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Théorie De L'argumentation UNIVERSITÉ D’ARTOIS ECOLE DOCTORALE SPI 072 SCIENCES POUR L’INGÉNIEUR THÈSE pour l’obtention du titre de Docteur en Sciences de l’Université d’Artois Mention : Informatique Présentée par Badran Raddaoui Contributions aux approches logiques de l’argumentation en intelligence artificielle soutenue publiquement le 21 novembre 2013 Composition du jury : Rapporteurs : Jérôme Lang (Directeur de Recherche) CNRS – LAMSADE Igor Stephan´ (Maître de Conférences, HdR) Université d’Angers Examinateurs : Philippe Besnard (Directeur de Recherche) CNRS – IRIT (Co-directeur) Éric Gregoire´ (Professeur des Universités) Université d’Artois (Co-directeur) Sébastien Konieczny (Directeur de Recherche) CNRS – CRIL Pierre Marquis (Professeur des Universités) Université d’Artois Yves Moinard (Chargé de Recherche) INRIA – IRISA Centre de Recherche en Informatique de Lens (CRIL CNRS UMR 8188) Université d’Artois, rue Jean Souvraz, S.P. 18 F-62307, Lens Cedex France Secrétariat : Tél. : +33 (0)3 21 79 17 23 – Fax : +33 (0)3 21 79 17 70 http://www.cril.univ-artois.fr A la mémoire de mon cher frère MAHER (1997-2013) Remerciements Un travail tel que celui-ci n’est pas seulement l’œuvre de son signataire. Je tiens à remer- cier tous ceux qui m’ont aidé et soutenu, sans qu’ils aient eu forcément pleinement conscience de l’importance que cela pouvait avoir pour moi. Je remercie – M. Pierre Marquis, Professeur des Universités à l’Université d’Artois, pour l’honneur qu’il m’a fait en acceptant de présider le jury de cette thèse. – M. Jérôme Lang, Directeur de Recherche CNRS au Laboratoire d’Analyse et Modéli- sation de Systèmes pour l’Aide à la DEcision (LAMSADE), Université Paris Dauphine et – M. Igor Stephan, Maître de Conférences habilité à diriger des recherches à l’Université d’Angers de m’avoir fait l’honneur d’accepter les rôles de rapporteur et de juger ce travail avec intérêt, d’avoir fait de longs déplacements pour venir assister à la soutenance et de m’avoir aussi chaleureusement encouragé à poursuivre ce travail. – M. Sébastien Konieczny, Directeur de Recherche CNRS au Centre de Recherche en Informatique de Lens (CRIL) d’avoir accepté de faire partie du jury. – M. Yves Moinard, Chargé de Recherche INRIA à l’Institut de Recherche en Informa- tique et Systèmes Aléatoires (IRISA) d’avoir bien voulu participer à ce jury. Je remercie tout particulièrement mes deux co-directeurs : M. Éric Grégoire, Professeur des Universités à l’Université d’Artois et directeur du CRIL, et M. Philippe Besnard, Directeur de Recherche CNRS à l’Institut de Recherche en Informatique de Toulouse (IRIT), car je leur dois tout dans cette histoire ou presque. J’ai conscience de leur avoir demandé un travail d’encadrement un peu particulier et je ne peux qu’admirer la façon dont ils s’en sont acquittés, tant d’un point de vue de la recherche scientifique que d’un point de vue humain. Je tiens à leur exprimer ma reconnaissance et ma profonde gratitude. Un grand remerciement est adressé à tous mes collègues du laboratoire pour l’ambiance très favorable qu’ils ont su créer autour de moi. Je tiens aussi à remercier les membres de l’IUT de Lens pour leur sympathie et leur accueil. Je n’oublie pas non plus tout ce que je dois aux autres collègues de l’Université d’Ar- tois : Romdhane Karoui Professeur des Universités et Issam Nouari Maître de Conférences qui m’ont toujours fait bon accueil, et qui m’ont toujours encouragé, m’ont régulièrement soutenue dans ce travail, autant que cela leur était possible. Je tiens aussi à remercier les deux personnes sans qui je ne serai sûrement pas entrain de finir d’écrire ces remerciements. Ils ont eu la patience de m’élever, de me supporter, de me conseiller et de me motiver jour après jour, année après année. Je veux bien évidement parler de mes parents, Ammar et Mabrouka. Je n’oublie pas mes frères et sœurs dont leurs présence pendant toutes ces années a également contribué à faire de moi ce que je suis aujourd’hui. Merci à tous les membres de ma grande famille, pour leur soutien durant toutes ces an- nées d’études, je ne saurais être qu’infiniment reconnaissant quant aux sacrifices qu’ils ont consentis. Enfin merci à ceux et celles que je n’ai pas pu citer, mes sincères amitiés et remerciements. A tous... MERCI ! Table des matières 1 Introduction 1 I Cadre des travaux 7 2 Logiques mathématiques 9 2.1 Introduction ................................... 9 2.2 Logique propositionnelle ............................ 10 2.2.1 Langage du calcul propositionnel ................... 10 2.2.2 Aspect sémantique du calcul propositionnel . 11 2.2.3 Aspect syntaxique du calcul propositionnel . 15 2.2.4 Formes normales ............................ 17 2.2.5 Noyaux minimalement incohérents (MUS) . 18 2.3 Logiques conditionelles ............................. 20 2.3.1 Langage ................................. 21 2.3.2 Aspect sémantique ........................... 21 2.3.3 Aspect syntaxique ........................... 24 2.3.4 Système conditionnel MP ....................... 24 2.4 Logiques modales ................................ 26 2.4.1 Langage ................................. 26 2.4.2 Sémantique ............................... 28 2.4.3 Système modal normal K ....................... 29 2.5 Logiques de ressources ............................. 30 2.5.1 Les logiques de production-consommation . 30 2.5.2 Les logiques de partage-séparation ................... 31 2.6 Conclusion ................................... 32 3 Théories de l’argumentation 35 3.1 Introduction ................................... 35 3.2 Approche de l’argumentation .......................... 36 3.2.1 Processus argumentatif ......................... 37 3.3 Différentes théories de l’argumentation ..................... 40 3.3.1 L’argumentation abstraite ........................ 41 3.3.2 L’argumentation hypothétique ..................... 42 3.3.3 L’argumentation défaisable ....................... 43 3.3.4 L’argumentation logique ........................ 45 3.4 Système argumentatif logique de Besnard et Hunter . 49 3.4.1 Arguments ............................... 50 3.4.2 Comparaison des arguments ...................... 52 3.4.3 Interactions entre arguments ...................... 54 i Table des matières 3.4.4 Undercuts canoniques ......................... 58 3.4.5 Arbres argumentatifs .......................... 60 3.4.6 Structure argumentative ........................ 63 3.4.7 Évaluation des arbres argumentatifs . 65 3.5 Calcul d’arguments et de contre-arguments . 66 3.5.1 Génération d’arguments dont la conclusion est un littéral . 66 3.5.2 Génération d’arguments dont la conclusion est une clause . 71 3.6 Aspects calculatoires .............................. 72 3.7 Conclusion ................................... 74 II Contributions 75 4 Méthode algorithmique de calcul d’arguments et de contre-arguments 77 4.1 Introduction ................................... 77 4.2 Calcul d’arguments et de contre-arguments basé sur les MUS . 78 4.2.1 Génération d’arguments ........................ 79 4.2.2 Génération de contre-arguments .................... 81 4.3 Algorithmes ................................... 83 4.4 Expérimentations ................................ 85 4.5 Conclusion ................................... 86 5 Théories logiques de l’argumentation intensionnelles 89 5.1 Introduction ................................... 89 5.2 Système d’argumentation basé sur la logique conditionnelle MP . 91 5.2.1 Contrariété conditionnelle ....................... 92 5.2.2 Arguments ............................... 94 5.2.3 Interactions entre arguments ...................... 97 5.2.4 Arbres argumentatifs . 101 5.3 Système d’argumentation basé sur la logique modale K . 104 5.3.1 Contrariété modale . 104 5.4 Conclusion ................................... 106 6 Théorie de l’argumentation basée sur une logique de ressources 109 6.1 Introduction ................................... 109 6.2 La logique consommatrice CL . 111 6.2.1 Motivations ............................... 111 6.2.2 Langage ................................. 114 6.2.3 Une méthode des tableaux sémantiques pour CL . 116 6.3 Système d’argumentation basé sur la logique consommatrice CL . 121 6.3.1 Arguments ............................... 121 6.3.2 Conflit entre arguments . 126 6.3.3 Arbres argumentatifs . 130 6.4 Conclusion ................................... 134 ii Table des matières 7 Conclusions et perspectives 137 Bibliographie 143 iii Table des figures 2.1 Une valuation des variables propositionnelles (a = 0, b = c = 1) . 11 3.1 Différentes étapes d’un processus argumentatif . 38 3.2 Exemple de système argumentatif à la Dung . 42 3.3 Arbre argumentatif en faveur de a ^ b ..................... 61 3.4 Arbre argumentatif en faveur de c ^ d ..................... 62 3.5 Arbre argumentatif complet en faveur de a ^ b . 63 3.6 Structure argumentative pour b ! c ...................... 64 3.7 Évaluation des arguments ............................ 66 3.8 Graphe de connexion pour ∆ .......................... 67 3.9 Graphe d’attaque pour ∆ ............................ 68 3.10 Graphe fermé pour ∆ .............................. 68 3.11 Graphe focal de :b ............................... 68 3.12 Graphe focal de :c ............................... 68 3.13 Graphe d’interrogation pour :a ......................... 69 3.14 Graphe d’interrogation pour :c ......................... 69 3.15 Arbre de support cohérent et minimal pour ∆ et α . 70 3.16 Arbre de support cohérent et minimal pour ∆ et α . 70 3.17 Arbre de support complet minimal et cohérent pour ∆, α et d . 72 4.1 Arbre argumentatif complet en
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