DOCSLIB.ORG

University of Bath PHD the Changing Use of Materials in Construction of the Vernacular Thai House Punpairoj, Poomchai

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
University of Bath PHD the Changing Use of Materials in Construction of the Vernacular Thai House Punpairoj, Poomchai University of Bath PHD The Changing Use of Materials in Construction of the Vernacular Thai House Punpairoj, Poomchai Award date: 2013 Awarding institution: University of Bath Link to publication Alternative formats If you require this document in an alternative format, please contact: [email protected] General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 11. Oct. 2021 THE CHANGING USE OF MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION OF THE VERNACULAR THAI HOUSE POOMCHAI PUNPAIROJ A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Bath Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering April 2013 COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rests with the author. A copy of this thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with the author and that they must not copy it or use material from it except as permitted by law or with the consent of the author. This thesis may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purposes of consultation. Abstract The evolution of vernacular houses throughout history has been a response to factors such as geography, climate, craftsmanship and materials. The use of materials is considered to be one of the major principles that form vernacular houses. Before the introduction of concrete during the past few decades, wood, bamboo and grass thatch were the primary available materials for vernacular houses in Thailand. Particularly, the traditional houses in the central Thailand, which were found since the 13th century, have been one of the most admired models. Due to the processes of modernization, the existing traditional Thai houses have been changed from tradition to contemporary. This study focused on three types of vernacular houses in the central Thailand: the traditional Thai house; the transforming Thai house; and the reproduction Thai house. This study examined the features in these contemporary vernacular houses which have been influenced by changing use of materials and construction methods. The study was conducted by examining the changes of vernacular houses in three locations in Ayutthaya province: the urban district village, the rural village, and the motorway buffer area. Data were collected with the uses of materials, construction types, and features of construction elements. The data were analyzed and discussed through typological analysis and constant comparative analysis to reveal the differences of vernacular houses among the studied locations. The findings show the ways in which vernacular traditions have been integrated with modern influences. The development and change of use of materials are indicated for reflecting the evolution of vernacular Thai houses. The results reveal that, from the earliest period of modern Thai industry, contemporary vernacular Thai housing has been influenced by materials available and construction methods employed. Industrial materials have been used to improve the performance and change the appearance of the traditional Thai houses. Because of the availability of early industrial materials and construction methods, the transforming Thai houses will therefore continue to be sustained by their current owners. Traditional and modern materials are applied to the reproduction Thai houses with updated construction techniques. Vernacular Thai houses are confirmed as a continuous process and iii appreciated in the context of the present. The results of this study offers some clues to support an understanding of living heritage, and thus promoting conservation of vernacular buildings in Thailand. iv Acknowledgements I would like to express my appreciation to Pete Walker, Professor of Innovative Construction Materials, who has generously shared his knowledge and experience in directing research and provided valuable advice. I am grateful to Dr. Dina D’Ayala, who has initially encouraged and inspired throughout years of my study. I acknowledge the assistance of many people but will not name individually. Special thanks are for the field research crews: Anake Suwanchaiskul, Akad Wangnoi, Totsaporn Mekborisut, Tawat Umpaipan, and Pakchanok Amornlak. I also appreciate all the villagers in three study locations who dedicated their time to participate in this work and warmly welcomed my visits during the field study. Special gratitude is given to my family for their care and life support. v vi Table of Contents Page Abstract ................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................... v List of Tables .......................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aims and Objectives ..................................................................... 5 1.3 Scope ............................................................................................. 6 1.4 Significance of the study ............................................................... 6 1.5 Thesis Outline ............................................................................... 7 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................ 9 2.1 Definition and study of vernacular architecture ............................ 9 2.2 Vernacular architecture in Thailand .............................................. 11 2.3 Materials and methods of construction ......................................... 19 2.4 Categorization of nontraditional materials .................................... 23 2.5 Thai construction features ............................................................. 30 2.6 Previous studies on Thai vernacular houses.................................. 33 2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................... 37 3 Research Design .......................................................................................... 39 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 39 3.2 Selection of study locations .......................................................... 39 3.3 Method of data collection.............................................................. 48 3.4 Method of data analysis ................................................................ 65 3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................... 66 vii Chapter Page 4 Changes of the Vernacular Thai Houses ..................................................... 69 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 69 4.2 Typological analysis of the change ............................................... 70 4.3 Classification of spaces and functions .......................................... 71 4.4 Archetype of the traditional house in the study areas ................... 80 4.5 Major changes of the traditional house ......................................... 85 4.6 Reproductions in the motorway buffer area ................................. 112 4.7 Conclusions ................................................................................... 118 5 Changes of Materials and Construction Elements ...................................... 121 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 121 5.2 Development of construction elements......................................... 121 5.3 Elements of roof construction ....................................................... 131 5.4 Elements beneath roof construction .............................................. 144 5.5 Conclusions ................................................................................... 165 6 Changing Features of Construction Elements ............................................ 167 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 167 6.2 Features of the main changes ........................................................ 168 6.3 Features and period of the roof ..................................................... 174 6.4 Features and periods beneath the roof ........................................ 180 6.5 Comparison of transforming and
Load more

Recommended publications
  • BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES.Pdf
    10/21/2014 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION RIO HONDO TRUCK ACADEMY Why do firefighters need to know about Building Construction???? We must understand Building Construction to help us understand the behavior of buildings under fire conditions. Having a fundamental knowledge of buildings is an essential component of the decisiondecision--makingmaking process in successful fireground operations. We have to realize that newer construction methods are not in harmony with fire suppression operations. According to NFPA 1001: Standard for FireFighter Professional Qualifications Firefighter 1 Level ––BasicBasic Construction of doors, windows, and walls and the operation of doors, windows, and locks ––IndicatorsIndicators of potential collapse or roof failure ––EffectsEffects of construction type and elapsed time under fire conditions on structural integrity 1 10/21/2014 NFPA 1001 Firefighter 2 Level ––DangerousDangerous building conditions created by fire and suppression activities ––IndicatorsIndicators of building collapse ––EffectsEffects of fire and suppression activities on wood, masonry, cast iron, steel, reinforced concrete, gypsum wallboard, glass and plaster on lath Money, Money, Money….. Everything comes down to MONEY, including building construction. As John Mittendorf says “ Although certain types of building construction are currently popular with architects, modern practices will be inevitably be replaced by newer, more efficient, more costcost--effectiveeffective methods ”” Considerations include: ––CostCost of Labor ––EquipmentEquipment
    [Show full text]
  • Gable Shed Building Guide by John Shank, Owner of Shedking, LLC 2016
    Shedking's Gable Shed Building Guide by John Shank, owner of shedking, LLC 2016 This shed building guide should be used in conjunction with the gable shed plans available at my website shedking.net . These sheds can be used to build storage sheds, chicken coops, playhouses, tiny houses, garden sheds and much more! I have tried to make this guide as simple as possible, and I have tried to make my building plans as comprehensive and easy as possible to follow and understand. If at any time anything presented in the plans or building guide is not clear to you please contact me at [email protected]. As I always advise, please get a building permit and have your plans inspected and gone over by your local building inspector. Many counties in the United States do not require a permit for structures under a certain square footage, but it is still very wise to get the advise of your local building department no matter what the size of the structure. Email: [email protected] 1 Copyright 2016shedking.net If after purchasing a set of my plans and you want to know if they are good for your county, I won't be able to answer that question! All my plans are written utilizing standard building practices, but I cannot write my plans so that they satisfy every local building code. Safety is and should be your number one concern when building any outdoor structure. Table of Contents Disclaimer....................................................................................................................3 Wooden Shed Floor Construction.....................................................................................4
    [Show full text]
  • THE ROUGH GUIDE to Bangkok BANGKOK
    ROUGH GUIDES THE ROUGH GUIDE to Bangkok BANGKOK N I H T O DUSIT AY EXP Y THANON L RE O SSWA H PHR 5 A H A PINKL P Y N A PRESSW O O N A EX H T Thonburi Democracy Station Monument 2 THAN BANGLAMPHU ON PHE 1 TC BAMRUNG MU HABURI C ANG h AI H 4 a T o HANO CHAROEN KRUNG N RA (N Hualamphong MA I EW RAYAT P R YA OAD) Station T h PAHURAT OW HANON A PL r RA OENCHI THA a T T SU 3 SIAM NON NON PH KH y a SQUARE U CHINATOWN C M HA H VIT R T i v A E e R r X O P E N R 6 K E R U S N S G THAN DOWNTOWN W A ( ON RAMABANGKOK IV N Y E W M R LO O N SI A ANO D TH ) 0 1 km TAKSIN BRI DGE 1 Ratanakosin 3 Chinatown and Pahurat 5 Dusit 2 Banglamphu and the 4 Thonburi 6 Downtown Bangkok Democracy Monument area About this book Rough Guides are designed to be good to read and easy to use. The book is divided into the following sections and you should be able to find whatever you need in one of them. The colour section is designed to give you a feel for Bangkok, suggesting when to go and what not to miss, and includes a full list of contents. Then comes basics, for pre-departure information and other practicalities. The city chapters cover each area of Bangkok in depth, giving comprehensive accounts of all the attractions plus excursions further afield, while the listings section gives you the lowdown on accommodation, eating, shopping and more.
    [Show full text]
  • Elevation Drawings EXTERIOR HOUSE FAÇADE Elevations
    Elevation drawings EXTERIOR HOUSE FAÇADE Elevations Elevation – Drawing of the exterior of a structure. Typically front, back an side views. Elevations Terms & Definitions Grade line – the spot where the soil surface strikes the building; the reference point for most elevations Cornice – the part of the roof that extends out from the wall, sometimes referred to as the eave Eave – the lower part of the roof that projects from the wall, sometimes referred to as the cornice ElevationsTerms & Definitions Roof ridge – the uppermost area of two intersecting roof planes Roof ridge – the uppermost area of two intersecting roof planes Rail – decorative barriers and supports typically used to enclose porches and decks Roof Plans Terms & Definitions •Flat roof – common in areas with little rain or snow •Shed roof – offers the same simplicity and economical construction methods as a flat roof but does not have the drainage problems associated with a flat roof Roof Plans Terms & Definitions •Gable roof – one of the most common roof types in residential construction; constructed with two sloping sides that meet to form a ridge •Gambrel roof – a traditional shape that dates back to the colonial period; the lower level is covered with a steep roof surface, which connects into the upper roof system with a slighter pitch Roof Plans Terms & Definitions •Mansard roof – similar to a gambrel roof with the angled lower roof on all four sides rather than just two •Dutch hip roof – a combination between a hip roof and a gable roof Exterior Elevations Two-dimensional, flat, orthographic representations of the building’s exterior Each elevation shows the final appearance of one side of the building Exterior Elevations Four exterior elevations are shown Elevations are drawn at the same scale as the floor plan Labeled as Front, Rear, Right, and Left Side Elevations Compass directions are often used to label elevations (North, South, East, West Elevations) Exterior Elevations Bungalow commonly, a one-story house with a low-pitched roof.
    [Show full text]
  • Mitek Guidefor ROOF Trussinstallation
    TIMBER ROOF TRUSSES MiTek GUIDE for ROOF TRUSS Installation The Timber Roof Trusses you are about to install have been manufactured to engineering standards. To ensure that the trusses perform, it is essential that they be handled, erected and braced correctly. 2019 - Issue 1 mitek.com.au TABLE OF CONTENTS Fixing & Bracing Guidelines For Timber Roof Trusses General .....................................................................................................................................................................................3 Design ......................................................................................................................................................................................3 Transport..................................................................................................................................................................................3 Job Storage ..............................................................................................................................................................................3 Roof Layout .............................................................................................................................................................................4 Erection and Fixing ...................................................................................................................................................................4 Girder and Dutch Hip Girder Trusses .......................................................................................................................................7
    [Show full text]
  • 4.9 Roof Design Guidelines
    4.9 Roof Design Guidelines 4.9.1 INTRODUCTION shingles and shakes as well as the detailing of the shingle roof differed according to regional practices. Commonly in urban areas, wooden roofs were replaced with more fire resistant materials, but in rural areas this was not a major concern. On many Victorian A weather-tight roof is basic in the country houses, the practice of wood preservation of a structure, regardless of its shingling survived the technological age, size, or design. In the system that allows a advances of metal roofing in the 19th building to work as a shelter, the roof sheds century, and near the turn of the century the rain, shades from the harsh sun, and enjoyed a full revival in its namesake, the buffers the weather. Shingle Style. The Bungalow styles in the 20th century assured wood shingles a During some periods in the history of place as one of the most fashionable, architecture, the roof imparts much of the domestic roofing materials. architectural character. It defines the style and contributes to the building's aesthetics. The hipped roofs of Georgian architecture, the turrets of Queen Anne and the graceful slopes of the Bungalow designs are examples of the use of roofing as a major design feature. But no matter how decorative the patterning or how compelling the form, the roof is a highly vulnerable element of a shelter that will inevitably fail. A poor or unmaintained roof will permit the accelerated deterioration of WOOD SHINGLES historic interior building materials - masonry, wood, plaster, paint - and will cause general Metal roofing in America is principally a disintegration of the basic structure.
    [Show full text]
  • Dutch Gable Carport Recommended Instruction Manual
    DUTCH GABLE CARPORT RECOMMENDED INSTRUCTION MANUAL This document remains the property of FBHS (Aust) Pty Ltd September 2015 Table of Contents Introduction 2 Components 3 Step 1a – Marking out the Perimeter of the Carport with Footing only 4 Step 2a – Footing Set-Out for Concrete Block Pad Footing 5 Step 1b – Marking out the Perimeter of the Carport with Slab 6 Step 2b – Footing Set-Out for Concrete Slab 7 Step 3 – Preparation of Carport Posts 8 Step 4a – Post Sleeve on Base Plate Set-out on Footing only 9 Step 4b – Post Sleeve on Base Plate Set-out on Slab 10 Step 5 - Fitting of Intermediate Rafters with Apex Bracket 11 Step 6 - Fitting of End Rafters with Apex Bracket and Cross Beam Assembly 12 Step 7 - Fitting of Columns with Haunch Bracket 14 Step 8 - Fitting of Sidewall Eave Purlin (SW) to Post 15 Step 9 – Fixing of Cover Flashing to Sidewall Eave Purlin (SEP) 16 Step 10 - Gutter 16 Step 11 - Sidewall Frame Assembly 18 Step 12 - Other Sidewall Frame Assembly 18 Step 13- Standing First Sidewall Frame Assembly 18 Step 14 - Standing Second Sidewall Frame Assembly 19 Step 15- Fixing of Endwall Eave Purlin(EEP) to Sidewall Eave Purlin (SEP) on the Rear Endwall 19 Step 16- Installation of Rear Endwall Rafter 20 Step 17- Fixing of Dutch Cross Beam 21 Step 18 - Fixing of Rafter Frame Bracket to Cross Beam End Bracket 21 Step 19 - Fixing of Internal Hip Bracket 22 Step 20 - Fixing of Dutch Hip Rafter 23 Step 21- Fixing of Dutch Hip Rafter to the opposite corner 25 Step 22 - Fixing of Crown Rafter 26 Step 23 - Installation of Intermediate Rafters
    [Show full text]
  • Dutch Gable Freestanding Carport
    DUTCH GABLE FREESTANDING CARPORT STRATCO OUTBACK® ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS. Your complete guide to building a FREESTANDING Outback DUTCH GABLE CARPORT BEFORE YOU START Carefully read these instructions. If you do not have all the necessary tools or information, contact Stratco for advice. Before starting lay out all components and check them against the delivery docket. The parts description identifies each key part, and the component location diagram indicates their fastening position. PARTS DESCRIPTION RIDGE KNUCKLE FOOTING PLATE EAVES KNUCKLE FOOTING COLUMNS AND Slots inside the gable rafters to Slots inside column Slots inside gable rafter and KNUCKLE RAFTERS form connection at the ridge to form on concrete column to form connection at Slots inside Pre cut 120 outback footing connection. eaves. column to form beam make up an in ground rafters and columns footing connection PURLINS HIP PLATE RIDGE CAP BARGE CAP INFILL PANELS Purlins provide support for Connects purlins to This flashing covers the roof The barge cap covers Sufficient number of sheets are cladding the hip rafter. sheets at the gable ridge. the area where the provided, from which the required deck finishes at portal dutch gable infill panels can be HIP FLASHING frame cut. Covers the roof sheet ends along the hip rafter. WEATHER STRIP HEX HEAD SELF DRILLING BOLTS AND RIVETS 68 mm PURLIN Weather strip supports infill SCREWS Bolt types vary depending BRACKET panel and covers the sheet Screw types vary depending upon upon the connection, ensure This bracket ends at the collar
    [Show full text]
  • Chinese Art Within Thai Temples in Malaysia: the Disappearance of Thai Art
    Asian Social Science; Vol. 11, No. 9; 2015 ISSN 1911-2017 E-ISSN 1911-2025 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education Chinese Art within Thai Temples in Malaysia: The Disappearance of Thai Art Punya Tepsing1 1 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand Correspondence: Punya Tepsing, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90112, Thailand. Tel: 66-83-14-6692. E-mail: [email protected] Received: August 12, 2014 Accepted: December 2, 2014 Online Published: April 2, 2015 doi:10.5539/ass.v11n9p43 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n9p43 Abstract The identity of Thai temples in Malaysia is disappearing, as the temples display more Chinese art than Thai. Thus, this research aims to investigate the patterns in Chinese art and the conditions that support the appearance of Chinese art within Thai temples. Chinese art appears within these temples in their sculptures of Buddha, pavilions, and walls. The conditions supporting the appearance of Chinese art include 1) the need for funds to construct new temples; 2) the abilities of pastors who can speak Chinese and English and are interested in art from various countries; and 3) the eastern coast of Malaysia being a place where many people of Chinese descent settled. Chinese people were not able to purchase land easily due to state laws; thus, they had to use Thai temples as places to preserve their identity by constructing Chinese art within the temple. Keywords: Chinese art, Thai temple, Malaysia, disappearance 1. Introduction Chinese culture has been found in Malaysia since the 15th century (Khin & Huat, 2005).
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter Iii a Comparison on Lan Xang and Early
    CHAPTER III A COMPARISON ON LAN XANG AND EARLY RATTANAKOSIN BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS As a Buddhist kingdom, both Lan Xang and Rattanakosin cherished their temples by put every effort to build one and decorate it with the most beautiful artwork they could create at that moment. Those architectures and artworks not just express how luxury each kingdom was, but also represent the thought and circumstance in the meantime. Even though Lan Xang and Rattanakosin had a same religion and were neighbor, their arts and architectural designs are different as follow: 3.1 Lan Xang Buddhist Art and Architectural Design Lan Xang was a kingdom with diversity; even in the Lao race itself. Since the end of the reign of King Suryawongsa Thammikkarat, Lan Xang was divided into three separated kingdom; Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak. Even though they were split up, they still shared their art and architectural designs. Each kingdom had been influenced by the neighbor surround and outsider as described below: 3.1.1 Lan Xang Architecture Developed through centuries, Lan Xang architectures may contain a lot of outsider influence, but at some point, they have their own unique style of architecture. Lan Xang temples can be divided into two part; Buddhawat and Sangkhawat. This chapter will discusses only on the Buddhawat area which cantains of That (ธาตุ), sim (สิม), Ho Wai (หอไหว), Oob Mung (อูบมุง), Hotrai or a library (หอไตร) and Ho Klong or a drum tower (หอกลอง), 3.1.1.1 That (Pagoda or Stupa) That (ธาตุ) in Lan Xang architecture is a Buddhist monument which can refer as a Chedi or pagoda (in Thai Architecture).
    [Show full text]
  • The Journal of the Walters Art Museum
    THE JOURNAL OF THE WALTERS ART MUSEUM VOL. 73, 2018 THE JOURNAL OF THE WALTERS ART MUSEUM VOL. 73, 2018 EDITORIAL BOARD FORM OF MANUSCRIPT Eleanor Hughes, Executive Editor All manuscripts must be typed and double-spaced (including quotations and Charles Dibble, Associate Editor endnotes). Contributors are encouraged to send manuscripts electronically; Amanda Kodeck please check with the editor/manager of curatorial publications as to compat- Amy Landau ibility of systems and fonts if you are using non-Western characters. Include on Julie Lauffenburger a separate sheet your name, home and business addresses, telephone, and email. All manuscripts should include a brief abstract (not to exceed 100 words). Manuscripts should also include a list of captions for all illustrations and a separate list of photo credits. VOLUME EDITOR Amy Landau FORM OF CITATION Monographs: Initial(s) and last name of author, followed by comma; italicized or DESIGNER underscored title of monograph; title of series (if needed, not italicized); volume Jennifer Corr Paulson numbers in arabic numerals (omitting “vol.”); place and date of publication enclosed in parentheses, followed by comma; page numbers (inclusive, not f. or ff.), without p. or pp. © 2018 Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery, 600 North Charles Street, Baltimore, L. H. Corcoran, Portrait Mummies from Roman Egypt (I–IV Centuries), Maryland 21201 Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 56 (Chicago, 1995), 97–99. Periodicals: Initial(s) and last name of author, followed by comma; title in All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced without the written double quotation marks, followed by comma, full title of periodical italicized permission of the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland.
    [Show full text]
  • Sanam Luang’ Urban Space Dilemma
    Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 42 ( 2012 ) 12 – 26 AcE-Bs 2010 Kuching ASEAN Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies, Riverside Majestic Hotel, Kuching, Sarawak,, Malaysia, 7-8 July 2010 From ‘Homeless’ to ‘Hopeless’: Bangkok ‘Sanam Luang’ Urban Space Dilemma Sitthiporn Piromruen* Facultity of Architecture, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand Abstract The objective of this paper is to look at the dilemma of Bangkok’s main urban space focusing on the on-going conflict between physical setting and users’ behavior and activities based on the past records and the author’s field observations. Transformation in terms of its physical appearance and human activities that it generated since it first came into existence as the royal ground to its present day function as the peoples’ ground will be illustrated. Conflicts of interest and utilization which highly affected physical setting will also be reviewed and discussed. ©© 20122011 Published Published by by Elsevier Elsevier B.V. Ltd. Selection Selection and/or and peer-review peer-review under under responsibility responsibility of Centre of Centre for Environment- for Environment- BehaviourBehaviour Studies(cE-Bs),Studies (cE-Bs), Faculty Faculty of of Architecture, Architecture, Planning Planning & & Surveying, Surveying, Universiti Universiti Teknologi Teknologi MARA, MARA, Malaysia Malaysia Keywords: Urban space dilemma; physical setting vs. users’ behavior; conflicts of interest and utilization 1. Introduction Sanam Luang is Bangkok’s major public urban space located in the old central part of Rattanakosin historical area. Its oval shape of about 210 x 630 meters occupies an area of approximately 74 rai or 29.6 acres. The dominant physical features of Sanam Luang consist of the large open field with 4 rows of trees planted around the periphery.
    [Show full text]