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NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY Grief As Medicine for Grief: Complaint Poetry in Early Modern England, 1559-1609 a DISSERTATION SUBMITT NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY Grief as Medicine for Grief: Complaint Poetry in Early Modern England, 1559-1609 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Field of English By Joanne Teresa Diaz EVANSTON, ILLINOIS December 2008 2 © Copyright by Joanne Teresa Diaz 2008 All Rights Reserved 3 ABSTRACT Grief as Medicine for Grief: Early Modern Complaint Poetry in England, 1559-1609 Joanne Teresa Diaz This dissertation traces the meaning and scope of early modern complaint poetry. I argue that what I understand as a secular “poetics of dissatisfaction” arose to fill the void left when religious auricular confession was no longer an institutionalized practice, and that this mode of literary expression was itself shaped by the evolving legal discourse of complaining. These articulations of dissatisfaction cross genre, style, and medium, but they all share a common language with two prominent discourses: the penitential literature of the Reformation, which worked to refigure confession when it was no longer a sacrament; and juridical testimony, which regularly blurred the line between auricular confession in the ecclesiastical courts and secular jurisprudence in the common law courts. Complaint poetry investigates questions about evidence, sincerity, and the impossibility of ever doing—or saying—enough about despair; it also considers the imaginative implications of a post-Reformation world in which the remedy for despair might be its poetic expression. Critics have long seen emergent interiority as a defining characteristic of early modern poetry; however, I argue that complaint poems are argumentative, highly emotional, and committed to revealing a shattered self in publicly staged distress. In doing so, complaint poems not only trouble the borders of poetic subjectivity, but also provide a generative critique of cultural institutions that failed to provide consolation, supplanting those institutions with the possibilities of confessional expression and consolation in print and performance. 4 Acknowledgments My research for this dissertation was generously supported with fellowships from the Department of English, the Kaplan Humanities Institute, and the Graduate School at Northwestern University, and with a Keck Fellowship from the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. I am grateful for the assistance granted to me by the staff of the Newberry Library of Chicago, the Huntington Library, the Folger Shakespeare Library, and the British Library. I am thankful, too for a student travel grant from the Shakespeare Association of America, which defrayed the costs of that conference. I owe the greatest debt to my dissertation committee. Wendy Wall was the ideal advisor: always generous with her time, incisive in her analysis, and constructive in her suggestions for improvement. Thanks to Jeffrey Masten for his careful attention to every detail, and for encouraging me to be open to the “serendipity of the archive.” Susie Phillips’s knowledge of both the medieval and early modern periods was invaluable to my understanding of complaint literature. At every stage, Susie patiently guided me through important revisions that improved my writing and scholarship. Thanks, too, to the graduate students who read early drafts of these chapters. Christopher Clary, Jessica Keating, Elise Lipkowitz, Stefka Mihaylova, Laura Reagan, Gayle Rogers, and Daniel Smith provided insightful suggestions for revision and offered much- needed camaraderie. I dedicate this work to my parents, John and Marianne Diaz, whose appreciation for higher education inspires me to work hard every day, and to Jason Reblando, who offers a sympathetic ear and provides much consolation for all my complaints, literary and otherwise. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures 6 Introduction 7 Chapter One ‘The rufull Register of mischief and mishap’: Penance and Juridical Testimony in The Mirror for Magistrates 23 Chapter Two ‘Nor gives it satisfaction to our blood’: The Case for Literary Consolation in A Lover’s Complaint and The Complaint of Rosamond 74 Chapter Three ‘A dolefull case desires a dolefull song’: Edmund Spenser’s Emblems and the Poetics of Dissatisfaction 124 Chapter Four ‘This hatefull Scroule’: The Epistolary Complaint as Forensic Evidence in the Heroides , Matilda, and Englands Heroicall Epistles 175 Chapter Five ‘You hold too heinous a respect of grief’: The Uses of Complaint on the Early Modern Stage 233 Bibliography 283 6 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Full-length portrait of a woman in Oriental dress, late sixteenth century 7 2. The wailing nymph. From Jan van der Noot’s A theatre wherein be represented as wel the miseries & calamities that follow the voluptuous worldlings, trans. Edmund Spenser (London: Henry Bynneman, 1569), C7 125 3. Geffrey Whitney, Curis tabescimus omnes from A choice of emblemes, and other devices (Leyden: Christopher Plantyn, 1586) 137 4. “Januarye” woodcut from The Shepheardes Calender (London: Hugh Singleton, 1579) 160 5. Woodcut from Her[e be]gy[n]neth the kalender of shepherdes (London: Richard Pynson, 1506) 162 6. Geffrey Whitney, Quod in te est, prome from A choice of emblemes 175 7. Frontispiece to John Bulwer’s Chironomia from Chirologia, or, The naturall language of the hand (London: Thomas Harper, 1644) 244 8. Illustrations of hand gestures from Bulwer’s Chirologia 246 7 Introduction The Poetics of Dissatisfaction in Early Modern England Figure 1. Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Full-length portrait of a woman in Oriental dress, late sixteenth century. Source: The Royal Collection. 8 In the 1590s in England, the most fashionable court portraitist, Marcus Gheeraert the Younger, painted a picture of an unknown lady. The full-length portrait echoes his Ditchley portrait of Queen Elizabeth, also painted at around this time, but here, the unknown lady is positioned in a pastoral scene. To her right stands a stag whose bowed head suggests the sorrow of the lady, and to the right of the stag stands a tree, inscribed with three mottoes: dolor est medicina e dolori (grief is medicine for grief), iniusti lusta querela (a just complaint of injustice) and mea sic mihi (thus to me, my…). Although the lady appears to stand passively in a formal posture of great composure, the sonnet displayed at her feet shows that she is, in fact, doing something quite common in the early modern period: she is complaining. The portrait features a complaint sonnet, in a cartouche the bottom right of the frame. In the sonnet, the speaker of the poem takes the voice of the woman in Persian dress. 1 The lady compares herself with the “restless swallow” (1) in the background of the painting, explaining that both she and the swallow share “just complaints of cruelty unkind” (3). In the next stanza, the lady continues her projection onto the natural world, comparing her “sighs unknown” to the silent tears of the “weeping stag” (5, 7). The only remedy that can alleviate the symptoms of her suffering is the music of her plaints and the tears that she sheds in the final couplet of the poem. These tears and plaints, then, are generative in a world that provides no other form of consolation. Gheeraert’s portrait derives much of its rhetorical force from the motto “grief is medicine for grief.” Complainants in the poems popular between 1559-1609 rely on this proverbial notion that 1 For speculations on the significance of the woman’s Persian dress and the perceptions of Persia in early modern England, see Roy Strong, “‘My weepinge Stagg I crowne’: The Persian Lady Reconsidered” in The Art of the Emblem: Essays in Honor of Karl Josef Holtgen , ed. Michael Bath, John Manning, and Alan R. Young (New York: AMS Press, 1993). Several of Gheeraert’s most well-known portraits include mottoes or emblems, but with the exception of the Ditchley portrait, this is the only one of Gheeraert’s portraits that includes a cartouche and sonnet. Karen Heart and Rica Jones, Marcus Gheeraerts II: Elizabethan Artist; In Focus (London: Tate Publishing, 2002). 9 “grief is lessened when imparted to others.” 2 Proverbial wisdom that endorsed the sharing of grief appeared with astonishing frequency in the poetry of the period, suggesting that the complainant’s articulation of griefs to a listening poet might provide them with consolation. In this project I locate the discourse of complaining at the meeting point of two stories of change in the culture. As the practice of auricular confession was desacralized and renegotiated in the years after Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church, there was separately a rise in the appearance of secular complaints in the legal courts. My project examines the outburst of literary complaints at the axis of where these two other cultural sites meet. Early modern writers refigured and reframed their arguments against church, state, and fellow Englishmen in complaint poetry, a mode that pervades every early modern written and spoken discourse. 3 Complaint is present in written expression that investigates—and surpasses—confessional expression, the consolation of grief, and the possibility of juridical redress in the early modern period. In the literary realm, the use of declamations, invectives, and catalogues of blame were substantive enough to comprise a mode of expression that had dissatisfaction at its center. 4 In the 2 For the numerous references to this proverbial phrase elsewhere in the early modern period, see Morris Palmer Tilley, A Dictionary of the Proverbs in England in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1950). Tilley cites several other related proverbs, such as “There is no curing of a grief concealed (C923), “The greater grief drives out the less (G446),” “Grief pent up will break the heart (G449),” and “That grief is light which is capable of counsel (G450).” The early modern poetry Thomas Howell, a consummate complainer, uses the motto “Sorrowe disclosed, somewhat eased” as the title for one of his many complaint poems in His Devises, for his owne exercise, and his Friends pleasure (London: 1581), E2v-3v.
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