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A Greater Helsinki with Cities Smarter Than Smart: Minimal Securitization, Maximal Deliberation

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A Greater Helsinki with Cities Smarter Than Smart: Minimal Securitization, Maximal Deliberation EGPA, Lausanne, 5–7 September 2018, PSG 1, E-government A Greater Helsinki with Cities Smarter than Smart: Minimal Securitization, Maximal Deliberation Pertti Ahonen, University of Helsinki, e-mail [email protected] Abstract The purpose of this paper is to take steps towards imminent empirical research on smart cities in the Greater Helsinki region of 1.5 million inhabitants in 14 municipalities. The intended research should combine two lines of inquiry. A technocratic line has generated a literature on “smart cities” with resilience in their various functions assured by means of intensive use of IoT, algorithms, and big data (Geertman et al. 2015). A political line of research forewarns of excessive “securitization” (Balzacq 2015) in smart cities (Sadowski & Pasquale 2015; Fichtner et al. 2016; Monahan 2018; Steele et al. 2017), and offers deliberation, societal inclusion (Garcia Alonso & Lippez-De Castro 2016; Cardullo & Kitchin 2018) and other democratic exigencies for recipes of smartness (Araya 2015; Foth et al. 2015; Spicer & Bowen 2017). This paper considers philosophy of science starting points, formulates a theoretical approach, outlines what Greater Helsinki is comprised of, reviews practical experiences, and traces methods and research materials. Keywords: security, democracy, deliberation, civic participation 2 Introduction The purpose of this paper is to take steps towards empirical research on smart cities in the Greater Helsinki region with 14 municipalities with a combined population of 1.5 million exceeding one fourth of the population of Finland. The empirical research shall combine two lines of inquiry: • A technocratic line understands smart cities possessing such characteristics as the resilience of their functions assured by means that include the intensive utilization of IoT, algorithms, and big data (Geertman & al. 2015). • A political line of research is critical of risks of “securitization” (making something into a topic of security; Balzacq 2015) of smart cities (Sadowski & Pasquale 2015; Fichtner et al. 2016; Monahan 2018; Steele et al. 2017). Deliberation, societal inclusion (Garcia Alonso & Lippez-De Castro 2016; Cardullo & Kitchin 2018), and satisfying other democratic exigencies (Araya 2015; Foth et al. 2015; Spicer & Bowen 2017) belong to defining characteristics of smart cities according to the second inquiry line. Answers are sought to five research questions: 1. Which philosophy of science starting points offer opportunities to carry out the intended research? 2. Within the frames of the chosen philosophy of science starting points, which kind of elements of a theoretical approach would enable the intended empirical research? 3. Which interesting characteristics does Greater Helsinki have from the viewpoint of smart city research? 4. Which background do accumulated practical experiences offer for the intended empirical research? 5. Which methods and research materials are needed for the intended research? Specific research procedures are not available to examine alternative philosophy of science starting points or to elaborate a theoretical approach. For reviewing previous empirical research such methodologies exist as meta-analysis (Rinquist 2013; Fingfeld-Connett 2018) and systematic reviews (Gough et al. 2013; Meijer & Rodríquez Bolivar 2017; Bibri & Krogstie 2017a). However, such methodologies are suitable in later stages of the intended study than at the current beginning. To chart practical experiences in this paper semi-structured interviews were carried out. 3 This paper is structured according to its five research questions. Each of the five sections seeks answers to one of these questions. It arises from the character of this paper that a section with a summary, discussion and implications did not turn out to be practical to write. Selecting from Among Alternative Starting Points of Philosophy of Science Six Philosophies of Science To make explicit the choice of a philosophical starting point for the imminent empirical study let us consider six alternative starting points (Table 1): • Digital positivism • Critical realism • Post-foundationalism • Pragmatism • Strong constructionism • Weak constructionism Table 1. Selected philosophy of science starting points. Digital positivism Critical realism Classical statements NA Bhaskar 1975 Characterization Quantitative or qualitative Causal explanation with examination of empirical reference to non-observable regularities; for a critique see mechanisms generating the Fuchs (2017) events whose observables are empirically available Generic researchers with Too many to mention NA relevance to smart city studies Smart city research and related Too many to mention Allen et al. 2013 research Positive aspects May have descriptive value Maintains intentions towards also in studies rejecting its scientific explanation with a presuppositions certain commensurability with the natural sciences Can be combined with different values and ethics 4 Possible problems Assumptions of efficiency May be dogmatic as concerns constrain examination the mechanisms postulated “Administrative” big data and the ethics subscribed to analytics (Fuchs 2017) Values and ethics Must be separately introduced Critical towards mechanisms to the examination if at all seen as generating effects seen A frequent assumption that as undesirable efficiency is for the best Positive values and ethics must be separately introduced in the examination if at all Post-foundationalism Pragmatism Classical statements Laclau & Mouffe 1984; see Pragmatist philosophers; e.g. also Marchart 2007 Dewey and Peirce Characterization Emphasis upon negation and Emphasis upon problem the deconstruction of all solving and action rather than meanings describing, representing or mirroring “reality” Generic researchers with Swyngedouw 2009 Bridge 2004 relevance to smart city studies Smart city research or related NA NA research Positive aspects May generate scathing critical Can be combined with other analysis in focused studies philosophy of science starting points Possible problems Individual studies may find it Pragmatic acceptance of many difficult to more than repeat alternatives may lead to an the post-foundational instrumentalist attitude philosophical tenets Pragmatism may not easily allow taking into account negative side effects of science and technology Values and ethics Re-evaluates all values and High valuation of the progress questions the solidity of all of science and technology and meanings, deconstructing the pursuit of objectivity in them science (LaFollette 2000) Does not subscribe to any positive set of values Strong constructionism Moderate constructionism Classical statements NA NA Characterization E.g., in Brey 2009; E.g., in Brey 2009; examines foregrounds the examination social and political effects upon technology; effects of technology upon itself; and 5 of social and political effects social and political effects of upon technology technology May distinguish political and social institutional constructedness and brute facts of nature (Hay 2016) Generic researchers with Steve Woolgar, several studies Actor-network-theory of relevance to smart city studies Wiebe Bijker, several studies Latour (2005) Research on the social shaping of technology Research on “affordances” that technology allows as explicated, e.g., in Zheng & Yu 2016 Smart city research or related Too many to mention Bibri & Krogstie 2017b research Positive aspects Has generated numerous Offers moderating correctives studies on social and political to strong constructionism effects upon technology Allows for examining May have substantial interactions between politics descriptive value also for and society on the one hand research that does not adopt and on the other technology in strong constructivism both directions Possible problems Foregrounds social and Finding orientation amongst political effects upon different approaches of technology instead of effects moderate constructionism taking place within technology Need to choose carefully the itself, or the social and values and ethics adopted in political effects of technology the examination Values and ethics Must be separately introduced Can be combined with many in the examination if at all alternative types of ethics Building upon Milder Constructionism to Examine Smart Cities The imminent empirical research on smart cities will build upon milder constructionism. The respective presuppositions are expected to enable examining social and political influences upon technology, influences of technology upon itself, and social and political influences of technology. The assumptions of milder constructionism should also allow for examining “affordances” that technology offers actors to act in ways that otherwise would not be possible. These affordances can 6 be for the best in certain circumstances, such as helping to overcome marginalization and exclusion, raising the quality of decision-making, or improving transparency. However, there may also be circumstances in which affordances may be for the worst, such as when they enable intrusion to privacy, the appropriation of data on people from these people, secretive surveillance, and, in the extreme, the usurpation of power from the people to whom the power should belong in democracy. Elements for a Theoretical Approach to Smart Cities An Evaluation Framework, and an Analytic Separation of Dimensions of the Smart City The theoretical approach to smart cities should in principle constitute an integrated
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