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The Rhetoric of Pravda Editorials a Diachronic Study of a Political Genre Ludmila Pöppel

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The Rhetoric of Pravda Editorials a Diachronic Study of a Political Genre Ludmila Pöppel ACTA UNIVERSITATIS STOCKHOLMIENSIS Stockholm Slavic Studies 33 Th e Rhetoric of Pravda Editorials A Diachronic Study of a Political Genre Ludmila Pöppel Stockholm University © Ludmila Pöppel 2007 issn 0585-3575 isbn 978-91-85445-61-5 Front cover: Paul Klee, Revolution des Viadukts, 1937, Hamburger Kunsthalle. Layout: Larisa Korobenko and Sverker Mi chelsen Printed in Sweden by Intellecta DocuSys, Stockholm 2007 Distributor: Almqvist & Wiksell International To Manfred The Rhetoric of Pravda Editorials A Diachronic Study of a Political Genre Ludmila Pöppel Abstract Th e present study considers the diachronic changes that took place in Soviet politi- cal discourse as reflected in six selections of Pravda editorials from the 1920s through the 1950s, as well as slogans and headlines in that newspaper from 1917 through 1933. Th e principal goal of analyses conducted on various levels is to identify and investigate a number of tendencies demonstrating the gradual transformation of the language of revolution into totalitarian language. A quantitative analysis of the vocabulary of slogans and headlines in Chapter 2 focuses on chronological changes in words and addresses the contexts in which they were used. Th e same material is used in a review of the polarization of vocabulary in positive and negative contexts. Chapters 3–6 are devoted to a qualitative analysis of editorial texts on three levels: lexical rhetorical means (Chapter 3), semantically charged elements of argu- mentation (Chapter 4), and the overall composition of the text (Chapter 5). Chapter 6 concludes the study with an illustration of the devices considered in Chapters 3–5 based on two editorials, one each from the revolutionary and totalitarian periods. Th e analysis identifies a number of stable elements present throughout the period under study, such as the self – other opposition and references to the classics of Marxism-Leninism. At the same time, noted on all levels are changes illustrat- ing the process by which the language of revolution was gradually transformed into totalitarian language. Th ese include the disappearance from rhetoric of emotional- ity, imagery, and elements of logic, as well as stylistic leveling and an increase in the frequent repetition of the same conclusions and clichés. Keywords: political discourse, discourse analysis, language of revolution, totalitarian language, Soviet political language, Pravda editorials, rhetorical changes A dissertation för the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Stockholm University Department of Slavic Language and Literature S-106 91 Stockholm Contents Acknowledgements 9 Introduction . 11 0.1 The language of revolution 12 0.1.1 The French language and the Revolution of 1789–1794 12 0.1.2 The influence of the 1917 Revolution on the Russian language 14 0.2 Totalitarian language 20 0.2.1 Newspeak 20 0.2.2 The language of Nazi Germany 22 0.2.3 The language of Italian Fascism 24 0.2.4 Soviet political discourse 26 0.2.5 Political discourse of East European countries 37 Chapter 1. Methods of research and genres of political discourse . 39 1.1 Methodologies 39 1.1.1 Discourse analysis 39 1.1.2 The analysis of political discourse 41 1.1.3 Pragmatics: speech act theory 42 1.2 The genres of political language 44 1.3 The editorial as a genre 45 1.3.1 The history of Pravda 47 1.3.2 Periodization and selection criteria 48 Chapter 2. Quantitative analysis: slogans and headlines . 51 2.1 Slogans 51 2.2 Headlines 71 2.3 Lexical polarization 84 Chapter 3. Lexical rhetorical devices of the editorial . 105 3.1 Metaphor, simile, cliché 105 3.2 Metonymy, synecdoche 131 3.3 Epithet 135 3.4 Hyperbole, understatement 147 3.4.1 Hyperbole 147 3.4.2 Understatement 158 3.5 Phraseologisms, proverbs, allusions, quotations 162 3.5.1 Phraseologisms 162 3.5.2 Proverbs 164 3.5.3 Allusions, quotations 165 3.6 Praise, blame 168 3.6.1 Praise 168 3.6.2 Blame 172 3.7 Irony 177 Chapter 4. Semiotically charged elements of argumentation . 191 4.1 References to authorities 191 4.2 Statistical arguments 199 4.3 Arguments based on specific examples 203 Chapter 5. The structure of the editorial as a whole . 207 5.1 Editorial themes 209 5.1.1 Main theme 209 5.1.2 Leitmotif 214 5.2 Overall text composition 216 5.2.1 Enumeration: chains, garlands, climax 216 5.2.2 Antithesis, partial opposition 222 5.2.3 The logic of argument 228 5.2.4 The closing of the editorial 232 Chapter 6. Two illustrative examples . 243 6.1 Example 1 243 6.2 Example 2 248 Conclusion . 255 Bibliography . 259 Appendix . 267 Biographical notes . 295 Index . 301 Acknowledgements I very much wish to acknowledge my gratitude to my colleagues and friends who have helped me in the course of writing and publishing this paper. My first thanks are addressed to my supervisor Milan Bílý for his most valuable advice and support. I also want to thank Barbro Nilsson for all her help and encouragement during the initial stage of my work. I am deeply grateful and indebted to Anatolii Shaikevich, my Russian supervisor, who provided me with vital scholarly support and inspiration. Th is book would not have been written without his enormous contribution. I owe a debt of gratitude to Maria Nikolajeva for sharing with me her deep knowledge and for generously offering me help and indispensable expertise during the process of writing and editing the manuscript. I am very grateful to Tora Hedin for reading the entire manuscript, making many insightful comments and especially for helping me through the last stage of the work. I am very much indebted to Charles Rougle for translating this book and for many valuable suggestions and ideas. I appreciate the help of Susanna Witt, who took her time and thoroughly read the bibliography. My sincere thanks to Per-Arne Bodin for solving numerous problems and for his humane perspective and sympathetic encouragement. Particular thanks to Lars Åhlander for masterly proof-reading and for very helpful comments. I am grateful to my colleagues at the Department of Slavic Languages who have given me every possible assistance, and to everyone there who have shared ideas and projects with me over the years. I am indebted to the Royal Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Institute and the Vera Sager Foundation for research grants which enabled me to work in archives and libraries in Moscow. Most of all I want to thank my family, especially my sister Dina, not only for her encouragement, tolerance and love, but also for her valuable assistance in my research. 10 Introduction Contemporary scholars of political discourse often begin their studies by stating that the discipline is far from new. Indeed, rhetoric, the use of language to influence and convince, has its roots in ancient Greece and Rome. Th e classi cal tradition of rhetoric wrestled with the relationship between persuasion, truth, and morality and was aware of the power of language. Th e interrelationship between language, power, ideology, and the manipulation of consciousness and the linguistic description of political language became particularly relevant in the twentieth century, when politicians (and especially governments) gained access to powerful technologies such as large-circu lation daily newspapers, radio, sound amplifying equipment for mass meetings, and of course television. Th e new mass media were among the factors contri- buting to the enormous and truly global political upheavals that distinguish the twentieth century from all that preceded it. Revolutions saturated language with hundreds of neologisms (new words, new collocations, new meanings of old words), many of which became key notions of the age. Victorious revolutions ended with a period of stabi- lization in which the triumphant power of the bureaucracy superseded the often spontaneous and random action of the masses. Th is process was most clearly apparent in those countries that rejected the very principle of parliamen tarianism. Communist Russia, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany saw the emergence of a totalitarian system with a single mass party whose Leader (Vozhd’, Il Duce, der Führer) or leaders imposed upon society a new ideology in place of the old political, religious, and moral principles. Th is new ideology can itself change (sometimes unrecognizably) depending on political objectives of the moment or the personal biases of the Leader.1 Of the three pillars of totalitarianism mentioned above, Soviet Russia is surely 1 Th e most vivid example is the political drift of the USSR from the principles of inter nation- alism of the 1920s to the chauvinism and xenophobia of the late 1940s. Th is process generated ideological contradictions. Hypocrisy became a characteristic feature of the Soviet system, for at any given moment the propagandist could drag out one or another (diametrically opposite) principle and swear loyalty to it with redoubled zeal. George Orwell’s novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four provide some remarkable examples (Orwell 1945, 1949) 11 the most instructive. Hitler was in power 12 years, Mussolini more than 20, while the Communist Party ruled Russia for over seven decades. What instant associations occur to readers who know the Soviet polit- ical language? First and foremost, there are memories of the endless clichés, the obligatory references to Marx, Lenin, the Communist Party, the Soviet leaders. Contemporaries also recall aged Party leaders opening their speeches with Dear Comrades! and kissing each other in greeting in accordance with the official ritual among those admitted to the highest echelons of power. What- ever the associations, the overall picture is of a heavy, monolithic language that is considered to have appeared after the 1917 October Revolution and to have existed down to the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991.
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