Architektur Und Urbanistik in Der Aiolis Architecture and Urbanism In
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Seven Churches of Revelation Turkey
TRAVEL GUIDE SEVEN CHURCHES OF REVELATION TURKEY TURKEY Pergamum Lesbos Thyatira Sardis Izmir Chios Smyrna Philadelphia Samos Ephesus Laodicea Aegean Sea Patmos ASIA Kos 1 Rhodes ARCHEOLOGICAL MAP OF WESTERN TURKEY BULGARIA Sinanköy Manya Mt. NORTH EDİRNE KIRKLARELİ Selimiye Fatih Iron Foundry Mosque UNESCO B L A C K S E A MACEDONIA Yeni Saray Kırklareli Höyük İSTANBUL Herakleia Skotoussa (Byzantium) Krenides Linos (Constantinople) Sirra Philippi Beikos Palatianon Berge Karaevlialtı Menekşe Çatağı Prusias Tauriana Filippoi THRACE Bathonea Küçükyalı Ad hypium Morylos Dikaia Heraion teikhos Achaeology Edessa Neapolis park KOCAELİ Tragilos Antisara Abdera Perinthos Basilica UNESCO Maroneia TEKİRDAĞ (İZMİT) DÜZCE Europos Kavala Doriskos Nicomedia Pella Amphipolis Stryme Işıklar Mt. ALBANIA Allante Lete Bormiskos Thessalonica Argilos THE SEA OF MARMARA SAKARYA MACEDONIANaoussa Apollonia Thassos Ainos (ADAPAZARI) UNESCO Thermes Aegae YALOVA Ceramic Furnaces Selectum Chalastra Strepsa Berea Iznik Lake Nicea Methone Cyzicus Vergina Petralona Samothrace Parion Roman theater Acanthos Zeytinli Ada Apamela Aisa Ouranopolis Hisardere Dasaki Elimia Pydna Barçın Höyük BTHYNIA Galepsos Yenibademli Höyük BURSA UNESCO Antigonia Thyssus Apollonia (Prusa) ÇANAKKALE Manyas Zeytinlik Höyük Arisbe Lake Ulubat Phylace Dion Akrothooi Lake Sane Parthenopolis GÖKCEADA Aktopraklık O.Gazi Külliyesi BİLECİK Asprokampos Kremaste Daskyleion UNESCO Höyük Pythion Neopolis Astyra Sundiken Mts. Herakleum Paşalar Sarhöyük Mount Athos Achmilleion Troy Pessinus Potamia Mt.Olympos -
Separating Fact from Fiction in the Aiolian Migration
hesperia yy (2008) SEPARATING FACT Pages399-430 FROM FICTION IN THE AIOLIAN MIGRATION ABSTRACT Iron Age settlementsin the northeastAegean are usuallyattributed to Aioliancolonists who journeyed across the Aegean from mainland Greece. This articlereviews the literary accounts of the migration and presentsthe relevantarchaeological evidence, with a focuson newmaterial from Troy. No onearea played a dominantrole in colonizing Aiolis, nor is sucha widespread colonizationsupported by the archaeologicalrecord. But the aggressive promotionof migrationaccounts after the PersianWars provedmutually beneficialto bothsides of theAegean and justified the composition of the Delian League. Scholarlyassessments of habitation in thenortheast Aegean during the EarlyIron Age are remarkably consistent: most settlements are attributed toAiolian colonists who had journeyed across the Aegean from Thessaly, Boiotia,Akhaia, or a combinationof all three.1There is no uniformityin theancient sources that deal with the migration, although Orestes and his descendantsare named as theleaders in mostaccounts, and are credited withfounding colonies over a broadgeographic area, including Lesbos, Tenedos,the western and southerncoasts of theTroad, and theregion betweenthe bays of Adramyttion and Smyrna(Fig. 1). In otherwords, mainlandGreece has repeatedly been viewed as theagent responsible for 1. TroyIV, pp. 147-148,248-249; appendixgradually developed into a Mountjoy,Holt Parker,Gabe Pizzorno, Berard1959; Cook 1962,pp. 25-29; magisterialstudy that is includedhere Allison Sterrett,John Wallrodt, Mal- 1973,pp. 360-363;Vanschoonwinkel as a companionarticle (Parker 2008). colm Wiener, and the anonymous 1991,pp. 405-421; Tenger 1999, It is our hope that readersinterested in reviewersfor Hesperia. Most of trie pp. 121-126;Boardman 1999, pp. 23- the Aiolian migrationwill read both articlewas writtenin the Burnham 33; Fisher2000, pp. -
The Thermopylae Line
CHAPTER 6 THE THERMOPYLAE LINE ENERAL Wavell arrived in Athens on the 19th April and immediately e Gheld a conference at General Wilson's quarters . Although an effectiv decision to embark the British force from Greece had been made on a higher level in London, the commanders on the spot now once agai n deeply considered the pros and cons . The Greek Government was unstable and had suggested that the British force should depart in order to avoid further devastation of the country. It was unlikely that the Greek Army of Epirus could be extricated and some of its senior officers were urging sur- render. General Wilson considered that his force could hold the Ther- mopylae line indefinitely once the troops were in position.l "The arguments in favour of fighting it out, which [it] is always better to do if possible, " wrote Wilson later,2 "were : the tying up of enemy forces, army and air , which would result therefrom ; the strain the evacuation would place o n the Navy and Merchant Marine ; the effect on the morale of the troops and the loss of equipment which would be incurred . In favour of with- drawal the arguments were : the question as to whether our forces in Greece could be reinforced as this was essential ; the question of the maintenance of our forces, plus the feeding of the civil population ; the weakness of our air forces with few airfields and little prospect of receiving reinforcements ; the little hope of the Greek Army being able to recover its morale . The decision was made to withdraw from Greece ." The British leaders con- sidered that it was unlikely that they would be able to take out any equip- ment except that which the troops carried, and that they would be lucky "to get away with 30 per cent of the force" . -
Survey Archaeology and the Historical Geography of Central Western Anatolia in the Second Millennium BC
European Journal of Archaeology 20 (1) 2017, 120–147 This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The Story of a Forgotten Kingdom? Survey Archaeology and the Historical Geography of Central Western Anatolia in the Second Millennium BC 1,2,3 1,3 CHRISTOPHER H. ROOSEVELT AND CHRISTINA LUKE 1Department of Archaeology and History of Art, Koç University, I˙stanbul, Turkey 2Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations, Koç University, I˙stanbul, Turkey 3Department of Archaeology, Boston University, USA This article presents previously unknown archaeological evidence of a mid-second-millennium BC kingdom located in central western Anatolia. Discovered during the work of the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey in the Marmara Lake basin of the Gediz Valley in western Turkey, the material evidence appears to correlate well with text-based reconstructions of Late Bronze Age historical geog- raphy drawn from Hittite archives. One site in particular—Kaymakçı—stands out as a regional capital and the results of the systematic archaeological survey allow for an understanding of local settlement patterns, moving beyond traditional correlations between historical geography and capital sites alone. Comparison with contemporary sites in central western Anatolia, furthermore, identifies material com- monalities in site forms that may indicate a regional architectural tradition if not just influence from Hittite hegemony. Keywords: survey archaeology, Anatolia, Bronze Age, historical geography, Hittites, Seha River Land INTRODUCTION correlates of historical territories and king- doms have remained elusive. -
Troas Synoikisis'iı Synoecism in the Troad
TROAS SYNOİKİSİS'İı SYNOECISM IN THE TROAD Ayşe Gül Akalın Özet Grekçe bir kelime olan Synoikisis fiziki yönüyle ele alındığında genelolarak farklı yerleşimlerden gelen halkların birleşip, yer değiştirerek tek bir yerleşim kurmaları yada aynı bölgede oturan farklı yerleşim halklarının topraklarını birleştinneleri olarak tanımwnır. Yerleşim kurmak yeni bir sosyal-politik yapılanmayı da içediğinden, Synoikisis aynı ,zamanda Antik Grek politikası terminojisinde farklı halkların yönetim düzenlerini birleştirip yeni tek bir yönetici yçuja ortak !?ir.yönetim organı belirlemeleri olarak nitelendirilir. Erken Dönem (/0. 1600-/0.6. yy.) Synoikisisler'inde toprakları ortak savunma,. yerüstü ve yeraltı kaynaklarını ortak kullanma gibi pratik nedenler ön plandayken /0 6. yy ve sonrasında politik nedenler öne çıkmıştır. Hellenistik döneme gelindiğindeyse Synoikisis halkların kendi kararlarıyla yaptıkları bir eylem olmaktan çıkarak Hellenleştirme'ye hizmet eden etkin bir yerleşim politikası haline getiriImiştir. Biz Hellenistik dönem Synp.ikisis'ini Troas'daki örneğiyle ele alarak araştırdık. Söz konusu Troas Synoikisis'i, /0311 yılı Diodokhlar arası büyük barışın hemen sonrasında, Antigonos Monoptalmos tarafindan, bölgenin stratejik noktalarında konumlanmış altı yerleşimin (Kebren, Skepsis, Neandria, Kolonai, Larisa, Hamaksitos) halklarının Aleksandria Troas adlı yeni yerleşime göç ettirilmesiyle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Abstract: Synoikism, which is a Greek word, is a tenn that is found in the ancient em sett/ement terminolosy. Considering the physical aspects of Synoikism it can be broadly defined as Jolks living in separate settlements joining their land and thus creating a single settlement within the same borders, or folks coming from different settlements joining each other, moving away from their old lands and creating a new settlement on new lands. The concept of settling doesn it only cover physical aspects and costruction, but also social and politieal organizations. -
THE POLITICAL CHANGES in IONIA AFTER the REVOLT ßß42 And
APPENDIX 11 THE POLITICAL CHANGES IN IONIA AFTER THE REVOLT §§42 and 43.3 throw important light on the Persian attitude to their subject peoples in the west, and certainly on Artaphrenes as a shrewd administrator. The revolt had taken six years and considerable mil- itary effort to suppress. Three political changes are now made, two by the satrap, the third by Mardonius. Another account of it sur- vives, DS 10.25.4, where the third is also ascribed to Artaphrenes: ÑEkata›ow ı MilÆsiow presbeutØw épestalm°now ÍpÚ t«n ÉI≈nvn, ±r≈thse diÉ ∂n afit¤an épiste› aÈto›w ı ÉArtaf°rnhw. toË d¢ efipÒntow, mÆpote Íp¢r œn katapolemhy°ntew kak«w ¶payon mnhsikakÆsvsin, OÈkoËn, ¶fhsen, efi tÚ pepony°nai kak«w tØn épist¤an peripoie›, tÚ paye›n êra eÔ poiÆsei tåw pÒleiw P°rsaiw eÈnooÊsaw. épodejãmenow d¢ tÚ =hy¢n ı ÉArtaf°rnhw ép°dvke toÁw nÒmouw ta›w pÒlesi ka‹ taktoÁw fÒrouw katå dÊnamin §p°tajen.1 Artaphrenes had to reimpose his authority, but also had the practical interest of ensuring stability, particularly economic stability, which in turn meant that tribute could flow in: cf Starr (1975) 82, Briant (1996) 511, and other references cited on êndrew, §19.3. We may accept §42.1, that he summoned representatives from each polis, in view of the arbitration requirement; but we can accept Diodorus to the extent that Hecataeus was the, or one of the, representative(s) from Miletus: he had influence there, and could be presented to the Persians as someone who had not fully supported the revolt (5.36, 125; pp. -
The Little Metropolis at Athens 15
Bucknell University Bucknell Digital Commons Honors Theses Student Theses 2011 The Littleetr M opolis: Religion, Politics, & Spolia Paul Brazinski Bucknell University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/honors_theses Part of the Classics Commons Recommended Citation Brazinski, Paul, "The Little eM tropolis: Religion, Politics, & Spolia" (2011). Honors Theses. 12. https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/honors_theses/12 This Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Theses at Bucknell Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of Bucknell Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Paul A. Brazinski iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and thank Professor Larson for her patience and thoughtful insight throughout the writing process. She was a tremendous help in editing as well, however, all errors are mine alone. This endeavor could not have been done without you. I would also like to thank Professor Sanders for showing me the fruitful possibilities in the field of Frankish archaeology. I wish to thank Professor Daly for lighting the initial spark for my classical and byzantine interests as well as serving as my archaeological role model. Lastly, I would also like to thank Professor Ulmer, Professor Jones, and all the other Professors who have influenced me and made my stay at Bucknell University one that I will never forget. This thesis is dedicated to my Mom, Dad, Brian, Mark, and yes, even Andrea. Paul A. Brazinski v Table of Contents Abstract viii Introduction 1 History 3 Byzantine Architecture 4 The Little Metropolis at Athens 15 Merbaka 24 Agioi Theodoroi 27 Hagiography: The Saints Theodores 29 Iconography & Cultural Perspectives 35 Conclusions 57 Work Cited 60 Appendix & Figures 65 Paul A. -
Lycus Dergisi Kapak Baskı Converdli
2015 e-ISSN: 2717-8471 PAMUKKALE ÜNİVERSİTESİ ARKEOLOJİ ENSTİTÜSÜ SÜRELİ YAYINI JOURNAL OF PAMUKKALE UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY DERGİSİ LYCUS JOURNAL ● Sayı/Issue 1 ● Haziran/June 2020 https://dergipark.org.tr/lycus LYCUS DERGİSİ BİLİM KURULU Prof. Dr. Fikri KULAKOĞLU Prof. Dr. Levent ZOROĞLU (Ankara Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Batman Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Ord. Prof. Dr. Francesco D’ANDRIA Prof. Dr. Musa KADIOĞLU (Accademia dei Lincei, Italy) (Ankara Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Prof. Dr. Francesco GUIZZI Prof. Dr. Ramazan ÖZGAN (Sapienza Università di Roma, Italy) (Selçuk Üniversitesi (Emekli), Türkiye) Prof. Dr. Grazia SEMERARO Prof. Dr. R. R. Roland SMITH (Università del Salento, Italy) (University of Oxford, England) Prof. Dr. Havva İŞKAN IŞIK Prof. Dr. Thekla SCHULZ-BRIZE (Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Technische Universität Berlin, Germany) LYCUS DERGİSİ YAYIN KURULU Prof. Dr. Celal ŞİMŞEK Dr. Öğr. Ü. Umay OĞUZHANOĞLU-AKAY (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Prof. Dr. Bilal SÖĞÜT Dr. Öğr. Ü. İnci TÜRKOĞLU (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Prof. Dr. Elif ÖZER Dr. Öğr. Ü. Evin CANER-ÖZGEL (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Prof. Dr. Fahriye BAYRAM Dr. Bilge YILMAZ KOLANCI (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Doç. Dr. Bahadır DUMAN Dr. Çağrı Murat TARHAN (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Doç. Dr. Ali OZAN Dr. Murat TAŞKIRAN (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Doç. Dr. Esengül AKINCI-ÖZTÜRK Dr. Barış YENER (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) Dr. Öğr. Ü. Coşkun DAŞBACAK (Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Türkiye) e-ISSN: 2717-8471 LYCUS DERGİSİ ○ LYCUS JOURNAL PAMUKKALE ÜNİVERSİTESİ ARKEOLOJİ ENSTİTÜSÜ SÜRELİ YAYINI JOURNAL OF PAMUKKALE UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY ● Sayı/Issue 1 ● Haziran/June 2020 Yayın Sahibi Pamukkale Üniversitesi Arkeoloji Enstitüsü adına Müdür Prof. -
PYGELA DOGU LİKYA DAGLARI'nda YENİ Keşfedilen KÜÇÜK BİR KENT
• • ı Anadolu' da Hosios Ka i Dikaios Kültü (Kutsal ve Adil Tanrı) Eda Akyürek Şahin ıg Principatus Devri'nde Roma'nın Vergi Politikası II Efrumiye Ertekin 27 Bilim Üretmeyen Uygarlık Evrensel Değildir Batı Uygarlığı ve Anadolu Sencer Şahin 36 Hellenogalatia 1 Mehmet Ali Kaya 43 Pygela Doğu Likya Dağları'nda Yeni Keşfedilen Küçük Bir Kent Mustafa Adak- Nihai Tüter sı Bizans Dönemi'nde Cam Yapımı ve Süslemesi Özgü Çömezoğlu 64 Kavak Köyü Mezarı Kapadokya'da Bir Kaya Mezarının Kimliğini Tanımlama Çalışması Raoul Blanchard - Pierre Couprie 71 Doğu Hristiyan Sanatında Melekler 1 A. Özmen Özdemiroğlu 76 Orta Asya'da Eksantrik Bir Yapı: Magak-ı Attari Camii 1 İbrahim Çeşmeli 86 Karahanlı Devri Orta Asya Türk Seramik Sanatı Üzerine 1 Yaşar Çoruhlu ıo4 Tokat Çöreğibüyük Köyü Türbesi 1 Osman Eravşar 110 XIX. Yüzyılın Sonu ve XX. Yüzyılın Başında Kullanılan Çapraz Konumlu Hilal Alemler Kadriye Figen Vardar 113 Nekroloji: Gündağ Kayaoğlu 1 Selçuk Mülayim 114 Eski Çağ Tarihinde Kilikya'nın Doğal Kaynaklarının Anadolu-Mezopotamya ilişkisindeki Rolü Mehmet Kurt 118 Etkinlik: Mountains and Valleys Symposium ı2ı Bir Sözlük Nasıl Olmamalı? 1 Erkan Ildız PYGELA DOGU LİKYA DAGLARI'NDA YENİ KEŞFEDiLEN KÜÇÜK BİR KENT MUSTAFA ADAK*- NlHAL TÜNER** 1993 yılmda Patara'da ele geçen ve tmparator saptanmış bulunmaktadır. 1 Bu saptama, Likya Claudius zamanmda (1.5. 41-54) Ukya Bölge• tarihi coğrafyasını kökten değiştirecek bir öne• si'nin Roma Eyaleti'ne dönüştürülmesiyle bir me sahiptir. likte başlayan kapsamlı bir yol yapım projesini Kısıtlı imkanlada gerçekleştirdiğimiz Stadias içeren Patara Yol Listesi (Stacliasmtıs Patarensis), mus Patarensis Yüzey Araştırmaları, bir epigra bilim dünyasmda 20. yüzyılın en büyük epi fik belgenin içerdiği bilgilerin arazide hala sap grafik buluntularından biri olarak kabul edil tanabilcliğine dair iyi bir örnek sunmaktadır. -
Amazons, Thracians, and Scythians , Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 24:2 (1983:Summer) P.105
SHAPIRO, H. A., Amazons, Thracians, and Scythians , Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 24:2 (1983:Summer) p.105 Amazons, Thracians, and Scythians H A. Shapiro HE AMAZONS offer a remarkable example of the lacunose and T fragmented state of ancient evidence for many Greek myths. For while we hear virtually nothing about them in extant litera ture before the mid-fifth century, they are depicted in art starting in the late eighth! and are extremely popular, especially in Attica, from the first half of the sixth. Thus all we know about the Greeks' con ception of the Amazons in the archaic period comes from visual rep resentations, not from written sources, and it would be hazardous to assume that various 'facts' and details supplied by later writers were familiar to the sixth-century Greek. The problem of locating the Amazons is a good case in point. Most scholars assume that Herakles' battle with the Amazons, so popular on Attic vases, took place at the Amazon city Themiskyra in Asia Minor, on the river Thermodon near the Black Sea, where most ancient writers place it.2 But the earliest of these is Apollodoros (2.5.9), and, as I shall argue, alternate traditions locating the Ama zons elsewhere may have been known to the archaic vase-painter and viewer. An encounter with Amazons figures among the exploits of three important Greek heroes, and each story entered the Attic vase painters' repertoire at a different time in the course of the sixth century. First came Herakles' battle to obtain the girdle of Hippolyte (although the prize itself is never shown), his ninth labor. -
International Symposium Thrace – Local Coinage and Regional Identity: Numismatic Research in the Digital Age Berlin, April 15Th to 17Th, 2015
International Symposium Thrace – local coinage and regional identity: Numismatic research in the digital age Berlin, April 15th to 17th, 2015 Ceremonial Address Johannes Nollé (München, DAI, Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigra- phik) Die Thraker — Spurensuche nach einem verschollenen Volk Weitaus stärker als die Kelten sind die Thraker aus dem kulturellen Gedächtnis Europas geschwunden. Obwohl sie einst die Geschichte und Kultur unseres Kontinents wie auch Klein- asiens nachdrücklich geprägt haben, bringt heute fast niemand mehr dieses Volk mit Orpheus, Troja, Athen und Byzantion in Verbindung. Leicht gerät in Vergessenheit, dass Archilochos, Kimon und Thukydides Halbthraker waren, und dass in vielen Orten des Imperium Romanum thrakische Militäreinheiten standen. Im Hohen Mittelalter wusste man beinahe nichts mehr von den Thrakern, so dass der Konstantinsbogen irrig als Thrakerbogen bezeichnet wurde. Schließ- lich hat der moderne Ausstellungsboom vor allem dem sehr einseitigen Bild von den goldbesitzenden und alkoholliebenden Fürsten der Thraker Vorschub geleistet. Papers Ulrike Peter (Berlin, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften) Corpus Nummorum Thracorum — a research tool for Thracology and an example of digital numismatic collaboration With joint efforts the Berlin Münzkabinett and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities have developed and created a web portal for ancient Thracian coins. We started by entering the coins and plaster casts of the collections of the two institutions but of course there exist many more Thracian coins all over the world. That is why we also import coins from other public and private collections, naturally after having acquired the permission to do so. Furthermore we offer the opportunity for a direct data input into the portal. -
Dear Friends of the History of Art Department: I Hope Your Autumn
TO THE ALUMNI OF THE HISTORY OF ART: ear Friends of the History of Art Department: I hope your autumn was as Dlovely as ours in Philadelphia. With characteristic enthusiasm, we launched the fall semester, offering courses that included our usual repertory of VOLUME 1 ISSUE 8 studies in the art and architecture of ancient Near East to that of today, three fresh- 2000 man seminars, and additional offerings in Minoan and Mycenaean Art, German art, the iconography of the Latin Middle Ages, and a course in CGS in twentieth-cen- INSIDE tury design. Christine Poggi returned to the classroom after a year’s fellowship leave in which she worked on her book on Italian Futurism, and Renata Holod began a Faculty News 2 year’s leave to carry out the documentation and interpretive work on her field work Art History Undergraduate at Jerba. We breathed a sigh of relief when we succeeded in retaining Holly Pittman Advisory Board 2 after a “raid” from Columbia. Our faculty continues to provide major leadership to the Penn community: Continuing his service as Director of College Houses and International Conference on Academic Services is David Brownlee, who has done wonders with this program. “The Culture of Exchange” 4 Our newest faculty member, Stephen Campbell, a specialist in the Italian A Tree Renaissance, is spending this year at I Tatti on a fellowship. Here at home, we wel- Grows Near Furness 5 comed to our staff Tammy Betterson, Administrative Assistant, who came to us from Political Science. Our students have done quite well, graduate students giving Traveling Students 5 papers at major professional meetings, and undergraduates as well as graduates Lectures During 1999 6 benefiting from the resources of the travel funds to which you have so thoughtfully contributed.