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UC Riverside UC Riverside Electronic Theses and Dissertations UC Riverside UC Riverside Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Rock Art in the Public Trust: Managing Prehistoric Rock Art on Federal Land Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6042z0fk Author Hale, John Patrick Publication Date 2010 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Rock Art in the Public Trust: Managing Prehistoric Rock Art on Federal Land A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History by John Patrick Hale March 2010 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Clifford Trafzer, Chairperson Dr. Rebecca Kugel Dr. Larry Burgess Copyright by John Patrick Hale 2010 The Dissertation of John Patrick Hale is approved: Dr. Rebecca Kugel University of California, Riverside Dr. Larry Burgess University of California, Riverside Dr, Clifford Trafzer, Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Rock Art in the Public Trust: Managing Prehistoric Rock Art on Federal Land by John Patrick Hale Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in History University of California, Riverside, March 2010 Dr. Clifford Trafzer, Chairperson Cultural resource management conducted by the United States government revolves around the concept of proper stewardship of the land and the resources contained therein. By definition, stewardship means to take proper management for the good of the items entrusted. Practically, however, stewardship is a set of cultural resource management practices that seeks to manage the cultural resources that fall within the bounds of federally-managed lands, consistent with the perceived needs and desires of the public at large. Rock art is a unique and valuable resource that can and should be inventoried, recorded, protected, researched, and used to educate the public on the past lifeways of native peoples who occupied the United States in the pre-contact era. While the federal government has had some success in rock art management programs on public lands, for the most part federal land managers have historically disenfranchised Native Americans by minimizing their input into management practices of archeological resources, including rock art. This dissertation analyzes the salient aspects of managing rock art sites on federally-administered land, and argues for a more comprehensive, inclusive, and effective management strategy that is inclusive of Native Americans. For iv effective rock art site management, historians, archeologists, and land managers must focus on three main goals in management strategy: more actively and effectively incorporating Native Americans in the management process, taking a multidisciplinary approach to site management that incorporates concepts of landscape and cultural heritage principles, and maximizing the potential for rock art sites as an educational tool to teach about Native American lifeways, practices, and philosophies. v TA B L E O F C ONTENTS Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi Table of Figures ................................................................................................................. ix Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 The Value of Rock Art in Modern Society ..................................................................... 3 The Rock Art Dilemma ................................................................................................... 5 Rock Art .............................................................................................................................. 7 Managing Rock Art on Public Lands ........................................................................... 14 Identification and Recordation ...................................................................................... 16 Evaluation, analyzation and interpretation ................................................................... 22 Excavation................................................................................................................. 24 Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 26 Informed Methods ................................................................................................. 27 Formal Methods .................................................................................................... 29 Analogy ................................................................................................................. 31 Archeological Law and the Management of Rock Art Sites on Federal Lands ................ 33 Antiquities Act of 1906 ................................................................................................. 35 Historic Sites Act of 1935 ............................................................................................. 39 Federal Records Act of 1950 ........................................................................................ 40 National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment .................................................................. 41 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ................................................................. 48 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and the Convention on Cultural Property ........................................... 52 Archeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 .................................................. 53 American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 and Executive Order No. 13007 ―Indian Sacred Sites‖ .................................................................................................... 55 Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 ....................................................... 58 Freedom of Information Act of 1982 ............................................................................ 62 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 .............................. 63 Theft of Government Property and Prohibitions under Title 36 CFR 261.9 ................ 67 Executive Order 13287: ―Preserve America‖ ............................................................... 68 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 70 An Overview of Significant Rock Art Research in the Great Basin................................. 73 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 118 vi Theoretical Considerations for the Use of Ethnography in the Interpretation of Rock Art ..................................................................................................................... 119 Ethics and Professional Practices in the Federal Government ........................................ 129 Consultation and Rock Art Sites ..................................................................................... 135 Defining Consultation ................................................................................................. 136 Who Should be Involved in Consultation ................................................................... 140 The Formal Consultation Process ............................................................................... 141 Building a Relationship .............................................................................................. 143 Improving the Consultation Process ........................................................................... 148 Maintaining a Relationship ......................................................................................... 154 The Consultation Process and Rock Art ..................................................................... 156 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 159 The Management of Rock Art Sites for Public Visitation ............................................. 165 Rock Art Site Management Principles ........................................................................ 167 Identification and Recordation .................................................................................... 167 Evaluation, Analyzation, and Interpretation ............................................................... 174 Excavation............................................................................................................... 178 Evaluation ............................................................................................................... 179 Informed Methods ............................................................................................... 180 Formal Methods .................................................................................................. 182 Analogy ............................................................................................................... 183 Site Management and Conservation ........................................................................... 184 Physical Conservation Issues .................................................................................
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