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The Effect of Betaine on Nitric Oxide and Cardiovascular Response to Exercise J Ithaca College Digital Commons @ IC Ithaca College Theses 2010 The effect of betaine on nitric oxide and cardiovascular response to exercise J. Luke Pryor Ithaca College Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.ithaca.edu/ic_theses Part of the Exercise Science Commons Recommended Citation Pryor, J. Luke, "The effect of betaine on nitric oxide and cardiovascular response to exercise" (2010). Ithaca College Theses. Paper 220. This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ IC. It has been accepted for inclusion in Ithaca College Theses by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ IC. THE EFFECT OF BETAINE ON NITRIC OXIDE AND CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE TO EXERCISE A Master's Thesis presented to the Paculty of the Graduate Program in Exercise and Sport Sciences at Ithaca College In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science by J.Luke Pryor August 2010 Ithaca College School of Health and Sciences and Human Performance ' Ithaca, Nevv York CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS This is to certifu that the Thesis of J.Luke submitted in partial fulfillment of the fequiremen the degree of Master of Science in the ealtHsciences and Hd Performance at College $/been gpproved. Thesis Advisor: Committee Member: Candidate: Chair, Graduate Program: Dean of Graduate Studies: Date: IttHACハ cOLLEGE LIBRARY、 ABSTBACT Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of acute betaine (BT) supplementation, and exercise, on plasma nitrjic oxide (NO) levels and the related cardiovascular response (CVR). Backgroundl: BT is a nutrient found in foods such as wheat gefln, bran, spinach, and seafood. It is thought that BT supplementation will improve athletic performance by, among other pathways, increasing endothelial NO production. Methods: This study followed a placebo controlled, double-blind, repeated measures design. Placebo and BT trials were administered in a cross-over, partialty randomized, and counterbalanced fashion. Subjects consumed either a250ml placebo jZ50 (carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage, CHO) or ml CHO + 2.5 E BT. Subjects sat for 45 min then cycled for 30 min at 60 rpm with a resistance of 2.5o/o body weight (kg). Blood was drawn before and 45 min after BT supplementation, and immediately post exercise, to assess plasma NO. HR and BP w,:re also measured. Statistical Analysis: A 2 x 3 repeated measures ANOVA across treahnents (CHO + BT and CHO) and times (-45, 0 and 30 min) assessed differences in N0. Another 2 x 5 repeated measures ANOVA across the same treafinents and times (-45, -15, 0, 15, and 30 min) assessed differences in HR, BP, and MAP. Significant results were further analyzed using multiple pairwise comparisons with Bonfenoni adjustments and alpha was set at 0.05. Results: No significant interactions or differe,nces between goups were found for plasma NO levels or CVR variables with acute BT supplementation. A significant time effect (P S 0.013) for all CVR variables was found and expected due to the effect of exercise. Conclusions: Acute BT supplementation did not increase plasma NO levels or alter CVR at rest or during light to moderate cycling. ACKNOWLE]DGEMENTS I would like to extend my deepest thatrks to my thesis chairperson, Dr. Tom Swensen, for his guidance, support, patience, encouragement, and expeditious work throughout the thesis process. Thank you to Dr. Gary Sforzd for his advice, patience, support, and hours of reading over the course of this study. For assistance with data collection, thank you to Lisa Braun. Finally, rny utmost thanks to Riana Czapla for her love, motivation, perspective, and advice. lV TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………・111 ACKNOWLEDGEⅣ ENTS.… ……¨…………………………………………………………………………・………………市 LIST OF TABLES.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………Viii CHAPTER l.INTRODUCTION.… ………………………・……………………………………………………………………・……………1 Statellnent of Purpose.… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………・3 Hypothesis.… …………………………………………………………………………………………・……………………3 Assumptions ofThe Study… …………………………………………………………………………………………………3 Delimitations of The Study… … …… … …… …… … …… …… ……… …… … …… 4 Lilnitations ofThe Study.… …………………………………………………………………………………………………・4 Deflnition of Te111ls.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………・5 SuIImary.… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………・・………………5 2.REVIEW OF LITERATURE.… ………………………………………………………………………………………7 Introduction............... ............7 Betaine ................7 Betaine Metabolism ........ 8 Betaine and Health Proiotion ..........g Ergogenic Effects of Betaine Supplementation ...... l0 Osmoprotectant Role and Efllects on Cardiovascular Exercise ............ 10 OtherPotentialEffectsonAerobicActivity.... ...................12 Betaine and Anaerobic Performance.......... ..,.... 13 Nitric Oxide ...... 15 V Production of Nitric Oxide.-...... ...... 16 Pharmacokinetics of Nitric Oxide Mediated Vasodilation...,........... ....17 Exercise and the Nitric Oxide Response.. ............... l8 Betaine and Nitric Oxide ......................21 Summary ...........22 3. METHODS............ ...........23 Subjects .............23 Experimental Design..-. .......24 Procedures .........24 Physiological Measures ............... .........25 Plasma Collection and Nitric Oxide Assay........ .....25 Statistics ......-...-.25 4. RESULTS............... ......27 Subjects .............27 Plasma Nitric Oxide........ ..-.27 Cardiovascular Responses .......... .......-.. 30 Systolic Blood Pressure ..................30 Diastolic Blood Pressure..., .............30 Mean Arterial Blood Pressure.... .....35 Heart Rate .......... ..-........35 Summary.. .--....-.35 ξ フ‘ フ DISCUSSION ............ ..................... 40 Plasma Nitric Oxide '..-.--..--.40 Cardiovascular Responses .......... ...------- 42 Vl Practical lmplications.… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………・44 Surlmary.… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………・45 6.SUMNIARY,CONCLUSIONS,AND RECOMMENDATIONS.… ………………………46 SuIImary.… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………46 Conclusions...… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………47 Recorlmendations.… …………………………………………………………………………………・47 ШIEttNCES.… … …… … …… ……… … … … … … ……… …… …… ……… ……… ……… ……48 APPENDICES Vll LIST OF]「 ABLES Table Page 1. Plasma Nitric Oxide ANOVA Sunrmary Table. ...28 2. Plasma Nirric Oxide. .....29 3. Systolic Blood Pressure ANOVA Summary Table.. .... ....31 4. SystolicBloodPressure. .........32 5. Diastolic Blood Pressure ANOVA Summary Table. .......33 6. Diastolic Blood Pressure. ........34 7 . Mean Arterial Blood Pressure ANOVA Summary Table.. ... ..36 8. MeanArterialBloodPressure.... ............37 9. HeartRateANOVASummaryTable... .......38 10. HeartRate.. .........39 Vlll Chapter I INTRODI.ICTION Betaine (BT) is a naturally occurring compound found in many foods such as wheat gefin, bran, spinach, beets, shrimp and other seafoods (Sakamoto, Nishimura, Ono, & Sakura, 2002; Zeisel, Mar, Howe, & Holderr, 2003). BT supplementation improves athletic performance by enhancing metabolisnr when consumed with a carbohydrate- electrolyte fluid replacement drink. For example, BT supplementation improved selected anaerobic power performances (Czapla, Pryor, Swensen, &, Craig, unpublished data, 2009; Hoffman et a1.,2009; Maresh el a1.,2007). The ergogenic effect of BT is likely a product of an ability to donate methyl groups t;hereby upregulating creatine synthesis in skeletal muscle (Borsook & Dubnoff, 1940;Craig,2004). BT is also an osmolye, which plays an important role in fluid homeostasis, possibly protecting cells against dehydration when electrolyte levels or temperatures are extreme (Craig; Sizeland, Chambers, I.ever, Bason, & Robson, 1993). Even though it is arr osmolyte, current research on BT enhancing aerobic performance in hot conditions is inconclusive (Armstrong et al., 2008; Klasing, Adler, Remus, & Calv ert, 2002; Millrard-Stafford, 2005). In addition to these potential roles, BT has also been theorized to upregulate gene expression of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) restrlting in increased nitric oxide (NO) availability (Jallel-Messadek, 2007). NO is a lkey factor in maintaining proper flow- mediated vascular tone. In addition to causing;vasodilation, NO also inhibits vasoconstriction and platelet and leukocyte aggregation to vascular endothelium. Further, NO mediates precursors of inflammation, neurotransmission, muscle contraction, 2 glucose uptake and metabolic regulation (Detopoulou, Panagiotakos, Antonopoulou, Pitsavos, & Stefanadis, 2008; Kingwell, 2000; Mellion et a1., 1981). These functions and properties make NO a potentially important farctor in cardiovascular health. Research has demonstrated a positive linear relationship between exercise intensity and NO production (Pogliagi, Krasney, & Pendergast,lggT; St. Croix, Wetter, Pegelow, Meyer, & Dempsey, 1999). The cardiovascular response (heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow distribution) to exercise is directly proportional to intensity (Laughlin, 1999). Although currently debated in the literature, elevated NO could conffibute to greater hyperaemia in working muscles, thereby potentially improvirrg exercise performance (Clifford & Hellsten, 2004; Kingwell, 2000; Tschakovsky & Joyner, 2008). While the exact pathway of increasing NO via BT supplementation is yet to be fully elucidated, research shows that BT alters plasma NO. For example, 6 g'd-l of BT increases resting levels of plasma NO from 28.8 + 3.4 pM to 82.3 L 13.2
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