NOTES

1 Introduction

I. D. Blackbourn and G. Eley, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 169-74. 2. G. Tortella, 'Agriculture: A Slow Moving Sector, 1830-1935', inN. Sanchez• Albornoz (ed.), The Economic Modernization of Spain, 1830-1930 (New York: New York University Press, 1987), p. 45. 3. J. Nadal, 'The Failure of the Industrial Revolution in Spain, 1830-1914', in C. M. Cipolla (ed.), The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. VI, Part Two: The Emergence of Industrial Nations (Hassocks: the Harvester Press, 1976), pp. 556, 567. 4. A. Shubert, A Social History of Modern Spain (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), p. 60. 5. M. Tufi6n de Lara, Estudios de historia contemportinea (Barcelona: Nova Terra, 1977), p. 98. 6. The disentailment of the land began in 1836 under the minister and financier Juan Alvarez Mendizabal. His main target was the expropriation of the property owned by the secular as well as the regular clergy. It was sold at public auction with payment in either cash or government debt. Common and municipal lands were for the time being only leased out. It was not until the passing of the so-called Law of General Disentailment by Pascual Madoz in 1855 that all the land not privately owned was sold at pub• lic auction. 7. The two main political factions were the so-called Moderados and the Progresistas. The Moderados were the party of the upper classes, who believed in a political sovereignty shared by the Crown and parliament and quickly re-established good relations with the Catholic Church. The Progresistas appealed more to the middle classes. They were more anti-clerical and sup• ported parliamentary sovereignty, elected municipal governments and the establishment of citizens' militias under local control. Yet both models were essentially centralist and restricted the franchise to those with large prop• erty. The Progresistas granted the vote in 1837 to 2.2 per cent of the popula• tion which was later restricted by the Moderados in 1845 to just 0.8 per cent of the country. In 1856 the Progresistas extended the franchise to over 4 per cent of the population. 8. Nadal, op.cit., p. 541.

186 Notes 187

9. C. Trebilcock, The lndustrialiuztion of the Continental Powers, 1780-1914 (London: Longman, I98I ), p. 307. IO. Nadal, op.cit., pp. 549-53. II. The Cuban revolt lasted 10 years between I868 and I878. General Prim, the strong man of the new regime, was killed in the streets of Madrid. It remains a mystery who was behind this assassination. I2. R. Herr, An Historical Essay on Modern Spain (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, I97 4 ), p. II 0. I3. M. Tufi6n de Lara, Poder y sociedad en Espana, 1900-1931 (Madrid: Colecci6n Austral, 1992), pp. I 08-19, 202-Il. 14. J. Varela Ortega, Los amigos politicos: Partidos, elecciones y caciquismo en la Restauraci6n, 1875-1900 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1977), pp. 359-66. 15. J. Romero Maura, 'EI caciquismo: tentativa de conceptualizaci6n', pp. 19-22 and J. Varela Ortega, 'Los amigos polfticos: funcionamiento del sistema caciquista', p. 55, both in Revista de Occidente, no. 127 (October 1973). 16. J. Nadal, 'A Century of Industrialization in Spain, I833-I930', in Sanchez- Aibornoz (ed.), The Economic Moderniuztion of Spain, p. 64. 17. Nadal, The Failure, pp. 558-9. 18. Tortella, op.cit., p. 52. I9. R. Carr, Modern Spain, 1875-1980 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 20. 20. J. C. Ullman, The Tragic Week: A Study in Anticlericalism in Spain, 1875-1912 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 35. 21. F. Lannon, Privilege, Persecution and Prophecy: The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875-1975 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), pp. 121-2. 22. M. Ballbe, Orden publico y militarismo en la Espana constitucional, 1812-1983 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1985), pp. 247-8; J. Lleixa, Cien anos de mili• tarismo (Barcelona: Anagrama, I986), p. 60. 23. R. Nunez Florencio, El terrorismo anarquista, 1888-1909 (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1983), pp. 45-60; F. Olaya Morales, Historia del movimiento obrero espana{ (Madrid: Siglo XXI, I994), pp. 63I-65, 8I3-34. 24. C. Serrano, Final del Imperio: Espana, 1895-1898 (Madrid: Siglo XXI, I984), pp. 14-17. 25. j. Smith, The Spanish-American War: Conflict in the Caribbean and the Pacific, 1895-1902 (London: Longman, I994), pp. 2-3. 26. Serrano, op.cit., p. 12. 27. M. Golay, The Spanish-American War (New York: Facts on File, 1995), pp. 6-9; Smith, op.cit., pp. 28-30. 28. Canovas was the first to make that speech in the Cortes in July 1891. Sagasta expressed himself in similar terms in March 1895. 29. Golay, op.cit., p. 4. 30. Smith, op.cit., pp. I3-I4. 31. Smith, op.cit., pp. 30-47; Serrano, op.cit., pp. 32-3. 32. R. Perez Delgado, 1898. El ana del desastre (Madrid: Tebas, I976), pp. 292-4. 33. E. Moradiellos, 'I898: A Colonial Disaster Foretold', Association for Contemporary Iberian Studies (A CIS), 6, no. 2 (Autumn 1993), p. 36; J. Varela Ortega, 'Aftermath of Splendid Disaster: Spanish Politics before and after 188 Notes

the Spanish American War of 1898',journal of Contemporary History, vol. 15 ( 1980), pp. 319-22; Serrano, op.cit., pp. 38-40. 34. Serrano, op.cit., p. 41; Varela Ortega, 'Aftermath', pp. 323-5. 35. Admiral Cervera, in charge of the Spanish fleet in the Atlantic, summed up the situation when he declared that the navy had been sacrificed 'because unlike the army, it was unable to stage a coup'. 36. Perez, op.cit., pp. 363-4. 37. The United States offered a cash gift of20 million dollars for the cession of the Philippines.

2 The Liberal Monarchy: The Politics of Notables, 1898-1923

I. Perez, 1898, pp. 394-5. 2. Tufi6n, Espana: la quiebra de 1898 (Madrid: Sarpe, 1986), p. 13. 3. Varela, 'Aftermath', pp. 332-9; J. Harrison, The Regenerationist Movement in Spain after the Disaster of 1898', European Studies Review, vol. 9 (1979), pp. 8-23. 4. A. Yanini, 'La manipulaci6n electoral en Espana: sufragio universaly par• ticipaci6n ciudadana (1891-1923)', in J. Tusell (ed.), El sufragio universal (Madrid: Ayer no. 3, 1991), p. 102. 5. Lerroux has historically been vilified by Socialist, Syndicalist and Catalanist authors. Modern historiography has, to a certain extent, rescued Lerroux's tarnished reputation by trying to find a balance between his oppor• tunism and close collaboration with Liberal governments in Madrid with his ability to create a modern political party by mobilizing elements of the proletariat and petty bourgeoisie, formerly unrepresented within the Spanish political system. See J. Romero-Maura, 'La rosa de fuego'. El obrerismo barcelones de 1899 a 1909 (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1989); J. Alvarez Junco, El Emperador del Paralelo: Lerroux y Ia demagogia populista (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1990); J. R. Mosher, The Birth of Mass Politics in Spain: Lerrouxismo in Barcelona, 1901-1909 (New York: Garland, 1991). 6. Some 121 000 workers, 80 000 of them in Andaluda, affiliated to the Spanish Regional Federation (1870-81 ), the Spanish section of the First International. At the Congress held at Seville in 1882, a new Regional Federation of Spanish Workers was created. It had a total of 57 934 mem• bers, almost 40 000 in Andaluda, most of the rest were from Catalufia. The Socialists could not have had more than 3000 members at the time. Internal divisions and state repression brought about the disappearance of the Anarchist organization in 1888. 7. D. Geary, European Labour Protest, 1848-1939 (London: Methuen, 1984), pp. 112-13. 8. P. Heywood, Marxism and the Failure of Organized Socialism in Spain, 1879-1936 (Cambridge: University Press, 1990), pp. 2-3; F. Perez Ledesma, El pensamiento socialista espana! a comienzos de siglo (Madrid: Centro, 1974), pp. 27-34. 9. B. Martin, The Agony of Modernization: Labour and Industrialization in Spain (Ithaca: ILR Press, 1990), p. 98. Notes 189

I 0. See J. J. Morato, Pablo Iglesias: Educador de muchedumbres (Madrid; UGT, 1926), pp. 121-2. Pablo Iglesias and two other Socialists were elected as local councillors for Madrid in the local elections of 1905 by using forged ballot papers. II. J.P. Fusi, Politica obrera en el Pais Vasco, 1880-1923 (Madrid: Turner, 1975), pp. 81-94; A. Shubert, The Road to Revolution in Asturias: The Coal Miners of Asturias, 1860-1934 (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1987), p. 108. 12. J. Alvarez Junco, La ideologia politica del anarquismo espanol (1868-1910) (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1976), pp. 593-8. 13. Nunez, Terrorismo, p. 189. 14. E. Gonzalez Calleja, 'La raz6n de Ia fuerza. Una perspectiva de Ia violencia polftica en Ia Espana de Ia Restauraci6n', in J. Ar6stegui (ed.), Violencia y politica en Espana (Madrid: Ayer no.13, 1994), p. 97. 15. A. Bar, La CNT en los anos rojos, 1910-1926 (Madrid: Aka!, 1981 ), pp. 54-9. 16. During his reign, political crises were known as 'orientales' as they were pro• duced and resolved at the Palace of Oriente, Alfonso's residence. See Varela, Los amigos, pp. 450-1. 17. C. Seco Serrano, Militarismo y civilismo en La Espana contempordnea (Madrid: Instituto de £studios Economicos, 1984), p. 233. In 1900 there were 499 generals, 578 colonels and over 23 000 officers for some 80 000 troops (six times more officers than in France which had an standing army of 180 000 soldiers). This represented a cancer for the state which devoted over 40 per cent of its expenditure to defence. However, 70 per cent of the mili• tary budget went on officers' salaries, hence neglecting the modernization of the armed services. 18. Ballbe, Orden, pp. 272-7. 19. A. Balcells, Catalan Nationalism (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 55-8. 20. In February 190 I Maura warned that if the regime did not lead a revolu• tion from above, it would be overthrown by an insurrection from below. See G. Maura and M. Fernandez Almagro, Por que cay6 Alfonso XIII (Madrid: Ambos Mundos, 1948), p. 40. 21. Maura had opposed the introduction of the Law of Jurisdictions by the Liberals in 1906. A certain mutual admiration and co-operation was sealed after 1907 between Maura and Camb6. Yet the Lliga refused to become the Catalan branch of the Conservative party. 22. The best analysis of the Tragic Week is Connelly Ullman, The Tragic Week; more recent is P. Voltes, La semana trdgica (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1995 ). Ferrer Guardia hardly played any part in the Tragic Week. He was con• demned for his historical position as leading Anarchist thinker and his pos• sible part in the assassination attempt against Alfonso XIII in 1906. That action was carried out by Mateo Morral, a teacher in Ferrer's school. In 1907 he was tried but acquitted for lack of evidence. In 1909, Ferrer was used as scapegoat for the tragic events. A decisive factor in his sentence was the accusation of several Radical politicians that he had been the chief of the rebellion. In fact, they had more to answer for than Ferrer. 23. T. G. Trice, Spanish Liberalism in Crisis: A Study of the Liberal Party during Spain:l Parliamentary Collapse, 1913-1923 (New York: Garland, 1991), p. 26; Maura and Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 154-5, 240-1. 190 Notes

24. They included regulation of working conditions, labour insurance, the right of religious freedom in public and the famous Padlock Law which halted the further growth of religious orders in Spain. 25. Romanones embodies probably better than anybody else the stereotype of leading dynastic notable of the era - a clear representative of the Castilian landed oligarchy, but also a financier, one of the largest investors in the Moroccan mines and a courtier. He was well known for his cynical approach to politics, lack of ideological principles and his ability to 'make' elections. The philosopher and novelist Miguel de Unamuno wrote that 'the limit of a semantic paradox was that Roman ones was one of the lead• ers of Spanish Liberalism'. 26. M. Fernandez Almagro, Historia del reinado de Alfonso XIII (Barcelona: Montaner, 1977), pp. 191-3. · 27. Fernandez Almagro, op.cit., pp. 257-60; M. j. Gonzalez Hernandez, Ciudadania y acci6n: el conservadurismo maurista, 1907-1923 (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1990), pp. 39-40; F. J. Romero Salvad6, 'Maura, Maurismo and the Crisis of 1917', inAC/S, vol. 7, no. I (Spring 1994), pp. 17-18. 28. Bar, op.cit., pp. 176-207. 29. In 1910 the Radical Party still cashed in on the events of July 1909 to obtain a resounding electoral victory. Under a cloud of financial scandals, the Social• ists expelled them from the conjunci6n in December. By 1914, the Radicals' popularity and credibility among Catalan workers was in clear decline. 30. Fusi, op.cit., pp. 297-301. 31. Maura and Fernandez, Por Que, pp. 4 72-3. 32. F. J. Romero Salvad6, 'Spain and the First World War: The Structural Crisis of the Liberal Monarchy', European History Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4 (October 1995), p. 532. 33. G. Meaker, 'A Civil War of Words', in H. A. Schmitt (ed.), Neutral Europe between War and Revolution, 1917-1923 (Charlottesville: The University of Virginia Press, 1988), pp. 6-7. 34. Unlike the UGT-PSOE, led by a partisan pro-Allied leadership, the CNT opposed any involvement in a 'capitalist' war. 35. Romero, 'Spain', pp. 533-4. 36. J. L. Garda Delgado, S. Roldan and J. Munoz, La formaci6n de Ia sociedad capitalista en Espana, 1914-1920 (Madrid: CEIC, 1973); Instituto de Reformas Sociales, Movimientos de precios al por menor durante la guerra (Madrid: IRS, 1923). 37. J. A. Lacomba, La crisis espanola de 1917 (Malaga: Ciencia Nueva, 1970), pp. 28-32. 38. A. Saborit, julian Besteiro (Mexico: P. Iglesias, 1961 ), pp. 87-8; Heywood, Marxism, p. 41. 39. Saborit, op.cit., pp. 92-4. 40. Alba's power base was Valladolid, the heart of the Castilian wheat lobby. The best study of Alba's economic programme isM. Cabrera, F. Comin and J. L. Garcia Delgado, Santiago Alba: un programa de reforma econ6mica en la Espana del primer tercio del Siglo XX (Madrid: Instituto de £studios Fiscales, 1989), pp. 251-367; also see J. Harrison, The Spanish Economy in the Twentieth Century (London: Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 41-4. Notes 191

41. F. Camb6, Memorias (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1987), pp. 223-4, 246. 42. C. P. Boyd, Praetorian Politics in Liberal Spain (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1979), pp. 51-2. 43. B. Marquez and J. Cap6, Las juntas militares de defensa (Barcelona: Porvenir,1923), pp. 22-4; J. Buxade, La bullanga misteriosa de 1917 (Barcelona: Bauza, 1918), pp. 33-43. 44. Romanones, Notas de mi vida, 1912-1931 (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1947), pp. 94-5. 45. Thirty-one Spanish vessels, 80 000 tons of Spain's merchant fleet, had been sunk by April 1917. 46. Romanones, op.cit., p. 103; Fernandez, Historia, pp. 205-7. Alfonso aspired to the role of mediator in the Great War and even to organize a peace summit. To confirm that position, in 1915 he set up a bureau to deal with prisoners' conditions, missing citizens, humanitarian aid, etc. However, the Russian Revolution and the subsequent acceptance by the Allies of the new regime moved Alfonso towards the Germanophile camp. 4 7. F. Soldevilla, El aiio politico de 1917 (Madrid: Julio Cosano, 1918), pp. 164-8. 48. F. Soldevilla, Tres Revoluciones (Apuntes y notas) (Madrid: Julio Cosano, 1917), pp. 63-5; Buxade, op.cit., pp. 43-59. 49. G. Meaker, The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914-1923 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974), p. 69. 50. M. Burgos y Mazo, Pdginas hist6ricas de 1917 (Madrid: Nunez Samper, 1918), p. 59; Lacomba, op.cit., p. 20 I. 51. On the Assembly see L. Simarro, Los sucesos de agosto en el parlamento (Madrid: UGT, 1918), pp. 365-79; F. Soldevilla, 1917, pp. 325-39. 52. Between June and August 1917, Maura was constantly urged by his follow• ers to take a decision. Some, such as the right-wing Catalan Maurista, Gustavo Peyra, established links with the juntas, and tried to convince Maura to seize power with their support. Others, such as Ossorio or Miguel Maura, encouraged him to join the Assembly and destroy the corrupt politi• cal system. They all ran into Maura's categorical opposition. He refused to support the Assembly as it was a subversive manceuvre against the legal order and opposed any contacts with the officers even leaving one of their messengers out in a heavy storm outside his holiday home in Santander. Correspondence between Maura and his followers can be seen in Maura and Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 486-8, 492-5. 53. Tunon, Poder, p. 262. 54. M. Garcia Venera (Melquiades Alvarez: historia de un liberal (Madrid: Torrent, 1954), p. 350), claims that agents provocateurs initiated the transport conflict in Valencia. However, the Socialist Manuel Cordero (Los socialistas y la rev• oluci6n (Madrid: Torrent, 1932), pp. 30-3, argues that the imprudence of local Republicans caused the strike. 55. Meaker, Revolutionary, pp. 83-4; Buxade, op.cit., pp. 23, 218-30; Garcia Venera, op.cit., pp. 344-5. 56. Simarro, op.cit., p.l67. 57. Saborit, op.cit., pp. 100-2. 58. On the August revolution see Lacomba, op.cit., pp. 213-84; A. Saborit, La huelga de agosto de 1917 (Mexico: P. Iglesias, 1967), pp. 67-74; 192 Notes

F. Soldevilla, 1917, pp. 363-404; J. Serrallonga, 'Motines y revoluci6n. Espana en 1917', in F. Bonamusa (ed.), La huelga general (Madrid: Ayer, 1991), pp. 169-94. 59. Marquez and Capo, op.cit., pp. 68, 216-22. 60. T. Camero, 'Politica sin democracia en Espana, 1874-1923', Revista de Occidente, no. 83 (April 1988) p. 53. 61. On the role played by Cambo during the crisis of October 1917, see J. Pabon, Camb6 (Barcelona: Alpha, 1952), vol. I, pp. 570-2; Lacomba, op.cit., pp. 318-21; Saborit, La huelga, p. 83. 62. Cierva was not chosen by Alhucemas but was imposed by the officers and the personal intervention of the king. See J. de Ia Cierva, Notas de mi vida (Madrid: Reus, 1955), pp. 188-9. 63. T. Camero, 'Modernitzacio, desenvolupament politic i canvi social: Espanya (1874-1931)', Recerques, no. 23 (1989), p. 79. 64. Boyd, op.cit., p. 102-4. 65. Marquez and Capo (op.cit., pp. 104-5) argue that there was a military plot to create a government presided over by Cierva with eight colonels. This opinion is shared by Fernandez (op.cit., pp. 259-60) and Seco (Militarismo, p. 277). 66. By August 1918, over sixty Spanish vessels, a quarter of the merchant fleet had been sunk by German submarines. More than a hundred sailors had been killed. 67. J. Tusell, Antonio Maura: Una biografta politica (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1994 ), pp. 183-8. 68. Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 267-8. 69. IRS, op.cit., pp. 10-11. Overall prices between 1914 and I 918 had shot up by 72.8 per cent in the cities and 61.8 per cent in the countryside. Salaries over the same period had increased by a mere 25.6 per cent and 35.1 per cent, average male and female worker respectively. 70. Meaker, Revolutionary, p. 125. 71. Martin, op.cit., p. 195. 72. In fact, the first proper Communist Party had been formed in April I 920 by a group of the Socialist Youth in Madrid. Both Communist parties merged in November I 921. 73. F. J. Romero Salvado, The Views of an Anarcho-Syndicalist on the Soviet Union: the Defeat of the Third International in Spain', Revolutionary Russia, vol. 8, no. I (June 1995 ), pp. 26-103. 74. J. Diaz del Moral, Historia de las agitaciones campesinas andaluzas (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1976), pp. 267-73; J. Maurice, El anarquismo andaluz. Campesinos y sindicalistas, 1868-1936 (Barcelona: Critica, 1990), pp. 329-47; A. Barragan, Conjlictividad social y desarticulaci6n politica en la provincia de Cordoba, 1918-1920 (Cordoba: Posada, 1990), pp. 75-126. 7 5. Bar, op.cit., pp. 359-431. 76. A. Balcells, El sindicalismo en Barcelona (Barcelona: Nova Terra, 1965), pp. 73-82. 77. Martin, op.cit., p. 218. 78. On the social violence of these years see L. Ignacio, Los aiios del pistolerismo. Ensayo para una guerra civil (Madrid: Plan eta, 1981 ); C. Winston, Workers Notes 193

and the Right in Spain, 1900-1936 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984). 79. A. Coma! ada, El ocaso de un parlamento (Barcelona: Peninsula, 1985 ); Boyd, op.cit., pp. 177-82. 80. T. Gonzalez Calbet, 'La destruccion del sistema politico de Ia Restauracion: El golpe de septiembre de 1923', in J. L. Garcia Delgado (ed.), La crisis de la Restauraci6n: Espana entre la primera guerra mundial y la segunda Republica (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1986), pp. 101-20;]. Tusell, Radiografia de un golpe de estado: El ascenso al poder del General Primo de Rivera (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1987), pp. 21-8.

3 From Dictatorship to Republic, 1923-31

I. H. Graham and P. Preston (eds), The Popular Front in Europe (London: Macmillan, 1987), p. I. 2. J. L. Gomez Navarro, El regimen de Primo de Rivera: Reyes, dictaduras y dicta- dares (Madrid: Catedra, 1991), pp. 53-5,487-8. 3. Ballbe, Orden, p. 306. 4. Gomez, op.cit., p. 66. 5. For a detailed narrative of the events surrounding the coup see J. Tusell, Radiografia de un golpe de estado: El ascenso al poder del General Primo de Rivera (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1987). 6. S. Ben-Ami, Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930 (Oxford: University Press, 1983), pp. 80-1. 7. Colectivo de Historia, 'La Dictadura de Primo de Rivera y el bloque de poder en Espana', Cuadernos Econ6micos de Informacion Comercial Espanola, no. 6 (1978), pp. 191-2. 8. There were among others Puig i Cadafalch, President of the Mancomunidad, the Marquis of Alella, Barcelona's Mayor, the Marquis of Comillas, ultra• Catholic magnate and ship-owner, the Viscount of Cusso, President of the industrialists' confederation Fomento del Trabajo Nacional, and Cambo's right-hand man, Juan Ventosa. 9. Boyd, Praetorian, p. 262. 10. C. Navajas Zubeldia, Ejercito, estado y sociedad_en Espana, 1923-1930 (Logrono: Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1991 ), p. 3 7; Ben-Ami, op.cit., pp. 63-4. II. S. Ben-Ami, The Origins of the Second Republic in Spain (Oxford: University Press, 1978), pp. 8-9; Boyd, Praetorian, pp. 270-1; Gomez, op.cit., pp. 126-9. 12. G. Cardona, El poder militar en la Espana contempordnea hasta la guerra civil (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1983), pp. 41-3. 13. Maura and Fernandez, Por que, p. 533; M. Maura, Asi cay6 Alfonso XIII, 7th edn (Barcelona: Ariel, 1995 ), p. 39. 14. Ben-Ami, Fascism, p. 26. 15. Colectivo, op.cit., p. 187; Tunon, Poder, p. 290. 16. Ben-Ami, Fascism, pp. 56-8. 17. Gomez, op.cit., p. 209. 194 Notes

18. Ben-Ami, Fascism, p. 163. 19. J. H. Rial, Revolution from Above: The Primo de Rivera dictatorship in Spain (London, Associated University Press, 1986), pp. 79-80. 20. Ibid., pp. 81-2. 21. Heywood, Marxism, pp. 95-7; Martin, Agony, pp. 267-8. An ailing Pablo Iglesias had, since 1917, been effectively succeeded by Julian Besteiro as leader of the Socialist Party. Iglesias finally died on 9 December 1925, fol• lowed two days later by the demise of Antonio Maura. 22. Gomez, op.cit., pp. 412-31. 23. Martin, op.cit., pp. 281-4. 24. Ben-Ami, Fascism, pp. 299, 308. 25. Colectivo, op.cit., p. 20 I. 26. Tusell, Radiografia, pp. 34-5. 27. S. E. Fleming and A. K. Fleming, 'Primo de Rivera and Spain's Moroccan problem, !923-27',journal ofContemporary History, vol. 12 (1977), pp. 87-8. 28. Ibid., pp. 90-3. 29. Many Mauristas welcomed and supported the dictatorship assuming that Primo was putting into practice Maura's message of revolution from above. However, Maura, a Liberal, first and foremost, until his death in 1925 made clear his distance and dislike for the new regime. See Fernandez, Historia, p. 362; Maura, op.cit., p. 119. 30. Ben-Ami, 'The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment', journal ofContemporary History, vol. 12 (1977), pp. 67-70. 31. For an analysis of the social and political membership of UP and its evolu- tion see Gomez, op.cit., pp. 207-60. 32. Ben-Ami, Fascism, p. 172. 33. Gomez, op.cit., pp. 303-4, 519. 34. Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 357-8. 35. Ben-Ami, Fascism, p. 101. 36. Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 415-17. 37. Gonzalez, 'La razon', pp. 106-7. 38. S. Payne, Los militares y la politica en la Espana contemporanea (Madrid, Ruedo Iberico, 1968), pp. 193-4; Navajas, op.cit., pp. 53-7, 137-49. 39. Payne, op.cit., pp. 201-2. 40. Gonzalez, op.cit., pp. 108-9. Typical of Primo's eccentric character was that after failing to obtain a condemnation of Sanchez Guerra, he com• muted the death sentences of several artillery officers involved in the revolt. 41. Harrison, Spanish Economy, pp. 69-70. 42. R. Carr, Spain, 1808-1975 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 587. 43. Ben-Ami, Fascism, pp. 342-3. 44. Tunon, Poder, p. 342; Heywood, op.cit., pp. 101-4. 45. Carr, 1808, p. 590. 46. Ben-Ami, Fascism, pp. 176-7. 47. Maura, op.cit., p. 17. 48. Navajas, op.cit., p. 61. 49. Ibid., pp. 70-1. Notes 195

50. Maura, op.cit., pp. 44-5, 53. 51. Ben-Ami, Fascism, p. 390. 52. Ben-Ami, Origins, p. 23. 53. S. Ben-Ami, 'The Republican Take-Over': Prelude to Inevitable Catastrophe?', in P. Preston (ed.), Revolution and War in Spain, 1931-1939 (London: Methuen, 1984), pp. 15-16. 54. For an excellent analysis of the disarray of the dynastic politicians see S. Ben-Ami, The Crisis of the Dynastic Elite in the Transition from Monarchy to Republic, 1929-1931', in P. Preston and F. Lannon (eds), Elites and Power in Twentieth-Century Spain: Essays in Honour of Sir Raymond Carr (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); also see M. Suarez Cortina, El reformismo en Espana (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1986), pp. 295-9. 55. Ben-Ami, Origins, p. 31. 56. Ben-Ami, 'Republican', pp. 17-18. 57. Ben-Ami, Origins, pp. 47-55, 68-76. 58. Ibid., pp. 56-7. 59. Maura, op.cit., pp. 69-72. 60. Martin, op.cit., p. 293. 61. Being aware of Galan's intentions, the provisional government sent one of its members, the Galician Republican Casares Quiroga, to stop him but he arrived too late. 62. The exception was Lerroux, raising once more questions about his political dealings, as although a prominent member of the provisional government, he was not arrested. According to M. Maura (op.cit., p. 105), the police informed him that Lerroux was not to be molested! The other Republicans could never conceal their distrust for the Radicals and their shady reputa• tion. In San Sebastian, they agreed not to give them any portfolios with economic responsibilities. 63. J. Ar6stegui, 'El insurreccionalismo en Ia crisis de Ia Restauraci6n', in J. L. Garda Delgado (ed.), La Crisis de la Restauraci6n: Espana entre la Primera Guerra Mundial y la II Republica (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1986), pp. 92-3. 64. Ben-Ami, Origins, pp. 202-5. 65. Maura, op.cit., pp. 121-4. 66. Tuii6n, Poder, pp. 367-9. 67. Due to a grave illness, Camb6, the Lliga's leader, remained on the sidelines for over a year. In the meantime, his party, following in its traditional foot• steps of accidentalism and opportunism, left all doors open. The decision to join the cabinet in March and bet on the continuity of the regime, proved a serious miscalculation which only accelerated the decline of the Lliga in Catalan politics. Both Mauristas and the Lliga founded a new group in March, the Centro Constitucional, as the foundation of a modern conserva• tive party. It never really took off and came too late to save the monarchy. 68. Maura, op.cit., p. 126. 69. Cierva, Notas, pp. 342-3. 70. Seco, Militarismo, pp. 370-1; Maura, op.cit., pp. 132-7. 71. Ben-Ami, 'Crisis', pp. 81-3. 72. Maura and Fernandez, Par que, p. 387. 73. Ben-Ami, 'Crisis', p. 86. 196 Notes

74. According to Maura (op.cit., pp. 145, !52, 180-1), the Republicans initially welcomed the results as the perfect step in order to win the forthcoming general elections, but feared the possible announcement of martial law and their subsequent arrest. They were genuinely surprised but took advantage of the Monarchist disintegration during the next twenty-four hours. 75. Fernandez, op.cit., pp. 469-70. 76. Gomez, op.cit., pp. 526-7. 77. Ben-Ami, Origins, pp. 238-47; Maura, op.cit., pp. 165-6. 78. Maura, op.cit., p. 189.

4 The Second Republic: A Brief Exercise in Democracy, 1931-6

I. Rial, Revolution, p. 233. 2. M. Tunon de Lara, La II Republica (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1976), vol. I, p. 76. 3. E. Malefakis, 'Peculiaridad de Ia republica espanola', Revista de Occidente (November 1981), pp. 25-7. 4. Lannon, Privilege, pp. 179-82. 5. S. julia, Manuel Azaiia: Una biografia politica (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1991), pp. 98-11 0; Cardona, Poder militar, pp. 159-66. 6. P. Preston, The Coming of the Spanish Civil War: Reform, Reaction and Revolution in the Second Republic (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 80-1; E. Malefakis, Agrarian Reform and Peasant Revolution in Spain (London: Yale University Press, 1970), pp. 166-8. 7. M. Cabrera, La patronal ante la II Republica: Organizaciones y estrategia, 1931-1936 (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1983), pp. 15, 253. 8. M. Cabrera, 'Las cortes republicanas', inS. Julia (ed.), Politica en la Segunda Republica (Madrid: Ayer no. 20, 1995 ), p. 17. 9. Preston, The Coming, pp. 38-40. M. Blinkhorn, Democracy and Civil war in Spain, 1931-1939 (London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 13-16. 10. S. Payne, Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936 (London: University ofWisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 121-2. II. Maura, Asi, pp. 298-304; Lannon, op.cit., p. 188. 12. Lannon, op.cit., pp. 163-4. 13. Preston, The Coming, pp. 50-I. 14. Cabrera, Patronal, p. 19. 15. Ibid., pp. 275-8. 16. Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 166-70; Schubert, Social History, p. I 0 I. 17. P. Preston, The Agrarian War in the South', in P. Preston (ed.), Revolution and War in Spain, 1931-1939 (London: Methuen, 1984), p. !59. 18. The total UGT membership grew from less than 300000 in December 1930 to more than a million in june 1932. The sudden growth of the FNTT was greatly out of proportion with the overall growth of the UGT. The FNTT constituted about I 0 per cent of the total UGT membership in 1930, two years later it was nearly 40 per cent. 19. Lannon, op.cit., pp. 166-9; Cabrera, Patronal, pp. 63-5. Notes 197

20. Preston, The Coming, pp. 2, 77-80; Preston, 'Agrarian', pp. 160-1, 165-7. 21. Martin, Agony, pp. 310-11. 22. There were insurrections all over the country, but the worst outcome was in Sevilla where in the general strike of July more than twenty people were killed. 23. Tuii6n, La II Republica, voi.J, pp. 70-1. 24. Malefakis, 'Peculiaridad', p. 31. 25. The Catholic Minister of the Interior, Miguel Maura, praised the spirit of compromise and the lack of feelings of revenge which presided over the members of the Republican government. He singled out for their modera• tion and sense of responsibility the Socialist Indalecio Prieto and Fernando de los Rios. Maura also stressed the subversive and conspiratorial activities of influential elements in the Church's hierarchy leaving him with no option but to expel them from the country. See Maura, op.cit., pp. 82, 210, 217-22,246-62,296-305. 26. Ibid., pp. 84-8. 27. Ben-Ami, The Coming, pp. 289-91. 28. S. julia, 'Sistema de partidos y problemas de consolidaci6n de Ia democra• cia', in julia (ed.), Politica, p. 125. 29. The role played by Lerroux during these events is ambiguous. It seems that the Radical leader had been in close touch with Sanjurjo before the coup, but the Azafia cabinet preferred to avoid investigating these contacts that if exposed could have a devastating effect on public opinion. See E. Ucelay• Da Cal, 'Buscando el levantamiento plebiscitario: insurrecionalismo y elec• ciones', in julia (ed.), Politica, pp. 71-2. 30. julia, Azaiia, p. 183. 31. Preston, The Coming, pp. 60-3. 32. The best analysis of the agranan reform can be found m Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 172-257. 33. Ballbe, Orden, pp. 357-8. 34. Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 258-60. 35. G. Esenwein and A. Shubert, The Spanish Civil War in Context, 1931-1939 (London: Longman, 1995), pp. 13-14; Preston, The Coming, pp. 7-37, 106-17; Heywood, Marxism, pp. 110-26. 36. J. Aviles Farre, La izquierda burguesa en la II Republica (Madrid: Espasa• Calpe, 1985), pp. 191-6. 37. julia, 'Sistema', pp. 125-6. 38. At the Thirteenth Congress of the PSOE in October 1932 the followers of Largo Caballero and those of Prieto collaborated in defeating Besteiro, and Largo Caballero became the PSOE's President. The Besteiristas were finally ousted from the UGT in January 1934 when a new executive dominated by Caballeristas was appointed. 39. Tufi6n, La II Republica, vol. 2, pp. 12-15. 40. Payne, Spain's First, p. 185. 41. Cabrera, 'Cortes', pp. 33-5. 42. Cabrera, Patronal, p. 132. 43. Julia, 'Sistema', pp. 130-1. 198 Notes

44. Aviles, op.cit., pp. 238, 246-7. 45. Blinkhorn, Democracy, pp. 23-4. 46. Cabrera, Patronal, pp. 21-2; Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 321-9; Esenwein and Shubert, op.cit., p. 18. 47. Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 333-4. 48. Jose M. Macarro, 'Sindicalismo y politica', in Julia (ed. ), Politica, pp. 160-1, 163-4. 49. Preston, 'Agrarian', pp. 174-6. 50. Companys had become President of the Generalitat and leader of the Esguerra after the death of Francese Macia in December 1933. 51. Balcells, Catalan, pp. 107-8. 52. Cabrera, Patronal, pp. 173-5. 53. Preston, The Coming, pp. 66-70. 54. Ibid., p. 126. 55. Ballbe, Orden, pp. 371-3. 56. Luis Sirval, a journalist who dared to report the brutalities committed in Asturias was assassinated by members of the Foreign Legion. 57. Tunon, La II Republica, vol. 2, pp. 78-98. 58. Preston, The Coming, p. 184. 59. Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 347-61; Cabrera, Patronal, pp. 169-72. 60. Ballbe, op.cit., pp. 378-82; Preston, The Coming, pp. 188-91. 61. The so-called straperlo gambling fraud exploded in October and involved the collusion of several ministers and even Lerroux's step-son with an international swindler, the Dutchman Daniel Strauss. One month later a new scandal appeared affecting the misappropriation of public funds by other Radical ministers. 62. Preston, The Coming, p. 200. 63. Payne, Militares, p. 270. 64. Julia, Azaiia, p. 345. 65. Ibid., pp. 411-19. 66. For the schisms in the Socialist movement see Julia, Azaiia, pp. 421-8; Preston, The Coming, pp. 211-38; Heywood, op.cit., pp. 146-71. 67. The POUM was a small group of dissident Communists concentrated in some small areas of Catalufla. It had been created in November 1935 by the merging of two groups led by two former Anarcho-Syndicalists, Joaquin Maurin's Workers and Peasants Bloc (BOC) and the Communist Left (IC) of Andreu Nin, Trotsky's former secretary. 68. Tufl6n, La II Republica, p. 166. 69. Preston, The Coming, pp. 242-4; Payne, Militares, pp. 272-3. 70. Malefakis, Agrarian, pp. 375-81. 71. Preston, The Coming, p. 247. 72. Cabrera, Patronal, pp. 44-7. 73. H. Graham, 'The Spanish Popular Front and the Civil War', m Graham and Preston, The Popular Front, p. 110. 74. For Miguel Maura, op.cit., p. 222, the Socialist veto on Prieto was a cata• strophe which inevitably sealed the end of the Republic; see Preston, The Coming, pp. 241, 261-4. 75. Preston, The Coming, p. 265. Notes 199

5 A Modern Crusade: The Spanish Tragedy, 1936-9

I. S. Julia, 'EI fracaso de Ia Republica', in Revista de Occidente (November 1981), pp. 199-200. 2. Graham and Preston (eds), The Popular Front, p. I. 3. H. Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, 3rd edn (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 215-57, 327-33; G. Jackson, The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931-1939, 5th edn (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 231-46. 4. P. Preston, A Concise History of the Spanish Civil War (London: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 98. 5. T. G. Powell, Mexico and the Spanish Civil War (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1981), pp. 58-60,71-5,96-9. 6. LOuvre de Lion Blum (Paris: Albis Michel, 1965), vol. IY, 2, pp. 373-5; W. L. Shirer, The Collapse of the Third Republic (London: Cox & Wyman, 1970), pp. 272-4; J. Lacouture, Lion Blum (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982), pp. 305-7; H. Haywood Hunt, The French Radicals, Spain and Appeasement', in M. S. Alexander and H. Graham, The French and Spanish Popular Fronts: Comparative Perspectives (Cambridge: University Press, 1989), pp. 38-49; J. Aviles Farre, Pasion y farsa: Franceses y Britdnicos ante La Guerra Civil Espanola (Madrid: Eudema, 1994), pp. 2-10. 7. See the works by E. Moradiellos: Neutralidad Benevola: El gobierno brittinico y La insurreccion militar espanola de 1936 (Oviedo: Pentalfa, 1990), pp. 77-103, 117-33, 147-88, 211-14; 'The Origins of British Non-Intervention in the. Spanish Civil War: Anglo-Spanish Relations in Early 1936', European History Quarterly, vol. 21 ( 1991 ), pp. 339-61; 'British Political Strategy in the Face of the Military Rising of 1936 in Spain', Contemporary European History, vol. I, no. 2 (1992), pp. 123-9; The Gentle General: The Official British Perception of General Franco during the Spanish Civil War', in P. Preston and A. L. Mackenzie, The Republic Besieged: Civil War in Spain, 1936-1939 (Edinburgh: University Press, 1996), pp. 2-9; La Perfulia de Albion (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1996), pp. 18-51, 58-64; see also Aviles, op.cit., pp. 4, 9-14; J. Edwards, The British Government and the Spanish Civil War (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 80-100. 8. M. Alpert, A New International History of the Spanish Civil War (London: Macmillan 1994), pp. 54-5; Thomas, op.cit., p. 360. 9. Britain was the main investor in Spain with 687.5 million pesetas, followed by France with 439.6 million. Germany's capital investments amounted only to 10.3 million pesetas. I 0. A. Vinas, La Alemania nazi y el 18 de julio (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1977), pp. 13-14, 322-96; R. H. Whealey, Hitler and Spain: The Nazi Role in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1989), pp. 5-9, 28-9; C. Leitz, 'Nazi Germany's Intervention in the Spanish Civil War and the Foundation of HISMA/ROWAK', in Preston and Mackenzie (eds), The Republic, pp. 55-63. II. I. Saz, Mussolini contra la I1 Republica (Valencia: Alfons el Magminim, 1986), pp. 39-21 0; P. Preston, 'Mussolini's Spanish Adventure: From Limited Risk to War', in Preston and Mackenzie (eds), The Republic, pp. 31-45. 200 Notes

12. Thomas, op.cit., p. 376. 13. Ibid., p. 374. 14. Leigh, op.cit., pp. 63-4; Whealey, op.cit., p. 14. 15. Preston, Concise, pp. 99-100; Lacouture, op.cit., pp. 312-13. 16. Shirer, op.cit., pp. 251-2, 281-5; Lacouture, op.cit., pp. 322-9. 17. Moradiellos, La perfidia, pp. 66-72. 18. Moradiellos, Neutralidad, pp. 189-210, 285-8. 19. Moradiellos, La perfidia, pp. 81-7, 111-14; M. Kitchen, Europe between the Wars (London: Longman, 1988), p. 249. 20. For personal accounts of members of the International Brigades, see among others, B. Alexander, British Volunteers for Spain (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1986); J. Gurney, Crusade in Spain (Devon: Faber, 1974); A. Landis, The Abraham Lincoln Brigade (New York: Citadel Press, 1967). 21. D. Smyth, 'We Are with You: Solidarity and Self-Interest in Soviet Policy towards Republican Spain, 1936-1939', in Preston and Mackenzie (eds), The Republic, pp. 88-100; Alpert, op.cit., pp. 10-11, 49-52. 22. Thomas, op.cit., p. 432. 23. Jackson, op.cit., pp. 319-32. 24. P. Preston, Franco: A Biography (London: HarperCollins, 1993), pp. 205-6. 25. Whealey, op.cit., pp. 48-50. 26. Aviles, op.cit., pp. 52-6. 27. A. Vinas, 'Gold, the Soviet Union and the Spanish Civil War', in M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Spain in Conflict, 1931-1939: Democracy and its Enemies (London: Sage, 1986), pp. 222-43. 28. Leigh, op.cit., pp. 65-72; Whealey, op.cit., pp. 74-93. 29. P. Preston, Franco, pp.l-144; J. Tusell, Franco en la Guerra Civil: Una biografia politica (Madrid: Tusquets, 1993), pp. 15-33; A. Reig Tapia, Franco Caudillo: Milo y Realidad (Madrid: Tecnos, 1995), pp. 68-75. 30. There were several attempts to rescue Jose Antonio, but Franco's half• hearted support served to undermine them and so helped secure his execu• tion. See Preston, Franco, pp. 193-6. 31. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 258-67; Preston, Franco, p. 146; Reig, op.cit., pp. 192-3. 32. Cabanellas in Zaragoza was the only army commander in one of the eight military regions who joined the insurrection. A majority of division and brigadier generals remained loyal to the government. However, most colonels and junior officers revolted against the Republic. Cardona, El poder militar, pp. 307-9. 33. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 40-9. 34. Preston, Concise, pp. 83-4. 35. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 408-13. 36. Preston, Franco, pp. 175-84; Tusell, op.cit., pp. 52-6; S. Ellwood, Franco (London: Longman, 1994), p. 85. 37. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 414-16; Preston, Concise, pp. 158-60. 38. P. Preston, 'Francisco Franco: Politica y estrategia en Ia Guerra Civil', Revista de Extremadura (September-December 1996), pp. 3-27. 39. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 598-604. 40. Preston, Franco, pp. 242-7. 41. Ibid., pp. 292-4. Notes 201

42. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 797-803. 43. Preston, Franco, pp. 248-74. 44. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 69-75. 45. Preston, Concise, pp. 148-53. 46. I. Saz 'Salamanca, '1937: los fundamentos de un regimen', Revista de Extremadura (September-December 1996), pp. 82-105. 47. Preston, Franco, pp. 285-300. 48. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 219-230. 49. G. Cardona, 'La sublevacion de Julio', in Socialismo y Guerra Civil: Anales de la Historia; vol. 2 ( 1987), p. 29. 50. ]. Casanova, 'Anarquismo y Guerra Civil: del poder popular a Ia burocracia revolucionaria', pp. 73-8; M. Tunon de Lara, 'Los mecanismos del estado en Ia zona republicana', pp. 124-6, both in Socialismo y Guerra Civil. 51. Jackson, op.cit., pp. 276-83; Martin, Agony, pp. 383-91. 52. Preston, Concise, pp. 145-7, 168-9. 53. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 268-79; Preston, Concise, pp. 168-9; Reig, op.cit., pp. 188-95. 54. F. Fernandez Bestarreche, 'La estrategia militar republicana durante Ia guerra civil', in Socialismo y Guerra Civil, pp. 50-I. 55. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 400-8. 56. Jackson, op.cit., p. 341. 57. S. Julia, 'De Ia division organica a! gobierno de unidad nacional', m Socialismo y Guerra Civil, pp. 240-4. 58. Martin, Agony, pp. 400-1; Jackson, op.cit., pp. 360-1. 59. The POUM cannot be termed a Trotskyist group. Some of its leaders had once been disciples of Trotsky, and the party secretary, Andreu Nin, had been his private secretary in the past. Yet Trotsky cut links with the POUM after that group decided to join the Popular Front and his criticisms increased as the war went on. See L. Trotsky, The Spanish Revolution, 4th edn (New York: Pathfinder, 1986), pp. 207-21, 245-50. 60. For a personal, but one-sided account of the May events see G. Orwell, Homage to Catalonia, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, reprinted 1988) and A. Souchy et al., The May Days: Barcelona 1937 (London: Freedom Press, 1987). 61. H. Graham, The Spanish Socialist Party in Power and Crisis, 1936-1939 (Cambridge: University Press, 1991), pp. 107-97. 62. S. Julia, 'Partido contra sindicato: Una interpretacion de Ia crisis de mayo de 1937', in Socialismo y Guerra Civil, pp. 343-6. 63. This view can be seen in the works by B. Bolloten, The Spanish Revolution: The Left and the Struggle for Power during the Civil War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), pp. 451-76 and 'Negrin: el hombre de Mosctl', Historia 16, no. 117 (january 1986), pp. 11-24. 64. R. Miralles, 'Juan Negrin, resistir, para que?', Historia 16, no. 253 (May 1997), pp. 10-12. 65. H. Graham, 'War, Modernity and Reform: The Premiership of Juan Negrin', in Preston and Mackenzie (eds), The Republic, pp. 180-93. 66. Miralles, op.cit., p. 9. 67. Preston, Concise, p. 171. 68. Miralles, op.cit., pp. 14-18; Graham, Spanish Socialist, pp. 132-7. 202 Notes

69. Graham, 'War', p.193. 70. Preston, Concise, pp. 4, 190. 71. Aviles, op.cit., pp. I 04-8; Alpert, op.cit., p. 144. 72. Moradiellos, Perfidia, pp. 179, 206-7; Lacouture, op.cit., pp. 342-5. 73. Moradiellos, Neutralidad, pp. 363-80. 74. Moradiellos, Perfidia, pp. 186-8, 197-200, 221-40. 75. Louvre, pp. 395-400; Lacouture, op.cit., pp. 346-9. 76. Moradiellos, Perfidia, pp. 258-81. 77. Thomas, op.cit., p. 820. 78. Ibid., pp. 835-44. 79. Preston, Franco, pp. 307-8. 80. Moradiellos, Perfidia, p. 321. 81. Soviet aid had begun to diminish by the summer of 193 7. Still, in December 1938 Negrin secured $100 million worth of arms. Most of them reached Spain too late to be deployed. Alpert, op.cit., p. 166, 168. 82. Thomas, op.cit.,pp. 852-5. 83. Aviles, op.cit., p. 177. 84. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 869-82. 85. Moradiellos, Perfidia, pp. 381-5. 86. Miralles, op.cit., p. 19. 87. Preston, Franco, pp. 318-20. 88. Thomas, op.cit., pp. 886-94; On Besteiro see P. Preston, 'A Pacifist in War: The Tragedy of Julian Besteiro', Tesserae, vol. 2 (Winter 1996), pp. 179-202. 89. M. Tuii6n de Lara, 'EI final de Ia guerra', in E. Malefakis (ed.), La guerra de Espana, 1936-1939 (Madrid: Taurus, 1996), pp. 623-33; Thomas, op.cit., pp. 900-15.

6 Franco, Regent for Life, 1939-75

l. Preston, Concise, p. 21 7. 2. R. Carr and J. P. Fusi, Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy, 2nd edn (London: Unwin Hyman, 1981 ), p. 50; Ellwood, Franco, pp. 114-16; Shubert, Social History, pp. 206-7; Harrison, Spanish Economy, pp. 121-2; A. Carreras, 'Depresi6n econ6mica y cambio estructural', pp.12-32, and C. Barciela, 'La Espana del estraperlo', pp. 106-31 both in J. L. Garda Delgado (ed.), El Primer Franquismo: Espana durante Ia Segunda Guerra Mundial (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1989). 3. P. Preston, The Politics of Revenge: Fascism and the Military in 20th Century Spain (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 37. 4. A larger figure of 200 000 executions is given by Jackson, The Second Republic, p. 538. For more details on post-war repression see M. Richards, 'Civil War, Violence and the construction of Francoism', in Preston and Mackenzie (eds), The Republic, pp. 195-239; Ballbe, Orden, p. 405; J. P. Fusi, Franco: Autoritarismo y poder personal (Madrid: El Pais, 1985 ), pp. 78-9; Reig, Franco, pp. 198-200, 205-9. 5. Reig, op.cit., pp. 186-7; Ellwood, op.cit., p. 112. 6. Ellwood, op.cit., pp. 113-14; Reig, op.cit., p. 78, 225-38. Notes 203

7. ]. Tusell, Franco, Espana y Ia II Guerra Mundial: Entre el Eje y Ia Neutralidad (Madrid: Temas de hoy, 1995), p. 13. 8. J. Tusell and G. Garcia Queipo de Llano, Franco y Mussolini (Barcelona: Planeta, 1985), pp. 51-60; Ellwood, op.cit., p. 121. 9. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 43-9. I 0. Preston, Franco, p. 341. II. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 59-61. 12. S. Hoare, Ambassador on Special Mission (London: Collins, 1946), pp. 21-5, 29-36,44-7, 60-4; Tusell, op.cit., pp. 172-84; Ellwood, op.cit., p. 121. 13. M. Seguela, Franco-Petain: Los secretos de una alianz.a (Barcelona: Prensa Iberica, 1994), p. 53. 14. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 85-8, 132-9; Preston, Franco, pp. 361-2, 377-80, 387. 15. Preston, The Politics, p. 60. 16. Seguela, op.cit., pp. 81-8, 98, 115; Fusi, op.cit., pp. 80-1. 17. Preston, Franco, pp. 393-5. 18. Tusell, op.cit., p. 13; Seguela, op.cit., p. Ill. 19. Preston, Franco, pp. 395-9; Tusell, op.cit., pp. 158-64. 20. Preston, Franco, p. 400. 21. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 164-71. 22. Preston, Franco, pp. 415-16. 23. Tusell, op.cit., pp. 262-9; Fusi, op.cit., p. 84. 24. Hoare, op.cit., p. 122; Preston, Franco, p. 442. 25. Preston, The Politics, pp. 51-2. 26. Preston, Franco, pp. 465-71. 27. Preston, The Politics, p. 53. 28. Preston, Franco, p. 431. 29. S. Payne, The Franco Regime, 1936-1975 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), p. 293. 30. C. ]. H. Hayes, Wartime Mission in Spain (New York: Macmillan, 1945), pp. 86-94; Tusell, op.cit., pp. 315-16, 357-61. 31. Reig, op.cit., p. 201. 32. Hoare, op.cit., pp. 184-5, 197-204, 249-56. 33. Tusell and Garcia, op.cit., pp. 235-6. 34. Hayes, op.cit., pp. 187-230; Hoare, op.cit., pp. 259-63. 35. Hoare, op.cit., p. 267. 36. Segue Ia, op.cit., p. 311; Hoare, op.cit., pp. 272-3. 37. First noticed by the US ambassador (Hayes, op.cit., p. 242) in his meeting with Franco on 6 July. 38. Hoare, op.cit., pp. 282-4, 300-6. 39. Preston, Franco, p. 531. 40. F. Portera, Franco aislado: La cuestion espanola, 1945-1950 (Madrid: Aguilar, 1989), p. 33. 41. Preston, Franco, p. 546. 42. Portera, op.cit., pp. 104-6, 128. 43. Q. Ahmad, Britain, Franco Spain and the Cold War, 1945-1950 (London: Garland, 1992), pp. 15-16, 20-1, 33-8, 110; Portera, op.cit., pp. 79-82, 115-16, 233-6. 44. Ahmad, op.cit., p. 60 204 Notes

45. Ahmad, op.cit., pp. 41-2; Portera, op.cit., pp. 99-101, 137-54; Seguela, op.cit., pp. 317-18. 46. B. Pollack, The Paradox of Spanish Foreign Policy: Spain's International Relations from Franco to Democracy (London: Pinter, 1987), pp. 35-6; Ahmad, op.cit., pp. 65-7, 72-3; Portera, op.cit., pp. 237-250. 47. Ahmad, op.cit., p. 63. 48. R. Gillespie, Historia del Partido Socialista Obrero Espaiwl (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1991 ), pp. 74-117; P. Preston, 'La oposici6n antifranquista: La larga marcha hacia Ia unidad', in P. Preston (ed.), Espana en crisis: La evolu• ci6n y decadencia del re[;imen de Franco (Madrid: Fondo de cultura econ6mica, 1977), pp. 217-35. 49. Seguela, op.cit., p. 295; Tusell, op.cit., pp. 608-9; Preston, 'La oposici6n', pp. 231-5. 50. Preston, The Politics, pp. 101-8; Tusell and Garcia, op.cit., pp. 222-6; Payne, op.cit., pp. 325-32. 51. C. Powell, juan Carlos of Spain: Self-Made Monarch (London: Macmillan, 1996), p. 7. 52. Preston, The Politics, p. I 06; Ellwood, op.cit., p. 142-6. 53. Lannon, Privilege, p. 215; Payne, op.cit., pp. 362-3. 54. P. Preston, 'Franco y Ia elaboraci6n de una politica exterior personalista, 1936-1953', p. 208, and F. Portera, 'Artajo, perfil de un ministro en tiempos de aislamiento', pp. 213-14 both in Historia Contemporanea, no. 15 (1996). 55. Preston, Franco, pp. 527-8. 56. Ellwood, op.cit., pp. 146-50. 57. Preston, Franco, pp. 577-80. 58. Pollack, op.cit., p. 22; Ahmad, op.cit., pp. 79-80, 91-6, 102-3. 59. Ahmad, op.cit., p. 103. 60. Portero, Franco, p. 363. 61. Ahmad, op.cit., pp. 212-13. 62. Shubert, op.cit., pp. 234-5. 63. Preston, Franco, pp. 622-3; Fusi, op.cit., pp. 118-21. 64. Preston, Franco, pp. 644-650. 65. Payne, op.cit., pp. 405-6, 409. 66. Lannon, op.cit., pp. 225-9. 67. Harrison, op.cit., pp. 132-4. 68. There were three Plans for Economic Development. The first covered the period 1964-7, and the second and third, 1968-71 and 1972-5, respec• tively. Their aim was planning and targeting resources to bring about growth while social concerns were neglected. Redistribution of wealth and income was never an objective and the age-old gap between the stagnant interior rural provinces and the industrialized regions of the north and east widened. 69. Harrison, op.cit., pp. 144-54; Shubert, op.cit., pp. 207-10. 70. Harrison, op.cit., pp. 154-7; Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 57-8. 71. Ellwood, op.cit., pp. 176-7. 72. Preston, Franco, pp. 739-42; Powell, op.cit., pp. 37-42. 73. V. M. Perez-Dfaz, The Return of Civil Society: The Emergence of Democratic Spain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 12-13; P. Preston, The Triumph of Democracy in Spain (London: Methuen, 1986), Notes 205

pp. 11-13; D. Gilmour, The Transformation of Spain: From Franco to the Constitutional Monarchy (London: Quartet, 1985), p. 33. 74. N. Cooper, 'La iglesia: de Ia cruzada al cristianismo', in Preston (ed.), Eopana, p. I 07; Lannon, op.cit., pp. 232-6. 75. E. Mujal-Le6n, Communism and Political Change in Spain (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1983), pp. 1-2, 57-66. 76. Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 79-86; Preston, The Politics, pp. 28-9. 77. Perez-Diaz, op.cit., pp. 16-17; Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 146-9. 78. Balcells, Catalan, pp. 145-51, 164-5. 79. J. Sullivan, £7/1 and Basque Nationalism: The Fight for Euskadi (London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 70-110; R. P. Clark, The Basques: The Franco Years and Beyond (Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 1979), pp. 153-87; J. L. Hollyman, 'Separatismo Vasco Revolucionario: ETA', in Preston (ed.), Espana, pp. 364-76; Fusi, op.cit., pp. 165-6, 199. 80. Lannon, op.cit., pp. 5-6, 46-9, 247-51; Cooper, op.cit., pp. 107-40. 81. Mujal-Le6n, op.cit., pp. 19-20. 82. Preston, The Triumph, p. 16; C. Powell, The Tacito Group and Democracy', in F. Lannon and P. Preston (eds), Elites and Power in Twentieth-Century Spain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 24 7-56. 83. Carr and Fusi, op.cit., p. 184. 84. Juan Vila Reyes, a member of the Opus Dei and a manufacturer of machin• ery for the textile industry, MATESA, was alleged to have obtained some ten billion pesetas in export credits under false pretences, with the con• nivance of people in the government. 85. Payne, op.cit., pp. 542-6. 86. Preston, The Politics, pp. 127-8, 167-70; Preston, The Triumph, pp. 41-2. 87. Preston, Franco, p. 762. 88. Ibid., pp. 763-4. 89. Gilmour, op.cit., pp. 69-70. 90. Powell,juan Carlos, pp. 64-8. 91. The most dramatic ETA action was the blowing up of the Cafeteria Rolando in Madrid, a place frequented by policemen, which left thirteen dead and seventy injured in September 1974. 92. Preston, The Politics, pp. 183-8. 93. Preston, Franco, p. 776. 94. Preston, The Triumph, pp. 75-6; Powell,Juan Carlos, pp. 74-8.

7 The Triumph of Democracy, 1975-98

I. Perez-Diaz, The Return, pp. 34-5. 2. P. Aguilar Fernandez, Memoria y olvido de la Guerra Civil espanola (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1996), pp. 34-5,47, 56-7. 3. Poweli,Juan Carlos, p. 46; Carr and Fusi, Spain, p. 208. 4. Powell, op.cit., pp. 82-4. 5. Mujal-Le6n, Communism, pp. 53, 135-8; Powell, op.cit., pp. 64-5. 6. Gillespie, Historia, pp. 280-318. 7. Gilmour, The Transformation, p. 138. 206 Notes

8. Aguilar, op.cit., pp. 234-5. 9. Preston, The Triumph, pp. 79-80; Powell, op.cit., p. 86. 10. Gilmour, op.cit., p. 147; Powell, op.cit., p. 104. II. R. Tamames, La economia Espanola: De la transici6n a la union monetaria (Madrid: Temas de hoy, 1996), pp. I 03, I 08. 12. Gilmour, op.cit., pp. 143-4. 13. Powell, op.cit., pp. 106-11. 14. Preston, op.cit., pp. 89, 94-5. 15. Ibid., pp. 97-8. 16. Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 224-5. 17. Ibid., p. 224. 18. Aguilar, op.cit., pp. 315-16. 19. Mujal-Le6n, op.cit., pp. 151-3. 20. Aguilar, op.cit., pp. 336-7. 21. Tamames, op.cit., pp. 130-62. 22. Balcells, Catalan, pp. 169-75. 23. Clark, The Basques, pp. 267, 272-81; Sullivan, ETA, pp. 154-80; Preston, op.cit., pp. 104-5, 125-7. 24. Sullivan, op.cit., pp. 200-5, 227-8. 25. P. Heywood, The Government and Politics of Spain (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 37, 51; Perez-Diaz, op.cit., pp. 21-2. 26. Heywood, op.cit., pp. 46-52. 27. Gilmour, op.cit., pp. 207-10. 28. Heywood, op.cit., pp. 92-3; Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 257-8. 29. Harrison, The Spanish Economy, p. 177. 30. Preston, op.cit., p. 145. 31. M. Sanchez Soler, Los hijos del 20-N: Historia Violenta del Fascismo Espanol (Madrid: Temas de hoy, 1993), pp. 165-203, 210-53; J. L. Rodriguez jimenez, Reaccionarios y golpistas: La extrema derecha en Espana: del tardofran• quismo ala consolidaci6n de la democracia, 1967-1982 (Madrid: CSIC, 1994), pp. 224-5, 229. 32. Clark, op.cit., p. 377. 33. Rodriguez, op.cit., pp. 278-9. 34. Preston, op.cit., pp. 148-9. 35. Carr and Fusi, op.cit., pp. 250-1. 36. Gilmour, op.cit., p. 249. 37. S. julia, The Ideological Conversion of the Leaders of the PSOE, 1976-1979', in Lannon and Preston (eds), Elites, pp. 273-82. 38. Gilmour, op.cit., p. 251. 39. Rodriguez, op.cit., pp. 286-9; Preston, op.cit., pp. 195-20 I; Powell, op.cit., pp. 168-72. 40. Powell, op.cit., p. 173. 41. Gilmour, op.cit., pp. 263-4. 42. Mujal-Le6n, op.cit., pp. 200-22. 43. Gilmour, op.cit., p. 267. 44. R. Gillespie, 'Regime Consolidation in Spain: Party, State, and Society', in G. Pridham (ed.), Securing Democracy: Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 126. Notes 207

45. The PNV split in 1986 when the former Lehendakari Carlos Garaikoetxea broke away to lead his own party, Eusko Alkartasuna. 46. In the second coup the conspirators apparently planned to assassinate the king and leading figures in the government by blowing up the official stand at the Armed Forces Day military parade in La Corufia on I June 1985. Sanchez, op.cit., pp. 267-8; El Pais (23 February 1981 and 17 February 1991 ). 47. Gillespie, 'Regime', pp. 131-2; Heywood, op.cit., p. 65. 48. The PSOE's change of mind was decisive to turn the vote in favour of NATO membership. The Socialists had fought the 1982 elections with the slogan 'OTAN. De entrada No!' ('NATO. No entry yet!'). About 53 per cent voted to stay in NATO and 39 per cent to withdraw. 49. A. Vifias, 'Dos hombres para Ia transici6n externa: Fernando Moran y Francisco Fernandez Ord6fiez', Historia Contemporanea, no. 15 (1996), pp. 257-88; R. Cotarelo, 'La politica exterior', in J. Tusell and J. Sinova (eds), La decada socialista: El ocaso de Felipe Gonuilez (Madrid: Espasa, 1992), pp. 224-33. 50. J. Harrison, The Spanish Economy: From the Civil War to the European Community (London: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 48-9; K. Salmon, 'Spain in the World Economy', in R. Gillespie, F. Rodrigo and J. Story (eds), Democratic Spain: Reshaping External Relations in a Changing World (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 72-84. 51. Salmon, op.cit., pp. 78-80; Heywood, op.cit., pp. 222-40. 52. V. Perez-Diaz, Espana puesta a prueba (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1996), pp. 148-52; C. Rodriguez Braun, 'De Ia agonia a Ia agonia', in J. Tusell and J. Sinova (eds), op.cit., pp. 51-4, 56-60. 53. Perez-Diaz, Espana, p. 90. 54. J. Pradera, 'Las pasiones del poder: el PSOE tras diez afios de gobierno', in Tusell and Sinova, op.cit., pp. 273-5. 55. Candido, La sangre de la rosa: El poder y la epoca, 1982-1996 (Madrid: Planeta, 1996), p. 14. 56. Perez-Diaz, Espana, p. 40. 57. Perez-Diaz, The Return, p. 149; P. Castellano, 'EI Parlamento y el gobierno', in Tusell and Sinova (eds), op.cit., p. 144. 58. The PSOE obtained 159 seats, PP 141, IU 18, CiU 17 and the PNV 5. 59. For a list of scandals see El Mundo (29 December 1994); Tamames, op.cit., pp. 291-322. 60. Sullivan, op.cit., pp. 254-5. 61. El Mundo (27-30 December 1994, 9 March 1995), Diario 16 (9 March and 25 July 1995). The arrest of Luis Roldan was initially presented as proof of the government's determination to investigate official corruption, but turned into another disaster when it was discovered that the former chief of the Civil Guard, allegedly arrested in Laos, had been residing in France and accepted being extradited from Laos on condition that he could only be tried on limited charges. 62. Perez-Diaz, Espana, pp. 172-4. INDEX

Abd ei-Krim, 55 in Andalucfa, 4, 15 Acci6n Nacional, 73, 79 in Catalufla, 15-16 ACNP (Asociaci6n Cat6lica Nacional initial success, 24-5 de Propagandistas), 74, 143, 147 and Russian Revolution, 44 African Army, 87, 95, I 00, I 03, I 06, Anarchist Federation, see FAI 107, 114 Anarcho-Syndicalism and Anarcho• aji"icanistas, 55, 58, 74, 88, 91, I 06, I 07 Syndicalist trade union, see CNT Agrarian Party, 79, 83 Andalucfa Agrarian Reform, 72, 74-5, 77-9, 84 regional conditions, 3-4 Institute of, 80 and rural insurrections, 15 agriculture and Anarchism, 25 regional diversities, 2-4 in revolt after WWI, 45 crisis and protectionism, 12-13 and turmoil during Second Republic, and Primo de Rivera, 62 80 and Second Republic, 79-80, 84 and Civil War, 113 and Franco, 126, 147-8 and Felipe Gonzalez, 181-2 Alba, Santiago, 32, 33, 42, 63 Angiolillo, Michelle, 16 Alcala Zamora, Niceto, 64, 69, 71, 77, Anguita, Jesus, 177 82, 83,87,88 Annual (Morocco), 46 Alcazar de Toledo, I 08 Afloveros, Antonio (Bishop of Bilbao), Alfonso XII, King of Spain, 9, I 0 !58 Alfonso XIII, King of Spain AP (Aiianza Popular), 167, 168, 171-2, and tumo pacifica, 25-6 177-8 involvement in politics and dismissal Aperturistas, 155, 156, 157, 158, 164, 165 of Maura, 28 Aragon and WWI, 35, 42 regional conditions, 1-2 and crisis of 1917,39,41 Anarcho-Syndicalist stronghold, 23 and Annual, 46 and Civil War, 113, 114, 116 and coup of 1923, 49-50 Arana, Sabino de, 22 and Primo de Rivera, 50, 60-1 Areilza,JoseMariade, 164,165 and Dictablanda, 62, 66 Arias Navarro, Carlos, 157, 158, 160, electoral defeat and exile, 68-9 164, 165, 167 Alhucemas (landing), 55 aristocracy, 3, 4, 6, 30 Alhucemas, Marquis of (Manuel Garcia Armada, Gen. Alfonso, 175, 176 Prieto), 35, 40, 41, 46, 49, 63 army Alianza Republicana, 64 intervenes in 19th-century politics, Almeria, 119 7-8 Alvarez, Melquiades, 22 and Canovas, 14-15 Amadeo of Savoy, King of Spain, 9 and 1898, 19 Anarchism and aftermath of colonial defeat, 26

208 Index 209

andjuntas, 33 and Restoration politics, 22, 23 crushes the 1917 strike, 39 and Tragic Week, 27 and WWI, 42 and WWI, 31 and social conflict after WWI, 45-6 and Assembly of 1917, 36 and Annual, 46 andjuntas, 37 and Primo's pronunciamiento, 50-I and Canadiense strike, 45 and opposition to Primo de Rivera, and social conflict after WWI, 45 58-9 and coup of 1923, 51 and fall of Alfonso XIII, 69 and emigration in the 1920s, 62 and Second Republic, 71-2, 74 and October 1934, 87 and revolution of 1934, 87 military rebellion fails, 95, I 06 conspiracy and uprising, 92-3 and May 1937, 116 repression during the Civil War, I 07 falls in 1939, 123 and rise of Franco, 107-8 and relief of casualties in WWII, 137 and Serrano Suner, 134 economic growth in the 1960s, 148 and democratic transition, 173 and democratic transition, 169 and coup of February 1981, 175-6 site of Olympic games, 179 and PSOE government, 178 Baroja, Pio, 21 see also africanistas; African Army; Barroso, Antonio, 96 junteros; Popular Army; and Basque Country, see Euskadi Pronunciamientos Basque Nationalism, 2 Arrese,Jose Luis de, 135, 149 creation of PNV, 21-2 Arzallus, Javier, 170 and Civil War, 113, 114 Asensio, Gen. Carlos, 134 and resurgence in the 1960s, 152 Assembly of Parliamentarians ( 1917), and terrorism, 153 36-7,38,39,40,41 and democratic transition, 170 Asturias see also ETA; HB; PNV regional conditions, 2 Basque Nationalist Party, see PNV Socialist stronghold, 23 Belchite (Battle of), II 0 and 1917 strike, 39 Berenguer, Gen. Damaso, 61-2, 63, 65, and revolution of October 1934, 66, 67, 68 86-7 Besteiro, Julian, 32, 53, 80, 82, 124 supports Indalecio Prieto, 89-90 Bevin, Ernest, 139, 140 and Civil War, I 09, I I 0 Bilbao Arocha (massacre), 167 and Communist strike in 1923, 49 Autarky, 54, 126, 147, 148, 149 and emigration in the 1920s, 62 Azana, Manuel military rebellion fails, 95 and Alianza Republicana, 64 industrial centre in the 1960s, 148 and military reforms, 71-2, 74, 77 Blue Division, 133, 134, 136, 139 Prime Minister, 78 Blum, Leon, 95, 96, 100, 101, 104, 121 and Casas Viejas, 80 bourgeoisie, 5, 32, 45, 90 loses office in 1933, 81-2 Britain and October 1934, 86 and Civil War, 96-7 and Popular Front, 89-90, 91-2 and Non-Intervention, 100-2, 104 and Civil War, 112, 117, 119, 123 and Czech crisis, 122-3 Aznar, Jose Maria, 178, 184, 185 recognizes Franco, 123 Aznar, Adml. Juan Bautista, 67, 68 and WWII, 129-30, 134, 136 and Cold War, 139, 140 Brunete (Battle of), 110 Badajoz (massacre), 100, 109 Burgos, 107 Baldwin, Stanley, 97, I 0 I trial, 153 Barcelona Burguete, Gen. Ricardo, 67 industrial capital, 2 210 Index

Cabanellas, Gen. Miguel, I 07 Castillo, Jesus, 93 Cabanillas, Pfo, 158 Catalan Nationalism caciquismo, II, 12 discontent with centre, 3 and critics, 21 expands after 1898, 22 and Maura, 27 opposes Primo de Rivera, 58 and WWI, 31 wins autonomy and first Catalan and February 1918 elections, 42 government, 79 and Primo's crusade against it, 52 clashes with Madrid and revolts in and UP, 56 October 1934, 85-7 and Somattin, 57 resurgence in the 1960s, 152-3 and modernization of the 1920s, 62 Assembly of 1971, 153 and 1931,68 and hegemony ofCIU, 168 Calvo Sotelo, Jose, 79, 93, I 06 see also Assembly of Parliamentarians Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo, 175, 176, 177 (1917); CIU; Esguerra Camb6, Francese, 22, 32, 33 Republicana; Lliga Regionalista and Assembly of 1917, 36-7 Catalufla supports monarchy, 39, 42 regional conditions, 2-3 'Canadiense La' (Ebro power and and Carlism, 6 irrigation) strike, 44-5 industry and protectionism, 13 Canalejas, Jose, 28-9 social conflict in the 1890s, 15-16 Canaris, Adml. Wilhem Franz, I 00, 132 labour, 15 Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, 9-10, 14, bourgeoisie backs Lliga Regionalista, 16, 25 21-2 Cantabria, 2 and Cut-Cut incident, 26 Cardenas, Lazaro, 95 and Tragic Week, 27-8 Carl ism bourgeoisie fights Alba, 32 and Basque Country, 2 and WWI, 34 and 19th-century wars, 5-7, 9 Assembly of 1917, 36-7 and Canovas, 9 and social violence after WWI, 44-6 and Catholic hierarchy, 14 bourgeoisie supports coup in 1923, and Cuban War, I8 47,49 and WWI, 30 against Primo de Rivera, 58 and Second Republic, 73, 92 and II Republic, 71, 79, 85-7 and Civil War, I 07 and Civil War, 113 as part of Nationalist coalition, and May 1937, 116 110-11 falls to Nationalists, 123 clashes with Falange, 134 opposes Franco, 152-3 Carlos IV, King of Spain, 4 and Juan Carlos, 164 Carlos, Don (Carlos Marfa Isidro de achieves autonomy, 168-9 Borb6n), 5 Catholic Church Carrero Blanco, Adml. Luis, 135, 139, and Canovas, 9-10 147, 149-50, 156, 157 supports Restoration, 14 Carrillo, Santiago, 162, 167, 168, 176 backs Primo de Rivera, 49 Cartagena (Treaty of), 27 and youth protest, 57-8 Casado, Col. Segismundo, 124-5 canvasses for the monarchy in 1931, Casares Quiroga, Santiago, 92-3, 112 68 Casas Viejas (rebellion), 80-1 opposes reforms, 71 Castilla mobilizes against the Second regional conditions, 3 Republic, 73, 74, 75 and Primo de Rivera, 56, 57 and burning of convents, 77 and Second Republic, 73, 76 supports CEDA, 79 right-wing stronghold, 82 and Nationalists, 108 and Civil War, 95 blesses Franco's crusade, 112 Index 211

atrocities committed against it by and Civil War, 112, 113 Republic, 113 joins Largo government, 114 and leading role in Franco's Spain, and May 1937, 116-19 143, 145, 149 and Negrin, 117, 118 and rise of Opus Dei, 14 7 and Franco, 141 and opposition to Franco, 150, 151, declines in democracy, 180 154 coal, 2, 4, 109 and democratic transition, 162, 171 Comintern, 90 see also CEDA; Opus Dei comites paritarios, 53, 54 Catholic kings, I Communism and Communist Party see CC.OO (Comisiones Obreras), 151, 167, PCE 168, 180 Communist International, see Comintern CDS (Centro Demomitico y Social), Communist trade union, see CC.OO 176, 177 Companys y J over, Lluis, 77, 85, 86, 113 CEDA (Confederaci6n Espafwla de Concordat with Vatican (1953), 145 Derechas Aut6nomas), 79, 81, 82, Condor Legion, 104, 109 83-4, 85-8, 90, 91 Conservative Party CEOE (Confederaci6n Espafwla de and turno pacifica, I 0 Organizaciones Empresariales), 168 rise and fall of Maura and splits in Chamberlain, Neville, 119, 120, 121, October 1913, 27-9 122 after WWI, 45 Chautemps, Camille, 104 led by Sanchez Guerra, 59 Churchill, Winston, 137, 138, 139 and Dictablanda, 63 Ciano, Count Galeazzo, 99, 123, 131 and Berenguer's resignation, 66 Cierva,Juan de Ia, 27, 41, 42, 66,69 Constitution CIU (Convergencia i Uni6), 168, 174, 1812,4 177, 182, 184 1876,9-10,51,59 Ciudad Real, 59 1931, 71, 77, 84, 86 Civil Guard, 7, 69, 80, 91, 141, 175, 183 1978, 171 Civil War Cordoba, I 77 and failure of uprising, 95 Cortes and international response, 95-103 1812, 4 and repression in Nationalist zone, closed by Gen. Pavfa, 9 107 and Primo de Rivera, 51 and rise of Franco, 110-112 Constituent in 1931, 71 and repression in Republican zone, dissolved by Alcala Zamora, 88 113 and Arias Navarro, 157, 165 and Republic's internal dissent and and democratic reform, 166 riseofNegrfn, 116-18 Costa, J oaqufn, 21, 51 and Communist hegemony, I 18 Cot, Pierre, 96, I 0 I and Republic's defeat, 123-5 CRT (Confederaci6n Regional del Clerk, Sir George, I 0 I Trabajo), 44 CNCA (Confederaci6n Nacional CTV (Corpo di Truppe Volontarie), 104, Cat6lica Agraria), 74, 75, 79 109 CNT (Confederaci6n Nacional del Cuba, 9, 16-19, 21 Trabajo) Cut-Cut incident, 26 foundation, 33 Czechoslovakia, 122 and Labour Pact (july 1916), 32 expansion and class struggle after WWI, 44-6 Daladier, Edouard, 96, 121 and Popular Front, 90 Dato, Eduardo, 28, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 46 and Primo de Rivera, 53, 54 Delbos, Yvon, 96 and Second Republic, 75, 76 Delegados Gubernativos, 52, 56 212 Index

Delgado, Jose, 91 and terrorism, !53 desencanto, I 72 and democratic transition, 169-171 Diaz Alegria, Gen. Manuel, !58 and PNV's hegemony, 174 Dictablanda, 61 ETA (Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna) disentailment, 5, 12 founded, !53 Dollfuss, Engelbert, 86 and Operation Ogro, 157, 159 Domingo, Marcelino, 80 and democratic transition, 169-70, 172-3 Ebro (Battle of), 122-3 and GAL, 183, 185 economy Extremadura, 3, 84, 91, 181 19th century, 12-13 and WWI, 31-3 FA! (Federaci6n Anarquista Iberica) and Primo de Rivera, 54 foundation, 54 and onset of world crisis, 59-60, 62 opposition to Second Republic, 76, 80 and impact of crisis during Second and Popular Front, 90 Republic, 70-1, 77, 83, 87 joins Largo government, 114 and hard years after Civil War, 126-7 and May 1937, 116-17 and miracle, 145-7, 149 and Negrin, 117 and democracy, 172, 179-180 Fa! Conde, Manuel, Ill Eden, Anthony, 97, 120-1 Falange education, 14, 21, 77, 128, 143, 154, 168 creation, 73 EE (Euzkadiko Ezkerra), 170, 176 and Second Republic, 91 EEC (European Economic Community), and Civil War, Ill 152, 178, 179 and Franco regime, I 26, 128, 130, Eisenhower, Dwight D., 146 134, 139, 143, 146, 147, 149, elections 151, 155 and lurno pacifica, I 0, II, 26, 41, 4 7 Fanelli, Giuseppe, 24 February 1918,42 Fascism, 50-I, 53, 56, 70, 72, 81, 86, April 1931,67-8 88, 89, 90, 103, Ill, 122, 123, June 1931,72,79 129 April 1933, 82 Fernandez Cuesta, Raimundo, 146, !55 November 1933, 82-3 Fernandez Miranda, Torcuato, 162, 164, February 1936, 88-90 165 June 1977, 167-8 Fernandez Vallespin, Gen. Carlos, 158 March 1979, I 71-2 Fernando VII, King of Spain, 4-5 October 1982, 177 Ferrer Guardia, Francisco, 28 June 1986, 177 FNTT (Federaci6n Nacional de October 1989, 177 Trabajadores de Ia Tierra), 75, 81, June 1993, 182 84-6, 91 March 1996, 184 Foreign Legion, 55, 58, 74, 88, 91 emigration, 2, 13, 31, 62, 148, 149, 150 see also african is/as; African Army Esquerra Republicana, 79, 83 Fraga Iribarne, Manuel, 155, 156, 164, Estat Catalti, 58 165, 167, 171, 176, 177, 178 Euskadi France, regional conditions, 2 and Romanones, 34 and Carlism, 6 and Civil War, 95-6, and industry, 12, 13 and Non-Intervention, 101-2 and creation of PNV, 21, 22 helps the Republic, I 04-5, 120 Socialist stronghold, 23 under British pressure, 121 and Catholic farmers, 74 and Czech crisis, 122 and Civil War, 109, 113 recognizes Franco, 123 and resurgence of Nationalism in the and WWII, 129, 131, 137, 140 1960s, 152 and Cold War, 140, 146, 149, !53 Index 213

Franco y Bahamonde, Gen. Francisco Gil Robles, Jose Marfa, 75, 79, 83, 84, and Primo de Rivera, 55, 58 85, 87, 88, 90 and Second Republic, 87, 88, 90 Gimenez Fernandez, Manuel, 87 and Civil War, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, Girai,Jose, 112, 141 121 Giron de Velasco, Jose Antonio, 145, career path, I 05-6 149, 155 initial hesitancy, I 06 Goicoechea, Antonio, 29 Nationalist leader, 106-8 golpismo, 173, 178 imposes unification of all groups, Gonzalez, Felipe, 163, 174, 177, 178, 106-7,110-1 180, 181, 182, 183, 184 conduct of war, 108-10, 114, 119, CRAPO (Grupos de Resistencia 122, 123 Antifascista Primero de Octubre), total victory, 124-5 !58 pro-Axis in WWII, 128-32 Guadalajara (Battle of), I 09, writes Raw, 133 Guam, 19 cautious after 1942, 134-8 Guernica, 109-10 and Cold War, 139-41 Guerra, Alfonso, 163, 174, 181 and Don Juan, 141, 142, 143, 144 Guerra, Juan, 182 new order, 143, 144 guerrilla, 4, !53 relations with USA, 144-5, 146 Gutierrez Mellado, Gen. Manuel, 173 and economic miracle, 147-9 and Church's dwindling support, 154 Hayes, Carlton H., 135 and Carrero Blanco, 156-7 J. HB (Herri Batasuna), 170, 172 and Arias Navarro, 157-8 Hedilla, Manuel, Ill deteriorating health and death, Hendaye (France) meeting, 131-2 158-60 Herrera y Oria, Angel, 74 FRAP (Frente Revolucionario Herriot, Edouard, 96 Anti-fascista y Patriotico), 158 Hidalgo, Diego, 87 Fuero de los Espafioles, 143 Hitler, Adolf Fuerza Nueva, 167, 168 and Civil War, 96, 98, I 04, I 05, 119, 122, 123 and WWII, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134, GAL (Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberaci6n), 137 183 HOAC (Hermandades Obreras de Gal;in, Fermin, 65 Acci6n Catolica), 150, 154 Galicia, 1-2, 95, 133, 178 Hoare, Samuel, 129, 130 Ganivet, Angel, 21 Garaikoetxea, Carlos, I 70 Garzon, Baltasar, 182, 183 Iglesias, Pablo, 24, 29 Gaulle, Charles de, 131 IMF (International Monetary Fund), Generalitat, 79, 85, 86, 87, 169 148 Germany industry buys last Spanish enclaves in the in 19th century, 12-13 Pacific, 19 and impact of WWI, 31, 33, 43 and WWI, 30-1, 34-5, 42 under Primo de Rivera, 54, 59-60, 62 and Civil War, 98-9, 100 and Second Republic, 74, 77 increases aid to Franco, I 04, I 05, and Civil War, 113 I 08, I 09, 119 post-war development, 126 and Czech crisis, 122 and economic miracle, 147-9 and WWII, 128, 129 and PSOE government, 179-80 relations with Franco, 130-2, 134 inflation is defeated, 136, 137 and WWI, 31, 33, 43 Gibraltar, I, 95, 97, 129, 130, 132, 133 under Franco, 147, 158 214 Index inflation (cont.) and Primo de Rivera, 49, 53-4 in democratic transition, 168 and Dictablanda, 65 under PSOE government, 179 and Second Republic's reforms, 72, IN! (Instituto Nacional de Industria), 75-6 126 and revolution of October 1934, 86-7 inmobilistas, 155, 156, 158, 166 and Popular Front, 91 see also ultras and Civil War, 95 intellectuals, 14 and Nationalist repression, I 07 Generation of '98, 21 defeats military rebellion, 113 Francophiles, 30 and PCE, 115, 118 oppose Primo de Rivera, 57-8, 63 under Franco, 150-1 International Brigades, I 03, I 04, I 05, and democratic transition, 168 122 and PSOE government, 179-80 Isabel II, Queen of Spain, 5, 9 land Italy sales in 19th century, 6, 7, 8 and Civil War, I 00, I 0 I, I 02 reform, see Agrarian Reform increases aid to Franco, I 04, I 05, I 07 Largo Caballero, Francisco defeated in Guadalajara, I 09 and Primo de Rivera, 53, 60 involved until Nationalist victory, 119, Minister of Labour, 72, 75, 77 120, 122, 123 disillusioned with Second Republic, and WWII, 128, 129 80-1 in 1943, 136 and revolution of October 1934, 86 IU (Izquierda Unida), 177, 182, 184 and Popular Front, 89, 90, 91, 92 Prime Minister during Civil War, 114-15 Jaca (rebellion), 65 and PCE, 116 JAP (Juventudes de Acci6n Popular), ousted from office, II 7 85, Ill latifundia, 3, 54, 75, 77 Jerez, 15, 52 Lausanne (Manifesto of), 142, 143 Jesuits, 74 Law of Constitution of the Army, 14 JOC (Juventud Obrera Cat6lica), 150, Law of Fundamental Principles of the !54 National Movement, 149 John XXIII, Pope, 154 Law of Jurisdictions, 26, 71, 72 Juan, Don (Juan de Borb6n y Law of Political Association, 165 Battenberg), 141, 142, 143, 144, Law of Political Responsibilities, 124, 162, 163 127 Juan Carlos I, King of Spain Law of Reform of the Agrarian Reform, returns to Spain, 144 88 Franco's successor, 150, 156, 157, !58 Law of Repression of Masonry and and democratic transition, 162, 163, Communism, 127 164, 165 Law of Succession, 143 defends democracy, 175-6 Lebrun, Albert, 96 junta Democrtitica, 163 Left Republicans, 73, 77, 80, 81, 83 juntas, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41, 55 Leo XIII, Pope, 14 junteros, 48, 55, 58 Le6n, 3 jurados mixtos, 72, 84 Lequerica,Jose Felix, 137 Lerroux, Alejandro labour movement Emperor of the Paralelo, 23, 25 in 19th century, 15-16 under Primo de Rivera, 63 ideologically split, 23-4 and Provisional Government, 63 and WWI, 31-2 and Second Republic, 78 and 1917 strike, 38-9 opposes the Azafia government, 80, and postwar conflict, 43-6 81 Index 215

in office, 83, 84, 86, 87 revolts against Negrin, 124-5 forced to resign, 88 Ambassadors leave in 1946, 138 Ley de fugas, 45 visited by Eisenhower in 1959, 146 Liberal Party and economic miracle, 148 and tumo pacifica, 9-10 and Carrillo, 167 and Lerroux, 23 site of Arab-Israeli Peace Conference and Cut-Cut incident, 26 (1991), 179 and Maura, 27 Europe's cultural capital ( 1992), 179 and Tragic Week, 28 Gonzalez visits University, 182 and WWI, 32, 33 Maine, USA, 18 splits in 1917, 35 Malaga, 9, 109, 157 and February 1918 elections, 41 Mancomunidad, 27, 58 returned to office in December 1922, Mano Negra, 15 46-7 Manzanas, Melit6n, 153 ousted by coup, 49 Marshall Plan, 138 and Dictablanda, 63 Martin Artajo, Alberto, 143, Liberalism, 6, 7, 10,51 Martinez Anido, Gen. Severiano, 45, 49, Lliga Regionalista 53 founded, 22 Martinez Barrios, Diego, 84, 112 and Solidaridad Catalano, 26, 27 Martinez Bordiu, Cristobal (Marquis of opposes Alba, 32-3 Villaverde), 146 and Assembly of 1917, 36-7, 40-l Martinez Campos, Gen. Arsenio, 9 loses Catalan hegemony, 66 MATESA (scandal), 156 and Second Republic, 85 Maura, Antonio Llopis, Rodolfo, 163 in government (1907-9), 27 Lopez Rod6, Laureano, 147, 156 and Tragic Week, 27 abandons and splits the Conservative Party, 28-9 Machado, Antonio, 21 and Assembly of 1917,37 Macia, Francese, 58, 77, 79 heads cabinet in 1918, 42 Madrid advises Alfonso XIII, 50 rises against the French in 1808, 4 Maura, Gabriel, 67 and railway system, 8 Maura, Miguel, 37, 64, 69, 77 and First Republic, 9 Maurism~2~ 3~ 3~ 37,5~66 and Uiga Regionalista, 22 May Events (1937), 116-18 Socialist stronghold, 25 McKinley, William, 18 site of pro-Allied gathering in 1917, Menorca, l 35 Mexico, 95, 101, 141 site of second meeting of Assembly, Miaja, Gen. Jose, 115 39 middle classes and 1923 coup, 50 and 19th century, 5, 21 site of Franco-Spanish Conference in and Restoration Monarchy, 27, 42 1925, 55 and Primo de Rivera, 57, 62 attracts emigrants in the 1920s, 62 and Second Republic, 64 and revolution of December 1930, 65 and Civil War, 92, 116, liS burning of convents in 1931, 77 and Franco, 152, 155 Largo Caballero's stronghold, 89 and democratic transition, 163 building dispute in 1936, 92 Milans del Bosch, Gen. Jaime, 175-6 military rebellion fails, 95, 106 mining, 2, 8, 34, 109, 123 stops Nationalist advance, l 00, l 03, Mola, Gen. Emilio, 88, 92, 98, 99, l 00, 108 103,107, Ill, 112 abandoned as capital by Largo Moncloa (Pacts of), 168 Caballero government, 115 Montero Rios, Eugenio, 26 216 Index

Moors, 87, 107, 108 Pardo (Clan del), 146, !56 Moret, Segismundo, 26, 28 Pardo (Pact of), 10 Morocco, 27, 28, 34 Paris (Treaty of), 19 Annual, 46 Paul VI, Pope, 154, !59 aftermath of Spain's defeat, 50, Pavia, Gen. Manuel, 12 rebellion crushed, 55 PCE (Partido Comunista de Espana) and Second Republic, 72 founded, 43-4 and Civil War, 93 and Largo Caballero government, and Spain's claims during WWII, 130, I I5-16 135 and Popular Front, 90 gains independence, 146 and Primo de Rivera, 49, 53 and Western Sahara, !59 and May 1937, Il6-17 Moscard6, Gen. Jose, I 08 supports Negrin, 117-18 Murcia, 3 and end of the Civil War, 124-5 Mussolini, Benito and opposition to Franco, 141 and Civil War, 96, 99, I 00, I 04, I 09, infiltrates the labour movement, !51 119, 120 and democratic transition, 162-3 and WWII, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, is legalized, 166-7 137 and elections ofjune 1977, 168 and Pactos de Ia Moncloa, 168 Napoleon, 4 and internal divisions, 176-7 National Assembly, 56, 57, 60 and electoral decline, 177 National Council of the Economy, 54 and IU, 177 National Movement, see Falange peasantry National Wheat Service, 126 and disentailment, 2, 3, 5, 6 Nationalists, rebellion in Andaluda, 15 uprising, 95, and Anarchism, 25, and international aid, 97, I 00, I 05 and impact of Bolshevism, 44 fail to take Madrid, I 03, I 06, and Second Republic, 80, 85, 87, 91 advance in the northern front, I 09, and Civil War, 95, 113 110 and Franco, 147 unity under Franco's leadership, II 0, Perez, Bias, 134 Ill, 114 Pestana, Angel, 44, 54, 74, 90 repression, 113, 122, 123, 125, Philippines, 17, 19, 136 towards total victory, 122, 123, 125 Pinar, Bias, 155, !56 in aftermath of Civil War, 126, 127 Plataforma de Convergencia NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Democratica, 163 Organization), 38, 176, 178, 179 PNV (Partido Nacionalista Vasco) Navarra, 2, 6, 73, 82, 92, 95 foundation, 21-2 Negrfn,Juan, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, and 1977 electoral results, 168 123, 124, 141 and democratic transition, 170 Nin, Andreu, 164 and 1978 Constitution, 171 Non-Intervention Agreement, 101, 102, hegemonic force in Euskadi, 174 103, 104, 105, 118, 119, 120, 121 and 1982 electoral results, 177 arbiter of politics in 1996, 184 October Revolution (1934 ), see under Popular Army, 115, 116, 118 Revolution Popular Front, 89-90, 95-6, I 02, I 03, Opus Dei, 147, 150, 156 114,117,118 Ordas, Gordon, 82 Portugal 'Organic Law of the State', 149 and WWI, 30-1 Ortega y Gasset, Jose, 21 and Civil War, 92, 97, 98, 100, 106 Ossorio, Angel, 27, 29 fall of the dictatorship, 15 7 Oviedo, 95 Potsdam (Conference), 139 Index 217

POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificado and Russian Revolution, 43, 44 Marxista), 90, 116, 118 and Primo de Rivera, 49, 53, 60 PP (Partido Popular), 178, 184-5 joins Provisional Government, 64 Prieto, lndalecio and Second Republic, 71 and Primo de Rivera, 53, 60 and social reforms, 72, 75 and Pact of San Sebastian, 64 supports Azafla, 78 Treasury Minister, 77 schisms, 80 supports coalition with Republicans, electoral defeat in 1933, 82-3 80-81 and Revolution of October 1934, 86 and Popular Front, 89 and Popular Front, 89, 90, 91 fails to become Prime Minister, 92 and Civil War, 113, 114, 115 warns of coup, 93 and fall of Largo Caballero, 117-18 and Civil War, 117, 119 revolts against Negrin, 124 meets Gil Robles, 140 in exile, 141 Prim, Gen. Juan, 9 led by Felipe Gonzalez, 163 Primo de Rivera, Jose Antonio, 73, 99, in democratic transition, 166 106, Ill leading opposition force, 167, 168, Primo de Rivera, Gen. Miguel I 70, 171, 17 4, 177 leads coup, 47, 48, 50 in power since 1982, 177, 178, 179, and Alfonso XIII, 50, 60-1 180, 181, 182 and regeneration, 51-2 electoral defeat in 1996, 184 and labour movement, 53-4 PSP (Partido Socialista Popular), 163, and economy, 54 174 and Morocco, 55 PSUC (Partido Socialista Unificado de attempts to consolidate his rule, 56-7 Catalufla), 116, 176 and its critics, 57 Puerto Rico, 19 opposed by sections of the army, 58 Pujol, Jordi, 168, 184 and economic crisis, 59-60 resigns, 61 Queipo de Llano, Gen. Gonzalo, I 07 pronunciamiento in 19th century, 7 against Isabel II, 8 rabassaires, 85 and Canovas, 9, 15 Radical Party against Restoration Monarchy ( 1923), early days in Catalufla, 23 48,49, 50,51 against Solidaridad Catalana, 26 against Primo de Rivera, 59, 61 and Tragic Week and its aftermath, in August 1932, 78 28, 29 in July 1936,94,95, 106, 112 and Alianz.a Republicana, 63 against Negrin (1939), 124-5 and Second Republic, 71 in February 1981, I 7 5 opposes Azafla, 78 protectionism, 13, 43, 54, 127, 147 and Casas Viejas, 80, 81 Provisional Government, 65, 66, 67, 68, and electoral successes in 1933, 82-3 69 in power, 83 PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero and scandals, 88 Espafwl) defeated in 1936, 90 foundation and slow growth, 23, 24-5 Radical Socialist Party, 80, 82 and Tragic Week, 28 railways, 8, I 0, 54, 62, 131 allies with Republicans, 29 reconquista Ia, 1, 3, 85, 87, 108, 128 and Pact with CNT (1916), 32 Redondo, Nicolas, 180 and WWI, 35 Regenerationism, 20, 21, 27, 31, 51-2 and Assembly ( 1917), 3 7 religion, 9-10, 14, 30, 58, 74, 79, 143, and strike of August 1917,38-9 145 electoral gains in 1918, 41 Renovaci6n Espanola, 79, 91 218 Index

Republic, First, 9 Romanones, Count (Alvaro de Figueroa Republic, Second y Torres), 28, 33, 34, 35, 45, 59, 63, proclaimed, 69, 70 66, 67, 69 elections of June I 931, 71 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 135 reforms, 71-2 Roosevelt, Theodore, 17 and Catholic Church, 73-4 Rubio, Mariano, 183 and countryside, 74-5 Ruiz Gimenez, Joaquin, 146 and CNT, 76 Russia, see Soviet Union and Catalufia, 77 Agrarian Reform, 79-80 and Casas Viejas, 80 Salamanca, I 07 dominated by Radical Party, 82-3 Salazar, Antonio, 97, 98 and agrarian strike of I 934, 85 Salazar Alonso, Rafael, 84, 85 and revolution of October I 934, 86-7 Salmeron, Nicolas, 22 and CEDA's hegemony, 87-8 Samper, Ricardo, 85 and polarization, 88-9 Sanchez de Toea, Joaquin, 45 and Popular Front, 89, 90 Sanchez Guerra, Jose, 38, 59, 63, 66 towards Civil War, 91-2 San Fulgencio (Spanish merchant ship), and the military rebellion, 94-5 35 and international response, 95-105 Sanjurjo, Gen. Jose, 69, 78, 92, 97, 106, revolution and internal squabbles, 107 112-14 San Sebastian (Pact of), 64, 71 and state reconstruction, 114-17 Santiago, Gen. Luis, 28 and Negrin's resistance, 117-19 scandals, 182-4 abandoned by Allies, II 9-22 Segui, Salvador, 44 collapse, 122-4 Segura, Pedro (Cardinal ofToledo), 73, Requetti, 73 74 Restoration Monarchy Silvestre, Gen. Manuel Fernandez, 65 established, 9 Serrano Sufier, Ramon, Ill, 130-1, and turno pacifica, 10 -II 132, 133, 134-5 golden era, II Sevilla, 95, I 07, 179, 182 and Catholic Church, 14 Sindicato Unico, 44 and army, 14-15 Sindicatos Libres, 45, 53 and Cuban war, 18-19 Sindicatos de Oposici6n, 76 and Tragic Week, 27-8 Socialism and Socialist Party, see PSOE and Assembly, 36-7 Socialist trade union, see UGT and praetorian intervention, 40 Solana, Javier, 179 in terminal crisis, 42 Solidaridad Catalana, 26, 27 overthrown in I 923, 4 7, 49 Solidaridad Obrera, 25, 29 anachronism in I 930, 62 Solis Ruiz, Jose, 149, !56 revolution Somaten, 56, 57 Liberal in 1830s, 5-6 Soviet Union 'Glorious' of 1868, 8 fall ofTsarism, 34, 35 Bolshevik (October I 9 17), 42, 43, 44, Bolshevism, 43, 44 48 and Spanish Civil War, I 00, I 02-3, after WWI, 43, 44 105, 115, 119, 122-3 of December I 930, 65 and WWII, 129, 133, 135, 136, 138 of October I 934, 86-7 and Cold War, 139 Rios, Fernando de los, 64, 72, 77 Stabilization Plan, 148 Roatta, Col. Mario, I 00 Stalin,Joseph, 102,103,119,122,134 Rodezno, Count (Tomas Dominguez strikes Arevalo), Ill under the Restoration Monarchy, 25, Roldan, Luis, 183 27, 28, 29 Index 219

in August 1917,38-9 and PSOE government, 180 after WWI, 40, 41, 43 ultras, 156, 158, 172 under Primo de Rivera, 49, 54 see also inmobilistas under the Second Republic, 76, 84-5, UMD (Union Militar Democratica), 139 91 UME (Union Militar Espafwla), 92 under Franco, 126, 14 7, !51, !56 UN (United Nations), 138, 140, 145, under democracy, 165, 180 146 see also Canadiense Unamuno, Miguel de, 21, 57 students, 146, 152, 155, 156, 182 unemployment, 31, 70, 83, 87, 149, Suarez, Adolfo, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 168, 172, 179, 180 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, Union Republicana, 84 180 United States and Cuban War, 17, 18, 19 Tacito, 155 and WWI, 35 WWII, 130, 136, 137 Tangier, 130 and Franco, 140, 144-5, 146 Tarancon, Enrique (Cardinal Primate), and 154, 158 and democracy, 178-9 172, 182 Tarradellas, Josep, 168-9, 170 university, 58, 152, 158, Patriotica), 56, 57 Tejero, Lt Col. Antonio, 173, 175-6 UP (Union terrorism, 15, 155, 156-7, 158, 159, 165, 172 Valencia see also ETA regional conditions, 2 Teruel (Battle of), II 0 Anarchist stronghold, 23 Tierno Galvan, Enrique, 163, 17 4 and transport conflict in 1917, 38 tourism, 148, 149, 150 and foundation of FAI, 54 trade, 2, 3, 14 and Sanchez Guerra's pronunciamiento, and WWI, 31 59 and Primo de Rivera, 59 growth in the 1920s, 62 and Second Republic, 70 military rebellion fails, 95 and Franco, 147, 148, 149 capital during the Civil War, 115, 123 trdfico de influencias, 182 and economic miracle, 148 Tragic Week, 28-9 and use of Catalan, !52 transport, 12, 13, 31 and coup of February 1981, 175 treasury, 5, 7, 77 Valle de los Cafdos, I27 Truman, Harry, 144, 145 Varela, Gen. Jose Enrique, 134 turno pacifica, 10, II, 13, 16, 28, 29, 32, Vatican, 145, 154, 158 36, 37,40,41 Velayos, Nicasio, 88 Vichy, 131, 132, 137, 140 UCD (Union de Centro Democratico), Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, 60 167, 171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, Vig6n, Gen. juan, 130 178 UGT (Union General de Trabajadores) Western Sahara, !59 created, 24 wheat, 3, I 0, 13, 126 after Tragic Week, 29 wine, 3, 10, 12 Pact with CNT ( 1916), 32 wolfram, 136-7 and strike of August 1917, 38 working class, see labour movement and Russian Revolution, 43-4 World War I, 29-35, 42 and Second Republic, 75 World War II, 128-38 led by Largo Caballero, 81 and agrarian strike of 1934, 85 and Civil War, 115, 116, 117 Zanjon (Pact of), 16 in exile, !51 Zaragoza, 2, 62, 95