Asia Pacific Journal of Research, Vol. 16, No. 2, April 2011

Why Tour Guiding is Important for : Enhancing Guiding Quality with the Ecotourism Promotion Policy in Japan

Naoko Yamada∗ Department of Tourism, Conventions and Event Management, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis, 901 West New York Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA

The Ecotourism Promotion Policy in Japan requires tour guiding to be employed, although it provides little rationale for it. This paper reviews the literature to illustrate why tour guiding is important for achieving policy and ecotourism goals in order to support this requirement. An overview of ecotourism policy in Japan is provided, contri- butions of tour guiding to achieving the policy and ecotourism goals are described, and approaches to strengthening current practices along with the policy are discussed. It is suggested that non-profit organizations offer training to impart knowledge about guiding roles and interpretation at a national level and that ecotourism promotion coun- cils teach knowledge about ecotour products and tourists at a regional level.

Key words: ecotourism, tour guiding, interpretation, Ecotourism Promotion Policy, Japan

Introduction As the International Ecotourism Society (1990) states, ecotourism “conserves the Many authors have argued over the definition environment and improves the well-being of of “ecotourism”; however, what is apparent is local people”. As ecotours involve seeing or that a central pillar of ecotourism is sustain- experiencing resources on which local people able resource use on site. Ecotourism involves typically depend for their lives, sociological a wide range of resources, such as natural and and cultural aspects of the community as cultural artifacts, events/festivals, and natural well as the natural environment must be environment, and strives to achieve ecologi- taken into consideration. The World Tourism cally and socially sustainable development. Organization (2008) claims sustainable

∗Email: [email protected]. Now affiliated to the Division of Sport Science, Pusan University, Korea.

ISSN 1094-1665 print/ISSN 1741-6507 online/11/020139–14 # 2011 Asia Pacific Tourism Association DOI: 10.1080/10941665.2011.556337 140 Naoko Yamada tourism must be managed in "a way that support of the management policy and economic, social and aesthetic needs can be agency, raising audiences’ levels of concern fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, about their environment, and adding to or essential ecological processes, biological diver- broadening audiences’ perspectives about a sity and life support systems”. Ecotourism place or idea. Interpretation can often contrib- supports the growth of the tourism industry ute to the promotion of the proper usage of the and human societies in a sustainable manner resource and area that visitors are experien- while maintaining healthy ecosystems. cing, especially at those locations where the These goals of ecotourism may well be improper behavior of visitors has been attained through tour guiding with the use of known to cause problems (Ham & Krumpe, interpretation. Interpretation is an approach 1996; Kuo, 2002; Lackey & Ham, 2003). to communicating a message and typically Black and Weiler (2005) reviewed a number takes place at protected areas where natural of studies and identified interpreter as the and cultural resources are predominant, such most predominant role that tour play. as national parks, national forests, , It is widely acknowledged that tour guides zoos, aquariums and botanical gardens should offer interpretive experiences. Tour (Ham, 1992). Interpretation does not merely guiding, therefore, embraces interpretation provide information but can develop an under- hereafter in this paper, unless mentioned standing and appreciation of resources and otherwise. help manage tourists’ impact on resources The Ecotourism Promotion Policy, which (Eagles, McCool, & Haynes, 2002). It is requires employing tour guiding, recently often viewed as a management tool, because took effect in Japan. This paper reviews litera- it can help increase public support for manage- ture that explains why and how tour guiding ment, appreciation of the environment, and can play an important role in achieving eco- careful behavior on sites (Alcock, 1991; tourism goals in order to support the policy’s Jelinek, 1990).The World Tourism Organiz- view. An overview of the ecotourism policy ation (2008) suggests that “interpretation of is provided, the roles of tour guiding expected the natural surroundings, local culture, and by the policy are presented, and the contri- should be provided to custo- butions of tour guiding to achieving the mers, as well as explaining appropriate behav- policy and ecotourism goals are discussed. ior while visiting natural areas, living cultures, The paper recommends avenues to enhance and cultural heritage sites” to contribute to current policy practices and guiding quality. effective management. The United Nations To review the relevant literature, publicly Environment Program (1995) emphasizes the available documents were collected through need for guidance, education and information Internet searches and thorough exploration for both the visitors and the residents working of library databases with regard to ecotourism in ecotourism. According to many authors policies in Japan and research findings about (Beck & Cable, 1998; Knudson, Cable, & impacts of tour guiding and interpretation. Beck, 1995; Lewis, 1980; Regnier, Gross, & The policy documents, which include the Zimmerman, 1994; Sharpe, 1982), interpret- Ecotourism Promotion Law, the Ecotourism ation is typically capable of protecting Promotion Policy and the Manual for resources at the site, enhancing audiences’ Promoting Ecotourism, were analyzed with recreational experience, increasing public a content analysis technique to understand Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 141 how tour guiding was viewed in the policy. annually given to approximately 10 tour Research articles were reviewed to uncover operators, organizations, or communities what impacts tour guiding had made in associ- that take care of the environment and contri- ation with ecotourism goals. After reviewing bute to community development. A Manual these documents, a gap was determined for Promoting Ecotourism was produced in between what had been addressed and what collaboration with the Japan Ecotourism should be included in the Japanese ecotourism Society in 2004 (Ministry of the Environment, policy to increase appreciation and effective- 2004a). Thirteen model ecotourism projects ness of guiding. A desirable approach that were supported between 2004 and 2006. In fills this gap and fits the current Japanese situ- addition, the Ecotourism Promoting Policy ation was sought. Documents on tour defined four governmental institutions that training were also reviewed to identify areas take responsibility for developing ecotourism: that should be included in a future training the Ministry of Environment; the Ministry of program in Japan because of training’s high Land, Infrastructure and ; the potential for enhancing guiding quality. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Ecotourism Policy in Japan Prior to the policy establishment, the Ecotourism Promotion Law was passed in The Ministry of Environment is one of the 2007 (Ministry of the Environment, 2007). leading governmental sections responsible for The law provides that “the government must promoting ecotourism in Japan and estab- establish a basic policy on promoting lished the Ecotourism Promotion Policy in ecotourism based on ecotourism principles” 2008 to provide a holistic framework of eco- and it “must listen to wide public opinions” tourism development (Ministry of the in the process of developing a basic policy. Environment, 2008). The Ministry actively The policy was developed based on these promotes ecotourism as an alternative use of determinants. national parks (Hiwasaki, 2003). It conducted The policy suggests creating an ecotourism ecotourism feasibility studies in some national promotion council that consists of a wide parks in 1990 and selected an area in Iriomote variety of stakeholders in a community. The Ishigaki National Park as a model ecotourism council is to develop an overall ecotourism development site in 1991. The Ministry has plan, implement it, periodically check its pro- extended support for ecotourism development gress, assess it, and revise it if needed. An since 2004 and determined five approaches to overall ecotourism plan may be accredited by promote ecotourism: developing a charter, one of the governmental agencies, and accred- establishing a website on ecotours, giving itation enables a municipality to designate a best practice awards, developing a manual “natural tourism resource” in the ecotour and supporting model ecotourism projects. area to protect it legally. The plan must ident- The website on ecotours has expanded since ify an area in which ecotours will occur, major then, and, as of December 2009, it contains natural tourism resources, ways to implement 343 ecotours, 479 operators and 115 ecotourism, techniques to protect and manage accommodations (Japan Ecotourism Society, resources, stakeholders included in the 2009a). Ecotourism awards have been council, and a guide training program. In 142 Naoko Yamada

September 2009, an ecotourism overall frame- organizations of ecotourism, began ecotour work developed by Hanno City was first accre- guide training in 1998, and the Japan dited by the Ministry of the Environment Ecotourism Society (2009b) started ecotour based on the Ecotourism Promotion Law. guide training in 2005. To date, progress has been made in offering a range of interpretive programs and services in the natural parks Interpretation Development in Japan and protected areas (Iwanaga, 2004; Takahashi & Hirota, 2006; Yui, Katsunori, Earlier than ecotourism development, & Kiso, 1996). environmental interpretation started extend- In accordance with the expansion of ing its practice mainly at natural parks in interpretation in Japan, increased attention Japan. Natural parks include 29 national has been paid to advocating and experiencing parks, 56 quasi-national parks, 308 prefec- interpretation by the public. The Ministry of tural natural parks and five marine park the Environment (2004b) has viewed zones in Japan. Although the parks were set interpretation as an avenue of conservation aside to protect the scenic beauty, they are management and public nature experience in also managed for multiple uses, such as the natural parks. A survey conducted by the public health, recreation and cultural develop- Ministry of the Environment (2009) revealed ment of the people (Ministry of Environment, that 36% of randomly selected public respon- 2002). The Ministry of the Environment dents sought more information on interpretive introduced a nature instructor program in programs in national parks. In a 2-day survey the parks in 1974 after 20 years of a temporary with visitors at a natural park on Mt Fuji, volunteer instructor program (Office of Yamamoto and Hongo (2006) observed that Communication with Nature, 2008). Non- some types of visitor, such as repeat visitors, governmental organizations started offering older visitors and visitors in a group with nature instruction or guiding, and they have three or more members, expressed the need been a driving force in advancing interpret- for a guide during hiking. Interpretation and ation in Japan (Hiramatsu & Horie, 2009; guiding have been gaining wide interest. Hiwasaki, 2006; Nishimura, 2006). For example, the Nature Conservation Society of Japan (2009) started offering training for The Role of Tour Guiding in Ecotourism nature observation instructors in 1978, and Policy in Japan the Association for Interpretation Japan (2009) started offering interpreter training Introducing and training tour guides is one of courses in 1992. Fujita (2004) pointed out the major foci among governmental efforts to that the expansion of visitor centers across promote ecotourism in Japan. The majority the nation in 1995 contributed to the growth of the Manual for Promoting Ecotourism of interpretive guided walks, which are con- focuses on tour guiding, outlining how to ducted by park officers in the parks. In design and present tour guiding and introdu- addition, ecotourism development has facili- cing non-personal interpretation techniques, tated the growth of interpretation and tour such as brochures, signage and self-guided guiding in Japan. The Whole Earth Nature trails (Ministry of the Environment, 2004a). School (2009), one of the primary private Presentation skills are highly valued because Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 143

“the way to conduct guidance and the content well as to consider their protection through to be spoken during guidance influence how guidance and advice given by tour conductors tourists feel, and therefore, directly impact who are knowledgeable about the resources”. the success of ecotourism” (p. 8). It requires the inclusion of guidance in Offering information about and experience ecotourism. Also, in order to obtain an accred- of local nature and culture is called “gui- itation for an overall plan developed by an dance” in the manual. Guides offer guidance ecotourism promotion council, it must and may be called nature instructors, nature address who conducts what types of guidance guides, or interpreters. The outcomes of gui- where as well as how to provide guide train- dance are described in the manual as follows: ing. Furthermore, the purpose of the law states “ecotourism has an important role in Through guidance, tourists can deeply understand the conservation of natural environment, the local nature and culture, explore new aspects, development of creative tourism in commu- and experience enjoyable time. Deeply understand- nities, and promotion of environmental ing nature and culture means not only gaining education that increases environmental knowledge or information but also recognizing conservation awareness”. local beauty and a relationship between nature The need for and importance of tour guiding and people through experience. (p. 8) is clearly described in the policy. Guiding is viewed as facilitation of conservation and According to the manual, major differences environmental education. Few explanations, between ecotours and other tours include however, are provided about ways in which exploring or feeling local beauty as well as tour guiding can achieve ecotourism goals. enjoying what tourists are experiencing The focus is rather placed on general tech- through a guide or other information tool, niques of designing and implementing which cannot be accomplished by merely interpretation. This is similar to Black and seeing. The manual states that determining Weiler’s (2008) findings that showed low use rules and conducting guidance are the keys of research in policy-making and planning for successful ecotourism promotion. It undertaken by Australian protected area man- further explains that the most important agement agencies, despite the research’s power tasks for guides include meeting the needs of to enhance greatly the contributions of tourists and increasing their satisfaction, interpretation to management practice. To while avoiding accident risks and reducing increase appreciation of guides’ roles and impacts on the natural environment. Guides help convince tour operators of why limited also should increase tourists’ interests in resources should be allocated to hire quality nature and local culture and prompt them tour guides, evidence of guides’ accomplish- eventually to develop environmentally respon- ments should be provided. The following sible behaviors. The manual defines four section reviews the literature to serve as a major roles that guides must play: guide, basis for identifying guides’ roles in ecotour- instructor, facilitator and coordinator. ism goal achievement. It also illustrates how In addition, the Ecotourism Promotion Law tour guides can maximize their capabilities. defines ecotourism as “an activity to experi- With such information, strong support will ence natural tourism resources and enhance be added to using tour guiding as required by knowledge and understanding about them as the Ecotourism Promotion Policy in Japan. 144 Naoko Yamada

Roles of Tour Guiding in Ecotourism mentally considerate behaviors both on site and at home. As the Ecotourism Promotion Law in Tour guiding has a variety of potential benefits Japan describes a role of ecotourism as pro- to ecotourism, such as promotion, recreation, motion of environmental education, accom- education, management, conservation and plishing the goals of environmental education economy (Wearing & Neil, 1999). According is a primary task for tour guiding. to Eagles, Browman, and Tao (2001), inter- pretive facilities and publications are designed with at least one of four purposes: (1) to Achieving Goals of Environmental increase visitors’ awareness about a resource Education in Ecotourism or attraction; (2) to alter the behavior patterns of visitors and residents; (3) to explain com- Environmental education in ecotourism munity, organization, or agency goals and settings enables tourists and local people to objectives to visitors and residents; and (4) to be environmentally aware (Periera, 2005; orient visitors to the area. Several authors Skanavis, Matsinos, & Petreniti, 2004). At have reported the accomplishment of these the world’s first Intergovernmental Conference purposes through interpretation or edu- on Environmental Education in 1977, the cational programs in ecotourism (Beckmann, Tbilisi Declaration was agreed on to identify 1988; Black & Ham, 2005; Eagles et al., goals of environmental education (UNESCO, 2002; Zeppel, 2008). Weiler and Ham 1977). The Tbilisi Declaration also (2002) further argue that guides play a role recommended five categories of objectives in in creating a balance between their employers environmental education: awareness, knowl- and land managers and meeting the needs of edge, attitudes, skills and participation. These tourists, operators, host communities and pro- objectives ought to be achieved in ecotourism, tected area managers. “Interpretive guiding is and tour guides are capable of performing the application of the principles of ecotourism such a role. and interpretation to leading tour groups and managing the visitor’s experience” (p. 54). 1. Increasing awareness. Ecotourism aims to The authors contend that tour guiding plays create a climate in which tourists are a vital role in establishing a link between aware of and sensitive to the natural people and places in ecotourism because it environment in the local community. For “strives to engender an intellectual, emotional example, Matsushima (2007) examined and even spiritual connection between people the effects of interpretation on visitors’ and places” (p. 54). Through tour guiding, awareness of environmental problems at ecotourism becomes value-added tourism for the public beach in Ishikari, Japan, and multiple stakeholders, which makes ecotours found that the visitors who received stand out among other types of tour. interpretation on the conservation of the One of the main roles of guiding is to add beach were more aware of the problem new value to ecotour resources and foster caused by visitors’ depreciative behaviors. appreciation of them, which will lead to site He recommended the use of interpretation conservation. The ultimate goal, then, is prob- as a beach management tool. In another ably to facilitate tourists’ exhibition of environ- study about visitor experience at 12 Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 145

ecotour sites in New Zealand, Higham and recommended behaviors, such as storing Carr (2003) observed that the interpret- food in a particular manner, after being ation of environmental issues contributed exposed to the interpretation. Imparting to raising visitors’ awareness about the the conservation skills to tourists can also issues. lead to the following objective. 2. Gaining knowledge. Tourists gain under- 5. Facilitating participation. Participating in standing of the local environment and its solving an environmental problem is the associated problems through tour guiding. ultimate goal of both environmental edu- For example, Orams (1997) found knowl- cation and ecotourism. Tour guides can edge gain by tourists who had participated provide tourists with an opportunity to in a structured educational program at a take part in improving a problem on site. nature in Australia. Also, Armstrong In a study conducted by Powell and Ham and Weiler (2002) conducted a study about (2008) at Galapagos National Park, tour- message deliveries by guides during nature- ists showed increased intention to donate based tours in Victoria, Australia, and to conservation programs after experien- reported that conservation messages were cing interpretation on a cruise tour. This recalled by tour participants. In addition, donation behavior was an example action knowledge gain can link to attitude suggested by tour guides. Another change, which is described next. example was demonstrated by Ham et al. 3. Changing attitudes. Attitude change can be (2008), who utilized strategically devel- accomplished through positively changing oped interpretive messages to reduce wild- tourists’ values, producing positive feelings life feeding, keep dogs on leashes, and towards the environment, and/or increas- pick up litter by visitors in three national ing knowledge. An example is given in parks in Australia. Moreover, engaging in Wiles and Hall’s (2005) study in Mesa an action is conducive to awareness. Lee Verde National Park in the USA. They and Moscardo (2005) examined the demonstrated that tourists’ attitudes impacts of ecotourism resort experiences towards wildfire were positively changed on tourists and showed that the respon- after experiencing interpretation tours. dents who were more involved in environ- Other studies (Novey & Hall, 2007; mentally considerate actions at the resort Wiles & Hall, 2005) have also reported were more aware of the negative environ- positive changes in visitors’ knowledge mental impacts of not taking the actions. and attitudes through interpretation. Facilitating tourists to take such an action 4. Acquiring skills. Through explaining or on site also results in producing empower- demonstrating environmentally consider- ment among tourists, allowing them to ate actions during a tour, guides can help see that they are making a difference. tourists to acquire skills for identifying or solving problems. For example, Lackey As the final goal of environmental education and Ham (2004) studied the effects of stra- suggests, tourists should be encouraged to tegic interpretation in Yosemite National perform an environmentally considerate Park in the USA to inform visitors about behavior during an ecotour. The International proper behavior to prevent human–bear Ecotourism Society (1990) also advocates conflicts. Visitors were able to recall the taking a particular action on site as a goal of 146 Naoko Yamada ecotourism in order to minimize impact, build tourists’ experiences and ecotour effectiveness. environmental and cultural awareness and Peake et al. proposed dual dimensions of respect, and provide positive experiences for tourists’ satisfaction in ecotours: satisfaction both tourists and hosts. Also, taking a may derive from a sense of empowerment, particular action can increase tourists’ satis- and satisfaction with ecotour experience may faction because most tourists on ecotours empower ecotourists to take some responsibil- intend to be environmentally responsible ity for and contribute to conservation. They (Orams, 1995). consider locus of responsibility, which is a Contrary to these positive influences, a concept of responsible action derived from a study conducted by Ballantyne and Hughes perceived locus of control whereby individuals (2001) showed that tour guides regarded perceive that their actions can make a differ- their role as delivering accurate information ence, a potential outcome of ecotourism more than viewing it as taking environmen- experience. Enabling tourists to feel locus of tally conscious action on site by monitoring, control and empowerment on site, therefore, protecting and conserving the natural environ- may be the key to ecotourism goal accomplish- ment. In a study about tourists’ satisfaction ment. For example, tourists may be introduced with ecotours in Australia, Weiler (1999) to participating in beach clean-ups, choosing reported that tourists’ dissatisfaction was environmentally considerate products, data owing to the poor performance by guides collection for field research activities, or with regard to the discussion or encourage- membership application to conservation ment of sustainable practices, appropriate organizations. Tourists may be encouraged off-site behaviors and minimal impacts. She not to take a counterproductive action, such explained that the tourists preferred to hear as having close contact with wildlife, littering, the discussion or encouragement of those or collecting natural or cultural resources to topics. Furthermore, Higham and Carr take back home. The five objectives of (2003) conducted a study about visitor experi- environmental education should be recognized ences at wildlife tours in New Zealand and as goals of tour guiding through documents found that visitors appreciated interpretation and training, so that guides will be able to that advocated conservation, raised awareness know what they are accomplishing and for of environmental issues, and encouraged low- what purposes. This will also make clear impact visitor behaviors on site. The visitors what should be offered during guiding also believed the presence of guides helped experiences. manage visitors’ inappropriate behaviors. Moreover, in Peake, Innes, and Dyer’s (2009) study of whale-watching tours in Australia, it Enhancing Guiding Quality was found that conservation-related infor- mation and actions provided by guides As comprehensive guiding contributes to the contributed significantly to tourists’ under- success of ecotours, the quality of guiding standing of conservation messages and their can be an issue. For example, Baba and overall satisfaction. These studies suggest Morimoto (2006) conducted a visitor survey that tour guides should recognize the invalu- at Yakushima Island in a Japanese natural able roles they are playing in conservation, park and reported that visitors had failed to acting as role models on site, to enhance understand the basic information about the Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 147 site, safety information on the site, and aware- 1998. Third, the Ministry of the Environment ness of the overuse of the site even if an has given awards of excellence, which ecotour guide accompanied the visitors. The recognize and reward excellence in guiding, authors argued the lower understanding and to tour operators, organizations, or commu- awareness may have been due to the insuffi- nities since 2005. cient skill of guides. Hiwasaki (2006) analyzed This in turn suggests that the other three four ecotourism cases in Japan and listed nine mechanisms that have not been implemented challenges of nature tourism in protected yet in Japan may be a future focus in facilitat- areas, one of which pointed out the issue of ing tour guiding through policy: professional poor guiding quality. In her studies, visitors certification, licensing and codes of conduct. were dissatisfied with ecotour guides “who Professional associations can be instrumental have been criticized for not making efforts to in introducing or supporting other mechan- offer high-quality interpretation although isms (Black & Weiler, 2005). Hence, it is they charge high fees” (p. 683). She pointed suggested for a nationwide non-profit organiz- out that guides may lack knowledge about ation, such as the Japan Ecotourism Society or the local culture and environmental practices the National Ecotour Center, to take an or lack skills to engage tourists. Guides may initiative to develop professional certification need to be trained to enhance or maintain and codes of conduct. According to Black their guiding quality. and Weiler, seeking certification is generally voluntary and includes a process of assess- ment, but providing certification requires Approaches to Enhancing Guiding organization-defined skills and knowledge. Quality By contrast, creating codes of conduct requires low investment in time and money because According to Black and Weiler (2005), there codes of conduct are generally considered as exist six mechanisms that may improve a tool to raise awareness rather than a means guiding performance: professional associ- to control quality, resulting in less effective ations, awards of excellence, training, quality enhancement. The two non-profit professional certification, licensing and codes organizations have involved a wide variety of of conduct. Of these six mechanisms, the first individuals, from practitioners, to operators, three have already been conducted in Japan: researchers and public supporters. They have professional associations, awards of excel- higher potential than other organizations to lence and training. First, two nationwide gather skillful and knowledgeable individuals non-profit organizations, the Japan Ecotour- and collect their opinions with regard to ism Society and the National Ecotour Center, rules and principles of ecotourism in a were established to provide professional balanced manner. They would also be support, such as raising awareness of ecotour- helpful in developing codes of conduct ism, uniting the guiding industry and elevating because outside expert advice is almost its image. Second, these two organizations always required to do so (META-project, have offered ecotour guide training since n.d.). Moreover, it is suggested that the Minis- 2005 and 2007, respectively. A private organ- try of the Environment develop a licensing ization, the Whole Earth Nature School, has system; because licensing is generally a manda- also offered ecotour guide training since tory legal requirement for professionals to 148 Naoko Yamada practice, a governmental institute should be and skills that are relevant for ecotour involved in this process. guides: the ability to meet tourists’ needs and expectation; the ability to guide according to legal, ethical and safety requirements; general Training of Tour Guides knowledge about the destination; the ability to deliver accurate and relevant commentary; Although executing all six mechanisms maxi- sensitivity to cross-cultural needs and differ- mizes the potential to enhance guiding ences; the ability to deliver enjoyable yet edu- quality, considering the time and cost required cational messages; and the ability to manage a for launching one mechanism, advancing an group. They argued that these competencies already existing one will be more efficient. As should be acquired through training. More- Black and Weiler (2005) concluded that train- over, Weiler and Ham (2002) claimed that ing, professional certification and licensing an ideal curriculum for training should incor- have the greatest effects on improving porate at least three categories: expansion guiding performance, current training prac- and refinement of product knowledge; tices can be extended in Japan. The Ecotour- language training where required; and inter- ism Promotion Policy also requires an pretive guiding skills for managing tourist ecotourism promotion council to plan how experiences and delivering high-quality to train tour guides to be accredited. Several interpretation. studies have argued for the need to train tour Based on these authors’ assertions, guides guides for successful ecotours (Ballantyne & can be trained in three aspects: guiding, pro- Hughes, 2001; Black & Ham, 2005; El- ducts or resources, and tourists. First, tour Sharkawy, 2007; Peake et al., 2009; Periera, guides must be trained to become interpreters 2005; Weiler, 1999). Lackey (2008) collected who can plan, design and present personal the information from 58 academic institutions and non-personal interpretation in order to that offer interpretation courses in North provide quality guiding services. Interpreter America and analyzed the skills taught in the is the most predominant role that ecotour courses to identify how future heritage guides play (Black & Weiler, 2005). Second, interpreters are being trained. She listed 14 tour guides need to understand accurately the skills and knowledge types that should be sites, resources and products in order to gained by students in interpretation courses. protect them as well as foster tourists’ under- The first four skills, along with their frequen- standing of them. This information may be cies of response, include the following: site-specific and can be taught locally. Third, interpretation concepts, principles, methods, tour guides must understand tourists in terms philosophy and history (24 institutions); of their needs and desires, languages and development/presentation of interpretive cross-cultural differences in order to satisfy talks, walks and illustrated talks (24 them as a return for money the tourists have institutions); evaluations of interpretive paid (Salazar, 2007). This knowledge varies presentations and products (21 institutions); depending on sites because the exact same and non-personal interpretive products such tourists cannot appear at different sites, and as exhibits, brochures, signs and interpretive therefore it needs to be taught locally. Train- planning (19 institutions). Weiler and Black ing programs may be developed and offered (2003) listed the seven areas of knowledge by each council, as Weiler and Ham contend Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 149 that local initiation and leadership in provid- knowledge about tourists. The former two ing training are needed. These three aspects subjects may be taught nationally because of should be covered in training, in addition to their fundamental importance to tour guiding the linkage between guiding and the goals of regardless of sites. By contrast, the latter two environmental education. should be taught regionally owing to the need for site-specific information. In this context, it is suggested that the Ministry of the Environ- Summary and Recommendations for ment add explanations of guiding impacts on Current Practice achieving the environmental education goals to one of its documents, such as a manual. The Japanese Ecotourism Promotion Policy Also, it is suggested that the Japan Ecotourism requires tour guiding to be employed during Society and the National Ecotour Center offer an ecotour, and the majority of the Manual training programs that provide these expla- for Promoting Ecotourism focuses on tech- nations. Moreover, it is suggested that an niques to design and implement tour guiding ecotourism promotion council, which is and non-personal interpretation. Little infor- required to make guide training available, mation, however, is provided on guiding provide the information about ecotour achievements in relation to the goals of products, resources and tourists at its own site. environmental education in these documents, For quality guiding, the two nationwide which may hinder the support for facilitating non-profit organizations may take the initiat- tour guiding. Information on guiding achieve- ive to develop codes of conduct, as third ments will help increase awareness of the parties, because of their capabilities to reach guides’ roles as well as help convince tour and collect multiple stakeholders’ viewpoints. operators to allocate limited resources to They may also initiate developing professional tour guiding. It is therefore suggested that we certification because of its voluntary system. must address the specific impacts that tour On the other hand, the Ministry of the guiding can make with the linkage between Environment can develop a license system, or guiding and environmental education goals. at least support it, because a governmental This information should be included in a agency has the authority to impose mandatory policy-related document, so that tour guides legal requirements on practicing professionals. will understand their goals and tasks regard- To support the view of the Ecotourism less of sites. Promotion Policy in Japan, it is recommended Considering the time and cost required for that the impacts of tour guiding be elucidated launching a new mechanism that enhances in policy-related documents, so that tour oper- guides’ performances, advancing an already ators will appreciate the importance of guiding existing mechanism will be more efficient. In and guides will understand what should be this context, training should receive primary demonstrated. The review of literature on attention. In training, the following four sub- guiding roles and approaches to enhancing jects ought to be included: (1) the importance guiding quality in this paper will hopefully of guiding in relation to achieving ecotourism help to identify the next steps in ecotourism and environmental education goals; (2) development in Japan. interpretation skills; (3) information about Finally, this review of the literature has ecotour products and resources; and (4) revealed a shortage of studies regarding 150 Naoko Yamada ecotour guiding in Japan. Only a couple of practice: A case study of Australian protected area studies on impacts of ecotour guides or management agencies. Visitor Studies, 11(2), 163–180. interpretation are available. Most of the Eagles, P. F. J., Browman, M. E. & Tao, T.C.-H. (2001). Guidelines for tourism in parks and protected areas of studies reviewed in this paper were conducted East Asia. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: in Western countries, such as Australia and the IUCN. USA. This may inhibit direct application of Eagles, P. F. J., McCool, S.F., & Haynes, C. D. (2002). their findings and implications for Japanese in protected areas – Guidelines situations, and additional perspectives may be for planning and management. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. required before adopting them. Further research El-Sharkawy, O. K. (2007). Exploring knowledge and is encouraged to investigate guiding impacts skills for tourist guides: Evidence from Egypt. Touris- and training in Japan, so that approaches that mos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of best suit Japanese needs can be suggested. Tourism, 2(2), 77–97. Fujita, H. (2004). Japanese environmental education and interpretation [in Japanese]. Journal of the Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture, 67(4), 209–292. References Ham, S. H. (1992). Environmental interpretation: A prac- tical guide for people with big ideas and small budgets. Alcock, D. (1991). Education and extension: Manage- Golden, CO: North American Press. ment’s best strategy. Australian Parks and Recreation, Ham, S. H., & Krumpe, E. E. (1996). Identifying audi- 27(1), 15–17. ences and messages for nonformal environmental edu- Armstrong, E. K., & Weiler, B. (2002). Getting the cation: A theoretical framework for interpreters. message across: An analysis of messages delivered by Journal of Interpretation Research, 1(1), 11–23. tour operators in protected areas. Journal of Ecotour- Ham, S. H., Weiler, B., Hughes, M., Brown, T., Curtis, J., ism, 1(2/3), 104–121. & Poll, M. (2008). Asking visitors to help: Research to Association for Interpretation Japan. (2009). Interpreter guide strategic communication for protected area man- training. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http:// agement. Gold Coast, Australia: Collaborative Research interpreter.ne.jp/ Centre for Sustainable Tourism. Baba, T., & Morimoto, Y. (2006). Visitor’s qualification Higham, J.E. S., & Carr, A. M. (2003). Sustainable and issue in Yakushima Island as an ecotourism in New Zealand: An analysis of promotion area [in Japanese]. Environmental Infor- visitor experiences. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 8, mation Science, 20, 159–164. 25–36. Ballantyne, R., & Hughes, K. (2001). Interpretation in Hiramatsu, R., & Horie, N. (2009). A study on introduc- ecotourism settings: Investigating tour guides’ percep- tion and development of interpretation program in tions of their role, responsibilities and training needs. national government parks [in Japanese]. Landscape The Journal of Tourism Studies, 12(2), 2–9. Research Japan, 72(5), 585–590. Beck, L., & Cable, T. (1998). Interpretation for the 21st Hiwasaki, L. (2003). Tourism in Japan’s parks and pro- Century. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. tected areas: Challenges and potential for sustainable Beckmann, E. A. (1988). Interpretation in Australia: Some development. International Review for Environmental examples outside national parks. Australian Parks and Strategies, 4(1), 107–126. Recreation, 24(3), 8–12. Hiwasaki, L. (2006). Community-based tourism: A Black, R., & Ham, S. H. (2005). Improving the quality of pathway to sustainability for Japan’s protected areas. tour guiding: Towards a model for tour guide certifica- Society and Natural Resources, 19, 675–692. tion. Journal of Ecotourism, 4(3), 178–195. International Ecotourism Society. (1990). Definitions and Black, R., & Weiler, B. (2005). Quality assurance and principles. Retrieved March 8, 2009, from http://www. regulatory mechanisms in the tour guiding industry: A ecotourism.org/webmodules/webarticlesnet/templates/ systematic review. The Journal of Tourism Studies, eco_template.aspx?articleid=95&zoneid=2 16(1), 24–35. Iwanaga, S. (2004). Studies on interpretive architecture Black, R., & Weiler, B. (2008). Factors facilitating and design [in Japanese]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. inhibiting the use of research to inform interpretation University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba. Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism 151

Japan Ecotourism Society. (2009a). Ecotour comprehen- Ministry of the Environment. (2007). Ecotourism pro- sive. Retrieved February 2, 2010, from http:// motion law. Retrieved January 8, 2008, from http:// ecotourism.jp/ www.env.go.jp/nature/ecotourism/law/law.pdf Japan Ecotourism Society. (2009b). Ecotourism guide Ministry of the Environment. (2008). Ecotourism pro- training seminars. Retrieved September 1, 2009, from motion policy. Retrieved January 9, 2008, from http:// http://www.ecotourism.gr.jp/ www.env.go.jp/nature/ecotourism/basic_policy/basic_ Jelinek, A. (1990). An interpretation emphasis for park policy.pdf management. Australian Parks and Recreation, 26(4), Ministry of the Environment. (2009). Kokuritsu kouen ni 32–33. kansuru ankeito shuukei kekka [Results of question- Knudson, D. M., Cable, T.T., & Beck, L. (1995). naire survey on national parks]. Retrieved April 14, Interpretation of cultural and natural resources. State 2009, from http://www.env.go.jp/nature/park_an/04. College, PA: Venture Publishing. html Kuo, L. (2002). The effectiveness of environmental Nature Conservation Society of Japan. (2009). NACS-J interpretation at resource-sensitive tourism desti- no tokuchou [Characteristics of NACS-J]. Retrieved nations. International Journal of Tourism Research, April 14, 2009, from http://www.nacsj.or.jp/nacsj/ 4(2), 87–101. index.html Lackey, B. K. (2008). The state of interpretation in acade- Nishimura, H. (2006). Nihon ni okeru shizengakkou no mia. Journal of Interpretation Research, 13(1), 27–36. doukou [Trends of nature schools in Japan]. Graduate Lackey, B. K., & Ham, S. H. (2003). Contextual analysis School of Policy and Management, Doshisha Univer- of interpretation focused on human–black bear sity, 8(2), 31–44. conflicts in Yosemite National Park. Applied environ- Novey, L. T., & Hall, T. E. (2007). The effect of audio mental education and communication, 2(1), 11–21. tours on learning and social interaction: An evaluation Lackey, B. K., & Ham, S. H. (2004). Assessment of com- at Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Science Education, munication focused on human–black bear conflict at 91(2), 1–18. Yosemite National Park. Journal of Interpretation Office of Communication with Nature. (2008). Shizen Research, 8(1), 25–40. tono fureai [Overview of promotion of communication Lee, W. H., & Moscardo, G. (2005). Understanding the with nature]. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http:// impact of ecotourism resort experiences on tourists’ www.env.go.jp/nature/fureai_pamph/index.html environmental attitudes and behavioural intentions. Orams, M. B. (1995). Using interpretation to manage Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 13(6), 546–564. nature-based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Lewis, W. J. (1980). Interpreting For Park Visitors. Phila- 4(2), 81–94. delphia, PA: Eastern Acorn Press. Orams, M. B. (1997). The effectiveness of environmental Matsushima, H. (2007). Effects of using interpretation education: Can we turn tourists into “greenies”? Pro- method in regard to public beach management at Ishi- gress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3, 295–306. kari Coast, Hokkaido. Landscape Research Japan, Peake, S., Innes, P., & Dyer, P. (2009). Ecotourism and 70(5), 523–526. conservation: Factors influencing effective conservation META-project. (n.d.). Planning for marine ecotourism in messages. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(1), the EU Atlantic area: Good practice guidance. Retrieved 107–127. March 9, 2009 from http://www.tourism-research.org/ Periera, E. (2005). How do tourist guides add value to an planning.pdf ecotour? Interpreting interpretation in the state of Ministry of Environment. (2002). Natural parks law. Amazonas, Brazil. FIU Reviews, 23(2), 1–8. Retrieved August 3, 2009, from http://www.env.go.jp/ Powell, R. B., & Ham, S. H. (2008). Can ecotourism en/laws/nature/law_np.pdf interpretation really lead to pro-conservation knowl- Ministry of the Environment. (2004a). Manual for pro- edge, attitudes and behaviour? Evidence from the Gala- moting ecotourism. Retrieved from http://www.env. pagos islands. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(4), go.jp/nature/ecotourism/manual.html 467–489. Ministry of the Environment. (2004b). Shizen kouen no Regnier, K., Gross, M. & Zimmerman, R. (1994). The arikata ni tsuite [How natural parks should be]. interpreter’s : Techniques for programs and Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://www.env.go.jp/ presentations (3rd ed.). Stevens Point, WI: UW-SP nature/ari_kata/shiryou/t122_tyuukan.pdf Foundation Press, Inc. 152 Naoko Yamada

Salazar, N. B. (2007). Towards a global culture of heritage Interpreting the land down under: Australian heritage interpretation? Evidence from Indonesia and Tanzania. interpretation and tour guiding, (pp. 21–40). Golden, Tourism Recreation Research, 32(3), 23–30. CO: Fulcrum Publishing. Sharpe, G. W. (1982). Interpreting the environment (2nd Weiler, B., & Ham, S. H. (2002). Tour guide training: A ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. model for sustainable capacity building in developing Skanavis, C., Matsinos, Y. G., & Petreniti, V. (2004). countries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 10(1), Environmental education potential for Greek ecotour- 52–69. ism. International Journal of Environmental Studies, Whole Earth Nature School. (2009). Ecotourism kenkyu 61(6), 735–745. [Ecotourism research]. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from Takahashi, W., & Hirota, J. (2006). Effects to the national http://wens.gr.jp/ecotourism/04.html park management which a non profit organization Wiles, R., & Hall, T. E. (2005). Can interpretive messages brings about: Case study of Daisetsuzan Nature change park visitors’ views on wildland fire? Journal of School in the Daisetsuzan National Park [in Japanese]. Interpretation Research, 10(2), 18–35. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 25(Special World Tourism Organization. (2008). UNWTO world Issue), 323–328. tourism barometer. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from UNESCO. (1977). Intergovernmental Conference on http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/UNWT Environmental Education. Tbilisi (USSR): UNESCO in O_Barom08_3_en_LR.pdf co-operation with UNEP. Yamamoto, K., & Hongo, T. (2006). A study of the envir- United Nations Environment Program. (1995). Technical onmentally friendly consciousness of users and the need report series No. 29: environmental codes of contact for the guide in Aokigahara Jukai in Japan. Landscape for tourism industry. Research Japan, 69(5), 641–644. Wearing, S. & Neil, J. (1999). Ecotourism: Impacts, Yui, M., Katsunori, F., & Kiso, J. (1996). A study on the potentials and possibilities. Oxford, UK: Butterworth- activities of interpretation in the national Heinemann. villages [in Japanese]. The Technical Bulletin for Weiler, B. (1999). Assessing the interpretation competen- Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, 50, cies of ecotour guides. Journal of Interpretation 135–148. Research, 4(1), 80–83. Zeppel, H. (2008). Education and conservation benefits of Weiler, B. & Black, R. (2003). Nature, heritage and marine wildlife tours: Developing free-choice learning interpretive guide training: Mirror on the past and experiences. The Journal of Environmental Education, window to the future. In B. Weiler & R. Black (Eds.), 39(3), 3–17.