Exporting Lotus to Asia an Agronomic and Physiological Study

Exporting Lotus to Asia An agronomic and physiological study

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by Principal Investigator: Dr.Q.V.Nguyen NSW Agriculture, Horticultural Research & Advisory Station, Gosford, NSW and D Hicks, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury

August 2001

RIRDC Publication No 01/032 RIRDC Project No DAN 125A

ISBN 0 642 58254 8 ISSN 1440-6845

Exporting Lotus to Asia – an agronomic and physiological study Publication No. 01/32 Project No. DAN 125A

The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.

This publication is copyrighted. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details: Dr. Q V Nguyen Special Research Horticulturist Horticultural Research & Advisory Station Locked Bag 26 GOSFORD NSW 2250 Telephone: (02)4348 1900 Fax: (02)4348 1910 Email: [email protected]

RIRDC Contact Details: Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Telephone: 02 6272 4539 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in April 2001 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

Foreword

Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera GAERTN.) is a perennial aquatic crop grown and consumed throughout Asia. Young flower stalks, seeds and rhizomes are all edible and flowers are used in religious ceremonies. The largest market exists for the rhizomes, which have enormous potential for large- scale production and export in Australia. This is a new crop to Australia where market demand for rhizomes is estimated at approximately 1,000 t per annum and valued at approximately A$4 million. At present, Australia is able to provide only 100 t in fresh form, the rest being imported mainly in frozen and dried forms.

The Japanese alone use over 70,000 t annually, with a wholesale value of more than A$400 million. Domestic production in Japan is now falling due to increased pressure on agricultural land which has resulted in importation of more than 16,000 t of Lotus rhizome annually and which is valued at more than ¥1 billion, equivalent to approximately A$15 million. If Australia could provide just one percent of the Japanese wholesale market, we would earn A$4 million for our horticultural industry.

This report provides a range of information to assist growers, producers and exporters to take advantage of this new crop with technical advice being available on materials and methods, results of trials, demonstration and marketing requirements, which are focussed on Japanese markets.

This report, a new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 600 research publications, forms part of our Asian Foods program, which encourages development of a viable industry in Australia.

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website: • downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter Core, Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the advice and assistance of many people during this study:

• Rural Industry Research & Development Corporation: My thanks to RIRDC, who contributed financial assistance to enable me to complete this study. Special thanks to: Dr. Roselyn Prinsely, General Manager (Research); Dr. Jeff Davis General Manager (Research); and Mr. Tony Byrne Research Manager for their encouragement.

• AUSTRADE : Mr. Tsukamoto, Senior Trade Advisor.

• State Government Organisations, Australia: My supervisors within the Horticultural Products & Plant Protection Program of NSW Agriculture (Mr. Doug Hocking, Program Manager; Mr. G. Lomman, Program Leader, Orange, NSW and Mr. A. Seberry, Supervisor of Research, Gosford). University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury), Centre for Horticulture and Plant Sciences (Dr. A. Haigh, Senior Lecturer; Mr. D. Hicks, Ph.D. candidate).

• Australian Asian vegetable industry: Taicheung Agricultural Development Pty. Ltd., Casino, NSW (Mr. Jackson So, Managing Director), Fig Tree, Meerschaum Vale, NSW (Mr. Kim Jones, Managing Director), Paradise Plants, Kulnura, NSW (Mr. R. Cherry, Managing Director) and Jun Pacific Corporation (Mr. Masahiro Murai, Manager).

• Japanese Government Organisations: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) Kyushu University, Fukuoka (Mr. Hidehiko Kikuno). JETRO (Mr. Otsubo and Mr. Dekura, Directors , Agriculture and Fisheries Department)

• Japanese vegetable industry: Kurume Vegetable Breeding Co. Ltd., Fukuoka (Mr. Takahashi Tsutsumi, President and Mr. Ken Haraguchi, Manager ).

• Gosford Horticultural Research & Advisory Station: I acknowledge, with special thanks, my staff including Mrs. Tuyen Nguyen, Technical Officer, Mr. Rod Hicks, Mr. Douglas Danks-Brown, Mr. Bruce York and Mr. John Heckenberg, Technical Assistants and Mr. David Hicks, Ph.D. candidate, School of Horticulture, University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury), who worked hard in field and laboratory to complete this study.

Special thanks to Mrs. Ho Thi Bich Thoa, Lecturer, School of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, Vietnam, for her time and skill in assisting with the project for two years from 1997- 1999.

I also wish to thanks Mrs. Margaret Roddom for her thorough reading of the manuscript, her skill with the English language and in typing to complete this report under the most difficult of situations caused by a shortage of human resources within NSW Agriculture over past years.

• Special Thanks to the Authors of the Books, Booklets, Articles and Papers from which a large amount of information and data has been cited.

Contents

FOREWORD ...... III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... IV

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... VII

1. INTRODUCTION...... 1

1.1. HISTORY...... 1 1.2. WORLD LOTUS PRODUCTION AREAS ...... 2 1.2.1 China...... 2 1.2.2 Japan ...... 2 1.2.3 Taiwan ...... 3 1.2.4 South Korea ...... 3 1.3. MEDICINAL AND NUTRITIONAL VALUES...... 3 1.4. MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ...... 4 2.CROP MANAGEMENT...... 7

2.1 VARIETIES...... 7 2.2 PROPAGATION...... 12 2.2.1 Seed...... 12 2.2.2 Tissue Culture...... 12 2.2.3 Vegetative (Rhizome) ...... 12 2.3 POND MANAGEMENT...... 13 2.3.1 Design...... 13 2.3.2 Construction...... 13 2.3.3 Maintenance...... 14 2.4 PLANT ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS...... 16 2.4.1 Soils...... 16 2.4.2 Climate...... 17 2.4.3 Water Quality...... 17 2.5 CULTIVATION...... 18 2.5.1 Nutrition & Nutritional Disorder Symptoms ...... 19 2.5.2 Cropping Systems ...... 24 2.5.3 Pest Identification & Management ...... 25 2.6 HARVEST...... 29 2.6.1 Timing...... 29 2.6.2 Method...... 30 2.6.3 Expected Yields ...... 31 2.7 POSTHARVEST TRANSPORT & STORAGE ...... 31 2.7.1 Rhizome Preparation...... 31 2.7.2 Storage Environment and Period ...... 32 2.7.3 Postharvest Pathogens...... 34 2.7.4 Method of Transport ...... 35 3. MARKETS ...... 36

3.1 DOMESTIC MARKET ...... 36 3.2 OVERSEAS MARKETS...... 36 3.2.1 Japan – Major Importer of Lotus ...... 36 3.2.2 Taiwan...... 38 3.2.3 China – The Major Supplier of Lotus...... 39 3.2.4 Vietnam...... 40 4. AUSTRALIAN LOTUS INDUSTRY...... 41

4.1 CURRENT SITUATION ...... 41 4.2 EXPORTATION ...... 41

4.3 GROSS MARGINS...... 41 4.4 STANDARD & CLASSIFICATION OF RHIZOMES ...... 42 4.5 SWOT ANALYSIS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF A LOTUS INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA...... 43 4.6 INDUSTRY CONTACTS ...... 44 4.6.1 Lotus Specific ...... 44 4.6.2 Asian Vegetables General...... 45 REFERENCES...... 46

APPENDICES...... 48

1. PAPER PUBLISHED IN THE 4TH AUSTRALIAN HORTICULTURE CONFERENCE, MELBOURNE, OCT 1998...... 48 2. PAPER PUBLISHED IN THE ACCESS TO ASIAN FOODS NEWSLETTER, ISSUES 4 & 5...... 49

Executive Summary

1. Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera GAERTN.) is one of the oldest plants on earth. Archaeologists have found seeds of Lotus in China and Japan that have an estimated age of more than a thousand years and some of these seeds still carry the ability to germinate. These are one of the oldest, demonstrably viable seeds that have ever been reported upon.

2. Lotus is a perennial, aquatic crop grown and consumed throughout Asia. The leaves, flowers, seeds and rhizomes are all utilised but rhizomes hold the largest market share. Flowers could also become a potential new product for the Australian ornamental market as well.

3. It is interesting to note that all parts of Lotus are used in oriental medicine. The leaves are used for diarrhoea, high fever, haemorrhoids, strangury and leprosy whilst the seeds would stop vomiting or soothe irritation of the digestive tract. The lotus embryo is primarily used for nervous disorders, insomnia, high fevers with restlessness and hypertension and the flower pod is used to stop bleeding and eliminate stagnated blood. Stamens are useful in the treatment of male sexual disorders and female leucorrhea. Lotus also contains a large number of aroma substances in the leaves and flowers whilst Lotus rhizomes and seeds are high in calcium and kalium.

Crop Management

4. Variety: The several hundred known varieties of Lotus have been classified into three categories according to their use, eg. rhizomes, flowers and seeds. Some varieties may exhibit one or more of the three characteristics but generally each is classified by its strongest feature. The variety currently grown in Australia for the fresh rhizome market is Quangdong. Growers who would wish to solely target flower and pod markets should use Green Jade and Vietnam-Red. Although seed production at this stage may not be advantageous economically, Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are, however, recommended for seed varieties.

5. Propagation: Propagation by seed can be carried out by scarifying the seed coat and then incubating at 25o-30oC. Seeds should be submerged in a water saturated media. However, propagation by seed will not be true-to-type as Lotus has a high degree of genetic variability. Vegetative (rhizome) is the most easily employed and most efficient method of propagation. It will also produce true-to-type plants. Seed (certified) rhizomes with at least two segments, which are sealed at either end by an intact node, is submerged in water saturated media at an angle of 15o with the shoot meristem approximately 5 cm below media surface. Tissue culture methods hold promise for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type, disease free materials.

6. Pond management: The pond design is critical to Lotus production operations because, once constructed, it is difficult to change. Consideration must be given to water management in terms of acquisition, movement, storage and crop pond management. Traditionally, farm dams which are sealed by compacting, impermeable clays, are not suitable for growing Lotus as rhizomes can grow into them. Hard, compacted clay also causes difficulties with harvesting. A soft top layer of soil is necessary to a depth of approximately 1 m and must contain correct organic matter including

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manures and other well-rotted, high nitrogen to carbon ratio mulches, which are recommended for Lotus growing.

7. Water Quality: Water quality and availability will play an important role in the success of Lotus cultivation. Growth was not seen to be affected by variation in water pH from 5.5 to 8.0. The correct EC level for a plant in the vegetative stage of growth is between 2.8-3.1 mS cm-1. The ideal depth of water is approximately 10-20 cm. Lotus can tolerate a degree of salt in the soil water solution. This holds promise for growing Lotus in situations where saline conditions and/or high water tables occur.

8. Growing climate: Lotus requires a warm to tropical environment with an average daytime temperature of 25oC, intense sunlight and long day hours for successful growth. Protection of the crop from wind and hail damage is essential.

9. Planting: Transplanting of seed rhizomes ideally should take place before the break of dormancy and after any danger of frost. Plants transplanted after rhizomes have germinated are less likely to establish successfully.

10. Fertiliser: Applications can be split into 4-5 applications as young plants are easily burnt with high rates of fertilising. Correct balance of nutrient is also recommended, and is dictated by maturity stage of the crop, eg. a crop approaching maturity and rhizome formation stage would not be fed with high concentrations of Nitrogen but more Potassium.

11. Insects: The most prevalent pest of Lotus in Australia appears to be Heliothis sp. Caterpillars. Green peach aphid and twospotted mite are also considered to be particularly troublesome.

12. Diseases: Lotus is subject to few diseases such as Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni); waterlily crown rot (Phytophthora sp.) and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) although not exempt.

13. Weeds: Lotus ponds always have potential for invasion by aquatic weed species. These weeds not only compete for space, but also nutrients and, in some cases, oxygen as well. It is recommended that weeds are removed from the pond either by physical removal or use of a herbicide during non- crop period before they can establish.

14. Harvesting: Rhizomes can be harvested when shoots die off and plants go into dormancy, which occurs in autumn. Rhizomes can be picked by hand, backhoe and/or water canon, but, due to lack of suitable mechanical harvesters, rhizomes are presently picked by hand in Australia. Fresh yield of rhizome is in the range of 10-40 t/ha.

15. Postharvest, Packaging & Storage: Lotus rhizomes are very easily bruised and physical damage results in an immediate purple discolouration. To avoid bruising and to maintain high humidity for the rhizomes, styrofoam boxes with sealable lids the size of a standard broccoli box, offer the best possible solution. Use of modified atmospheric packaging is promising for providing longer periods in storage. Lotus keeps best at temperatures between 3oC and 7oC and can potentially last in storage for up to 5-6 weeks.

16. Transportation: Ideally, Lotus should be transported domestically by refrigerated truck. Export freight would be via sea. Airfreight is the alternative, but utilisation could be a factor in prevailing markets with regard to cost.

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Markets

17. Domestic market: Demand for Lotus rhizomes for Australian domestic markets is estimated at approximately 1,080 t annually. Australian producers have so far supplied only approximately 100 t of fresh product, the rest being imported in frozen and dried forms from overseas, but mainly from China.

18. Of the several countries in North-East and South-East Asia where Lotus are cultivated and consumed, Japanese markets offer the best opportunities for the Australian Lotus industry. Because of the large A$400 million wholesale market that exists for Lotus, securing even a small part of that market would be a commendable feat for Australian exporters.

19. China, where approximately three million tonnes of Lotus rhizomes were produced on 133,400 ha in 1994, is the major world producer of Lotus rhizomes. China dominates the Japanese import markets with both fresh and salted Lotus.

Australian lotus industry

20. Australian Lotus, which is currently an infant industry in this country, needs to put more effort into research on variety, growing techniques, postharvest storage and handling and market development.

21. The gross margin of Lotus grown on the Central Coast of NSW is estimated at A$2.76/kg.

22. The Australian Lotus industry can penetrate into overseas, particularly Japanese, markets if we can open up a trading system directly with supermarket chains. For export to Japan, quality of locally- produced Lotus should be based on Japanese standards and classification.

1. Introduction

1.1. HISTORY Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera GAERTN.; Syn. Nelumbium speciosum Willd.), also called Sacred Lotus and/or Indian Lotus, originated in Asia, Persia, India (Makino, 1979) and has spread to China and North Eastern areas of Australia (Hoshikawa,1970; Herklots,1972). Lotus is a perennial, aquatic crop that is grown and consumed throughout Asia. Leaves, flowers, seeds and rhizomes are all edible and flowers are also used in religious ceremonies. The largest market, however, exists for rhizomes, which are a crop with enormous potential for large-scale production within Australia as well as export. It is a new crop to Australian horticulture

The Lotus has been a potent symbol of fertility and holiness and even immortality in different cultures over the centuries. For thousand years the Lotus flower has been of major symbolic and religious significance throughout Asia. It is so important that many Eastern religions, especially Buddhism, have adopted it as the paramount emblem of purity, unsullied conscience, peace and tranquillity (William, 1998).

For many years, artists and poets in the West have often associated a virtuous symbolism with the Lotus and various water lilies (Nymphaea alba) (William, 1998). Many equate the Lotus of ancient Egypt with the Lotus of East Asian peoples. Although they are all water lilies of the Nymphaeceae genus, Nymphaea lotus (White Lotus lily) and Nymphaea caerulea (Blue Lotus lily) are native lilies represented in Egyptian art and religion, while Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) is the fabled sacred Lotus of the East. This has led to enormous misunderstanding over the years, particularly when, to add to the confusion, the sacred Lotus was introduced into Egypt from India at a later date (William, 1998).

In Egypt, Lotus lilies (Nymphaea sp), which were seen in artwork found on many Pharaohs’ tomb walls, were once common in ditches, pools and side waters of the Nile River extending south into tropical Africa. When the discovery of Tutankhamen’s grave opened a treasure trove of Egyptian culture to the world, foremost among the contents were artifacts celebrating the Lotus motif. In Asia, as with Egyptian water lilies, Lotus has taken on a deep symbolism and achieved major status in Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and another Asian countries’ cultures. To contribute to its importance, Brahma, the Hindu god who created the universe, is often pictured sitting on the Lotus flower. Similarly, Buddhists identify symbolically with the Lotus as the flower of purity and tranquillity. Buddha statues are always seen sitting or standing on Lotus flowers. A lake of Lotus flowers is a feature in the concept of Buddhist Heaven.

Lotus is one of the oldest plants in the world. In 1972, archaeologists in China found seeds of the Lotus with estimated ages of 5,000 years in lagoons in Yunnan Province. In 1973, in Chekiang Province, other Lotus seeds with ages of 7,000 years were also found (Wu-Han, 1987). A large number of Lotus seeds were found in Shan-Tung, Liaoning Provinces and in the Western suburbs of Peking during the period 1923-1951. The age of these seeds was estimated at more than 1,000 years old. Shen-Miller et al. (1995) reported that a 1,288±271 year-old (1,350±220 year BP, radiocarbon age) seed of Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. from an ancient lake bed at Pulatien, Liaoning Province in China, has been germinated and subsequently radiocarbon dated. This is the oldest demonstrably viable and directly dated seed ever reported on.

Archaeologists in Japan have also found seeds of Lotus, which were buried 6 m deep in the lagoon in Chiba Prefecture and are thought to be aged at approximately 1,200 years

(Iwao, 1986). It is believed that some Lotus also originated in Japan (Iwao, 1986) but Lotus varieties for rhizomes were introduced from China (Takahashi, 1994). Many varieties of Chinese Lotus were grown and then domesticated, becoming Japanese cultivars such as Taihakubasu, Benitenjo, Kunshikobasu, Sakurabasu and Tenjikubasu.

1.2. WORLD LOTUS PRODUCTION AREAS Lotus is cultivated in many countries in the world, especially in India, China, Japan, Korea, South East Asia, Russia and some countries in Africa. Lotus grown in Europe and America are mainly used for ornamental purposes but rarely for food.

1.2.1 China Lotus, which is called Lian, Lin, Ou, Her and/or Shuai Furong (Liu,1994), has been cultivated in China at least since the 12th century B.C. (Herklot,1972). Rhizomes (Lian- ngau, Ou) and seeds (Lian-zi, Lian-mi) have both been eaten as food for more than 3,000 years (Liu,1994; Herklot,1972).

Lotus is cultivated throughout China, particularly in the provinces that have a large number of catchments and rivers such as Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Anhui, Guangdong, and Fujian. There are few Lotus production areas north of the Yellow River. However, Southern areas of Sichuan Province are also large Lotus production areas as well.

The growing area of Lotus in China is estimated at more than 2 million mu (133,400 ha) (Liu,1994). If average yield of Lotus is based on 1,500 kg/mu (22.5 t/ha) (Liu,1994), China has the capacity to produce up to three million tonnes of Lotus rhizomes per annum. Harvesting time for Lotus rhizomes in China is during August-March.

There are three types of Lotus used in China - for fruit or seeds (Lian-zi, Lian-mi), for flowers (Lian hua, Her ha) and for rhizomes (Lian-ngau, Ou-lian). Many Lotus varieties, particularly Lotus for rhizomes, are available in China, but are different in flower colour, starch content and growing water levels. At the Wuhan Institute of Botany, P.R. China, 125 Lotus cultivars have become available for research.

1.2.2 Japan Lotus (Hasu), which was introduced into Japan from China prior to 500 AD (Takahashi, 1994), are widely grown in Japan from Hokkaido to Kyushu islands. Varieties of ancient Lotus, which are believed to have originated in Japan, are Lotus for flowers (Hanabasu). The majority of varieties of Lotus for rhizomes (renkon) were, however, obtained from China after the Meiji Era (1911-1937). Lotus varieties are therefore classified as local (Japanese) and/or Chinese cultivars. Most local cultivars such as “Tenno”, which is a red flower cultivar, and “Aichi’, which is a white flower cultivar with longer, more slender rhizomes, are of early and mid-season groups. Chinese cultivars, which are believed to be yield better and have more disease resistance such as “Shina Shirobana’, “Bitchu” and “Kishima”, are late maturing cultivars. Chinese cultivars produce rhizomes with long segments and thick walls.

Lotus are grown throughout Japan mostly for ornamental purposes, particularly in the Buddhist temples and/or national parks. Production of Lotus rhizomes is, however, concentrated in a few prefectures in Central and Southern parts of Japan. In 1998, there were 4,900 ha for Lotus production. Ibaragi Prefecture had the largest Lotus production

area with 1,650 ha , Tokushima Prefecture 711 ha, Aichi Prefecture 474 ha, Saga Prefecture 311 ha, Yamaguchi Prefecture 309 ha, Niigata Prefecture 278 ha and Okayama Prefecture 164 ha (Anonymous, 2000).

Japan produced 82,200 t Lotus rhizomes in 1982 on an area of 6,350 ha but reduced to 71,900 t on 4,900 ha in 1998. From 1995, for the first time Japan imported Lotus rhizomes including fresh and process forms from overseas, mainly China.

Production season of Lotus rhizome in Japan is from August to December. However, early Lotus rhizomes are produced in greenhouses.

1.2.3 Taiwan Production of Lotus rhizomes in Taiwan has declined over seven years to approximately 550 t in 1993 (Vinning, 1995). This may reflect the arduous nature of competition with China in Japanese markets where almost of Taiwanese Lotus is destined.

Seed trade in Taipei’s wholesale market is stronger, with price twice as high in comparison with Lotus rhizomes where seed production occupied only 5% of that of Lotus rhizomes. Taiwan produces Lotus rhizome from June to November with August being peak harvesting time.

1.2.4 South Korea In 1995, South Korea produced 9,261 t of Lotus rhizomes on 291ha (Anon. 1997). Average yield of Lotus rhizomes was 31.83 t per ha. Lotus is the fourth largest area crop in South Korea after Radish (1,435,296 t on 35,518 ha), Carrot (160,759 t on 5,994 ha) and Burdock (6,530 t on 336 ha). South Korea produces Lotus rhizomes from August to December.

1.3. MEDICINAL AND NUTRITIONAL VALUES It is interesting to note that all parts of the Lotus are used in oriental medicine. Leaves are known for various properties including being a comparable refrigerant, and having astringent and diuretic actions. This led to various diverse applications such as using the leaves for diarrhoea, high fever, haemorrhoids, strangury and leprosy. Seeds stop vomiting or soothe irritation of the digestive tract. Ripe Lotus seeds also provide a spleen tonic and are used for their astringent action in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea, seminal emission and leucorrhoea, as well as having a sedative action, making them useful for insomnia and heart palpitations. The lotus plumule or embryo removed from the ripe seed and sun-dried, is primarily used for nervous disorders, insomnia, high fevers with restlessness and hypertension. Flower pods or flower receptacles contain proteins, carbohydrates and a small amount of alkaloid Nelumbine, used to stop bleeding and eliminate stagnated blood. Stamens assist consolidation of kidney function and are particularly useful in the treatment of male sexual disorders and female leucorrhoea.

Lotus contains a large number of odour substances in the leaves and flowers. In the leaves, 40% of odour substances are cis-3-hexenol and in the flowers, 75% of aroma substances are hydrocarbons, mainly 1,4-dimethoxybenzene - 1,8—cineole, terpinen-4-ol and linalool (Omata et al., 1992; Vo, 1997).

Nutritional values of edible Lotus rhizomes and seeds are shown in Table 1. They are high in calcium and Kalium.

Table 1. Nutrient value of 100 g edible rhizome and seeds

Rhizome Seed Raw Boiled Immature, raw Mature Salted Water 81.2 81.0 67.7 13.0 Energy, kcal 66.0 68.0 121.0 335.0 Energy, kJ 276.0 285.0 506.0 1402.0 Protein, g 2.1 1.8 8.1 17.1 Fat, g 0.0 0.0 0.2 1.9 Sugars, g 15.1 15.8 21.1 62.0 Dietary fibre, g 0.6 0.6 1.4 1.9 Calcium, mg 18.0 17.0 95.0 190.0 Phosphorus, mg 60.0 55.0 220.0 650.0 Iron, mg 0.6 0.5 1.8 3.1 Sodium, mg 28.0 19.0 2.0 250.0 Kalium, mg 470.0 350.0 420.0 1100.0 Vitamin B1, mg 0.09 0.07 0.19 0.26 Vitamin B2, mg 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.10 Niacin, mg 0.2 0.2 1.16 2.1 Vitamin C, mg 55.0 37.0 0.0 0.0

1.4. MORPHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Lotus belongs to Nelumbonaceae family. They are herbaceous, perennial, aquatic plants. The number of chromosomes are 2n=2x=16. Morphological organs of lotus include roots, rhizomes, leaves, flowers, flower pods and seeds. Young flower stalks, seeds and rhizomes are all edible and flowers are used in religious ceremonies whilst the flower pods (receptacles) are used for ornamental purposes.

There are a large number of Lotus varieties around the world. Wuhan Institute of Botany, China (1987) alone has listed up to 125 cultivars available in China (Ni Zueming et al., 1987). Depending on the end-uses, Lotus varieties are divided into three groups, eg. Rhizomes, flowers and seeds.

Lotus for rhizomes produces high yields and good quality but usually has none or very few flowers.

Lotus for flowers produces a large number of beautiful flowers but without rhizomes. Flowers would have single petals, double petals and/or multi-petals, which are called thousand petals in the Chinese language. Colours of Lotus flowers are also different, ranging from single colour in white, yellow, pink, red or bi-colour of white petals with pink tip. Lotus grown for flowers produces seeds, but performs poorly with regard to yield and quality.

Lotus for seeds produces large numbers of flowers with high fruit set percentage. Seeds are large in size and high in quality. Varieties have single-petalled flowers, often in red colour and their roots are thin fibrous and do not form good rhizomes.

Roots The roots of Lotus are fibrous and approximately 20-50 roots grow from the nodes of certified rhizome. The fibrous roots are creamy-white in colour when young with few root hairs. These roots, which are approximately 15cm in length turn, dark brown in colour as they get older.

Rhizomes The rhizome of Lotus has a similar shape to a wooden sausage, is usually creamy-white in colour but occasionally is found in a light-brown buff colour. Lotus rhizomes form from terminal roots of the Lotus root system. One rhizome usually carries 3-4 “sausages” 60-90 cm in length, in which the last one is thin in diameter, measuring 4-6 cm with 10- 15 cm length, while the second one is larger at approximately 5-10 cm in width and 10- 12 cm in length. The first one is shorter in length at 5-10 cm and carries a new shoot.

A special feature of the Lotus rhizome is the air passages, which run along the length of the segment, giving the appearance of a wagon-wheel design in cross section. Lotus rhizomes are bland but crisp in texture, are edible and are the major marketable part of the plant.

Leaves The Lotus leaf is a large, round shaped leaf of approximately 20-100 cm diameter and is either green, greyish-green and/or reddish-green in colour covered with a thick wax layer on the surface. However, the under-leaf is greyish-green without wax and has a smooth edge. At the centre of the leaf, there is a leaf-navel from where veins radiate out to the edge. The first leaves which emerge from seed are a reddish green colour, small with rolled edge and a very weak, soft and breakable stalk. These first leaves are normally open in the water, and are called “under-water-leaves”. The next leaves, called “floating leaves”, are a little larger in size but still carry the soft leaf stalk and are unable to stand but float on the water. The next are larger with stronger stalks so they can stand up in the air above water level. Development of leaves on the Lotus plant always start with small leaves in the early stage, with larger leaves during the productive and rhizome- productivity stages and smaller again in the later stage. Leaf height is short at the beginning, higher during the season and short again in the late stage. Lotus grown at the Gosford Horticultural Research and Advisory Station from seed in lysimeters of 0.8 m diameter developed up to 215 leaves.

Leaf stalks of Lotus, which have a spiny texture, are different in diameter and height depending on plant age, being small and soft during the early stage, larger and stronger in the later stage. However, there is a variety with a smooth leaf stalk, but it is believed to be unsuitable for rhizome production but this claim has not been supported by research or scientific papers. Lotus leaf contains a large number of aroma substances, forty percent of which are cis-3-hexenol (Omata et al., 1992; Vo, 1997).

Flower Lotus buds emerge in spring and approximately two weeks later, the bud opens to become a Lotus flower. This flower is perfect, actinomorphic and hypogynous (Shen- Miller et al., 1995), has 4-6 sepals in green or red (purple) colour, 12-20 ellipse- shaped petals mono colour of white, pink, red (purple) or are bi-coloured in white with pink tip or pink with purple tip. The large green “showerhead-like” carpellary receptacle of a Lotus bloom bears numerous fruits, each of which contains one seed, a morphological specialisation for seed protection. Stamens with light brown filaments and yellow anthers surround the receptacle, and petals surround the stamens.

Lotus flowers produce odour, seventy-five percent of which are hydrocarbons, mainly 1,4-dimethoxybenzene; 1,8—cineole, terpinen-4-ol and linalool (Omata et al., 1992; Vo, 1997).

Fruits Lotus fruits are attached to the receptacle at the opposite end of the style, with the seed plumule oriented downward. The pericarp of each Lotus fruit is green before maturity, and then turns purplish brown prior to becoming extremely hard, dry and darkened upon aging (Shen-Miller et al., 1995). The Lotus pericarp chamber is impervious to water, and this water- and air-tight architecture is the singular most significant factor contributing to the longevity of these seeds. Shen-Miller et al. (1995) reported that the germination of 1,288 ±271 year-old Lotus seed from China is one of the oldest, demonstrably viable and directly dated seed yet reported upon, establishing that Lotus seeds can remain viable for periods of more than a thousand years.

The two embryonic plumules of Lotus seeds are rich in chlorophylous. Photosynthetically active green tissues in mature seeds provide means for immediate photosynthesis and growth once germination begins (Esau, 1965).

2. Crop Management

(This section was prepared by David Hicks, Centre for Horticulture and Plant Science, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, as one part of his Ph.D. thesis partly funded by this project)

The information contained herein on requirements for growth of Lotus, are intended as recommendations only. Each individual farm situation, based upon variety of Lotus, prevailing environmental conditions and soil type, will dictate the amount of variation from these recommendations. Growers should also be aware that the complete agronomic picture has not yet been formulated for Lotus and will take the accumulation of several years of data from commercial cropping situations to fully develop crop management recommendations.

Further, these recommendations have been prepared with the export grower in focus. Growers for domestic markets may also gain from this information. Potential growers should be very aware of the difficulties in growing Lotus at present. Labour is intensive and therefore production costs high, though this is offset by the potential financial rewards of a high value crop.

2.1 VARIETIES The several hundred known varieties of Lotus have been classified into three categories according to use, namely rhizomes, flowers and seeds. Some varieties may exhibit one or more of the three characteristics but generally each is classified by the strongest feature. Often rhizome varieties will have relatively few flowers, which are generally white, and flowering and seed types have no appreciable rhizome, if at all. Many tropical varieties do not form a significant rhizome due to absence of a cold period in which the plant must produce a storage organ for survival.

This study focuses mostly on the rhizome qualities of varieties currently known to be grown in Australia for market. Observations of other varieties were noted in their evaluation for production significance.

Rhizomes Characteristics essential for rhizome varieties include 3-4 intact segments resembling a chain of fat sausages of correct size, uniform shape, and even colouring with no skin blemishes. Correct size parameters for each segment are 10-20 cm in length, 7-10 cm in diameter, and a constriction at each node. Often the third or fourth segment is cut from an elongated segment to the same length as the first 2-3 segments to give a uniform size. The shape of each segment should be free from deformation and relatively linear in appearance and colour should be creamy white, free from rust-like oxidates or scoring from soil particulate matter.

Varieties currently grown in Australia and distributed through domestic markets include Quangdong (the most prevalent and best), Paradise, and Green Jade. Of these varieties, only Quangdong is moderately acceptable for rhizome production, the other two being better suited to flower production. Growers with an export focus would be better placed with varieties favoured by intended markets. It should be noted that the best rhizome varieties from Japan and China, namely Tenno and Bitchu from Japan, as well as Hunan Pao from China, are unavailable in this country at present. Examples of different varieties are illustrated in figures 1–14.

Fig 1 Fig 2a Fig 2b

Fig 3 Fig 5 Fig 4b

Fig 6a Fig 6b Fig 7a

Fig 7b Fig 9a Fig 8a

Fig 9b Fig 11 Fig 10b

Fig 12 Fig 14 Fig 13

Flowers Production of flowers and green pods for flower arrangements provide an extra income source for growers of rhizomes. Varieties currently grown for rhizome production also produce an adequate supply of flowers to warrant marketing. It is essential that rhizome growers remove flowers before seed set, to avoid the translocation of carbohydrates to seed production. Growers wishing to solely target fresh flower and green pod markets should choose a variety which produces a s ignificant number of flowers, such as those listed in Table 1. An average of 680 flowers per acre of the Green Jade variety was achieved at the University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury) (UWSH), Richmond, NSW, over a two- year period.

Seeds Seed production at this stage may not be advantageous as production costs and unknown returns of an untried product, which has ready competition available from cheaply-produced imports, may be too high. Also, seed as a vehicle of propagation will not necessarily breed true-to-type. Unless growers can capture an identified market for seed, it is not recommended at this stage. However, as an indication of production potential, the 680 flower average produced at UWSH generated approximately 3.6 kg. of seed. Ten grams of seed contains 8-9 seeds.

Table 2: Lotus Germplasm Inventory for UWSH & Gosford HRAS.

Accession Variety Origin/ Germplasm Status Lotus Char No. Source Form Type 001/99 Mrs Perry Slocum Commercial Rhizome Plants Flower GJ Water Gardens established 002/99 Debbie Gibson Commercial Rhizome Plants Flower EL Water Gardens established 003/99 Vietnam White Viet Nam; Seed Plants Flower DJ VQN established 004/99 Qianling White Wuhan Seed Plants Flower DJI China; DJH established 005/99 Red Lotus Wuhan Seed Plants seed FCK China; DJH established 006/99 Red Thousand Petals Wuhan Seed Plants Flower CJL China; DJH established 007/99 White Stamen Hunan Wuhan Seed Plants Seed EF China; DJH established 008/99 Paradise Paradise Unknown Plant material Rhizome AD Plants; BC available 009/99 Quangdong Quangdong, Rhizome Plant material Rhizome AD China available 010/99 Singapore Singapore; Rhizome Plant material Flower DJ VQN available 011/99 Brisbane Brisbane Endemic Plant material Flower DJ available 012/99 Green Jade Commercial Unknown Plant material Rhizome DJ Water gardens available 013/99 Tien Giang Tien Giang, Seed Plants Unknown ???? Vietnam; VQN established 014/99 Toku Tokushima, Seed Plants ???? ??? Japan; VQN established

Table 2: Lotus Germplasm Inventory for UWSH & Gosford HRAS. (cont.)

Accession Variety Origin/ Germplasm Status Lotus Char No. Source Form Type 015/99 Saga Saga, Japan; Seed Plants ??? ???? VQN established 016/99 Chin99a China; KJ Seed Plants ??? ???? established 017/99 Chin99b China; KJ Seed Plants ??? ???? established 018/99 Shiroman Commercial Rhizome Plant material DJI Syn Alba plenum water gardens available 001/00 Damaojie Wuhan Seed Seedling Rhizome ABD China; DJH necrosis I 002/00 Townsville Rhode River, Seed Plants Flower CK Townsville established 003/00 Viet Nam Red Viet Nam; Seed Plants Flower CFK VQN established 004/00 Zhouou Wuhan Seed no Rhizome ABD China; DJH germination I seed left 005/00 Paozi Wuhan Seed Seedling Rhizome ABG China; DJH necrosis; seed I left 006/00 Momo Botan Commercial Rhizome Plant material Dwarf CL Water gardens available ornament al 007/00 006/99X001/99 UWSH; DJH Seed Not available Unknown 008/00 006/99X002/99 UWSH; DJH Seed Not available Unknown 009/00 018/99X006/99 UWSH; DJH Seed Not available Unknown 010/00 018/99X001/99 UWSH; DJH Seed Not available Unknown 014/00 Big Lying Dragon Wuhan, Seed Seedling Rhizome ABD China; DJH necrosis; no I seed left 015/00 Bitchu Tokushima Rhizome Quarantine Rhizome AH Japan; DJH necrosis To be sourced

Legend: A. - Large Edible Rhizome G. - Pink flower B. - Uniform shape & colour H. - Essential for collection C. - Red flower I. - Good for collection and/or breeding D. - White flower J. - Forms small rhizome E. - Yellow flower K. - No rhizome formed or witnessed F. - Edible seeds L. - Double flower

UWSH - University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury); VQN – Vong Q. Nguyen DJH - David J. Hicks KJ – Kim Jones BC - Bob Cherry

2.2 PROPAGATION

2.2.1 Seed Lotus seed has been recorded as having the longest known viability with age. Seeds estimated to be up to 1,500 years old were propagated and generated healthy plants which subsequently produced their own viable seed (Shen-Miller et al,1995). Their long life viability is due to the extra hard, impermeable seed coat or testa. Propagation by seed can be carried out by scarifying the seed coat and then incubating at 25-30oC. Seeds should be submerged in a relatively inert though water-saturated media. The choice of media should suit the application - if plants are to be transplanted then coarse sand is recommended. Absence of media will encourage fungal growth, which is borne from the inside of the seed.

Plants generated using this technique will not be true-to-type as Lotus has a high degree of genetic variability within its seeds. Therefore, propagation by seed should be reserved for selection of new varieties or identifying potential qualities, which may be crossed with another variety.

2.2.2 Tissue Culture This method holds promise for the future where an established industry sources its seed material from a seed rhizome producing specialist. A grower placed in this niche opportunity would use tissue culture to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type, disease-free material. This would enable growers to maximise their cropping area. Supplied seed would have to be cheaper than a grower could produce and of a higher quality standard to be a viable proposition.

Disadvantages with tissue culture methods at present include the high degree of difficulty in establishing disease-free material in culture. Lotus has a very high surface area to volume ratio with some surfaces internal and, therefore, cannot be surface sterilised. The nature of growth in culture is not true tissue culture as plants clearly source carbon from the atmosphere, thus growth in vitro is atypical of that in vivo where growth proceeds largely in a linear direction from meristems. Meristem tissue should be able to produce multiple shoots rather than just consecutive shoots. Promise of this may lie in use of conventional tissue culture hormones such as BA and NAA in conjunction with thiadiazuron (TDZ). However, trials need to confirm this observation. Further, a protocol for establishment of plants post tissue culture has not been established. Requirements for plant transfer and the time period of this operation from being in culture to ready for a crop situation has not been evaluated.

2.2.3 Vegetative (Rhizome) This is currently the most easily employed and efficient method of propagation and will also produce true-to-type plants. Seed rhizome is sourced from the current crop, or a separate mother pond is constructed to supply each consecutive season’s seed rhizome material. Using this technique, a rhizome with at least two segments, which is sealed at either distal end by an intact node, is submerged in water-saturated media at an angle of 15o with the shoot meristem approximately 5 cm below the media surface. Meristems are left intact if propagating for further material, though, if planting a crop, only one meristem is left intact. Larger rhizomes will produce more vigorous plants. Assuming plants propagated using this method are for a crop situation or seed rhizome production, then nutrition should follow the recommendations contained further within.

It is recommended that rhizomes are prepared for planting and planted immediately they are harvested due to their sensitivity to transplanting. Lotus transplants have a higher strike rate during dormancy and if planted soon after harvest. This operation should take place, optimally, before the breaking of dormancy with increasing ambient temperature and for this reason, the mother pond system offers the best solution as planting for the next season can be undertaken over winter or just before spring. Using a single pond method, growers would be faced with harvesting the crop and planting the following crop at the same time. It is possible to store rhizomes over winter, and in areas where prolonged frost periods occur, making this the obvious time when this should take place. Regions which offer the best climates for growth will normally not require storage of rhizomes other than in the ground.

2.3 POND MANAGEMENT

2.3.1 Design Pond design is critical to the operation of Lotus production and, once constructed, difficult to change,. Therefore, it is recommended that civil engineers be consulted regarding design and practicality of construction and use. Consideration must be given to water management in terms of acquisition, movement, storage and crop pond management. A deep reservoir, situated preferably on higher ground, can be used for water storage and allow gravity feeding of water through irrigation pipes to all ponds. Water may drain into each pond before eventually being collected in a catchment and pumped back into the reservoir or the catchment pond may be a second reservoir. Water pumped back into the reservoir may need filtering through a sedge bog for example to remove nutrients. However, a second reservoir would reduce the amount of area under crop.

Inherent qualities of the intended site should have a gentle slope and preferably an appropriate soil type for Lotus cropping. The method of sealing the pond will have to be addressed. Traditionally farm dams are sealed by compacting impermeable clays, which are unsuitable for growing Lotus because rhizomes can grow into them. Hard, compacted clay is difficult to harvest from and may compromise the seal of the pond if dug up. A softer top layer of soil is necessary to a depth of approximately 1 m, depending on the habit of each variety. Similarly, it is possible to line the pond with pond liners which are manufactured in a range of available materials. Again, type of soil used can be selected by the grower if the soil on site is inappropriate. Pond liners will restrict the downward growth of rhizomes and result in flat misshapen rhizomes if the soil depth is inadequate.

Consideration of the intended scale of operation will be dictated by economics; the larger the scale, the greater the cost of construction as well as crop production and pond maintenance. Further, some regions may need council or EPA approval due to significant alterations to water catchment regulations on properties.

2.3.2 Construction Once a design has been planned and necessary approvals sought and obtained, the grower should follow a similar construction plan to the example provided. Note, as this only covers rudimentary elements of a typical plan, growers should always be aware of their own unique situation. Further consideration should be given to irrigation piping for connection to a pond system, accessibility to earthmoving equipment and operators, and the prevailing environmental conditions at the time of construction. It would not be a favourable situation moving soil in wet, waterlogged conditions.

• Clear intended area of vegetation; • Mark/peg out area; • Remove topsoil layer and place aside (if grower intends to use this soil as the growing media); • Remove lower soil horizons to required depth (approximately 1.2 m) and install any piping or irrigation mechanisms; a) Compact subsurface soil if it is conducive to creating an impermeable seal. Ensure slight gradient for water movement and control; OR b) Install pond liner if this method is to be adopted. • Test pond permeability and water movement by introducing water to pond system (water should move freely over the gradient and not leak out - this is best done before introducing growing media); • Drain ponds (recirculate water to holding reservoir); • Return topsoil or imported soil back into dug-out pond area and work in any necessary nutrients or soil/water ameliorants; • Fill with water to necessary level.

2.3.3 Maintenance

Crop Rotation As with any other crop, it is wise to rotate types of crops growing on an area of land. Ponds may be used for other water vegetables such as water chestnut, water convolvulus, water bamboo, water caltrop and watercress etc. Alternatively, ponds may be drained of water and used for annual vegetable crops such as Taro, sweet potato or Yam bean, which are known to be grown as companion or rotation crops to Lotus (Harwood and Pluncknett, 1981). Similarly, more traditional ‘western’ crops can be grown.

Ponds that are not rotated may harbour disease organisms, which may reduce each subsequent crop yield. Similarly, residues of nutrients, which Lotus may not take up, will accumulate in soil/water. Rotation of crops will help prevent this from occurring as different crops will utilise nutrients differently with specific requirements, eg. it is widely known that sweet potato is useful in ‘mopping up’ excess fertiliser nutrients in a paddock. Disease organisms of Lotus will have no source of nutrition if pond is rotated with a crop other than Lotus. It has been observed on one property, where no rotation has occurred, that shoot growth is reduced with each consecutive crop (rhizome yield data is not available).

Crop Schedule The following crop schedule is a loose guide that growers may use as a template to plan their own, more detailed site specific schedule. This schedule assumes design and construction of the ponds has been implemented.

April: • Drain ponds

May: • Start harvest of crop ponds, potentially till the end of July, though within the first month of shoot die back is recommended

June: • Use crop pond for other dry-grown crops over winter before preparation for following season’s Lotus crop; OR • Prepare crop pond for other water crops or leave fallow with a dry pond grown green manure such as lucerne.

July: • As for June.

August: • Rework crop pond soil; • Apply a quarter of most nutrients and half of the phosphorous ; • Introduce 5 cm of water; • Harvest mother pond and plant out all ponds; • Rework soil in mother ponds before planting out. OR • Follow alternative rotation agenda, eg. different crop type or leave fallow.

September: • Germination begins in most areas; • Weed eradication in pond; • Monitor for pests, implement control measures if necessary.

October: • Increase water depth to approx. 10 cm, governed by prevailing temperatures; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary.

November: • Apply first split of remaining three fertiliser side dressings, half N, quarter P, quarter K; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary.

December: • Weed eradication; • Flower harvest begins approximately at the end of February; • Second split of fertiliser side dressing, half N, quarter P, quarter K; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary.

January: • Weed eradication; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary.

February: • Third fertiliser split application, quarter K; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary; • Attend to any reservoir maintenance.

March:

• Weed eradication; • Monitor for pests and implement control measures if necessary.

April: • Drain ponds.

May: • Begin harvest as shoots die back, • Follow cycle again, rotate after two Lotus crop seasons.

2.4 PLANT ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

2.4.1 Soils Soil will act as an anchor for the root system, a buffer zone by providing binding sites for nutrients, which consequently help stabilise pH, and a storage place for future crops. In terms of growth and harvest of Lotus, soil must have certain inherent qualities - it must be impermeable to light so correct creamy-white coloured rhizome can be achieved.

The texture should be as fine as possible so that surface lesions are not evident on rhizomes. A fine textured soil has a greater chance of its particles sitting in suspension, eliminating a degree soil weight caused by gravitational forces. This will help alleviate problems of flat and misshapen rhizomes from soil pressures. A silty loam type soil provides the best solution for all requirements.

When considering soils, growers must choose between soil endemic to the property transporting in a more desirable soil. Soils, which are unsuitable for Lotus, include heavy clays, which are hard for plant roots to penetrate and make harvesting difficult. Similarly, sandy soils make harvest difficult due to the fluid nature and weight of sand, they have few binding sites for nutrients and have been reported to impart a ‘rough’ flavour on the rhizomes (Liu, 1994).

Soils, which have a high degree of organic matter of unknown origin, are not recommended. As they may contain tannins, which will turn the water brackish, or solid pieces, which may score the rhizome thus reducing quality. Further, soil mineral particles should not be greater than fine sand grains. Soils with correct organic matter include manures and other well rotted high nitrogen to carbon ratio mulches, which will impart into the soil a source of slow-released nitrogen, a buoyancy to texture, many binding sites for nutrients, and help to stop light penetration. Soil trials on the affects on rhizome quality, which demonstrated that soil density, particulate size and light permeability will have an effect on quality (Nguyen and Hicks, 1998), were undertaken at Gosford Horticultural Research and Advisory Station.

Organic matter can be worked into soil under dry pond conditions, and this is best done just prior to spring planting. If rhizomes have been left dormant over winter, then organic matter is best placed upon soil surface rather than worked in. If worked in and seed rhizomes are planted just after harvest, the temperatures generated from composting organic matter may initiate germination. If seed rhizomes are planted similarly though deeper and manure is worked in closer to spring, it is difficult to determine if seed rhizomes have germinated or not. Care must be taken over the amount and breakdown stage of manures, or plants will be burnt and the pond may subsequently have to be abandoned for a period until it cools.

Importing soil will be a costly exercise, though the advantages of working with a media, which is ideally suited to Lotus growing, could prove beneficial in the longer term.

2.4.2 Climate Lotus requires a warm, temperate to tropical environment with an average daytime temperature of 25oC. Lotus should not be grown in areas with frost potential as plant tissues are sensitive to frost damage. However, it is known that an over wintering dormancy period exists and the parameters of this dormancy may be cultivar determined or a function of environmental adaptation. This is a phenomenon which needs attention.

Aspect should be oriented towards maximum harvest of available sunshine hours as Lotus appears to require intense light as well as long day hours for growth. It is speculated that Lotus rhizome initiation is promoted by the stress of lowering temperatures and decreasing light availability.

Protection of the crop from wind and hail damage is essential and the body of water should be still, though water should be readily available. Therefore, a climate with adequate precipitation or alternative fresh water supply should also be a priority consideration.

2.4.3 Water Quality

General Water quality and availability will plays an important role in the success of Lotus growth and should be readily available, of correct temperature, and have as few impurities as possible. Water availability also restricts potential growing areas in Australia to mostly coastal NSW and Southern Queensland, where high rainfall is abundant and an appreciable seasonal temperature difference is present. Areas which rely on bore or irrigated water supply and whose soils are not naturally adapted to dealing with high volumes of water, may be too saline or contribute to problems of salinity and soil degradation, eg. Rice growing in the MIA.

pH Soil water pH has been found to be extremely variable across Lotus growing regions in Asia. Measurements as low as 5.5 and 8.0 high have been recorded. Growth was not seen to be affected by variation in pH, though different varieties of Lotus may have adapted to prevailing conditions. The correct level of pH would probably be in the vicinity of 6.0 and 6.5, and trials are currently being conducted to confirm pH effects on growth.

Depth Ideal depth for growing rhizome Lotus is approximately 20 cm. During the dormant phase over winter, seed rhizomes should be left buried in a dry pond. As spring approaches (or thermometers indicate higher temperatures earlier), water should be introduced to the pond to approximately 5 cm. The pond volume is incrementally adjusted with temperature.

Adjustment of water depth can be employed to overcome disease pathogens, initiate rhizome formation and, most importantly, manipulate water temperature. The pathogen Fusarium

oxysporum pv nelumbicola, which attacks rhizomes, needs a certain amount of oxygen in the water. By increasing the depth the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is reduced, providing an anaerobic environment in which the pathogen cannot survive. The plant is unaffected, unless depth is too great, as it does not breath through its root system but rather employs a modified air flow system regulated through the leaves (Honda, 1987).

Rhizome initiation was observed during preliminary trials. Plants undergoing water stress were found to begin rhizome formation during standard environmental conditions for growth. Plants not undergoing stress, showed no sign of rhizome formation and continued vegetative growth. Growers may be able to manipulate water stress on a Lotus crop to initiate rhizome formation to capture a particular market advantage or to ensure viability of a crop. This may be especially important in regions where growing season is limited, and change from one season to another is dramatic. The extra time allowed to harvest solar radiation at high intensity and long daylight hours may be necessary to provide good sized rhizomes through water stress. It may also be necessary in some harvesting instances where growers will need to evacuate the pond of all water.

Water temperature can also be changed through adjusting water depth as, the greater the body of water, the longer it takes to heat. The advantage for capitalisation is an earlier germination of seed rhizomes from a lower water depth, thereby increasing growing period.

Salinity Lotus can tolerate a degree of salt in the soil water solution. Preliminary nutrition trials suggest that the sodium component in salt may be substituted for low levels of the potassium ion. This holds promise for growing Lotus in situations where saline conditions and/or high water tables occur.

The correct E.C. level for a plant in the vegetative stage of growth is between 2.8– 3.1 mS cm-1 . Plants begin to exhibit minor stress symptoms, such as deformed and discoloured new leaves, between 3.2-3.5 mS cm-1, beyond which growth was observed to cease.

2.5 CULTIVATION

Planting Planting of rhizomes should ideally take place before the break of dormancy and after any danger of frost. Frost sensitive areas may need to increase water depth initially to provide an insulating layer against frost and freezing. Plants transplanted once rhizomes have germinated are less likely to establish themselves successfully.

Seed rhizomes should be planted in a grid (Fig. 16) with an orientation so that the meristem (growing tip) heads in the direction of the pond within its row. Rows should be approximately 2-3 m apart and 1.2-3 m between plants. Spacings will be dependent upon varietal vigour within the prevailing environmental conditions. Plants should have a 1–2 m space from the pond edge.

The amount of planting material needed per unit area will be determined by planting density. A hectare planted with a spacing of 1.2 x 2 m grid will need approximately 4,000 individual seed rhizomes (Honda, 1987). Consequently, new growers may find their first two

seasons dedicated to building up a stock of planting material. Alternatively, large amounts of seed rhizome may be sourced from traditional Lotus growing countries, grown on in quarantine before planting in situ. This is extremely costly and very risky, though it has been accomplished. Losses of plant material in quarantine will likely be high if unattended by the grower. Rhizomes must be transported during the dormancy phase and must remain in quarantine for a minimum of three months of observable growth.

Figure 16: Planting orientation of rhizomes in a pond; arrow heads represent the direction of meristems.

2.5.1 Nutrition & Nutritional Disorder Symptoms

General This aspect of Lotus cultivation should be based upon soil analysis, periodic leaf analysis and age of crop. Soils in different situations will have inherent differences in nutritional components due to obvious soil type variations and previous use of soil. Soil analysis should reveal any inadequacies for all elements, highlight any residual elements from previous cropping, determine pH and give a conductivity reading. Growers should then tailor their nutrition regimes to allow for any disparity between soil analysis and recommended amounts for correct growth of Lotus.

The use of leaf analysis, both compositional and visual, will help to determine if soil ameliorations and nutrition regimes are effective. Composition of each element should fall within the range determined for adequate growth and plant health (Table 2). Further adjustments to the nutrition regime can be made following the results of leaf analysis.

Age and maturity of the crop will also determine amount of fertiliser applied in a cropping situation. It is recommended that fertiliser applications be split into 4-5 applications as young plants have been observed to burn quite readily. Correct balance of nutrients is encouraged, dictated by maturity stage of the crop, eg. a crop approaching maturity and rhizome formation would not be fed high concentrations of nitrogen, but more potassium.

The following information, though not yet conclusive, suggests the appropriate range of individual nutrient amounts for soil and leaf, and timing of its application. Disorder symptoms are represented and described.

Amount The amount of fertiliser applied will largely be a factor of prevailing nutrient availability and buffering capacity of the soil or its cation exchange capacity (CEC). Soils with high cation exchange capabilities will bind cations to soil particles and allow for a more regulated supply of nutrients. Soils with a low CEC will not bind cations, leaving them suspended in solution and requiring careful monitoring of nutrient oversupply and possible toxicity. The annual amounts of individual nutrients for a single cropping season have been listed in Table 2. The lower amounts were calculated from a pure hydroponic situation, where little or no CEC was available in the growing media and the higher values could be employed in soils with high CEC such as clay or organically-rich soils, which have large surface areas for nutrient binding.

Table 3: Recommended range of nutrient application rates per hectare and range of nutrient content within soils, young leaves and petioles in healthy Lotus plants

Nutrient Application Amount in Soil Amount in Amount in Range kg ha- young Leaf Petiole 1 Nitrogen (%) 200 – 400 0.75 – 1.0 mg kg-1 2.2 – 3.4 0.8 – 2.0 Phosphorus (%) 40 – 200 20 – 25 mg kg-1 0.203 – 0.403 0.08 – 0.396 Potassium (%) 250 – 500 0.15 – 0.24 meq/100g 1.163 – 3.069 1.894 – 3.914 Calcium (%) 100 – 150 2.5 – 3.5 meq/100g 0.227 – 1.239 0.275 – 0.826 Magnesium (%) 60 – 100 1.90 – 2.54 meq/100g 0.306 – 0.901 0.227 – 0.672 Sulphur (%) 30 – 50 mg kg-1 0.221 – 0.329 0.126 – 0.372 Chloride (%) 20 – 70 mg kg-1 0.911 – 1.633 1.088 – 2.863 Iron (ppm) 400 – 450 mg kg-1 35.3 – 110.1 22.4 – 75.6 Manganese (ppm) 80 – 260 mg kg-1 1364 - 8380 602 – 2511 Sodium (%) 0.46 meq/100g 0.035 – 0.142 0.174 – 0.815 Aluminium (ppm) 0.28 meq/100g 10 - 92 19 – 204 Copper (ppm) 0.8 – 1.0 mg kg-1 7.5 – 22.5 9.4 – 20.9 Zinc (ppm) 1.8 – 2.5 mg kg-1 14.2 – 28.1 13.6 – 25.8 Boron 1.1 – 1.2 mg kg-1 Silicon (%) 0.007 – 0.047 0.003 – 0.017 Fertiliser Application Applications should be split into 4-5 applications. The first application should be worked into the soil prior to planting the next season’s crop. It is recommended that a quarter of N and K be provided, while half of the plants’ P requirements should be incorporated. Similarly, half of all minor and trace elements can be applied at this stage. The method of incorporation would be to use a spreader followed by deep rotary hoe. The pond must be drained of water. Loss of structure to soil from use of a rotary hoe is not a consideration as soil loses structure in a water saturated state. In smaller ponds or where the soil is too soft to allow machinery to operate, fertiliser can be spread by hand using a modified backpack with a tube at the bottom to assist even dispersal. Fertilisers can then be worked into soil

using a hand-operated mechanical hoe or by hand tool, though these methods are labour intensive.

The first side application should be applied approximately two months after germination and should contain another quarter N and a quarter K, potassium nitrate with another N source to make up the difference would suffice. The second side application, approximately 1.5 months after the first side dressing, should contain a quarter K, half P and the remaining quarter N, minor and trace elements. Minor elements are often incorporated with major elements, so care should be taken in their calculation and application. The third application should be the remaining quarter K. At this stage the plant will be developing rhizomes so potassium supply at this stage is critical to their good development. Lotus has a lower requirement for N at this stage but draws a large amount from the leaves, and therefore, it should not be incorporated into the final fertiliser application. The method of application for side dressings at present is via the backpack and the grower wading through the pond. Further work needs to be investigated into fertiliser delivery in the pond situation. Granulated type fertilisers offer the most efficient spread and ease to work with.

Fertilisers should be of a high enough grade to be completely dissolvable and not leave behind impurity residues. Hydroponic or food grade is recommended though cost could be a restrictive factor.

Disorder Symptoms The following symptoms of nutrient disorders were witnessed under trial at the University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury) and accurately reflect similar disorders in other plants. Trace elements and sulphur were not investigated as it is assumed that the sulphur component in many fertilisers will satisfy the S requirement. Trace elements could be added from a standard trace element mix after soil test confirmation. Iron was investigated due to its implication in rhizome discolouration. Many results are still pending.

Nitrogen (N) (Figs. 17a and 17b) Lotus is a gross feeder of nitrogen during vegetative stage of growth. Deficiency symptoms first appear on older leaves as an even chlorosis (yellowing) across the entire leaf blade as plant relocates nitrogen to the growing tip. This will develop into necrosis of the tissues (dying off), starting at the margin and often affecting a section of the leaf. These symptoms are not a disorder towards the end of the cropping cycle. Severe N deficiency will result in stunted plants. Correction of symptoms would best be achieved using a nitrate-based nitrogen source such as potassium nitrate (KNO3).

Excessive use of nitrogen, especially during rhizome formation, will result in production of shoots plus elongation and thickening of stolons at the expense of rhizome development. Toxic levels of nitrogen will burn the centre of the leaf blade where the majority of gas exchanges occur. A shothole type appearance between leaf veins becomes apparent.

Phosphorus (P) (Figs.18a and 18c) Lotus is very sensitive to P levels and must be applied with care. Plants deficient in P display a darkish green colour which gives way to a purplish mottling (anthocyanosis) of new leaves. The leaf will turn entirely purple under severe P stress, before an even necrosis (blackening and dehydration) of the leaf starts at the leaf margin. Growth of the plant will also be appreciably slower, though often this is not as apparent as leaf symptoms. Deficiency symptoms may be due to the precipitation of phosphates with iron or calcium in the soil, forming an insoluble salt, hence reducing availability.

Toxicity symptoms are indicated by deformation of new leaves which will fail to open. Older leaves will quickly express a blackening around the leaf margins and centre as P ‘burning’ occurs.

Correction of deficiencies may be alleviated by early applications of mono ammonium phosphate to the soil or phosphorous acid H3PO3 water solution. Toxicity symptoms may require an entire exchange of the pond water.

Potassium(K) (Fig. 19a and 19b) This nutrient is needed in large amounts as Lotus requires K for flowering and rhizome production as well as other regulatory and metabolic functions during growth. Initially, chlorotic patches are seen around the entire leaf margin of older leaves. This yellowing then extends inwardly within the confines of the leaf veination before turning necrotic, from which comes necrosis, a curling of the leaf margin. There is a possibility that Lotus can substitute sodium when potassium is limited. Trials indicated that growth is slowed in the absence of potassium, but not nearly to the extent of retardation experienced by plants growing with the absence of N or P.

Correction of deficiency would be by KNO3 if experienced early in the crop cycle or sulphate of potash (K2SO4) later in the season.

Magnesium (Mg) (Figs. 20) Symptoms of Mg deficiency initially exhibit a chlorotic mottling between leaf veins in older leaves, as the growing tip draws mobile Mg from mature leaves. Extensive deficiency will show an increased yellowing of the entire leaf blade, which could be easily mistaken for N deficiency. Deficient leaves will eventually become necrotic if unchecked.

While symptoms of deficiency may manifest themselves, Mg could be present in the soil at adequate levels. Inhibition by other metals competing for binding sites during solution uptake in the soil/water solution may be responsible. Similarly, Mg may cause an inhibitory effect on other heavy metals.

Correction of Mg deficiency can be achieved by applications of Epsom salt (magnesium sulphate [MgSO4]) to soil water solution. Foliar applications (as practiced with many other crops) will not be as effective, due to the thick waxy cuticle surrounding Lotus leaves.

Calcium (Ca) (Fig. 21) Calcium deficiency in Lotus is similar to Mg, where chlorotic mottling of older leaves becomes apparent giving way to a bronzed spotting. It differs in that leaves become stiff and brittle. The root system will also be affected, stunting between nodes, browning of the root hairs and necrosis of some of the growing tips has been observed. Correction may be achieved using calcium nitrate early in the crop cycle.

Iron (Fe) (Fig. 22) Fe deficient leaves will exhibit an even chlorosis inter-veinally on younger leaves, leaving a dark skeleton-like appearance to the veins. Deficiency may be due to an imbalance of other nutrients, eg. binding with phosphates forming insoluble salts. Correction of these symptoms may be through applications of iron sulphate (FeSO4). Oxidates of iron are also implicit in rhizome discolouration (Fig. 30).

2.5.2 Cropping Systems There are three main systems under which growers could conduct cropping. These include the ‘mother pond system’, the recycled crop system and the supplied seed rhizome system.

Mother Pond System Using this system, growers would construct smaller ponds, which would be dedicated to producing seed rhizome for the following season’s crop. The advantages of this system include: • separation of seasonal crops and its hygiene aspect; • entire crop in production can be marketed; • biggest and best rhizomes from the mother pond can be used for planting; and • if maintaining more than one variety in separate mother ponds, growers can choose which variety to plant season-to-season.

Disadvantages include extra labour\energy needed to maintain extra ponds, and less land is devoted to cropping. This system is the one most advised for growers experiencing the infancy of this industry to ensure that material is available for subsequent years’ crops.

Recycled Crop System This system is where growers use approximately one-third of current season’s crop as seed material for the following year’s crop and seed rhizome production. Advantages include reduced labour/energy inputs, thus only one pond needs maintaining. Disadvantages include potential to lose following year’s crop material through disease, pestilence or other crop failure, creating less returns per area of land and the best rhizomes are often needed 24

for the following crop. This system is not recommended for producers of rhizomes, but it may be adequate for a flower production focus. However, initially growers may be forced to use this method as it is the least cost intensive. Growers who opt for this method may switch to the supplied seed method as the industry matures, thus eliminating costs associated with establishing mother ponds together with their maintenance.

Supplied Seed Growers under this system do not produce their own seed rhizomes, but rather purchase from another reliable producer. Advantages include maximising area under crop, hence returns, seed would have certain quality guarantees and less labour/energy inputs are required to maintain extra ponds and necessary infrastructure. Disadvantages include cost of seed and position of growers having reliance on other growers. This system is not advised during industry infancy, but it could provide a potential niche growing situation should the industry expand and become established.

2.5.3 Pest Identification & Management It is difficult to advise growers on rates of application of specific chemicals as no chemicals have been registered for use with Lotus and their respective withholding periods are unknown. Further, some spray oils and sprays derived from plants have had phytotoxic effects on plant foliage. There will be instances when growers are forced to spray for Heliothis sp and/or aphid attack, and growers are encouraged to test spray patches with varying concentrations and observing and noting effects on both pests and plants. Information generated this way can rapidly provide a powerful database for the industry.

Monitoring for pests and diseases is critical in avoiding crop loss in a relatively short period. It may also be the difference between use of harsh chemical control measures if pest populations are detected early. Monitoring should involve sticky traps for aphids and scented traps for moths with regular visual assessment of the crop..

It may be possible for growers to introduce a fish crop into the pond, though the effect of fertilisers on water quality for fish may be in question. Fish will help to control a wide variety of insect pests although they may restrict other chemical applications.

Insect and Other The most prevalent pest of lotus in Australia appears to be Heliothis sp. caterpillars. Once infested with a colony of larvae, crop can be decimated in only a few days. Symptoms of attack appear first as a window pane effect on leaves (Fig. 23a) and then as larvae grow they begin to skeletonise leaves (Fig. 23b) and penetrate flower buds and green pods. Control measures may be with Bacillus thuringiensis if infestation is detected through early monitoring, before larvae mature to the point where bacteria cannot affect their gut. Mature larvae should be sprayed by one of the available pesticides. Products with the active constituent as carbaryl, pyrethrins or rotenone are all known to be effective. Natural controls through parasitic and predacious wasps are more precautionary measures and are encouraged, but are no control measure in a situation of infestation. Use of pheromone impregnated decoys and traps to both trick mating moths and/or catch moths may also be beneficial, although their effectiveness in a Lotus cropping situation is unknown. Diamond back moth has also attacked Lotus leaves.

Several species of aphid will attack Lotus with the green peach aphid is considered to be particularly troublesome. Aphids disfigure plants and smother first petioles (Fig.24) and then the leaves in large plantings. They suck sap, which will reduce vigour in the plant as well as deny rhizomes the supply of photosynthates. Plums and cherries are considered to be the host for over-wintering eggs, which give birth to winged females, who then fly off and give asexual birth to wingless nymphs.

Winter spraying of nearby Prunus sp. with ovicides will help in their control as well as physical removal of colonies. Sprays of very dilute white oil can be used if fish are present, otherwise pyrethrum- or nicotine-based insecticides are useful. A forceful jet of water will dislodge colonies and fish can eat any that land in the water.

Infestations of twospotted mite will also reduce vigour of plant and can present symptoms similar to nutrient deficiency. However, detection of mites is difficult due to their size. Mites will locate themselves on the underside of leaves where they spin a fine web over the leaf surface. Symptoms include minute chlorotic spotting, eventuating in necrosis that begins from the leaf margin (Fig. 25).

Mealy bug are another sap sucking pest which can damage Lotus leaves and flowers by sucking leaf and flower stalks. Similar to mite damage, necrosis begins at the leaf margin and travels inward, curling the leaf in the process (Figs. 26a and 26b).

Other common pests include the Brown China mark moth larvae, Caddis fly larvae, False leaf mining midge, Water lily aphid, Water lily beetle and Aquatic snails. It is unknown to me at present whether these pests are actually in Australia but their potential should not be ignored.

Brown China mark moth symptoms are holes in foliage and around leaf margins caused by larvae. Eggs are laid on the underside of leaves and hatch quickly into small white larvae which feed then form a cocoon using a section of leaf in which they pupate. Adults are dull coloured mothlike insects with greyish or brown wings. Control is by use of fish in the pond, removal or, if severe, defoliation of plants or use of Bacillus thuringiensis as a biological control. Chemical control will often be of no use due to the cocoon.

Over 200 species of Caddis flies exist, most of whose larvae feed on aquatic plants. Eggs are laid in a jelly like mass during the evening. Emerging larvae spin a web of silk around themselves upon hatching incorporating camouflaging material from surrounds (Lotus leaf stalks). Adult flies resemble brownish moths but have hair on wings rather than scale. Ponds with fish generally have no trouble with these insects although B. thuringiensis can be an effective control method.

False leaf mining midge (Cricotopus ornatus) adults lay eggs on leaf surfaces. Hatched transparent larvae then burrow into leaf in typical leaf miner behaviour. Not considered a serious pest though, if infestation is heavy, leaves can be completely skeletonised. Thick leaved varieties seem more resistant to attack. Control by removal of individual leaves or B. thuringiensis.

Waterlily beetle - (Galerucella nymphaeae) are a difficult pest to control once established in an area. Larvae of these tiny black beetles are distinguished by their shiny black bodies and yellow bellies. They strip the surface layer of leaves which quickly begin to rot. Beetles hibernate during winter in poolside vegetation and migrate to leaves during early summer. Control recommendations suggest sprays of water to dislodge larvae into the water or use B. thuringiensis.

Aquatic snails may attack vegetation if alternative food sources are not present. One species, Pomacea canaliculata, has been identified as a herbivore of aquatic plants including Lotus and is also known as an intermediate host of Rat lungworm, which causes eosinophilic meningoencephalitis in humans. Control methods for snails, which have overpopulated a pond, are to float cabbage or lettuce leaves on the surface of the water for 24 hours and then remove and destroy the snails.

Many different species of water bird could have the potential to damage plants just through their presence, eg. ducks, when swimming, may entangle themselves around leaf stalks, pulling out leaves and possibly dislodging roots.

Disease Nelumbo nucifera is subject to few diseases, although not exempt. Leaf spots can be caused by powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni), Cercospora sp., Ovularia sp. and Cylindrocladium hawkesworthii sp. They cause dark patches on the pads and may eventually, if unchecked, cause pad to die. Rarely is the entire plant affected. Implications for rhizome development would be through loss of photosynthates and thus lower yields. Control is by copper solutions, eg. bordeaux mixture applied to leaves and water. Another leaf spotting disease, Lotus streak virus, is reported to be caused by a rhabdovirus and produces streaks on rootstalks and chlorotic ringspots on leaves.

Waterlily crown rot is a more serious disease caused by a species of Phytophthora. The fungus causes crown and stem base to blacken and rot and it quickly spreads through a pond, with early symptoms indicated by yellowing of leaves. Further examination reveals

black jellylike tissue and a vile smell even if roots appear healthy. Control is to remove infected plant and burn. Some degree of protection can be achieved by impregnating water with copper sulphate crystals dragged through water in an infusing bag. However, if plants do not respond, all plants should be destroyed and pond sterilised with sodium hypochlorite.

Disease of the rhizome is also a possibility by Fusarium oxysporum sp nelumbicola and Pythium elongatum. Both fungi overwinter in seeds, stems and soil. Disease incidence is attributed to high summer temperatures and low rainfall. Fusarium is considered by Asian growers to be the worst disease in Lotus. An infected pond cannot be used during the following season and some rotation must be observed when this disease is present. Considerable losses have been reported from rhizome rot and wilt.

Weeds Any expanse of fresh water has potential for invasion by aquatic weed species, which are fierce competitors for space in any waterway and they are comprised of some of the worst weeds in the world, Australia being no exception. Not only do they compete for space and hence, incidence of radiation, but nutrients and, in some cases, oxygen. Control of aquatic weeds may be physical removal during cropping and by draining off water or use of a herbicide during non-crop period. Control of Eichornia crassipes and Typha sp can be achieved using simazen (3-6 ppm) or monuron (4-12 ppm). However, it is advised that weeds be removed from the pond before they can be firmly established. It is interesting to note that some weed experts consider Lotus to be a weed in some areas of Australia as it can become invasive once established.

Some weeds, such as the azollas are not considered a weed in parts of Asia. The fern fixes nitrogen, which is passed onto the plant when the fern dies, and it has a thermoregulating effect on pond water temperature by creating a blanket across the pond surface. Detractors suggest the fern competes for other nutrients and blocks light to submerged new leaves. The following table lists some of the weeds that occur in Australia’s waterways, which may be potentially invasive to a Lotus crop.

Table 4. Aquatic weeds present in Australia (source: Auld & Medd, 1987)

Scientific Name Common Name Blue-green algae Ferns Azolla filliculoides Pacific azolla Azolla pinnata Ferny azolla Monocotyledons Salvinia molesta Salvinia *Cyperus difformis Rice sedge, Dirty dora *Eleocharis sphacelata Tall spikerush Egria densa dense waterweed Elodea canadensis Elodea, Canadian pondweed Hydrilla verticillata Hydrilla *Vallisneria gigantea Ribbonweed, Eelweed *Eichornia crassipes Water hyacinth *Typha sp Cumbungi, bulrush Dicotyledons Alternanthera philoxeroides Alligator weed

* Will compete with Lotus rhizome for space.

2.6 HARVEST Removal of the crop from soil presents the largest challenge to producing an economically viable return from a Lotus growing operation. At present during harvesting there is a problem with reduction in yield due to damage being very high. Also, this is a labour intensive process and, therefore, very expensive. Both of these problems are due to the lack of specialised machinery for any pond-grown crop.

A Lotus harvester would overcome some difficult environmental factors and will require consultancy and design by a mechanical engineer. Until such a machine is built growers must concentrate on the following aspects of harvesting, when the crop should be removed and marketed, the method of removal and the expected yields the grower can plan for.

2.6.1 Timing Traditionally, harvesting takes place when shoots die off with decreasing temperature (Fig. 27, 27a and 27b), lower photoperiod, lower light intensity and subsequent rhizome dormancy. This allows for the plant to maximise its potential for nutrient uptake and growth of rhizomes. It has not been confirmed if each or all of these factors are implicit in initiating rhizome formation. It has been observed that water stress can initiate rhizomes and water depth may be a manipulating factor in producing an early crop. This theory is yet to undergo rigorous experimentation and evaluation of the quality that may be produced.

Crops at present are harvested over the period of dormancy. Water is removed from the pond as pond temperature dictates until no water is present after shoot die off. A dry pond is necessary if a backhoe type machine is used for harvesting. Water may be reintroduced or kept in situ if it is to be used in the harvesting process.

Questions are yet to be answered regarding effects on quality of rhizomes due to prolonged periods of storage in the ground. It may be possible for growers to harvest when convenient or when market prices are favourable within the dormancy period. It is advised that in areas of frost, rhizomes should be removed from the soil and marketed before the frost period.

2.6.2 Method Three methods are currently employed to remove the crop from the ground. They include the labour intensive, although high quality, hand harvest, the use of a backhoe with a modified fork (Fig. 28) or the use of high pressure water devices (Fig. 29).

Hand This method requires a large labour input, which is expensive and, due to the nature of the work, unpopular, which may result in a labour shortage. Hand harvesting is difficult and often physically strenuous. It is undertaken in unfavourable seasonal conditions and, if water is present in the pond, then comfort levels of workers will invariably be low. Hand harvesting is also a slow process although quality can be high with experienced workers - inexperienced workers may inadvertently contribute to waste.

Backhoe Assisted Combining a fork-like implement with a backhoe provides a labour-reduced, swift removal of the crop from the ground. Fewer workers are needed although quality is often compromised by machinery. Pond must be dry and soil capable of supporting a backhoe. Crops must be grown in rows of wider spacing than normal to allow backhoe access. Yield invariably is reduced through waste and loss of cropping area to compensate for backhoe access. It may be possible in future to value add process some of the less affected waste material.

Water Assisted In soils that are suitable to the process, it is possible to use a recycling water canon to physically remove soil from the surface of rhizomes. Provision must be made in the pond for drainage to a point from where a pump can draw water. The pond depth must be sufficient to allow adequate water return and the need to prime some pumps upon loss of

water. Usually, this will mean approximately 20 cm, governed by size of the pond. Labour requirements are reduced though time may be a limiting factor. Quality of rhizomes is exceptional with minimum wastage though workers may miss rhizomes more readily in sediment-heavy moving water. Workers must also operate in the relative discomfort of a wet pond environment.

2.6.3 Expected Yields Yield will depend on agronomics and variety and will be quite variable. Growers could expect anywhere between 10-40 t/ha-1 (Honda, 1987). One Australian grower has achieved an average of 10 t/ha-1.

2.7 POSTHARVEST TRANSPORT & STORAGE Currently postharvest for Lotus has been given little consideration by growers and industry. Rhizomes offered to domestic markets are often not washed, are damaged, and show signs of disease and loss of turgor in the flesh (wilting). Retailers have been observed displaying Lotus in open, unrefrigerated cardboard boxes and plastic containers (Fig.30). If the Lotus industry is to be successful, especially in an export market like Japan where aesthetics are critical, then postharvest protocols and methods should be developed by growers with quality assurance in mind.

Extending the shelflife of Lotus is necessary if sea container freight for export is to be utilised. Costs for airfreight may inhibit export, especially while production costs remain high due to the lack of a harvester. The postharvest picture for Lotus is far from complete though indicators have revealed basic physical parameters for Lotus storage. Trials for extending shelflife include washing with different solutions to combat diseases, investigating type of packaging to reduce respiration and effects of atmospheric composition are also required.

2.7.1 Rhizome Preparation The highest grade rhizomes should be cut to length so that three segments plus a portion of the fourth at a length similar to the three uncut segments are left (Fig.31). Rhizomes with intact segments and nodes will respire less than those cut into individual segments. Roots and any side shoots should also be removed as well as any soil, which may harbour disease organisms. While a protocol has not yet been developed for washing of rhizomes, it would

be advisable to incorporate a fungicide and detergent at some stage of the wash process. Thorough rinsing with high pressure water jets will help remove soil from difficult sections of rhizomes and will reduce handling.

A conveyance system is recommended where harvested rhizomes are delivered to a packing shed and loaded into a large container of detergent water (pre-cooled). They would then pass along a series of stations where root removal and final cleaning through rinses takes place. Wet rhizomes should not be placed into any packaging to avoid the possibility of disease.

The type of packaging required for Lotus is currently under investigation. Lotus is very easily bruised and physical damage results in an almost immediate purple discolouration (Fig. 32). To avoid this bruising and to maintain high humidity for rhizomes, styrofoam boxes with sealable lids the size of a standard broccoli box offer the best possible solution. Use of modified atmospheric packaging is promising for achieving longer periods in storage and may be used in conjunction with a sturdy container.

2.7.2 Storage Environment and Period Lotus keeps best at temperatures between 3oC and 7oC (Fig. 33a-e) and has storage potential for up to 5-6 weeks. Rhizomes stored at temperatures below 3oC have shown evidence of surface scolding (Fig.34) and may exhibit signs of chilling injury but this has yet to be confirmed. Temperatures above 7oC see an acceleration of disease presence and growth, though weight loss in rhizomes is insignificant until temperatures increase above 12oC (Fig.35). Temperatures above 15oC break rhizome dormancy and shoots may begin growing, utilising carbohydrate reserves stored in the rhizome. This will reduce the weight of the rhizome as it redistributes nutrients and composition changes will occur as starch is converted to glucose for plant growth. Similarly, rhizomes should be kept out of light for long periods as this may also trigger a growth response.

120 100

0oC

80 5oC 60 12oC 20oC 40 25oC 20 % Rhizome Weight 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 Storage Time (Days)

Figure 35: Storage time and weight loss of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera var. Quangdong) at different storage temperatures (note: data for 20oC & 25oC was stopped at day 9 due to postharvest diseases).

Cooling the Lotus would begin with the preparation line where pre-cooling in the water tank should take place. Vacuum cooling would offer the best type of cooling due to the high surface area of Lotus (internal surfaces). Lotus can be maintained in coolrooms with moving air provided rhizomes are in containers, have been pre-cooled, and have no exposure to moving air.

Effects of storage atmospheric composition are unknown at present, though it would be advisable to keep any levels of ethylene to a minimum as this compound is implicit in increasing respiration in a wide range of produce. Increased levels of CO2 may reduce respiration but care must be taken not to turn conditions anaerobic.

2.7.3 Postharvest Pathogens There are three known disease-causing organisms affecting Lotus rhizomes in storage. They are not variety specific, although smaller rhizomes produced by ‘non-rhizome’ varieties appear more susceptible.

Control measures for these pathogens, other than observing strict hygiene practices, are difficult without trialing and registration of chemical controls. This must be determined before a consistent quality can be achieved as, without quality assurance measures to control postharvest pathogens, growers could expect a storage life of two weeks for consistent quality rhizomes. After this period, rhizomes without treatment may succumb to disease at all appropriate storage temperatures. Rhizomes without disease presence were observed to last for a period of six weeks. However, approximately 20% of the original total number of rhizomes were unaffected by disease.

Lotus Soft Rot The first, a bacteria, which may be host specific to Lotus, Pseudomonas sp., causes a soft rot of the rhizomes. It is characterised by a translucent browning of tissues below the epidermal layer. Initially, rot appears as a spot, which rapidly increases irregularly through the flesh of the rhizome under higher temperature conditions (Fig. 36). An undesirable odour accompanies this disease suggesting the organism uses odour as a trigger to break dormancy in immediately surrounding tissues, resulting in production of sucrose. Rhizomes affected by this organism become mushy and easily fall apart when skin is broken.

Lotus End Rot or Grey Mould This disease is caused by the common postharvest pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Its symptoms appear as a browning of the nodes at either distal end of the rhizome (Fig. 37). This quickly

turns black as necrosis begins. The fungus travels into the main body of the rhizome until all tissues have been infected and a typical grey mass of spores follows necrosis. Tissues of the rhizome desiccate following sporulation. This fungus is particularly difficult to eliminate as it is common in postharvest situations due to the volume of spores produced.

Anthracnose or Black Rot Anthracnose, Colletotrichum sp., first appears as a small diamond-shaped brown spot, which quickly turns black and spreads, causing the Lotus to lose its shape (Figs. 38a and 38b). A shiny, viscous slime then appears on the rhizome accompanied by unpleasant odours. Finally, an orange fungal reproductive structure appears, and this pathogen is another common postharvest disease-causing organism, especially of ripe fruit.

2.7.4 Method of Transport Ideally, Lotus should be transported to domestic markets by refrigerated truck. Growers are advised to transport in trucks without produce that may give off ethylene. Export freight ideally would be via sea. Sea freight could possibly be viable assuming correct postharvest environment and treatments will extend the shelflife to an acceptable length of time. Air freight is the alternative, but utilisation could be a factor of the prevailing market favourability offset against costs.

3. Markets

3.1 DOMESTIC MARKET Fresh Lotus rhizomes are not a permitted import into Australia under Australian Quarantine Regulations, and, as a result, only frozen and dried Lotus rhizomes are available here. These products are imported from overseas, mainly from China in half-kilogram plastic bags. However, the volume of imports of these processed Lotus rhizomes is unknown.

Based on 1997 figures, there are 1,200,000 Australians of Asian origin living in Australia and an estimated 2,000 Asian restaurants in all capital cities and major regional centres (for Japanese restaurants alone, it is estimated at 600 in capital cities along the east coast of Australia). Assuming that 50% of the Asian-Australian population would consume Lotus rhizomes at 100 g/capita/month, and also 50% of Asian restaurants would add Lotus rhizomes to their menus, it is estimated that total monthly consumption would be as follows:

• Retail market: 600,000 Asian Australian x 0.1 kg = 60,000 kg/month • Restaurant: 1,000 Asian restaurant x 30.0 kg = 30,000 kg/month TOTAL 90,000 kg/month

Consumption of Lotus rhizome at 1080 t (90 t x 12 months) per annum is, therefore, a realistic figure for Australian domestic markets.

Production problems While Lotus rhizomes are common throughout Asia, only two Australian commercial growers have been identified in the far north coast of NSW. Production of commercial quantities of Lotus rhizomes is small, at about 100 t per annum. Rhizomes in Australian markets are large in size and flat with dark yellow skin colour, which is very dissimilar to those in Japanese markets where rhizomes are medium-sized, round with white-cream skin colour. Therefore, with this differentiation in quality, it would be difficult to promote Australian Lotus rhizomes into Japanese communities or Japanese restaurants in Australia.

3.2 OVERSEAS MARKETS

3.2.1 Japan – Major Importer of Lotus Lotus are grown commercially in a few areas on the Central and Southern parts of Japan. In 1998, there were 4,900 ha of Lotus production. Ibaragi Prefecture was the largest Lotus producing area with 1,650 ha , Tokushima Prefecture had 711 ha, Aichi Prefecture 474 ha, Saga Prefecture 311 ha, Yamaguchi Prefecture 309 ha, Niigata Prefecture 278 ha and Okayama Prefecture 164 ha (Anon. 2000). It should be noted that in 1982, Japan produced 82,200 t of Lotus rhizomes on an area of 6,350 ha. By 1998 the growing area had declined to 71,900 ha, which was 1,500 ha less than 16 years ago (Table 5).

Table 5. Production and growing area of Lotus for rhizomes in Japan, 1982-1998

Year Area Production Consignment Yield (ha) (t) (t) (t/ha)

1982 6,350 82,200 68,300 12.9 1985 6,090 89,400 76,800 14.7 1990 5,860 87,600 73,500 14.9 1995 5,360 81,000 65,100 15.1 1996 5,210 69,900 55,400 13.4 1997 4,920 68,100 53,300 13.8 1998 4,900 71,900 55,200 14.7

Source: Pocket’s Norinsuisan Toke 1989,1993,1997 and 2000. Public.Norinsuisansho Tokejohobu, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).

Lotus is produced in Japan from September to May. Early Lotus, which are marketed in August, are produced in greenhouses. Lotus are in short supply during June and July, resulting in higher prices in the market place (Table 6).

Table 6. Monthly prices for Lotus rhizomes in Tokyo market, Japan, during 1994-1998 (Price unit = ¥)

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean

1994 640 666 620 441 542 1,182 894 450 291 247 219 269 394 1995 192 186 204 227 236 664 1,044 455 344 236 245 340 287 1996 311 332 374 421 463 873 953 560 395 322 331 423 409 1997 388 387 374 379 472 1,023 871 563 364 341 323 373 407 1998 373 370 395 395 391 992 837 511 366 346 334 404 407 Mean 317 324 328 311 351 789 767 423 293 249 242 302 317

Source: 1998 Tokyoto Chuo-Ichiba: Seikabutsu Ryutsu Nenpo. Yasaihen. Public. Tokyo seikabutsu Joho Centa, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).

To maintain market size at approximately 90–100,000 t per annum, in 1995 Japan began importing approximately 20,000 t per annum of Lotus mainly from China. The majority of the imported product is in processing form. Imports of fresh Lotus into Japan are relatively small in terms of volume (Table 7), the reason being that China is probably unable to supply Japanese markets during June and July as it is also off season in China during that period.

Vietnam recently also began supplying processed Lotus to Japan. However, its share of this market is still very small, at only 0.33%.

Table 7. Japanese Lotus rhizome market, 1995-1998

Quantity 1995 1996 1997 1998

Production (t) 81,000 69,900 68,100 71,900

Importation (t) 19,000 22,000 20,000 22,000 • Fresh (t) 1,347 1,809 2,007 N/A • Salted (t) 14,887 16,484 15,332 N/A • Other (t) 2,766 3,707 2,661 N/A

Market size 100,000 92,000 88,000 94,000

Source: Pocket’s Norinsuisan Toke 2000. Public.Norinsuisansho Tokejohobu, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).

The CIF prices of fresh imported Lotus, including fresh and salted rhizomes, are approximately 1.5 times better than those of the salted products. However, imported fresh produce has always only achieved 30-35% of wholesale prices in Tokyo markets (Table 8).

Table 8. Prices (CIF) of Lotus rhizomes imported into Japan from China.

1995 1996 1997 1998 Domestic1) Imported Domestic Imported Domestic Imported Domestic Imported

Fresh(¥/kg) 287 103 409 131 407 145 407 N/A Salted(¥/kg) N/A 59 N/A 84 N/A 99 N/A N/A

Source: 1997 nen Yasai Yunyu no Doko. Public. Norin Toke Kyokai, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese). 1) Prices at Tokyo wholesale market.

3.2.2 Taiwan In Taiwan, Lotus is traded in both rhizome and seed forms. Trade in Lotus seeds occupied only 5% of that for Lotus rhizomes, but the price for rhizomes is twice as high (Vinning, 1995).

Production of Lotus rhizomes in Taiwan declined over seven years between 1987 and 1993 from approximately 750 t to 600 t. Whilst throughput has declined, wholesale prices have risen significantly from NT$25-30/kg to NT$55/kg over the same period (Table 9). Vinning (1995) noted that the reason for this decline is the arduous nature of harvesting the crop. However, another possible reason may be investment in agriculture in mainland China by the Taiwanese, as the Lotus industry has existed there for thousands of years.

Table 9. Annual wholesale throughput and prices, Tapei 1987-93

1987 1989 1991 1993

Throughput (t) 730 700 500 580 Price, NT$/kg 28 31 45 55

Source: Vinning, 1995.

Lotus rhizomes fetch the highest prices during May-June in Taiwan when throughput is at its lowest and just prior to harvesting of the crop after the middle of summer (Vinning, 1995).

Table 10. Monthly wholesale throughput and prices, Taipei 1993

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Throughput (t) 28 27 32 22 10 50 80 102 80 60 50 42 Prices (NT$/kg) 50 50 50 51 52 58 62 53 52 53 51 54

Source: Vinning, 1995 (Currency A$ = NT$21.2 in 1993)

3.2.3 China – The Major Supplier of Lotus In China, the growing area for Lotus is estimated at more than two million mu (133,400 ha) (Liu,1994). If average yield of Lotus is calculated on 1,500 kg/mu (22.5 t/ha) based on Liu’s report (1994), China has a capacity to produce up to three million tonnes of Lotus rhizomes per annum.

Data from the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (1998) indicated that China dominated the Japanese market for imported Lotus in the last three years from 1995 to 1997, occupying 100% of the fresh Lotus market and more than 99% of the processed Lotus market (Table 11).

Table 11. Japanese lotus imported market

Fresh Lotus Salted Lotus Year Quantitive 1) Value2) CIF3) China’s Quantitive 1) Value2) CIF3) China’s share (%) share (%)

1995 1,347 139 103 100 14,887 878 59 100 1996 1,809 237 131 100 16,484 1,37 84 99.984) 1997 2,007 292 145 100 15,332 2 99 99.675) 1,51 1 Note: 1) Quantitive (t); 2) Value (Million ¥); 3) CIF (¥/kg); 4) Vietnam shared the rest 0.02% 5) Vietnam shared the rest 0.33%.

China has many advantages over other countries in exporting Lotus to Japan as their Lotus are similar with regard to cultivars and growing techniques and China has been growing this crop for thousand of years. Also, China’s processing technologies (salted and frozen) are similar to those of Japanese manufacturers, who only need to make up final products to suit Japanese tastes and flavour. Finally, CIF prices for export of China’s Lotus to Japan are low (Table 11) due to cheap labour.

3.2.4 Vietnam Vietnam has supplied very little processing Lotus to Japan in the last two years (Table 12). However, it seems possible that Vietnam can penetrate this market due to lower costs in 1997 (Table 12). Vietnam also has similar advantages to those of China due to availability of a Lotus industry with similar salting techniques and cheap labour.

Table 12. Japanese salted Lotus import market

From China From Vietnam Total import Total 2) 2) Year 1) Import CIF Share,% Import CIF Share,% (t) Value (t) (t)

1995 14,887 878 14,887 59 100.00 Nil N/A N/A 1996 16,484 1,372 16,481 84 99.98 3 343 0.02 1997 15,332 1,511 15,282 99 99.67 50 93 0.33

Note: 1) Total Value (Million ¥) 2) CIF (¥/kg)

4. Australian Lotus Industry

4.1 CURRENT SITUATION Commercial production of Lotus rhizomes for Australian domestic markets began in 1996 due to the establishment of Tai-Cheung Agricultural Development Pty. Ltd. in the northern region of NSW in 1993. This company has spent almost three years preparing a 45 ha Lotus farm, and at present they have achieved the capacity to produce approximately 100-120 t of Lotus rhizomes per annum. The company also consign Lotus rhizomes to Australian domestic markets, mainly in Sydney and Melbourne, in the range of 60-80 t per annum. However, poor quality in skin colour and rhizome shape are major problems have been responsible for this poor market penetration.

4.2 EXPORTATION Export markets in Japan appear to be the best destination for the Australian Lotus industry. During the last 16 years, Lotus production in Japan has steadily declined (Table 15) while wholesale prices have increased (Table 6). In 1996, the average wholesale price for Lotus in the Tokyo market reached 409 ¥/kg, which is equivalent to A$6.80/kg (A$ = ¥60 – September, 2000). The price was maintained at more than 400 ¥/kg during 1997 and 1998. The high wholesale prices reached in June and July are even better for Australia as this coincides with our harvesting time provided, however, we can produce high quality rhizomes for Japanese markets. In Taiwan, Vinning (1995) reported that annual prices in 1993 were moving upward, at approximately A$2.50/kg.

4.3 GROSS MARGINS Working in field trials at Gosford Horticultural Research and Advisory Station and, in discussions with Tai-Cheung Agricultural Development Pty. Ltd., it is understood that high gross margins for Australian Lotus rhizomes, estimated at A$2.76/kg (Table 13), would never be competitive with China, whose CIF prices have only ever achieved 30-35% of the Japanese wholesale market price (Table 8).

Table 13 . Gross margins of Lotus grown on the Central Coast, NSW

Enterprise Budget for 1.0ha Lotus rhizome Location: Gosford NSW Period: 9-10months ______Item Quantity Unit Cost ($) Total ______Sales 10000 4.00 40000.00 Less commission 12% 4800.00

A. TOTAL INCOME 35200.00

Variable costs

Cash 22628.03 Certified Rhizome 650kg 1) $ 6/kg 3900.00 Compost 10 ton $200/ton 2000.00 Pine bark (fine) 15m3 1) $ 55/m3 825.00 Fertiliser (G5) 2000kg $376.85/ton 753.70 Pesticides 200.00 Machinery 10hr 1) $ 50/hr 500.00 Contract harvest (Hand pick) $ 20/15kg 13333.33 Carton 666 $ 1/carton 666.00 Water 1500kl 1) $0.30/litre 450.00

Non cash 5000.00 Family labour 50days $100/day 5000.00

B. TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS 27628,032)

GROSS MARGIN (A-B) $/ha 7571.97 Break even $/kg 2.76

Note: 1) Less from the 2nd year; 2) Cost of packaging and transportation are not included.

4.4 STANDARD & CLASSIFICATION OF RHIZOMES One way for Australia to penetrate Japanese markets is to promote Lotus products directly to their supermarket chains. To achieve this, the Australian Lotus industry needs to establish standard procedures for accessing rhizome quality as well as classifying packaging similar to those used in Japanese markets. Table 14 indicates these requirements.

Table 14. Standard rhizome quality and classification of Lotus rhizomes in Japan.

• Rhizome quality: i) Skin colour : Milky white. ii) Size : Three segments with rhizome diameter of more than 40 mm. iii) Rhizome flesh : High water concentration, thick flesh with soft and crunchy texture.

• Packaging: Rhizomes should be packed in cartons with quantities of 1 kg, 2 kg, 5 kg and 10 kg. There are four classes including large (L), medium (M), small (S) and second grade (Ο)

Carton Classes ------1kg. 2kg 5kg. 10kg. 5kg. Dirt rhizomes L <3 rhizomes <5 rhizomes <6 rhizomes <13 rhizomes <5 rhizomes M <4 rhizomes <6 rhizomes 7-12 rhizomes 14-20 rhizomes 6-8 rhizomes S <13 rhizomes >21 rhizomes <9 rhizomes <15 rhizomes or rhizomes with a few damaged, misshapen or not a good colour

4.5 SWOT ANALYSIS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF A LOTUS INDUSTRY IN AUSTRALIA

Strengths • Harvest period in Australia coincides with highest prices in Asian markets. • Australia has the correct environmental conditions for the growth of Lotus. • Proximity to Japan and similar time zones allow for ease of business. • Australian clean/green image.

Weaknesses • Current production methods are labour intensive and therefore expensive. • Sparse agronomic details available. • Rural areas often find labour is in short supply for this particularly hard work. • Japanese markets appear to have a ceiling, therefore limiting the amount of Lotus imported before supply price is affected. • Strategic vertical alliances with growers/industry have not yet been formed. • Australian growers do not have adequate varieties for export quality. • Domestically, poor rhizome grades give second grade return.

Opportunities • Three-month window in Japanese markets when price is highest. • Burgeoning domestic markets and consumption of fresh product. • Flower markets add extra income for most growers. • Value-adding possibilities, eg frozen, canned, pre-prepared with ‘Asian’ condiments. • Australia could be the first Southern Hemisphere country to export to Asia. • Best varieties can be sought and implemented, improving the quality of rhizomes. • Development of mechanised harvester is possible.

Threats • Other Southern Hemisphere countries, eg. South Africa and Chile, could outcompete Australia due to their cheaper labour. • Possible Japanese quarantine restrictions. • Japanese tariffs may inhibit returns.

• Lack of co-ordination and leadership from within Australia. Asian vegetables in general are under-serviced by all respective bodies concerning horticulture, eg. there is only one ‘employed’ Research Horticulturalist investigating Asian vegetable production in NSW, currently there is no official extension to farmers although the slack is taken up admirably by the one researcher. This must change if the industry is to progress.

4.6 INDUSTRY CONTACTS

4.6.1 Lotus Specific

Organisation Contact Name Contact No. Specialisation NSWAgriculture Dr Vong Nguyen Tel: 02-43481927 Asian Vegetable Research ~Special Research Fax: 02-43481910 Industry Development Horticulturalist Plant Hunting UWSH David Hicks Tel: 02) 4570 1229 Asian Vegetable Research ~ PhD Researcher Fax: 02) 4570 1314 Plant Physiology Mob.0429 645 691 Information Extension [email protected] Plant Hunting UWSH Dr Tony Haigh Tel: 02-45701254 Plant Physiology ~ Snr Lecturer Fax: 02-4570 1314 Crop Physiology [email protected] Seed Physiology Grower Kim Jones Tel: 02-66834082 Lotus Farmer [email protected] Seed Rhizome Producer Southern Asian Tel: 02-97467781 Market agents for Lotus Asian Produce Tel: 02-97644003 Market agents for Lotus A & L Leoncino Lawrence Tel: 02- Lotus flower agent Stand 88 Sydney Flower Market Taicheung Agric. Jackson Soo 018-297188 Lotus/Asian root Dev. Pty.Ltd. vegetables producer

4.6.2 Asian Vegetables General

Organisation Contact Name Contact No. Specialisation RIRDC Tony Byrne, Tel: 02-62725472 Administration Program Manager [email protected] Asian Foods NORADA Peter McLaughlin, Tel: 02-66771365 New Crops President Fax: 02-66770015 Industry development CQU Prof. David Midmore Tel: 07-9309770 Asian Vegetable Research Fax: 07-9309255 Industry Development [email protected] UWSH Assoc.Prof. Robert Tel: 02-45701429 New crops Spooner-Hart Fax: 02-45701314 Entomology [email protected] IHD Dr Wendy Morgan Tel: 03-92109222 Asian Vegetable Research Industry Development IHD Dr Graeme Thomson Tel: 03-92109222 Postharvest Access to Asia Newsletter Ed. QDPI Dr Tim O’Hare Tel: 07-32688450 Postharvest QDPI Lester Loader Asian root crop research NTDPI Melinda Gosbee Tel: 08-89992360 Postharvest Industry Development WA.Ag Vynka McVeigh Tel: 08-8771199 Asian Vegetable Research Industry Development Aust./Chinese Mr David Chung, Mob: 0419-988198 Chinese vegetable producer Veg. Growers President Assoc.

References

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2. Paper published in the Access to Asian Foods Newsletter Issues 4 & 5