no good for him.

Most of the women of Khaufpur have problems related to uterus because of their exposure to the poisonous gas. Sahara, one of the neighbours of I’m Alive has died of uterus cancer. Another one named Safiya has experienced pain like she is losing a baby. Doctor told her to drink milk and eat fruits. I am Alive questions that while People like her can’t afford rods how can she afford fruits? She suffers pain and died. Dr. Elli Barber also points out these issues having worst effects in the women folk of that region, “I see young girls who bleed three times a month and others who have one period in five months. No one knows how to treat them”

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(Animal’s People 322). 2002 Greenpeace report found that a number of toxins still present in nursing women’s breast milk (qtd. in Global Research Oct 19, 2011).

The severity of the poisonous gas is exhibited when Dr. Elli Barber witnesses the mother who continuously “squeezing pale milk from dark nipples”. Elli mistakenly thinks that she has lost her baby, but it is not so. When Elli enquires the mother, she says “I won’t feed my kid poison” (107). She further explains the poisoned city of Khaufpur, “our wells are full of poison. It’s in the soil, water, in our blood, it’s in our milk. Everything here is poisoned. If you stay here long enough, you will be too” (107-108).

On top of all these dreadful effects of the poison, animal narrates the most horrifying sight of the unborn foetus in the jar. “The children in the flasks all have terrible injuries. One has a single huge staring eye in the middle of the forehead, another has three arms, a third lacks nose and mouth” (236). These unborn children call themselves “the board of directors of the poisonwallah shares” as they are the youngest of all the victims of poison and have paid the highest price. The unborn babies explain their desolate condition as, “Not only have we never lived, but so long as we are stuck in this situation, we will never die.” They have formed the board to undo what the company has done to the people of Khaufpur. They explain:

Instead of breaking ground for new factories to grow grass and trees

over the old ones, instead of inventing new poisons, to make

medicines to heal the hurts done by those poisons, to remove them

from the earth and water and air. ...’ on hearing this, Animal laughs

at them and comments, ‘You are fooling yourselves if you think you

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can ever change the Kampani. It is too big and powerful, it cannot

die, it will go on for all eternity’ (Animal’s People 237).

A musician who lost his career, the mother who refused to feed the poisonous milk to her baby, the horrible sight of the unborn babies floating inside the jar unfold the dreadful life in Khaufpur after that awful night.

Animal, the narrator juxtaposes between the personal world and the political world of Khaufpur. He sarcastically portrays the political and judicial happenings in the city of Khaufpur. His cynicism begins with the journalist, who approaches him to narrate the life in Khaufpur after that dreadful night. He retorts him:

‘What am I to tell these eyes?’ I demand of Chunaram. ‘What can I

say that they will understand? Have these thousands of eyes slept

even one night in a place like this? Do these eyes shit on railway

tracks? When

was the last time these eyes had nothing to eat? These cuntish eyes,

what do they know of our lives?’ (7-8)

Animal ridicules the journalists, who often offer promising words to the under privileged that the stories of small people can achieve big things in this world and suck their stories to fill their own pockets. He scornfully remarks:

You were like all the others, come to suck our stories from us, so

strangers in far off countries can marvel there’s so much pain in the

world. Like vultures are you jarnaliss. Somewhere a bad thing

happens, tears like rain in the wind, and look, here you come, drawn

by the smell of blood. You have turned us Khaufpuris into

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storytellers, but always of the same story. Ous raat, cette nuit, that

night, always that fucking night. (Animal’s People 5)

Animal bitterly comments that many books have been written about the terrible life in Khaufpur, but none has changed the worst into better. These journalists often speaks of rights, law and justice, but in reality, these words do no good to the poor.

His utter detest for the journalists and their showy words are revealed when he remarks, “On that night it was poison, now its words that are choking us” (3).

Animal discloses not only the victims’ never-ending struggle for survival, but also their fight for justice. Zafar Bhai is the head of the campaign against the

Company, “an archetypal multinational villain”, who exploits “India’s people and resources” (Joel Kovel 36). Zafar’s old professor once told Nisha that Zafar was his most brilliant student. When he got the news about the dreadful disaster, he quit his college and has engaged himself in the campaign against the Company that killed and mutilated thousands and thousands of Khaufpuris. It is his dedication and perseverance that keeps the case against the Company alive so long.

The poisoned victims have received little medical care at the time of the disaster. As Peterson comments:

Medical treatment of survivors was complicated by lack of

knowledge about what gasses escaped the plant, the paucity of

information provided by Union Carbide and UCIL, the general lack

of information about the long term (as distinct from immediate)

effects of high exposure to MIC or related gasses, and uncertainty

about what toxic chemicals other than MIC had poisoned the

victims. (6)

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The lack of medical care is partially because physicians didn’t know how and in what way they could treat the victims. They have been deprived of proper medical care even in the ensuing years. The negligent and indifferent attitude of the politicians and the government authorities are responsible for the endless struggle of the victims for a proper medical care. Zafar elucidates the inadequate medical care for the poisoned victims as:

All these years after that night, …there’s still no real help for those

whose eyes and lungs and wombs were fucked. Of course there are

government hospitals but people won’t set foot in them unless

they’re desperate…

You queue all day to be seen, the doctor doesn’t examine you

because to touch a poor person would pollute him. Barely looks at

you, then writes a chit, tells you, take this to so-and-so’s shop and

say I sent you. The medicines are supposed to be given free, this is

how they make money out of misery.’ (Animal’s People 24)

This negligence and sluggishness on the part of the government authorities and politicians has doubled up the pain and suffering of the victims.

Zafar’s group collects money to help the victims of the disaster. However, when Dr. Elli Barber sets up a health laboratory in Khaufpur to treat the sick,

Zafar’s group has proposed to boycott the clinic for they believe that she must have been sent by the Company to collect false data to prove that most of the illness are caused by hunger and lack of hygiene, and none can be traced back to that night or to the factory. Thousands and thousands of the victims of Khaufpur claim that the factory has poisoned their water and made them sick for ever. It is not only the

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company, but also the government doctors and politicians who refute the victims’ charges against the Company. Animal reports:

Elli doctress, what the woman told you about the water, it’s true,

everyone here knows it Government types are lying. Zahreel Khan

the minister himself came here to the Nutcracker and in front of a

crowd of jarnaliss took a glass of well water and drank it to show it

was safe. But Chhote Ram, son of Mukund the tailor saw him a

minute later go behind a house and stick two fingers down his

throat. (Animal’s People 110)

In order to disprove the charges against them that the chemicals in the factory do not cause those kinds of ailments, the Company needs facts and figures, case studies and health surveys. Hence, Zafar and his group suspect that Dr. Elli, an

American doctor is sent by the Company to fulfil its task. Zahreel Khan, the minister of poison relief has opened the clinic and The Khaufpur Gazette reports,

“doctor offers new hope to poison victims. …the clinic is a great and wonderful act of charity by a good-hearted doctor, this Amrikan, Elli Barber” (70). On the opening ceremony of the clinic, the interrogation between Zafar and Elli discloses the doubts in the minds of the people of Khaufpur:

‘Question for Doctor Barber,’ calls Zafar. ‘For whose benefit is this

clinic?’

Elli stands up; Zahreel Khan steps aside to make room for her at the

microphone. ‘It’s for all who were injured on that night, plus people

who are ill as a result of their water being poisoned by the factory.

All who come are welcome, for all who come, treatment is free?

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…’Will you be gathering medical data? If so, who will have access

to it, to what use will it be put?’ (131)

However, Zafar is not convinced by her replies. His friends have used all channels to trace her whereabouts, but failed to find out the history of Elli Barber. This increases their doubts about her and her clinic. Hence, Animal is sent to spy on her.

Till then, the people of Khaufpur are requested to boycott the clinic.

On the other side, Animal unfolds Elli’s struggle to setup a clinic in the city of Khaufpur to help the surviving victims. She has been struggling for at least eighteen months to setup her clinic in Khaufpur. She has written countless letters to the people in Khaufpur, to Zahreel Khan and to the health ministry in Delhi, but she didn’t get any reply from the politicians. Even the Chief Minister has ignored her genuine offer to help the surviving victims. Her conversation with Animal elucidates the rest of her struggle:

‘Weirder still,’ says she. ‘One day, after months of zilch, a letter

came. It said, permission is granted Just like that. It said I should

come to Khaufpur as soon as possible to ... it had some quaint way

of putting it... resolve all needful modalities. And this was from

your Mr Zahreel Khan.’

‘He is not my mister, how much investment did you make to him?...

Investment fee,’ I’ve explained, seeing she looks blank. ‘There

wasn’t a fee.’

“Then there’s your answer. Pays to invest,’ (Animal’s People 150)

This conversation discloses the bitter truth about the rotten democracy and corrupt politics of India. Elli bitterly remarks, “Why did I ever come here? I should have known right off it wasn’t going to work. First the politicians, now this boycott.

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People in Khaufpur don’t want help. I should have stayed home and raised chickens.” (150).

She recalls her conversation with her old Doctor friend, who told her about

Khaufpur which once had a remarkable history and a rich cultural life. He tells her that all the rich cultural and historical background are forgotten after that dreadful night and now the world thinks of poison when it hears the name Khaufpur. He further says that only the surviving victims keep fighting, but the rest of the people, citizens, city council, chamber of commerce all want to move on leaving behind the poisoned victims, who suffer without help waiting in wain for justice. She also recalls the words of her friend regarding the victims, “Those poor people never had a chance. If it had not been the factory it would have been cholera, TB, exhaustion, hunger. They would have died anyway’… ‘Elli, you will eat your heart out for them, but you’ll get no thanks for it’” (Animal’s People 153). After listening to the struggles and efforts taken by Elli to setup the clinic in Khaufpur, Animal promises to help her and introduces the people of Khaufpur to her. Finally, she succeeds in her attempts to convince the victims of Khaufpur and helps them to reduce their pain and suffering. Even Zafar and his group recognize Elli’s genuine help.

Moreover, they believe that the case against the company will be strengthened, if she reports the truth about people’s health.

Soon after the disaster, criminal charges have been filed against the Chief

Executive Officer of Union Carbide. He is being accused of having decided to cut down the safety systems as cost-cutting measures. Union Carbide is asked to pay compensation and provide proper medical care for the surviving victims. However, the case has been dragging on endlessly for so many years. After killing thousands and thousands of Khaufpuris, the company ran away without cleaning its factory.

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Over the years, the poisonous chemicals in the factory started contaminating the water and soil which in turn cause severe illness. Moreover, the executives of the company fail to appear in the court for so long. The rotten democracy and the corrupt politicians are responsible for the escape of Warren Anderson, the proclaimed offender in Bhopal disaster. On December 7th, four days after the world’s worst industrial disaster, Warren Anderson, the then chairman of Union

Carbide visited Bhopal India to size up the tragedy. He was arrested, but within hours, he was granted bail. The then Bhopal police chief, Swaraj Puri confirmed

Anderson’s arrest. Moti Singh, the then district magistrate of Bhopal, told that he was asked by the then chief secretary to release Anderson:

Anderson was not merely allowed to leave, but was regally escorted

out by police and senior government officials treating him like an

honoured guest. …Anderson finally left Delhi on December 7 and

never returned. All efforts to bring him back to face trial in the case

since then have failed. (India Today June 10, 2010)

Although India has enough material evidence against Anderson, all the efforts to bring him back to the court have failed.

As the chief executives of the company refuse to face the trial in the court of Bhopal, the case has been dragging for so long denying justice for the victims.

Sinha exhibits the delay in justice and offers suggestion to make the executives appear in the court. In one of the hearings of the case, Zafar intervenes to file a petition against the American executives. He explains that there are two sets of defendants in this case. First are the local employees of the company whose personal lawyers are present here and then the American big bosses who took the crucial decisions. He argues:

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For the past eighteen years these Amrikan defendants have not

shown up in this court. They have not even bothered to send

lawyers. They sit in Amrika claiming this court has no jurisdiction

over them, yet nothing can be achieved without them being here,

thus these proceedings drag on and on, for the people of this city

justice continues to be delayed and denied.

…thousands in this city have died since that night, for them was no

justice. The factory is abandoned full of chemicals which as we

speak are poisoning the water of thousands more. Must all perish

before these Amrikan defendants appear? (Animal’s People 52)

Zafar further states that the American bosses deliberately ignore the court of

Khaufpur, but the same company has many subsidiaries trading in India. He requests the court to:

issue a summons to the Kampani and its named bosses in Amrika,

requiring them to submit themselves for trial before this court. If

still they do not appear then in accordance with the due provisions

of the law, let all the Kampani’s assets in India be attached’

(Animal’s People 53).

On March 23, 2011, the Central Bureau of Investigation filed a fresh application for Anderson’s extradition from US to face the trial in the Indian court. The CBI feels:

Anderson’s act of jumping bail and later being declared an

absconder could help in securing his extradition. …Attorney

general G.E. Vahanvati had supported a fresh extradition request on

the ground that there was enough material evidence against

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Anderson, which was not supplied to the US earlier. (India Today

March 22, 2011)

Witnessing the indifferent and negligent attitude of the company and the government of India, the victims have filed a lawsuit against both the bodies demanding that “the Kampani must pay proper compensation to those whose loved ones it killed, whose health it ruined, plus it should clean the factory and compensate the people who had been drinking its poisons” (33). After this the government has filed its own lawsuit in US court. Since the international legal norms favour trials in the place where the events occurred, Union Carbide vigourously argues for dismissing the case in favour of Indian hearing, while

Indian lawyers argue strenuously for US hearing. Finally, “as deference to the

Indian legal system or a victory for Union Carbide, the US District court ruled that the lawsuits should be heard in India” (Peterson 7). In 1989, Union Carbide agrees to pay Rs. 713 crore for compensation to Bhopal victims. In two instalments, the compensation amount Rs. 25,000 has been distributed among the victims in 1994 and 2004. N D Jayaprakash of BGPSSS, one of the campaigns fighting for justice calls this “a massive fraud”:

… because the number of gas-affected persons was arbitrarily fixed

by the government at 105,000, including about 3,000 dead. In

reality, nearly 20,000 people have died, and 5.7 lakh have suffered

injuries. The compensation amount — Rs 713 crore, paid by Union

Carbide — was meant for about 1 lakh persons but has been

distributed among nearly 6 lakh people. Of the Rs 713 crores, Rs

113 crores was for loss of livestock and property. The balance Rs

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600 crore distributed among 5.74 lakh persons works out to about

Rs 12,410 per victim on average. (Times of India Dec 3, 2009)

Two weeks before the long-awaited and crucial hearing, the company lawyers arrive at Khaufpur to strike a deal with the politicians to drop the charges against the company and its directors. The Khaufpur Gazette reports:

‘There is something rotten in the wind,’ ‘Not just the smell from the

factory. This is the stench of a deeper evil. To drop charges relating

to the deaths of thousands of our fellow citizens, with no attempt to

establish who was responsible, without applying to the law for a just

remedy, is contrary to democracy and people’s rights. If this deal

goes ahead it will prove that the odour in our nostrils is justice

rotting in Khaufpur.’ (Animal’s People 261)

People of Khaufpur are baffled by this news. No one knows the way to stop the deal. Zafar announces hunger strike as it is the one and only option to put an end to the deal. Brushing aside Elli’s advice, Zafar and Farouq carry on their hunger strike without water. The company’s deal has not been signed, but at the same time, the most awaited hearing has been postponed since the judge has been transferred to some other court. As a result, “the despair of twenty years has turned to rage.” Animal reports, “in some hands I see knives and swords gleaming. That’s when I know that this will not end here” (314).

Zafar and Farouq have decided to stop the fast, when they get the news about the factory riot. The police admit them in a private hospital, where the CM promises not to do anything or make any deal without their consent. However, soon after the riot, the politicians have secretly arranged the meeting with the four

American lawyers to sign a deal. The shameful meeting between the American

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lawyers and the politicians has begun in a room. When they have started their arguments:

… without warning their eyes began to sting. An evil burning

sensation began in their noses and throats, a little like the smoke of

burning chillies, it caught nastily in the throat, it seared the lungs,

they were coughing, but coughing made it ten times worse… These

big shot politicians and lawyers, they got up in a panic, they reeled

around, retching, everything they did just made the pain and

burning worse. Tears streamed from their eyes, hardly could they

see. …they thought they were dying, they thought they’d been

attacked with the same gas that leaked on that night, and every man

there knew exactly how horrible were the deaths of those who

breathed the Kampani’s poisons. (Animal’s People 360)

No one knows who has done it. At last, the police remember the woman in purqa with a broom, who has entered the hotel and left the place soon after the meeting has begun. They realise that this mysterious woman must have carefully emptied a bottle of stink bomb juice into the air conditioner which has caused the evil burning sensation. Although no one knows the whereabouts of the strange woman, everyone understands that this heroine, who has killed off the company’s deal must have come from the kingdom of poor.

In the press meet, the company states that it is the victim of terrorism and “the culprit should be prosecuted and locked up for years.” However, the journalists have expressed a different view. They remark:

… one stink bomb, however disgusting, could not compare to the

terror the Kampani had brought on the people of Khaufpur, plus

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how could the Kampani bosses demand that anyone should be

prosecuted while they were themselves refusing to appear before the

Khaufpur court? (361)

The novel ends with a hope that one day or the other, the people of Khaufpur win the case against the company. Animal reports, “Eyes, what else can I tell you? Life goes on. It will take time, so we’re told, to appoint a new judge in the case, the hearing’s again been postponed, the Kampani’s still trying to find ways to avoid appearing, but Zafar is confident we’ll get them in the end” (364-365).

On June 7, 2010, the most awaited verdict came, twenty-six years after that horrible night which killed and injured thousands and thousands of people in

Bhopal. All the seven accused including Keshub Mahindra, the former chairman of

Union Carbide were convicted and awarded 2 years imprisonment. Nevertheless, they were released on bail the very same day. Interestingly, the Judicial Magistrate did not mention about Anderson, the then chairman of US based Union Carbide, who was absconding throughout the trial. “Disappointed with the verdict, scores of gas victims staged a protest on the court premises and raised slogans against Mr.

Anderson” (Hindu June 7, 2010) thus the delayed justice becomes denied justice.

Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh Air is yet another heart-wrenching story of a surviving victim of Bhopal tragedy. As Sandip Roy comments, “Malladi has tried to look at the shadow it casts on the souls of those who survived and wanted nothing more than to carry on with their small, ordinary lives” (San

Francisco Chronicle July 14, 2002). The novel depicts both the mental and physical pain and sufferings of the surviving victims of the world’s worst industrial disaster. Unlike Sinha, Malladi deals exclusively with the personal world of Anjali

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and her dying child. As the title suggests, it is the story of a small boy’s struggle to have a breath of fresh air.

Malladi begins the novel with an elaborate description of that frightful night. On the night of December 2/3, 1984, Anjali is waiting for her husband in the

Bhopal railway station to pick her up. She whiles away her time by flipping through the women’s magazine. Even after a long time, her husband Prakash never turns up and she gets caught up in the poisonous mist that turned her life upside down. Anjali reports:

I became aware of it for the first time when I inhaled and felt my

lungs being scratched by nails from the inside, like someone had

thrown red chilli powder into my nose. I took another breath and it

didn’t change. I clasped my throat and closed my eyes as they

started to burn and water. Something was wrong, my mind screamed

wildly as I, along with the others, tried to seek a reason for the

tainted air we were breathing. (A Breath of Fresh Air 3)

The homeless in the station have started gathering their belongings. Rest of them move around to find what could be done. When it becomes unbearable, people clamour to get out of the station. They are running in a wild and reckless manner.

She fears that something is wrong about the air in the station. Since no one could breathe, it becomes harder to get out of the station. Anjali explicates:

My lungs felt like they would implode and even though I tried to

suck in as much air as I could, it was not really air that I was

breathing. It was something toxic, something acrid, something that

was burning my insides and scratching my eyes. Each breath I took

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made me dizzy and the burning sensation, that terrible burning

sensation, wouldn’t go away. (3-4)

Anjali and Sardarji finally find their way to reach the taxi. Soon they get into the car, Anjali instructs Sardarji to drive ignoring people’s clamours and bangs outside. However, after a while, Sardarji could no longer breathe and dies on the steering wheel. she soon gets out of the car as she knows no driving. She explains:

People were running in all directions and I wondered: Which one

was the right direction? Which direction gave you life? I moved

aimlessly, going first in one direction and then in another. The

world revolved around me in slow motion as my eyes started to shut

on their own accord. I knew that I was going to join Sardarji. It was

then, when I was almost sure that I was going to die, that I saw an

army jeep, and it looked like a beacon of hope. I cried out for help,

but my voice was drowned by the voices of others. (A Breath of

Fresh Air 5)

Finally, she has been admitted in the hospital and her life has been saved.

Nevertheless, her life has been changed completely after this world’s worst industrial disaster.

Fortunately, Anjali survives, but her relationship with her husband Prakash doesn’t. Prakash, an army officer has married Anjali just to save him from scandals about his filthy relationship with other women. All her efforts to make her marriage work have failed utterly. When she comes to know his adulterous relationship with Bela Chaudhary, he convinces Anjali to live with him promising that he would be loyal to her. However, this great tragedy has changed her naive

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nature and opened up her eyes. She understands the value of her life and no longer wants to continue her relationship with Prakash, for she remarks, “‘He treated me very badly and he married me to avoid scandal and he was sleeping with another woman. A married woman.” (95). If he has come to pick her up on time, she could have escaped from the fumes that nearly killed her. As a result of her exposure to

MIC, she has debilitating asthma for the rest of her life. At the same time, Prakash has not been affected by the poisonous gas. Even though the Union Carbide factory is situated only four kilometres away from the EME centre, Prakash remains unaffected by the lethal gas as the wind blows towards the Bhopal city away from the EME Centre. She reports, “if he had come and picked me up when my train arrived two hours ago, we would have been safe. I would have been safe, my mind cried out” (5). She has tried many medications to cure her asthma, but none could restore her health. Since it is one of the dreadful diseases caused by methyl isocyanate gas, it has to be managed and could not be cured. In short, one should learn to live with the pain and suffering it inflicts upon oneself. Hence, she could no longer forgive what he has done to her and puts an end to their relationship by divorcing him without her parents’ approval. According to her parents, every marriage has problems. Instead of running away and get divorce, a wife should make the marriage work one way or the other. Thus, her first marriage has lasted less than a year.

Even though, Hindu Marriage Act Permits Alimony, Prakash sternly refuses to pay single paisa to Anjali by remarking, “‘If she wants a divorce, she can have it. But she doesn’t get a paisa from me’ (A Breath of Fresh Air 119). Her jewellery has given the financial freedom to continue her higher studies to lead an independent life. Years later, while doing her master’s in education, she meets

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Sandeep Sharma, a maths professor in Hyderabad University. They soon have started loving each other and happily married after a while. They have a son named

Amar. They lead a happy life except for that their son Amar is sick. Anjali’s exposure to that poisonous gas has adversely affected Amar’s heart and lungs.

Even though he has not breathed the lethal gas directly, its dreadful effect has been transmitted to him through her womb. She comments, “The gas tragedy had hit him much harder than it had hit me, though he hadn’t even been a thought the night

I breathed the poisonous air” (97). He has pulmonary fibrosis which is commonly seen in adults over the age of forty. On that appalling night, she has fought for her life and now she fights for her son’s. They name their son who is destined to live a short life as Amar, a name given to someone who would live forever. It means,

“someone who could never die” (167).

Anjali elucidates her ecstasy when she becomes a mother. She is deliriously happy when she becomes pregnant. She wants to be a mother and wants to give her child unconditional love. She narrates:

I forgot about the past and embraced my future. For the first time

since my divorce I could look forward, and look forward with no

cynicism. A child was growing within me. It was a gift, the most

beautiful gift I had ever been given, and I was so happy that I

couldn’t feel bad about the past anymore. I couldn’t feel sorry for

myself anymore for what I had gone through with Prakash. God had

made up for it all by giving me this baby. (A Breath of Fresh Air

168)

She is excited and thoroughly enjoys the feeling of life inside her. However, soon after her delivery, the ecstasy of having a child turns into a nightmare. When the

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doctor says that Amar has severe lung disease all her dreams about her child shatter down. She reports, “Thus began a nightmare that never really ended. We went from specialist to specialist and were finally told that Amar’s breathing problems were related to the methyl isocyanate gas I had inhaled in the Bhopal

Railway Station.” She wonders how something that happened so long ago could affect her baby. Only then she found out the truth about the poisonous gas. The specialists have advised her that she shouldn’t have more children because all her kids would face the same set of problems. Some doctors wonder that she could even become pregnant as one of the symptoms of inhaling MIC is infertility. Amar has numerous surgeries to fix his heart and lung problems, but these surgeries could never cure him permanently. Instead, they postpone his death. Anjali bitterly remarks, “just like that, my past took over my future” (170). They have spent all their savings, everything that they have to find better doctors hoping that they would say that Amar is all right and he could lead a normal life. She expresses her longings, “No, my mind protested. He wasn’t going to die. I told myself I should not even think it. A miracle would happen. He would live— a normal life. It would happen. It had to happen” (25). Although Anjali wishes to spend her days with

Amar, she couldn’t because they need money to meet Amar’s medical expenditure.

Sandeep also feels bad to make Anjali work to pay for their son’s medical bills.

Even Amar knows about his parents financial crisis. Sandeep narrates their helplessness:

He told Anjali that if he ate okra curry too often he would stop

enjoying it and he wanted to continue to like it. Anjali had laughed

with him and then cried with me. It was not fair, she had said, that a

little boy knew what his parents’ limitations were. Parents are

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supposed to be infallible, perfect creatures, but Anjali felt we were

bad parents because our son knew we were fallible. It was not

because we couldn’t afford okra every day; it was because we

couldn’t protect our son and save him from his own body. (A Breath

of Fresh Air 52)

Anjali exhibits her struggle and pain in fulfilling her responsibility both as a mother and as a teacher. The school administration never minds her leaving early on some days or taking extra sick leave for they know about Amar’s ruining health.

Nevertheless, she remarks, “I didn’t take advantage of it, just in case someone would object and the small perks I did have would be snatched away. Worse, I could lose my job, and my job helped pay Amar’s medical bills” (75).

Whenever Gopi and Sarita advise Anjali to join the lawsuit against the

Union Carbide, she sternly refuses it. They feel that if she gets a good settlement, it would help her to look after Amar’s treatment. However, Anjali differs from their opinion and firmly remarks,

‘I can sue Union Carbide, but I can’t get my baby to walk and be

normal,’… ‘No amount of money is going to change that.’

Sarita was on her husband’s side on this one. ‘But the money will

help. You could stay at home with Amar.’

‘I don’t want their money’ I said harshly. ‘What happened,

happened. Things happen. I am not going to get into a court trial

that could last for god knows how many years, while my son is

struggling to live.’ (81)

Sandeep and Anjali have never cried before their son. There will be

no fight, no yelling and no screan in front of him. They always

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smile in front of him to make him feel that the world around him is

a happy place and not a devastating one. But when Amar says that

something bad has happened to him already, she could no longer

hide her tears. She explains, “Amar patted my hand to comfort me

and I choked on tears. This was not living—this was the purest kind

of hell. My sick baby had to comfort me.” (76)

Gopi and Sarita with their children, Ajay and Shalini often visit Amar to play with him. They are their closest friends. They have been with them both in the worst and the best of times. She reveals that she becomes envious of those healthy adorable children as they could go to school and don’t get tired after walking for five minutes. Sandeep and Anjali always look forward for a miracle that “would let him live longer, spend more time in this world. Other days we prayed for his pain to go away, for him to sleep peacefully throughout the night.

We prayed that he would walk around the garden without tiring himself” (48).

The haunting memory of her past life with Prakash is always at the back of her mind, even though she has a happy married life and a loving son. She blames

Prakash for her ever-lasting sufferings and her son’s irrecoverable loss. She always imagines that she would meet Prakash sometime or somewhere and he would apologize which she would reject. Years later, her imagination has come true. Anjali and Prakash have accidently met in the market place. They are curious about each other’s present life. Their meeting has some unexpected effects on their present life.

The smooth and happy life of Anjali is interrupted by Prakash. His attempts to meet her in her school and in her residence have intensified her troubles. When he meets her to apologize for the wrongs he has done to her, he comes to know

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about her child’s ill health from her parents. On seeing Prakash, Anjali couldn’t resist her anger and resentment. she sternly blames him for her son’s short life:

‘The gas . . . remember? I breathed in that gas and then a few years

later I had my son. The doctors didn’t tell me that any child I had

could be harmed because of the gas,’ she said, almost without

feeling. But I could feel her anger beneath the calm veneer.

‘You left me there to die, but I lived. All I have is chronic asthma,

while my son has a whole gamut of diseases.’ (A Breath of Fresh

Air 127)

He is speechless and wonders whether he has to be blamed for her son’s deteriorating health. Until then, he thinks that Anjali lives a happy and simple life, but now he understands the truth behind her simple life. Soon he feels responsible for Amar’s ill-health and starts regretting for his fault. He reports:

… for years I had consoled myself that she had lived, but I couldn’t

do that anymore. She had lived, but at what cost? Her child was sick

and dying and it was my fault.

The night of the Bhopal gas tragedy I had slept while Anju had

fought for her life, and now she was fighting for her son’s.

It wasn’t fair.

I had slept that night. Peacefully, breathing clean air. (128)

Amar’s breathlessness has intensified and he has been hospitalized. On hearing this news, Prakash is filled with guilt and grief. He feels that his negligence is responsible for Amar’s irrecoverable health and has tried his best to make amends. When he tells Sandeep that he could make arrangements to move

Amar to the military hospital where he could get better medical care and service,

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Sandeep readily accepts by saying, “If it will make my son comfortable, sir, I will sell my soul” (A Breath of Fresh Air 158). Anjali also accepts the offer for she has no other chance to save her son, but she wretchedly says that she would owe

Prakash for this. While Major Mukesh Mohan, the resident pulmonologist flips through Amar’s medical file, Anjali and Sandeep look at him as if he is the supreme judge with a hope that he would sing a different song. However, all their hopes have turned into despair, when Major Mohan explains Amar’s adverse condition:

‘It is too late to do a lung or heart transplant. The length of the

disease has made him very weak. Chances are he won’t make it

through surgery, so recovering from such complex surgery is out of

the question. ‘I will do some tests, but I don’t think the diagnosis is

going to be much different.’ (161)

When Major Mohan says, ““I can put him on a respirator for a while, but it is just a matter of time,” Anjali starts weeping again and tells the doctor, “He was fine a week ago. He even walked a little.” But the doctor explains, “This has been going on since he was born. It is amazing he has lived for so long. He could walk a week ago because he had a good day, not because he was getting better,”’(62). He further advises her not to weep and spend more time with Amar to make him comfortable and happy.

Prakash confesses everything to his wife Indra, all the wrongs he has done to Anjali as his heart feels heavy with grief and guilt. He tells how he becomes responsible for Amar’s illness. “I forgot to pick her up. I didn’t mean for it to happen… ‘now the boy has a lung problem because she spent the night in the city.

Her son is going to die. Indu, I am a murderer’” (165). She tries to console him,

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but they both have begun to weep for Amar’s short life. “She burst into tears then and we mourned a child that was not ours, but who still was a part of us. For twelve years of his life, neither of us knew Amar existed. Now we did and we wept for his short life and we wept because I was to blame.” (A Breath of Fresh Air 167)

Anjali has fought against her fate and tried to win over it. This time, she could do nothing, but to let her son die. Her anxiousness is revealed through the words:

The knowledge of death was a very big responsibility to shove on

such a young boy. Adults who had lived a full life were afraid of

death; a twelve-year-old boy must be petrified and outraged at the

injustice. He had barely lived and now he had to face death. He

had seen and done so little, had so many dreams and aspirations,

none of which would come to fruition. (171)

Sandeep and Anjali take shifts by Amar’s bed as one of them has to work to meet the daily expenditure. Sandeep spends his time with Amar in evenings. He reads story books to make him feel comfort. Each time Sandeep goes out, he is afraid that when he comes back, Amar would be gone. Even Anjali couldn’t imagine how she would tell him that their son is no more.

When Amar wakes up and asks for some fresh air, Anjali does not hesitate.

She has removed all the tubes and carried him near the corridor:

It is nice here,’ he said, but his voice was weak. I sat down on a

chair next to him and held his hand. He struggled to breathe, once,

twice, three, four times, and then he stopped struggling. I held his

limp hand in mine without looking at his face. I couldn’t see the

rolling hills, the trees, or thee garden glittering in the beauty of

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dawn. It was blinding, this moment. This unrecoverable,

inescapable moment. (178)

She has been sitting there for a long time, holding her son’s hand without any thought. only when the nurse calls her, she comes out of her present emptiness.

She smiles through her pain and says, “He wanted a breath of fresh air,” (178).

Thus, as the title suggests, A Breath of Fresh Air is a heart-wrenching story of a poisoned victim and her dying son. Amulya Malladi vividly portrays the untold sufferings and miseries, love and betrayal encountered by the victim of

Bhopal. Although Anjali is not a resident of Bhopal, she gets caught up in the poisonous cloud as her husband forgets to pick her up at the station. In short,

Malladi elaborately observes and reproduces the physical and emotional traumas experienced by the poisoned victim of Bhopal.

The United States has said that the Bhopal gas tragedy is a closed case.

State Department Spokesman P.J. Crowley clarifies that legally the case was closed. He further says, “We have interacted with the Indian government on the

Bhopal issue. On an ongoing basis going back many years, we’ve expressed our sympathy and concern about the impact that this had on the people of India”

(Hindu Aug 21, 2010). Instead of doing the needful to the victims of Bhopal gas tragedy, developed nations like the US simply express their sympathy and concern for the victims. Hence, it is evident that globalization and its free trade policies pose a great threat to the natural environment, human and non-human populations of the less developed nations. If the developing nations still continue to encourage poorly regulated transnational firms and industries, adverse human health consequences would continue to occur.

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The large scale developmental projects in less developed countries are yet another factor that contributes to various forms of ecological destruction and environmental degradation. Economic globalization, trade liberal policy, privatization and modernization have not only deteriorated the ecosystem, but also deprived the tribal or indigenous people of their traditional means of livelihood. In the name of Eco developmental projects such as conservation of biodiversity and construction of mega dams, and other developmental projects like construction of roads, railways and industries tribal people and poor agricultural peasants are displaced from their lands and are left with less livelihood options. In other words, the life sustaining resources of the tribal or the indigenous people are explored and exploited by the transnational corporations and elite class of the less developed countries in the name of developmental projects. As Rajkishor Meher remarks, “In the name of modernizing backward countries and regions and civilizing the ‘less civilized’ indigenous people in these areas, the current form of LPG development is creating wealth for the modernizing elites at the cost of the livelihood and security of the indigenous peoples in these areas”. Foreign direct investment (FDI) and technologies are invited to exploit the unlimited natural resources of the backward areas where the indigenous people reside over, just because, the government and the elite class of the less developed nations believe that these mega developmental projects “will increase export earnings and accelerate economic growth, which in turn will develop basic infrastructure and bring about the progressive socioeconomic transformation of the indigenous population” (458).

But in reality, these developmental projects do no good to the indigenous people.

They are dispossessed of their lands and are deprived of their life sustaining livelihood options. As Roy elucidates, “They’re a brazen means of taking water,

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land and irrigation away from the poor and gifting it to the rich. Their reservoirs displace huge populations of people, leaving them homeless and destitute” (57). In short, these mega developmental projects only benefit the multinational corporations and a few elite classes at the expense of the lives of the tribal people.

India ranks second in terms of tribal population. Tribal people are often referred to as “adivasis” which means original inhabitants of the land. India has nearly 360 tribal groups who speak over 100 languages and dialects. According to the presidential order, they are categorised under the scheduled tribes (STs) since

1950). These tribal groups generally live in the forests and hilly regions which are often termed as the backward regions of the country. They fully depend on the forest and the agricultural lands for their survival. Hunting, foraging and cultivation of lands are the traditional means of their livelihood options

(Mallavarapu 35). Since nearly 90 percent of the tribal population depend on forests and forest resources, displacing them in the name of development would deprive them of their familiar environment, homeland and livelihood options, thereby affecting their well-being.

It becomes significant to know the three major economies of the world such as nature’s economy, sustenance economy and market economy to understand how the mega developmental projects affect the overall well-being of the commons.

Nature’s economy is the primary economy of the world. In this economy, the goods and services are produced by nature such as “the water recycled and distributed through the hydrologic cycle, the soil fertility produced by microorganisms, the plants fertilized by pollinators” (Shiva 16). These natural resources are produced and reproduced by ecological processes. Sustenance economy is the economy in which the people work directly with nature to create a

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favourable condition for their living. The sustenance economy is engaged in “craft production, peasant agriculture, artisanal fishing, and indigenous forest economies”

(Shiva 17). Nature’s economy and sustenance economy offer sustenance and support to all human activities. The dominant global market economy depends on these major economies for their profits. So as to accumulate capital, the global market economy destroys the ecological process by over-exploiting the resources of nature. The rapid economic growth produced by the destruction of livelihoods and the unlimited exploitation of the resources of nature’s economy and sustenance economy would eventually lead to underdevelopment and poverty. As Shiva elucidates:

The poverty of the Third World has resulted from centuries of the

drain of resources from the sustenance economy. Globalization has

accelerated and expanded the methods used to deplete the

sustenance economy—the privatization of water, the patenting of

seeds and biodiversity, and the corporatization of agriculture. This

deliberate starving of the sustenance economy is at the root of the

violence of globalization. (17-18)

Hence, it is obvious that the global developmental projects which destroy the sustenance and livelihood options of the commons will result in poverty and underdevelopment.

Development projects are considered an ideal model that promotes the socio-economic standards of the people, but in reality, it becomes the root cause of the sufferings of the marginalized people. As Roy comments, “It’s common knowledge now that Big Dams do the opposite of what their Publicity People say they do - the Local Pain for National Gain myth has been blown wide open” (58).

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The Developmental projects often result in the displacement of the indigenous people from their own ancestral lands. In projects such as the construction of industrial plants, roads and railway lines displacement of people is more visible than in Eco developmental projects such as conservation of biodiversity, construction of dams and canals. Displacement is often carried out by forcible or involuntary eviction. This kind of forced displacement deprives the basic needs of the tribal people such as home, livestock assets, livelihood options and familiar environment which in turn result in the sense of estrangement, alienation and insecurity. Roy comments, “India’s Adivasi people have a greater claim to being indigenous to this land than anybody else, and how are they treated by the state and its minions? Oppressed, cheated, robbed of their lands, shunted around like surplus goods” (34). Since tribal people and their histories, their customs, their deities are considered dispensable; they must learn to sacrifice everything they once possessed for the greater common good of the nation (35).

As discussed in the introductory chapter, globalization accumulates wealth by the enclosure of common properties which are the collective assets of the poor.

It is said that the enclosures would bring growth and prosperity to all. However, in reality, it brings unprecedented poverty to the common people. For instance, the enclosure of forests from the indigenous people to the state benefits the private paper and pulp industry by providing them with cheap raw materials. So also the mega dams, which are built in the name of common good, aim to satisfy the water needs of the global corporations and private industries (Shiva 30). Hence, it is apparent that globalization and its developmental projects benefit only a few at the expense of the majority.

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In 1948, while talking to the displaced people by the Hirakud dam,

Jawaharlal Nehru remarks, “If you are to suffer, you should suffer in the interest of the country…” (qtd. in Roy 47). Dam-building is considered nation-building. As a result, India becomes the world’s third largest dam builder. The Central Water

Commission reports that India has built three thousand three hundred big dams after independence and one thousand more are under construction (Roy 56). Earlier people are displaced in the name of nation-building, but now it still continues under the cover of economic growth of the country. In other words, the shift from nation-building to globalization has accelerated displacement by development.

According to a recent report, over 60 million people have been displaced during the last 60 years (Mathur 3). Meher comments on the waves of economic transformation and its effects on the tribal people as:

It should be noted that during the first wave of economic

transformations that led to the birth of settled agricultural

economies, the indigenous peoples were pushed into the hilly and

mountainous regions by the more technologically advanced

sections of the population. Now in the current era of globalization in

the name of modernization and higher economic development, they

are being pushed into oblivion and displaced by the modernizing

invaders. (459)

Shiva also explicates that globalization and the trade-driven economic reforms destroy small farms and poor peasants. As a result, “Five million peasants’ livelihoods have disappeared in India since “reforms” were introduced” (36).

While discussing on the construction of dams, Roy comments, “the dam- building industry in the First World is in trouble and out of work. So it’s exported

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to the Third World in the name of Development Aid, along with their other waste, like old weapons, superannuated aircraft carriers and banned pesticides” (58).

According to a recent report, over 20 percent or 13.5 million tribal people have become victims of developmental projects. Nearly 1.7 million people have been displaced by just 119 central and state developmental projects. Out of this, more than half are tribals. 5.3 million tribals have been displaced by dams. 1.4 million tribals have been displaced by mines. Industries, sanctuaries, national parks and other developmental projects have displaced yet another million tribals. “Even though tribals constitute only about 8 percent of the country’s population, we see that they usually constitute about half of those displaced by development projects”

(Ghatak xxvi).

A tribal can transfer his or her land to only another tribal. Any transfer of land to a non-tribal is considered illegal. “He can sell or gift the land to the government for a charitable purpose” (Ghatak 71). The land acquisition act of 1894 which was introduced by the British government still continues with some alterations in 1967 and 1984. This act vests the government with the power and authority to acquire the lands of the tribal people by either compulsion or voluntary eviction for both the public and private purposes. However, “the Land Acquisition

Act did not say anything on the type or nature of compensation payable to oustees and time period for payment of compensation” (Mallavarapu 36). Most often the project affected persons do not receive cash or land-based compensation on time.

Only a very few are provided with proper housing and source of income. Since majority of the tribals are illiterate and lack the required skills, only fewer get jobs in the industries established in their region.

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The adverse effects of displacement on the indigenous people caused by the developmental projects are hard to assess. Roy points out the negligent behaviour of the government towards the displaced indigenous people as, “the government has not commissioned a post-project evaluation of a single one of its 3,600 dams to gauge whether or not it has achieved what it set out to achieve, whether or not the

(always phenomenal) costs were justified, or even what the costs actually were”

(59). According to the national and state rehabilitation and resettlement (R and R) policy, the displaced tribals should be provided with “land to land or cash compensation”. Minimum agricultural wages (MAWs) must be given as an additional means of financial support to the project affected persons for the loss of customary or grazing rights. They should be relocated in the nearby area “so that they retain their ethnic, linguistic and cultural identity”. Additional lands can be offered for the purpose of community and religious gatherings. Representatives of project affected people should be included in the rehabilitation and resettlement (R and R) committee (Mallavarapu 37).

In essence, the displaced tribal people are often promised to provide decent compensation with proper rehabilitation and resettlement (R and R). However, it has not been implemented as promised. As a result, the extent of their suffering has increased to greater heights. If they have been resettled to a place which has equivalent or better living conditions, their problems would have reduced except the sense of loss of their accustomed place which could easily fade away with the better standard of living. However, in reality, the tribal or indigenous people are provided with insufficient compensation. They are often resettled in worse lands where there are less livelihood options and even their lives are under threat. In the process of relocation, they not only lose their assets and life sustaining livelihood

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options, but also encounter the socio-economic and cultural issues such as social exclusion and discrimination. Thus, Meher comments, “Their status changes from self-sustaining members of their local ecosystem to ecological refugees who are forced into the slums of the large urban centres and urban-industrial towns created by the development pathologies of our time” (459).

In recent decades, economic globalization, trade liberal policies and free flow of foreign investment have led to an increase in the mega developmental projects such as multi-purpose dams and large scale mining industries. these mega projects which have promised to improve the livelihood options, thereby promoting the living standards of the tribal people, in reality have largely benefited only the MNCs and elite class by pushing the tribal people and the poor peasants into the periphery where their life subsistence are under threat. As Meher remarks:

In recent years this displacement has become more intensified due

to the conditions created by globalization and economic

liberalization, which favour the growth of many mineral-based

industries set up by the MNCs and large Indian corporate houses in

the mineral rich tribal regions of the country. (458)

Free market economy and trade liberalization policies have facilitated the transnational corporations and multinational organizations to set up their mineral- based industries to explore and exploit the abundant mineral resources of the less developed countries. As a result, the tribal people, who are the inhabitants of the lands that are rich in natural resources, have been dispossessed of their lands without proper rehabilitation and resettlement.

The government has planned to set up mineral-based mining industry owned by MNCs in Rayagada and Kalahandi districts of Orissa which have rich

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bauxite deposits. These regions have many perennial streams and rich natural resources that provide life sustainable resources including food materials. The introduction of mineral-based industries would pose a great threat to the contented life and traditional means of subsistence of the tribal people. It is said that these industries would improve the socio-economic living conditions of the tribals by offering jobs to them. However, it is not possible in reality as most of the indigenous people are illiterate. Meher points out the fretful feelings of the tribes of Kashipur area of Rayagada and Lanjigarh area of Kalahandi as:

thousands of them have been living for ages in the forests and

obtaining a decent livelihood by cultivating crops watered by the

streams which flow down from the hills. They feel threatened with

losing their livelihoods based on agriculture and forest that would

ensue if the projects go through (463).

When the indigenous or tribal people protest against the mining industry project, three tribes have been killed in the police firing against the protesters. Despite their resistance and protests against the mining projects, the government proceeds with the project without formulating proper rehabilitation and resettlement (R and R) policy for the tribals. Only a very few tribal people have been provided with cash or land-based compensation, and the rest of them are denied of their compensation.

Even those who have received got only a meagre amount and improper lands as compensations.

The adverse environmental effects produce by the mining and mineral- based industries in the tribal regions are hard to assess. As Meher remarks:

It would also leave gaping holes in the forest after the ore is

exhausted. The mining would also damage streams and ground

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water sources, permanently rendering the forest unfit for habitation.

It would convert the entire region into a desert and barren land after

the exhaustion of bauxite ores. Nothing would be left for the future

generations to earn their subsistence (463)

This type of industries not only deprive the tribals of their traditional means of livelihoods, but also destruct the ecosystem. The hazardous wastes and pollutants spew out by these industries owned by the transnational corporations contaminate the air, water bodies and land resources of the tribals. The spread of the massive industrial pollution and the increasing demand for water by these industries greatly affect the agricultural lands around these harmful industries, thereby threatening the life sustaining livelihood options of the poor peasants. Meher reports:

Many villages located below the mine area complain that their

agriculture is now completely ruined after long exposure to the

pollution generated by the mines. Because of the deposits of red

laterite soil and iron oxide that get carried away along with the rain

water from the mines to the agricultural land below, the fertility of

the soil is lost. Day by day, the land is becoming more barren and

the top soil is lost due to mining and large scale felling of trees. The

villages near the mine are so severely affected by the pollution that

they have made several representations to the District Collector to

save them from increasing land and water pollution. (473)

Apart from the establishment of mining and mineral-based industries, the government concentrates more on the Eco developmental projects such as construction of multipurpose dams and conservation of biodiversity like national parks and sanctuaries. The acquisition and exploitation of tribal lands and

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resources has become a common phenomenon in recent decades due to “the State and Multi-National Companies (MNCs) sponsored developmental projects such as large scale irrigational projects, dams, reservoirs, mining, sanctuaries, industries and tourism projects” (Mallavarapu 36). For instance, tribal groups such as Konda

Reddis and Nayakapods of Reddigudem and Lakshmipuram villages respectively are displaced due to the “Kovvada Reservoir” project in West Godavari Agency and Yandai tribals have been dispossessed of their lands due to Tiger Sanctuary at

Srisailam without any proper rehabilitation and resettlement (R and R) package.

The government of Andra Pradesh has initiated the Kovvada reservoir project to meet the required water supply for the agricultural lands of the non-tribals and for the industries in the uplands. It is said that this project would promote the agricultural productivity, thereby improving the economy through cultivation. But in reality, the tribals have been forcefully evicted by the immigrant non-tribal settlers and the project officials. The government officials have decided to provide compensation of Rs. 80,000 and Rs. 60,000 per acre for cashew orchids and plain lands respectively. However:

The oustees struggled for about 4 -5 years to collect their land

compensation and spent most of the compensation amount towards

bribes to Government officials and the extensive travels they made

to the Government offices. Rest of the compensation amount was

paid to the money lenders to clear off their debts. (Mallavarapu 39)

Finally, as a result, these tribals and poor peasants are marginalised and pushed into the periphery. This in turn results in the large scale migration to the urban areas. Since they lack the required skills, they couldn’t find any employment

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opportunity in the urban centre and at last end up in rag-picking, rickshaw-pulling and even as bonded labour (Mallavarapu 38-39).

The Narmada Valley project is yet another developmental project which involves large scale tribal displacement. Nearly 25 million people live in the

Narmada river valley in Madhya Pradesh. It covers more than 1300 kilometres of rich forest and fertile agricultural lands. Roy points out that the Narmada valley project will surely alter the ecology of the entire river. It not only affects the lives of millions, but also submerges and destroys “4,000 square kilometres of natural deciduous forest”. The World Bank offers to fund the project even before the environmental ministry approves it (75-76). Both the Sardar Sarovar in Gujarat and the Narmada Sagar in Madhya Pradesh are multi-purpose dams which displace millions from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra to largely benefit Gujarat.

Irrigation, power production and flood-control are the main purposes of these dams. Arundhati Roy remarks that the three main functions of these dams conflict with each other. She elucidates:

Irrigation uses up the water you need to produce power. Flood

control requires you to keep the reservoir empty during the

monsoon months to deal with an anticipated surfeit of water. And if

there’s no surfeit, you’re left with an empty dam. And this defeats

the purpose of irrigation, which is to store the monsoon water. It’s

like the conundrum of trying to ford a river with a fox, a chicken

and a bag of grain. The result of these mutually conflicting aims…

when the Sardar Sarovar Projects are completed, and the scheme is

fully functional, it will end up producing only 3 percent of the

power that its planners say it will. About fifty Megawatts. (83)

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Kerala is well-known for its socio-economic developments in recent decades. the government policies aim to achieve quality human development in terms of high standard of living, good education and proper medical care.

However, these developmental projects exclude the tribal or the indigenous people of Kerala. Wayanad district of Kerala has the largest concentration of tribal inhabitants. This mountainous region covers vast plains, large scale cultivable lands and dense forest area. Attappadi region in Palakkad district has the second largest tribal population. The tribal or the indigenous people form the majority of forest dwellers. They completely depend on the forest and forest resources for their life subsistence. Hunting, foraging and cultivation are some of their primary ways of livelihoods. The forest dwellers are contented with their traditional ways of living and have led a peaceful life.

On one side, the self-sufficient lives of the tribals have been disrupted by the non-tribal migrants from Tamil Nadu and Travancore after 1930s. These non- tribal settlers have forcefully evicted the tribals of their home lands and pushed into the marginalised state of living. Bhaskaran remarks:

The largely self-sufficient, culturally distinct way of life of the

tribals fast eroded, as their traditional methods of cultivation- slash

and burn-and their crops- Ragi, Cholam and Thina – were

substituted with more commercially viable methods and crops.

(Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu VI)

On the other side, the government Eco developmental project of wild life sanctuary in Wayanad district has displaced the tribals of their lands, deprived them of livestock assets and sustaining livelihoods. 1975 and 1976 government statistical

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reports show 57 percent and 61 percent of tribals are landless respectively.

Bhaskaran comments,

This indicated the rapidity with which they were ( losing their lands.

Even the Kerala Land Reform Act of 1957, which was introduced

by the Communists and was termed ‘progressive’, could not come

in the way of transfer of tribal lands, as there were enough

loopholes for circumvention. (vii-viii)

C. K. Janu’s Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C. K. Janu unfolds the self- sustaining life of the tribals and their symbiotic relationship with the forest lands by narrating her own childhood experiences in the mother forest. It discloses the adverse effects of the ecodevelopmental projects such as setting up of wild life sanctuaries and conservation of national parks on the tribal people of Wayanad district. The story not only explores their fears to lose their cultural identity, sustaining livelihood options and their intimate bond with the mother nature, but also their resistance and protest to restore the lost ancestral lands. In short, it exhibits how the tribal and indigenous people of Kerala become the victims of its developmental projects.

The tribal or indigenous people have a symbiotic relationship with the forest they dwell in. C.K. Janu’s childhood experience not only unfolds their traditional means of livelihoods such as fishing and foraging, but also reveals their intimate bond with nature. She narrates:

When young all of us children would go the ridges of the fields to

pick chappa or to the little stream to catch fish or else to lure out the

crabs hiding in the slush of the fields or to graze the Jenmi’s cattle

or to roam aimlessly in the woods or to pluck wild fruits like

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karappayam mothangappayam or kanjippayam kanjippayam was

plentiful. When eaten it turned our tongues blood-red or we would

look for honey in the tall trees or … bring home pieces of cane in

the forests one never knew what hunger was we would dig up wild

tubers and eat them once we started digging for the roots we kept

digging till we got to them. Sometimes for a whole day. (2)

This passage indicates their self-sufficient and distinctive way of living. Since the forest they dwell in provides them everything in abundance, they have led a contented and uninterrupted life. To them, “the forest is mother to us more than a mother because she never abandons us” (5).

The tribals build high wooden platforms between the trees to aim at their prey and to safeguard their crops from the wild animals. Although their’s is a tough life, they enjoy the beauty associated with it. The tribals work as labourers in the fields of Jenmi (feudal landlords). The fields in which they work as labourers were once belong to the tribals. In fact, they are their ancestral property from which the tribals have been forcefully evicted and pushed into the worst wastelands of the forest. Janu explains how the tribal or indigenous people have become landless labourers as:

the hillsides the mountains the plantations the field and what not in

that area belonged to them after our forefathers had toiled so much

to clear the woods and burn the undergrowth and convert the

hillsides into fields they had taken them over as their own that’s

how all our lands become theirs. (Mother Forest: The Unfinished

Story of C.K. Janu 15)

Now in the fields of jenmi, they do back-breaking works such as:

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Digging up the soil with spades sowing pulling out the seedlings

transplanting them weeding watering reaping carrying the sheaves

of corn and such. again picking the left over ears of corn from the

harvested field then more work like threshing drying the straw in

the sun tying up the hay into sheaves and piling up haystacks. (1)

Men, women and children all work hard in the fields to get meagre wages. After harvest, they have been given grains as wages. Janu recollects those nights of harvest. When they are returning back home with the grains they have received as wages, they could hear the music of chini and thudi being played as a sign of happiness. She remarks that they are not truly happy simply because they have got a very low wage for the work they put in the fields. They are too scared to raise their voice against the feudal lords. Their unquestioning acceptance is revealed through her words, “there never was a tradition of protesting when the wages were low nor in other communities. Our people were also not used to going anywhere beyond the fields or the forests” (16).

The rainy season is the most unpleasant period of their life. It throws light on their marginalized state of living. During the rainy season, they could leave the field “only after planting the whole field”. When they get wet while working in the fields, they don’t possess a spare clothe to change. They often get nothing to eat as they could not gather food products from the forest during rainy season. Only when it stops raining, could they gather something to fill their stomach. It is also understood that the wage they earn by breaking their backs in the fields is not enough to stave off hunger. Janu reports:

It would be quite dark by the time we reached our hovels even after

reaching them we could not be able to sleep immediately. We

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would be so hungry and cold. It was impossible to kindle the fire in

the hearth. We would eat some chakka or thina. The little one

would sleep even without that we wouldn’t be able to see each other

since we had no lights anyway everyone must look the same when

hungry. (Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu 14)

It is evident from the words of C.K. Janu that the dispossession of forest lands, which comforts the tribes, deprives them of their basic needs and life sustaining options.

The tribals have been completely deprived of their lands and livelihoods by the migrants from the South, the modernising invaders of the globalized India. They plant coffee and eat chakka and kappa like the tribals do. The jenmis only looted the lands from the indigenous people, whereas the migrant non-tribal settlers not only take over the good cultivable lands from them, but also enslave their men in return for toddy and arrack. It is said that the arrival of the migrants is good as it opens up a space to the tribals to mingle with the civil society. However, in reality, the tribals are completely ruined by these settlers. Janu reports:

Our people had turned into mere wage labourers. Mother Forest

had turned into the Departmental Forest. It had barbed wire fences

and guards. Our children had begun to be frightened of a forest that

could no longer accommodate them. All the land belonged to the

migrants… They began to extract profit, instead of yield from the

land. They called them commercial crops. Paddy fields began to

dwindle. When our lands were encroached upon and the fields

became scarce, we had to look for other kind of jobs. There were

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agitations to get an increase of fifty paise or even one rupee in

wages. (30)

These migrants have not only changed their traditional ways of cultivation, but also turned agriculture into a mere commerce. As Shiva remarks:

The more the powerful gained economic and political power from

the growing market economy, the more they dispossessed the poor

and enclosed their common property. And the more the poor were

dispossessed of their means to provide their own sustenance, the

more they had to turn to the market to buy what they had formerly

produced themselves. (20-21)

Whenever the tribal people clear the woods, burn the undergrowth and converted the earth into cultivable lands, the jenmis and the migrants acquire the fields by giving arrack or small amount to the tribal men. The irony is that they work in the same fields as landless labourers, grow crops for the landlords at a mere “wage that could not even keep hunger away” (Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of

C.K. Janu 32). As a result, they have started buying everything from the shops.

Janu remarks:

Ration cards, electoral rolls, and numbers for the huts came into

being. We started buying mulagu, thuvara and payar from the

shops. Become indebted to the shopkeepers. More needs meant

more money. We now had to buy medicines for fever. Injections

and prescription slips came into existence. Our children studied up

to the fourth or fifth and began to hate the forests and the earth. We

didn’t get wages for work done, we led agitations. The jemni and

the Party men postponed settlement indefinitely. But if the

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agitations continued much longer we would die of hunger. We

couldn’t go to the forests either. (32-33)

Thus, the growing market economy, which has enclosed the common property and dispossessed the tribes of their sustaining resources to accumulate wealth, shifts the status of the tribes from self-sustaining members to ecological refugees (Meher

459).

Apart from the jenmis and migrants, the rotten democracy and the corrupt politicians who should protect the rights of the tribals have violated them and contributed to their impoverishment. As Shiva comments, “In Third World countries the transformation of natural resources into commodities has been largely mediated by the state. Though couched in the language of advancing the collective public interest, the state is often a powerful instrument for the privatization of resources” (30). The political parties do no good to the tribal people and merely use them as vote bank to win the elections. They are largely responsible for the creation of unwed mothers who give birth to babies of party men. Whenever there is some agitation or protest, the parties pretend to take their side, but the final decisions favour the landlords. Janu and her people have started realising that the party men would do nothing for the welfare of the tribal people as they lust after power and money. She reports:

The fact that we could no more collect even fallen twigs from the

forest, the fact that tree after tree was cut down and transported in

lorries down the mountains, that our huts had walls that could

crumble any moment, that we could not thatch our fallen roofs, that

we had to squat in front of the Panchayat officers demanding

drinking water, that our indigenous medicine and occult customs

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became calendar pictures printed on newspapers-all this we knew

by being within the Party. We knew that all this happened with the

Party’s mute support and because of its greed for power. (Mother

Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu 38)

Their victimization has reached its climax when the migrants and other rich landlords have started encroaching their burial grounds. As a consequence, they have no place left to bury the dead. Nearly 60 people have squatted in front of the police station under Janu’s leadership and insisted that they would not leave the place unless the burial grounds return to them. The encroacher gets the support of the party. Whenever the party handles these kinds of issues related to the tribals, it often ends up against them as the party men take the side of money and power.

Added to this, it is the time of election in the local co-operative bank. Since the vote of the encroacher is decisive in the election, the party attempts to settle the encroachment issue in his favour. Janu understands that she could do nothing for her people by remaining in the party for it uses the landless labourers as ingredients for the party song and decoration for their speech. She comments:

From great heights, they sometimes announced free rations of a kilo

of rice. And declared subsidies that we could not understand in

times of starvation. … Made men and women lazy by telling them

that their time was coming. They started creating folk arts

academies and research papers saying that our traditions, medicine,

our way of dressing and drumming on the thudi were all under

threat of extinction. (Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K.

Janu 40)

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The increasing land acquisition has led to the growth of the number of people who have become landless and homeless labourers. The tribals have lost their lands for various reasons. Many of them have lost their lands just because they couldn’t prove their ownership as most of them possess no proper records or documents of the lands. Others have transferred their lands for the debts and the rest for toddy and arrack. The means through which the tribals are evicted from their lands may differ, but the ultimate goal behind them is one and the same that is the eviction of the tribals for the development of the country which merely benefits the elite class.

As a result of the absolute displacement and deprivation of lands and livelihoods, the tribal people, under the guidance of C.K. Janu, encroach the lands in Thirunelli. It is a small hilly region of about eighteen acres which has been taken away from their ancestors long back. Forty-five landless and homeless families including Paniyars, Adiyars and Kurichyars have occupied illegally and settled in this region. The forest guards and police force beat them up badly to drive them away from the lands. However, they remain in the hilly region as they have no place to go. Since they refuse to leave the place, a lawsuit has been filed against them and the land becomes disputed land. She reports:

because this is disputed land we cannot demand drinking water. We

cannot get electricity also though a transmission line passes by. And

because the houses do not have numbers, we cannot get ration cards

either. And we cannot apply for anything. Because Party people

don’t get our votes, our names are also not there in the voter’s lists.

(Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu 42)

The party men have turned against the encroachers as the encroached land belongs to a rich person in Karnataka who is very close to the party. As a consequence, the

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party men have created a difficult situation for the tribal people by not providing them with any work. Even the shops downhill refuse to give them the groceries.

Although she finds it hard to hold her people together in such a difficult situation, she manages to convince them to face the dreadful situation with hope. She remarks:

Landed people may not call us for work for some time, but not

forever because those with land cannot work on it. Our people have

to do all jobs related to earth, land, mud and slush so they started

calling us again for work, for clearing the woods, watering the

fields, transplanting paddy, manuring coffee and digging up the

ground with spades and such. (43)

Realising the fact that she could not improve the status of her people through party work, she has decided to unite her people to voice their miseries and left the party in 1991. She formed the Aadivaasi Vikasana Pravarthaka Samiti (Organisation for

Tribal Development Workers) in 1992. The main aim of this organisation is the reclamation of tribal lands. From then onwards, she has led many agitations and protests to restore their lost lands by encroaching upon them.

Later, in 1994, she has gathered nearly 300 landless and homeless families and occupied lands in Appootti near Mananthavaadi. They build huts and stay there. After a while, they are severely beaten up by the forest guards. Many are terribly injured. She has been hospitalized for nearly 20 days. Others have been evicted from the place. However, they continue to encroach upon lands in

Vellamunda, Chiniyeru, and Kundara in Munnar. In all these issues, they have been terribly beaten up and severely tortured by both the leftist and rightist governments with the police force. However, the government with its police force

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has failed in its attempt to break the will of the tribals. Since they have no other place to go, the tribals stay back and refuse to leave the encroached lands. Janu comments, “These were not just land encroachments. They were life and death struggles for our basic right to live and die where we were born. All our struggles have been struggles to establish the ownership rights of the real owners of this land for the right to live on it”. (Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu 54-

55)

In 2001, along with the landless tribals janu has led a historical agitation by putting up huts in front of the secretariat for nearly forty days until the government sign the agreement with the tribals on 16 October 2001. In this agreement, the government promises to provide five acres of lands to the landless tribal families living in project areas like Sugandhagiri and Pookode. In other areas, the landless tribals or the tribals who possess less than one acre should be provided with agricultural lands. The distribution of the lands would begin on 1st January 2002.

For a period of five years, the members of the tribal families would be provided with job opportunities. However, the government remains passive in fulfilling the promises made to the tribals. Infuriated by the government’s negligent attitude, under the leadership of janu, the tribals have encroached upon the forest lands of

Muthanga in Wayanad district and settled there. On 19 Feb 2003, the police firing to evacuate the tribals has resulted in the death of a policeman and a tribal. Janu has been arrested and imprisoned on this struggle. After visiting the Muthanga

Sanctuary, Arundhati Roy wrote a letter to the Kerala Chief Minister A.K. Antony, in which she comments:

The Muthanga atrocity will go down in Kerala’s history as a

government’s attempt to decimate an extraordinary and historical

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struggle for justice by the poorest, most oppressed community in

Kerala. It will go down in history because, unlike most ‘struggles’

in Kerala, it is not a petty, cynical fight between political parties

jockeying for power. It is the real fight of the truly powerless

against the powerful. It is the stuff of which myths are made.

(Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu 63)

On one side, the government officials, party men, rich landlords and migrants use all possible mean ways to break the symbiotic relationship between the tribals and their mother forest by forcefully evicting the indigenous people from their natural inhabitation. On the other side, “they wrote article after article lamenting the state of the environment” (49). Roy ridicules the unfair treatment of the indigenous people by the government as:

India doesn’t live in her villages. India dies in her villages. India

gets kicked around in her villages. India lives in her cities. India’s

villages live only to serve her cities. Her villagers are her citizens’

vassals and for that reason must be controlled and kept alive, but

only just. (70-71)

The tribals have had a unique system of living which is close to nature.

They burn the undergrowth and convert the forest lands into cultivable lands. They have the practice of preserving food for future consumption. They have a unique way of predicting time and season from the chirping of birds and falling of leaves.

Although their system of life does not conform to the needs of the civil society, it is complete in itself. The corrupt politician and the greedy civil society which lust after power and wealth have designed many developmental projects for the tribals that merely benefit the elite class. Janu vehemently comments:

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… civil society and parties looking for power had to cook up

projects apparently for our people, but actually to fulfil the needs of

civil society, siphoning off all that money and transforming our

people into good-for-nothings. So they transplant us to where there

is no space even to stand up straight. Without drinking water or a

place to relieve themselves, the image of a group of unclean people

was slowly being created. (Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of

C.K. Janu 47-48)

As discussed earlier, globalization and neoliberal policies play a crucial role in the massive displacement by development. World Bank is often willing to fund these kinds of developmental projects which displace millions from their homelands with “The merest crumbs of information” (Roy 80). In other words, it funds the developmental projects without demanding more information about the resettlement and rehabilitation (R and R) of the project affected persons. Hiding behind the phrases such as aiding hands of developing countries, the neo-colonial powers exploit the resources of the developing nations. India often repays more than what it received from the World Bank for its developmental projects.

According to 1998 World Bank report, India paid 478 million dollars more than it received (qtd. in Roy 77).

Thus, Janu through her autobiography discloses the destructed lives of the tribal or the indigenous people. It explores not only their intimacy with nature, but also the traumatic condition encountered by them due to land alienation. It exhibits the indifferent and negligent attitude of government towards the tribals. Hence, it is evident that the developmental projects funded by the global powers which aim to produce unprecedented growth, build nation or preserve nature merely destroy and

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degrade the ecosystem of the developing nations, thereby depriving the tribals or the indigenous people of their homelands, familiar environment and life sustaining livelihood options.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

As indicated at the beginning, the present study has explored the opposing voices against globalization and its adverse impact on the developing nations, particularly on India, as represented and portrayed in the works of seven distinct contemporary Indian writers. Therefore, the analysis presented in the previous chapters has been an attempt to map out the life-threatening consequences of neo- colonialism or neo-imperialism or globalization in three most specific facets: culture, economy and ecology. The analysis of the literary texts taken for the study clearly suggests that when compared to developed countries, less developed nations are more liable to the adverse effects of globalization such as the decrease in cultural diversity, the widening gap between the rich and the poor and the ecological destruction.

Two theoretical inferences can be drawn from the introductory chapter, which present the theoretical framework and complete background of the dissertation. First, the process of globalization, which is often seen as a new phenomenon of the 21st century, is really an old process that began at the time of colonial expansion. Many critics like Kwame Nkrumah, John Tomlinson and

Vandana Shiva assert that globalization is the new form of colonial dominance which is referred to as neo-colonialism. Unlike the colonial powers, the global powers exert the soft power to control and over exploit all the resources of the developing nations. As Roy comments:

the CEOs and their men don’t need to go to the trouble of tramping

through the tropics risking malaria, diarrhea, sunstroke and an early

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death. They don’t have to maintain an army or a police force, or

worry about insurrections and mutinies. They can have their

colonies and an easy conscience. ‘Creating a good investment

climate’ is the new euphemism for third world repression. Besides,

the responsibility for implementation rests with the local

administration. (202-203)

Second, the developing nations are more likely to be affected by the adverse impacts of globalization than developed nations.

Unlike colonialism, the global powers employ different ways such as trade liberal policies, enclosure of commons, cultural synchronization and commodification of culture to dominate and plunder the wealth of the developing nations. The United States, being the leading global power, spreads the American culture across the world to lure the rest of the nations into the global capitalist economic system so as to accumulate wealth. The transnational corporations and the widespread information and communication technology play a significant role in spreading the homogenized culture, thereby posing a great threat to the diverse and distinct cultures of the world. As Tomlinson remarks, “More importantly, the effects of globalisation are to weaken the cultural coherence of all individual nation-states, including the economically powerful ones - the ‘imperialist powers’ of a previous era” (175). The transnational advertisements serve as a tool to spread the American capitalist consumer culture across the world by promoting its uniform commodities and world brand products among nations. These advertisements impose a false consciousness on the people of the third world nations that American products are superior in quality than the commodities lack trademarks, thereby economically exploiting the people of the third world nations.

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In other words, American pop culture like an industry transforms the cultural forms into cultural products and commodities and standardizes culture, thereby enticing the rest of the world into a single global capitalist market economy so as to manipulate them for its benefits.

The second, third and the fourth chapters draw their arguments upon these factors which serve as the primal motivation and catalyst to the process of globalization. Chapter II presents the portrayal of cultural destruction that globalization has brought to India. The United States, being the dominant global power, moulds the minds and tastes of the young generation in the developing nations forcibly thrusted through its consumer culture and unrestricted neoliberal market and economic policies. Chetan Bhagat’s One Night at the Call Center and

Anjum Hasan’s Neti Neti have explored the socio-cultural hegemony of the global powers over the diverse cultures of the third world nations particularly India. These novels unfold the cold and unpleasant life in highly sophisticated buildings with centralized air conditioners. The intellectual, mental and physical exploitations of the human resources of the developing nations in these air conditioned sweatshops are vividly portrayed in these novels. Compelling the agents to establish American identity, speak with American accent and serving American fast food in the

Cafeteria are the ways through which the multinational corporations induce the people of less developed nations to adapt American lifestyle. This spread of the uniform capitalist monoculture destroys the established life patterns and value systems of the diverse cultures of the third world nations. The spread of

American food culture pose a great threat to the public health of the developing nations. The United States outsources major parts of its processing to the less developed nations so as to take advantage of highly skilful and educated labourers

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at cheaper rate. Many pro-globalization critics argue that this free flow of capital would enhance the economic growth of the developing nations. However, in reality, this cannot be achieved because the dominant American fast food and consumer culture take away the capital which it poured in. hence, it is evident that the wide spread American monoculture, which promotes the global capitalism, exploits the human resources of the developing nations in all its dimensions and pose a great threat to small diverse cultures of the world.

The neoliberal ideology, which is projected as the one and only sustainable economic system that could produce wealth, is the most significant neo-colonial strategy of the global powers to manipulate and exploit the resources of the third world countries. This neoliberal development agenda promises that the structural adjustment programmes and the international free trade agreements would create unprecedented economic growth to the developing and under developed nations.

However, many economists and activists like Joseph E. Stiglitz and Vandana Shiva assert that in reality the LPG model benefits the global powers and increases poverty and widens the gap between the rich and the poor in the less developed nations.

The trade liberalization policies, which have reduced or removed the trade restrictions for the exchange of goods and commodities among nations, largely favour the developed nations. As Stiglitz elucidates:

Today, few--apart from those with vested interests who benefit from

keeping out the goods produced by the poor countries defend the

hypocrisy of pretending to help developing countries by forcing

them to open up their markets to the goods of the advanced

industrial countries while keeping their own markets protected,

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policies that make the rich richer and the poor more impoverished

and increasingly angry. (xv)

Through neo-liberal policies, the neo-colonial powers have forced the developing nations to eliminate their trade barriers, but at the same time maintained their own barriers for trade. For instance, the developed countries prevent the less developed nations to export their agricultural products, thereby depriving them of the most needed export income (Stiglitz 6).

Although developing nations like India are officially free to export some agricultural food products, most of the food products cannot be exported as they lack the environmental standards of the first world. Moreover, through the World

Trade Organization, the neo-colonial powers like the United States force the developing countries to reduce their agricultural subsidies to the farmers in order to make the third world market more profitable. As Roy elucidates:

Huge, mechanized corporate enterprises working thousands of acres

of farmland want to compete with impoverished subsistence farmers

who own only a couple of acres. In effect, India’s rural economy is

being garroted. Farmers who produce too much are in distress,

farmers who produce too little are in distress and landless

agricultural labour is out of work as big estates and farms lay off

their workers. They’re all flocking to the cities in search of

employment. (202)

The developing countries are also compelled to reduce or remove their import restrictions so as to benefit the global powers. As Shiva remarks:

The free trade of agricultural products is basically a food swap, with

countries importing the same commodities they export, rather than

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exporting what they can uniquely produce and importing what they

cannot, the entire world is being pushed into trading a handful of

commodities controlled by the agribusiness giants. (36)

As a result, the markets of the third world nations are flooded with imported food products pushing the domestic products aside. This in turn results in the impoverishment of the farmers.

The widespread American capitalist monoculture is yet another factor that increases poverty in the developing nations. Shiva asserts that the destruction of cultural diversity due to corporate globalization and its consumer culture would eventually lead to the disruption of the biological diversity and the ecosystems.

This results in scarcity and widens the gap between the rich and the poor in the developing nations. She comments, “Instead of a culture of abundance, profit- driven globalization creates cultures of exclusion, dispossession, and scarcity. In fact, globalization’s transformation of all beings and resources into commodities robs diverse species and people of their rightful share of ecological, cultural, economic, and political space” (2).

In this background, the third chapter brings out the negative impacts of globalization in the economy of India as portrayed in Aravind Adiga’s The White

Tiger and Vikas Swarup’s Q and A. These novels vividly portray the adverse effects of the widening gap between the rich and the poor by juxtaposing the India of light and the India of darkness. These novels disclose the unpleasant life of the underbelly in the dark India which remains untouched by globalization’s minimum benefits, but left to suffer because of it. The adverse effects of poverty on child development, poverty related crimes and other issues pertaining to poverty are exhibited in the novels. the analysis of the novels also send out the message that if

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the problems associated with increasing economic disparity are not addressed properly, they would lead to unimaginable disasters in the less developed nations.

The cultural and economic dimensions of globalization such as widespread consumer culture, neoliberal policy and foreign investment dependence have detrimental effects on the human, non-human and the natural environment of the third world nations. Globalization mainly concentrates on the market economy rather than on nature and society. The widespread American consumer culture, which offers a wide range of commodities and products to the consumers, intensifies the process of production and consumption of goods and services. This uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources to flood the market with huge variety of goods and services in order to accumulate wealth, results in the destruction of ecosystem. Fred Steward comments on the impact of free market economy and the sovereign power of the consumers on the global environment as:

Human capacity to affect the planetary environment appears to have

reached a new level … Consequences are expressed beyond both

the workers in the industry and the direct consumers of its products.

A local event like a nuclear plant melt-down has an impact across

the world through the radiation released. Individual consumption

decisions on the use of aerosols containing CFCs can affect planet-

wide systems such as the ozone layer. Environmental impacts -

become increasingly cumulative and indirect. They are expressed

over new and unpredictable time spans. (qtd. in Tomlinson 175-

176)

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Shiva also unravels the myth about the so-called efficient production of market economy which destroys the ecosystem as, “Industrial agriculture uses 10 times more energy than it produces. It uses 10 times more water than biodiverse farming with water-prudent crops and organic practices use.” She remarks that biodiverse; ecological farms produce more than the large scale industrial, monoculture farms.

She concludes that the false notion of efficiency of production is created by hiding the ecological costs such as depletion of soils, exploitation of groundwater, and extinction of biodiversity (32).

The trade liberalization policy, which largely benefits the developed nations, adversely affects the environment of the less developed nations. The removal or restrictions of trade barriers facilitates the movement of highly polluting manufacturing plants and industries from developed nations with high environmental standards to less developed nations with low environmental regulations. The hazardous wastes from these industries contaminate the air, water bodies and land resources of the developing nations. Enclosure of commons, which forms the base of privatization, contributes much to the destruction of environment and degradation of ecosystem. The enclosure of common property by privatization

“deprives the politically weaker groups of their right to survival, which they had through access to commons” on one hand and on the other side, “it robs from nature its right to self-renewal and sustainability, by eliminating the social constraints on resource use that are the basis of common property management”

(Shiva 29). Thus, the LPG model, which promises unprecedented growth, ruins the ecosystem, thereby creating unprecedented poverty to the common people of the developing world. As Shiva remarks:

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Frequently, growth is generated by converting resources from

nature’s economy into market commodities. Economic growth takes

place through the exploitation of natural resources. Deforestation

creates growth. Mining of groundwater creates growth. Overfishing

creates growth. Further economic growth cannot help regenerate the

very spheres which must be destroyed for economic growth to

occur. Nature shrinks as capital grows. (32)

Hence, it is evident that trade liberalization policy, foreign investment dependence, enclosure of commons and the sovereignty of consumer culture have dreadful effects on the natural environment, human and nonhuman populations of the less developed nations. The global powers and companies hail to devastate the natural resources belonging to the people and the nations. They, in fact, desire the highest possible profit swindling the invaluable natural resources, and also by ignoring and bypassing the environmental concerns by any means. The fourth chapter of this study analyses the portrayal of ecological destructions and the plight of the deserted people represented in the contemporary Indian writings.

Indra Sinha’s Animal’s People and Amulya Malladi’s A Breath of Fresh

Air demonstrate the irreversible loss and the never-ending pain of the victims of the world’s worst industrial disaster in Bhopal. The novels exhibit the victim’s endless struggle for justice and proper medical care. The psychological and physical traumas experienced by the Bhopal victims are vividly portrayed in these works. C. K. Janu’s Mother Forest: The Unfinished Story of C.K. Janu depicts the survival struggle of the common people who have been displaced from their homelands and deprived of their sustenance and livelihoods in the name of

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development. It unfolds how the Eco developmental and urbanization projects impoverish the ordinary people by denying their access to the commons.

Thus, the LPG model, which produces wealth and high standard of living to a very few, exploits and challenges the economy, social structures, cultural values and beliefs, and environments of the developing nations. Since the process of globalization terribly affects the lives of ordinary people of the developing nations, it becomes essential to pay more attention to the issues raised by the commons.

Globalization is an inevitable process in the history of human development which cannot be reversed. As Francis Fukuyama remarks, “Today, no country can ever truly cut itself off from the global media or from external sources of information; trends that start in one corner of the world are rapidly replicated thousands of miles away” (qtd. in Friedman 70).

In this era of globalization, the significant challenges encountered by majority of nations and people are socio-cultural, economic and environmental issues. Striking a healthy balance between preserving one’s identity, home and community and one’s participation in the process of globalization becomes crucial. If a country’s participation in the global economic system crushes its identity, the roots of the olive tree would rebel and strangle the process of growth. While discussing the struggles to strike a healthy balance between cultural identity and the participation in the global market economy, Friedman comments:

A country without healthy olive trees will never feel rooted or

secure enough to open up fully to the world and reach out into it.

But a country that is only olive trees, that is only roots, and has no

247

Lexus, will never go, or grow, very far. Keeping the two in balance

is a constant struggle. (42)

Stiglitz claims that good economic policy has the potential to elevate people from poverty and enhance their standard of living. To achieve this, he remarks that the trade liberalization policies and the economic policies of the global institutions such as the International Monetary Fund which favour the developed nations have to be reformed in such a way that the developing countries would get equal benefit out of the neo-liberal policies. The huge capital produced by the destruction of the nature’s economy and the sustinence economy cannot regenerate the natural resources lost in the process. Protecting biological and cultural diversity would lead to sustained growth. Hence, Shiva asserts, “Biological diversity is a value and a source of richness, both materially and culturally that creates conditions for sustainability. Cultural diversity creates the conditions for peace. Defending biological and cultural diversity is a duty of all people” (9).

Keeping the limitations of the study, the focus has been narrowed down specifically to the three main dimensions of globalization: culture, economy and ecology. What has been attempted in the present study is only a beginning. There is a wider scope for future research. The impact of globalization on the lives of women and subaltern groups through literature, a study of ecology and globalization as expressed in tribal writings and an exploration of Indian villages as represented in literature after globalization could serve as the crucial factors to be explored for future study.

248

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