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Home , Earl of Desmond, Gaelicisation, Kingdom of Ireland, Tudor Crown (heraldry)

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The Routledge History of

Cathie Carmichael, Richard C. Maguire

Tudor

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 David Edwards Published online on: 08 May 2015

How to cite :- David Edwards. 08 May 2015, Tudor Ireland from: The Routledge History of Genocide Routledge Accessed on: 01 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315719054.ch3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 caused asmany100,000 casualties. figures for the Desmond war it has been estimated that the Tudor conquest may have the last,affectingwiderandareasofcountry. of Desmond (1579–83), and the (1594–1603) were each bigger than O’Neill (1557–62,1563–7),thefitzMaurice/Burke/Butler confederacy(1569–73),the in operations in some part of the country. Moreover, the major wars, against Shane between 1546and1603therewasnotayearwhengovernment forceswerenotengaged campaigns weresmallandlocalised,theymany and persistent,somuchthat VIII, andcontinueduntilthedeathofhisdaughter,.Thoughmostofthe The conflictlastednearly60years,beginninginthefinal monthsofthereignHenry the Tudorwars,itisgenerallyagreedthatwassignificantly reducedbyallthefighting. lack thesourcesnecessaryforaprecisecalculationofIrishpopulationbeforeorafter poor peopledead,theirmouthsallcolouredgreenbyeatingnettles[and]docks.’ in theditchesoftowns,andwastedcountries,thantoseemultitudesthese provinces after1600,FynesMorysonlaterrecorded:‘Nospectaclewasmorefrequent Having accompaniedhismasterViceroyMountjoyonexpeditionsthroughallfour climax of the Tudor conquest produced similar testimonies of famine and desolation. mals] almostleft,andamostpopulousplentifulcountrysuddenlyleftvoid’. Desmond war(1579–83).‘Inshortspace’,hewrote,‘therewerenone[peopleorani recalled thedireeffectsofmilitarycampaigninginlargepartsMunsterduring generation laterthepoet,planter,andformer Nowhere werethereanypeopleorcattle,justaneeriesilence;faminereigned. sign oflife.Houseswereburnedout,villagesuninhabited,allthecornfieldsdestroyed. miles through parts of the /Leinster borderlands without seeing or hearing a archbishop ofArmagh,aleadingroyalcouncillor,describedhowhehadridden30 inflicted by bothgovernment andrebel forces on the nativecivilian population, the Ireland couldevokedisturbingmemories.In1558,railingagainsttheravagesrecently To atleastsomeofthecrown’sofficerswhoobservedit,Tudorconquest royal forces inflicted most ofthe deaths. Government documents ofthe period are ries ofTudor-eracrownservitors andcommentators.Itwasalsotheknowledge that destructive conflictsanywhere insixteenth-andearlyseventeenth-centuryEurope. lay somewherebetween0.75 and1.0million,theconquestmustrankasoneof most The demographic impact of the conquest was certainly terrible. Though historians The demographicimpactoftheconquestwascertainlyterrible.Thoughhistorians But it was not simply the scale of Irish mortality that sometimes troubled the memo , masskillingandsecurity TUDOR IRELAND David Edwards 5 Given that the population of Ireland circa 1540 Giventhatthepopulation of Irelandcirca1540 23 3 V ice-regal 4 Extrapolating from available Extrapolatingfromavailable S ecretary EdmundSpenser 2 6 The 3 1 A - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 its bettergovernment haveattractedan extensive historiography.This, tellingly,has victorious crownforces. English earlofClanricarde, RichardBurke,totheforeasseniorcommandersof the of arms,withtheGaelicIrish earlofThomond,DonoughO’Brien,andtheHiberno- 1601–2 –theclimacticevent oftheTudorconquestIreland–wasamulti-ethnic feat and clients among the Munster Gaelic Irish. native loyalist‘BlackTom’Butler,tenthearlofOrmond, andbyOrmond’skinsmen was orchestratedbyhisancestralenemytheHiberno-English magnateandprincipal The final destruction and death of the rebel in Co. Kerry in 1583 of ‘BarnabyFitzpatrick’,orMacGiollapadraig,theGaelic baronofUpperOssory. sions, thewaragainstremainderofO’Moreswas spearheadedbythesoldiers their arrival, was actively assisted by the chieftain of the O’Dempseys; leaders, including several O’Mores, were invited to a parley only to be butchered on porters. ThemassacreofMullaghmast1577,inwhich between50and75Midlands reign. Someofhergovernment’sbloodiestexploitswere partlytheworkofnativesup tingent ofGaelic-speakingHiberno-Scots. English andGaelicIrishtroops.TheeastUlsterarmyevencontainedasmallcon mixed forcescomprising‘NewEnglish’andWelsh,native‘OldEnglish’/Hiberno- northern pushintocentralandeastUlster,wereallinturnundertakenwithethnically nisation oftheMidlands,crossingRiverShannonintoConnacht,and late 1540sand1550s:theTudoradvanceintosouthLeinsteruplands,colo a smallerextent. the south-east.TheywerealsoassistedbyalliesdrawnfromGaelicregions,albeitto from the‘EnglishPale’aroundDublinand‘secondinKilkenny Fitzgeralds hisEnglishforceswereaugmentedbylargecontingentsofnativeloyalists mid-1530s, whenHenryVIIIdespatchedamajorarmytoconfronttherebelKildare paigns wagedbythecrownweresimpleEnglishversusIrishaffairs.Asfarbackas about theannihilationofanother,butinsixteenth-centuryIrelandnonecam they werenotconstitutedtodoso.Genocidepresupposesonenationorracesetting The crownforcesinIrelandkilledamultitudebuttheydidnotdothat;indeed, defines genocide asthe deliberate extermination of a nation,race or ethnic group. very recently historians wouldinstantly have saidnot. The waged byTudorcrownforcesinIreland,butwasitconsistentwithgenocide?Until This is all very unsettling, to be sure, testimony to the bloody efficacy of campaigns grieveth metothinkthatitisnecessarydothis’. central andeasternUlsterin1602,‘wekillsomanychurls[unarmedpeasants]asit to deploy. be genuinelydisturbedbytheawfuleffectofmethodstheyhadbeencompelled ernment expansionandthequashingofnativerebellion,somefieldofficerscould were notquitesoreticent.Despitebelievingunquestioninglyinthelegitimacyofgov passed littleornocommentonthe methods theyhadusedtoachievevictory,others lation aswellontherebelforcesofoutlyingdistricts.Whilemajorityservitors advance royalpowerandcrushnativeoppositionbywagingwaronthegeneralpopu quite explicitinrecordinghowthecrown’sofficersandtroopswereexpectedto Genocide also presupposes a 7 AsViceroyMountjoyputitwhilewagingaparticularlygrimcampaignin 9 Likewisetheseriesofwarsandconqueststhatragedduring 13 deliberate DAVID EDWARDS element, a plan. Tudor plans for Ireland and 24 10 I ThiscontinuedthroughoutElizabethI’s 12 Lastly, even the Battle of of 8 Oxford English Dictionary 11 on other occa ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 mised, thansenior officialswereprepared toadmit.Thehighdeath rateassociated developments inthecountry. Whatoccurredwasfrequentlymessier,morecompro limitations ofrelyingtooreadily onofficialhigh-levelreportsandrepresentations of direct Englishrule.Thisconcentration onground-levelrealitieshasexposed the identifying thosegroupsmost affected,forbetterorworse,bytheimpositionof more local impactofTudorstate expansion,chartingthemethodsusedtoachieveit, and nation. iour inIrelandwithinaninterpretativespectrumthat encompassespartialextermi And yet,despiteallthis,ithasbecomenecessarytoreconsider Tudormilitarybehav people andcultureisnotusuallyaccompaniedbypromotion oftheirmusic. north Co.,wasingreatdemandLondonand itsvicinity. popular at her court, so that for a number of years ‘Blind Cruise’, a musician from did sheneglectIrishmusic.ThroughElizabeth’sdirect patronageIrishtunesbecame was preparedforherusebyaHiberno-Englishnobleman fromCo.Westmeath. expressed adesiretolearntherudimentsofIrishlanguage:specialGaelicprimer Bible shouldbetranslatedintoGaelic,thebettertospreadProtestantism.Sheeven was probablythemostmindfulofIreland.Earlyinherreignshedecidedthat ‘Melanfyn Ourewerk’(O’Rourke),mayhaveplayedmusicathercourt. MacDermott, asoneofherpersonalattendantsandaGaelicharperfromKildare, prominentlydisplayedonthereverse. of thekingdomIreland;later,secondgreatsealElizabethIhadIrish state. From1541,medalsandinsigniastruckforHenryVIIIcelebratedthecreation tant partofthecrown’sdominionsandthatIrishwerefullsubjectsTudor monarchs themselveswereeagertoprojectthemessagethatIrelandwasanimpor defined andunderstood,recordsoftheTudorcourtatWhitehallindicatethat its inhabitantsintotheTudorstate. and theIrish,itseemsthatroyalgovernmentlookedtoincorporateisland the needforforce.Far,then,frompresentingagenocidalattitudetowardsIreland were convincedthatIrelandcouldbereformedbythesemeans,thusgreatlyreducing cies; bygreateruseoftheDublinparliament.SuccessivegenerationsTudorofficials extension ofEnglishcommonlaw;bytheerectionprovincialcouncilsandpresiden sister kingdomofEngland;bythedevelopmentstrongercrowninstitutionsand contended that Ireland might be brought under tighter royal control by being made a enthusiastically embraced at Whitehall. On various occasions the Tudors’ advisers the ensuingexpense.Infact,ithasbeenshownthat usually preferredtoavoidmilitary-centredprogrammesofexpansion,ifonlyescape conquered piecemeal,itisneverthelesswidelyrecognisedthattheTudormonarchs solution securedastrongandabidinginfluence,thatasresulttheislandwas political means.Whilemostscholarsacceptthat,ultimately,theadvocatesofamilitary monarchy intendedtoassertgreatercontroloverIrelandanditsaffairsbymilitaryor and campaigning,alivelydebatehasbeenconductedovertheextenttowhich advisers andwritersinitsconceptionimplementation.Intermsofallthefighting policy totherelativeimportanceofviceroys,IrishCouncil,andindividual often focusedonpoliticalandadministrativematters,fromtheformulationofcrown And ifculturalasmuchphysicalexterminationisvitaltogenocideitusually 18 InrecentyearsIrishhistorianshavebeguninvestigating theregionaland TUDOR IRELAND: ANGLICISATIONTUDOR IRELAND: ANDMASSKILLING 25 II 14 MaryIhadaGaelicIrishman,Conor non -military initiativeswereoften 17 Thegenocideofa 15 Elizabeth 16 Nor - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 Protestant Edward VIandtheCatholicMary I,nottheleastofwhich wascontaining unresolved at his death in 1547, bequeathed a bundle of troubles to his children, the the great men in Ireland’. considering acceptinganoffer oftheIrishcrownthathadbeenmadetohim by ‘all rumoured notonlythatJames VofScotlandwasreadyingafleet,butthathe was itself wouldbenext. defend theCatholicChurch. Imperial armyof10,000soldierswasonitswaytosupport theGeraldinerebelsand first intervenedinIreland,1534,itwasresponse toreportsthataSpanishand a growingfearofinvasion–Irelandasmuch of England.WhenKingHenry the EnglishChurchwasdiplomaticisolation in ,andwiththatcame commencement oftheEnglishReformation.Theprice fortheroyalsupremacyover rity considerationsweretheother,followingHenryVIII’s breachwithRomeandthe If thepursuitofAnglicisationwasakeyfoundation thecrown’sIrishpolicy,secu were perceived in , the seat of English power in Ireland, and in Whitehall. state. Intherightcircumstancesanymeasurecouldbecontemplated. Ireland anditsinhabitantsverydifferentlyfromother‘outlyingregions’oftheTudor apparent thatthisdrivetoAnglicisationprovidedanintellectualbasisfortreating the interveningcenturies–Hiberno-Englishweretobere-Anglicised.Itisnow were ofmedievalEnglishdescentbuthadadoptedGaeliclanguageandcustomsin whichever seemedmostapplicable.Similarly,largesectionsofthepopulationthat reduced, eitherbynegotiationandtreaty-makingorwarthehangman’srope– Dublin orthe‘SecondPale’insouth-eastwastobesystematicallyneuteredand prevailed overmuchofIrelandbeyondthe‘fourEnglishshires’Palearound isation andtheimpositionofEnglishstandards‘civility’.TheGaelicorderthat bring aboutthecountry’ssubjugationtoEnglishformsofsocialandpoliticalorgan tance ofjudgesandlaw-booksoversoldiersfirearms,hopedsoonerorlaterto absorption ofIrelandintothewiderTudorrealm,andwhoemphasisedimpor sivist. Eventhoseauthors–andthereweremanywhourgedacautiousstep-by-step expression toanideologyofEnglishpowerthatwasnotmerelysupremacistbutexclu discourse aboutIrelandsinceHenryVIII’stime.Repeatedlytheseadvicepapersgave century (aswasoncethought),butadarkthreadrunningthroughgovernment and Irish life was not a new phenomenon, confined to the final years of the sixteenth tended to showthat noble sentiment was far from universal. Disregard of Irish rights discussions, anddisregardedtherightsofIrishpeopleassubjectscrown. at theuppermostlevelsofstateoftenoddswithnoblersentimentspolicy everyone theykilled.Suchcommissionsrepresentedatoleranceofarbitraryseverity picion of,amongotherthings,‘wrongdoing’,andtoreceiveashareofthewealth officers were granted power of martial law to execute people without charge, on sus because theyhadbeenauthorisedtodosobygovernmentcommission.Hundredsof and other officers in the localities reveals that many of them behaved with impunity the periodadvanced;foranother,closescrutinyofactivitiescrowncaptains government direction.Foronething,thewasincreasinglymilitarisedas pillaging atwill,asitwastodowithgovernmentdirection.Yet with crowncampaignswasasmuchtodoforcesrunningamok,murderingand Invasion scarespunctuated TudorIrishpolicythereafter.In1539–40itwas Ultimately, thefateofmanyIrishpeoplewasdetermined byhow‘circumstances’ Moreover, growingstudyofgovernmentadvicepapers,‘plats’,andtreatises,has 20 Henry VIII’s war with and France of 1544–5, 19 IftheforeignforceslandedandIrelandfell,England DAVID EDWARDS 26 was alsotodowith - - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 coast ofKerry totheIsleofLewisin Outer . trolled approximately60% of thelandcountry:allUlster,greaterpart of officers, asdoubtlesswastheintention.Circa1540 Gaeliclordsandchieftainscon the EnglishTudormonarchyofthisfact–something which greatlyirkedthecrown’s teenth-century descendantslostnoopportunitytoremind theofficersandagentsof Gaelic aristocracyhadonceruledtheentireisland,as kings andprinces,theirsix barely comprehensible entity thatdefied Englishmanagement andsupervision. The festations ofIrishculturalrefinement.Forthemthe Gaelicorderwasanalienand ruling Irelandontheirbehalfusuallybecamelessinclined toappreciatesuchmani court, orQueen Elizabeth’s fondness for Irish tunes, those given responsibility for officers ofthecrown.RegardlessQueenMary’sdesire foralittleIrishcolourather structive endeavour.Itwasalsodeliberatelydestructive, foritmeantde-Gaelicisation. of all this spin and -tinting, the pursuit of Anglicisation was not just a con rewarded; allundertheprotectivegazeofroyalgovernmentinDublin.Butstripped thing wouldbestableandsettled,lawjusticeprevail,industryenterprise servitors claimedthatthecountrywouldbecomealandofpeaceandplenty,whereevery derive enormousbenefit.BymakingIrelandmorelikeEnglandTudorministersand Ireland andtheIrish,somethingfromwhichcountryitsinhabitantswould Invariably theTudorpolicyofAnglicisationwaspresentedasthoughitwereagiftto the inducementoffamineintroublesomeregions,asashort-termmilitaryexpedient. lowers, andsuspected‘maintainers’,seemlogical.Occasionallyitevenrecommended tial lawwidespreadandcommonplace.Itmadethemasskillingofrebels,theirfol times ofrebellionand/orrumoursinvasion.Itmadeemergencymeasureslikemar ring amoregradualapproach.Itpredisposedthegovernmenttoover-reactionin the advocatesofmilitarymethodsastrongerholdoverIrishpolicythanthoseprefer chewed awayatEnglishconfidenceaboutbringingIrelandundercontrol.Itallowed ment, anditsstrongreligious,culturalcommercialtiestomainlandEurope,that of SpanishfleetsandtheirlikelyIrishdestinations. war wounddown,barelyayearpassedwithoutreportsreachingDublinandWhitehall fast becominginevitable,andfrom1585,whenitfinallyirrupted,until1603,the Smerwick harbour(November1580).OpenwarwithSpainandPortugalwasbythen ings were hardly eased by the slaughter of the Italian and Spanish forces trapped in invasion eventuallymaterialised,in1580,Co.Kerry.Fearsofotherattemptedland impending Spanishandpapalinvasionplansin1569–70,1572,15741575–8.An 1566. Subsequently,deterioratingrelationswithHabsburgSpainledtorumoursof with thearrivalofhostilefleetsonIrishcoastexpectedin1559,1560–62and Fears ofFrenchandScottishinterventionpreoccupiedherearlyyearsonthethrone, intensified, after Elizabeth I’s accession in 1558, and her of Protestantism. the threat of French and Scottish influence inIreland. Theseworries continued, and world, or ties withGaelicScotland, with whoseleadingfamiliestheyformedaself-contained strength andvitalitywasgreatly enhancedbytheirenduringterritorialandcultural , halformoreofMunster, andsizeablepartsofLeinster.Thelords’political The Gaelicwayoflifeprovokedrealvenomamongleading Englishministersand It wasthisconstantdreadofIreland’sislandexposuretoforeignnavalencroach Gaedhealtacht, TUDOR IRELAND: ANGLICISATIONTUDOR IRELAND: ANDMASSKILLING stretching fully 700 miles in length from the Skelligs off the III 27 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 as itdidwith Scottish royaloverturesin Ulster. Nolessconcerning werereportsthat Scottish mercenaries active inIrelandgreatly agitated Englishobservers,coinciding gence’. overthrow largepartsofthe medievalEnglishcolonyinIreland–the‘Gaelicresur Irish fightingcapabilitiesagainst Englishcavalryforces,andhelpedthelocallineages supply ofmercenarygalloglasses fromwesternScotlandandtheIsleshadtransformed to resistEnglishgovernmentalencroachment.Sincethe fourteenthcenturythesteady of success.Moreover,itwastheseathatbestsustained thecapacityofGaeliclords English power.Weatherpermitting,aninvasionattempt wouldstandagoodchance Portuguese andScottishvesselsroutinelyvisitedthese shores,farfromthereachof east theGaeliclordscontrolledmostofIrishAtlantic coastline.French,Spanish, English security. From Rosscarbery in the south-west all the way to Larne in the north- reduction quiteanother.Themainfactorbehindthis transitionwasconcernover Of course,culturaldisdainfortheGaelicworldwas onething;encompassingits and theirnumerousfollowers,‘forsakenofGodprince’. moralising tone:reportingfromCo.Galwayhedenouncedaswickedthelocalrulers same timetheEnglishgovernorofConnacht,SirNicholasMalby,adoptedasimilar of the common weal and impoverishing of her Majesty’s subjects’. its andIrishlaws’.Theircontinuedprevalencetendedonly‘totheutterdestruction captain in1581hedenouncedas‘devilishandabominablebeforeGod’all‘Irishhab son of the earl of Bedford and an advanced Calvinist, William Russell: serving as a vain is law brought amongst them.’ abide tohearofcorrection,no,notforthehorriblestsinsthattheycancommit had beentoolong‘misledinbeastlylibertyandsensualimmunitysoastheycannot 1572, in a letter to Whitehall, he growled in frustration that ‘this people [the Irish]’ patched toTudorIrelandthatthetropewouldreceiveitsclearestexpression. the quillsofsomemostexperienced(andbesteducated)Englishofficersdes trope ofthe‘wildIrish’receivedaRenaissancehumanistmakeover.Indeeditwasfrom age. IncountlessreportsandtreatisesoftheperiodlatemedievalEnglishliterary served toconfirmtheviewthatGaeldomwasprimitiveandbeastly,itsinhabitantssav without stirrups:thatwasdeemedunrefined,not‘gentlemanlike’.Collectivelyitall life, butthesemadethemappearrusticandbackward.Theytheirhorsemenrode ing men wore long, heavyweather-resistant mantles or cloaks suitable to the outdoor goats andsheeptheGaelicIrishwereconsideredslovenlydirty.Thelordslead and banditry.Andtherewereotherfaults.Livinginsuchcloseproximitytocattle,pigs, mobility of the seeming to nurture a sub-culture of trespass and theft, cattle-raiding farming theland,andgrowingthings;italsolookedlatentlyoractuallycriminal, idle andfecklessexistence,followinglivestockinsteadofsettlingpermanentlyinvillages, lowers arranged into herds betweensummerandwinterpasturelandsaccompaniedbyhundredsoftheirfol forests theyweregenerallycattlelords,pastoral,semi-nomadic,whomovedwiththeir standard ofproper‘civilised’behaviour.Oftenlivingremotelybehindmountainsand or To quoteSirWilliamFitzwilliam,thelongest-servingTudorgovernorofIreland:in It wasaworldforwhichmanyEnglishfeltmostlyrepulsion.Intheirownterritories, tuatha 24 Atthebeginningofsixteenth centuryreportsofgrowingnumbers , the Gaelic lords and their followers appeared to conform to no recognisable , theGaeliclordsandtheirfollowersappearedtoconformnorecognisable creaghts , or mobile communities. To English eyes this seemed an , or mobile communities. To English eyes this seemed an DAVID EDWARDS 21 Likewise his eventual successor as , the IV 28 22 23 Writing about the

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 use theIrishhabit’,ordress. ‘continually’, ‘withoutceasing’,and‘mustnotsuffer anywithinhisfamilyorruleto ness’s trueandfaithfulsubjects’mustusetheEnglish languageandEnglishcustoms guage’, whichstipulatedthat‘allmen[ac]knowledge themselvestobehishigh the passageofanactinIrishparliament‘for Englishorder,habitandlan Russell wasnothingnew.Asfarbackas1537HenryVIII’s governmenthadoverseen recommendation inthediscoursereadbyWalsingham. campaign aswelljudgesoncircuit. Gaelic Irishmightbecuredwithasuitablemedicine, forciblyappliedbysoldierson contagion. Then,withtheHiberno-Englishrestored tofullEnglishnessagain,the above all,theymust be separatedfrom the Hiberno-Englishtoend the spreadoftheir infected everythingaroundthem;theymust,then,becontained,challenged,reduced; be amedicalmeasure,quarantinetocuresickness.TheGaeliclordsandlineages of Ireland’,Burghleyhadproposedthatasortapartheidwasneeded.Itwould tion. InhismainstatementonIrishmatters,the1575‘DegreesforGovernment Walsingham’s colleagueLordBurghleyhadalreadygiventhesubjectseriousdelibera curb thecontinuingspreadofGaelicinfluence.Thequestionwas,whichmeasures? that urgentmeasuresneededtobetakenreverseHiberno-Englishdegeneracyand extensively, andwrotesummariesinthemargins.Walsinghamwholeheartedlyagreed hands oftheElizabethan so ‘degressed’and‘becomeIrishmenineffect’. ‘Discourse ofthepresentstateIreland’helistedoffendingfamiliesthathad eval Englishdescentwere‘degeneratefromtheirkind’.Ontwowholepagesofhis and Connacht‘allthelordscaptains,,esquiresgentlemen’ofmedi erate’. with meaningforanyoneinterestedinthelonghistoryofpre-modernracism:‘degen It was also persistent. The word most frequently used to describe them was one loaded native, beenGaelicised.Theywere Gaelic territoriesandthelineagesrulingthem. and customsofthe in-laws, andfosteredtheirchildrenwithGaelichostfamiliestolearnthelanguage the Midlands,southUlsterborderlands.ManyofthemevenhadGaelicwivesor Gaelic tenants,householdservants;theytradedwithareasinWicklow, centuries ofEnglishancestrybrokeintoIrishwhenmeetingeachother.Theyhad influence wasallaround.GentlemenandmerchantswithEnglishsurnames encountered acommunitythatwasratherlessEnglishthantheyhadexpected.Gaelic colonial capital,orventuringoutintothesurroundingcountiesof‘EnglishPale’ English areas.Totheirhorror,‘NewEnglish’servitorsarrivinginDublin,the traders. The‘resurgence’wasstillsurging. the Gaeliclords had begunacquiring firearms from continentaland Scottish arms- of theunreliability oftheHiberno-English whocontinuedtoserve inthecentral up theirpens.AmongNew Englishobserversthisfailurewasseenasyetfurtherproof had exasperatedcrownofficers andservitorslongbeforeBurghleyRussell picked ‘within thefourthdegree’. banning intermarriageand fosterage‘withanyIrishpersonorpersonsofblood’, The obviousracialismthatunderpinnedtheAnglicising proposalsofBurghleyand The newcomers’condemnationoftheHiberno-Englishwasimmediateandshrill. The sheervimoftheGaelicorderwasdemonstratedmostvividlyinhistorically 26 AsSirWilliamRussellputit,inwideareasofthePaleandallacrossMunster TUDOR IRELAND: ANGLICISATIONTUDOR IRELAND: ANDMASSKILLING Gaedhealtacht S 30 ecretary of Thefactthattheactshad not beenadequatelyenforced 29 Anotheractwasalsopassed inthesameparliament andtoform(orpreserve)lastingtiesofaffinitywith Hiberno 28 S In1581Russellmadealmostexactlythesame tate SirFrancisWalsingham,whoannotatedit 29 -English. 27 25 Russell’stextfounditswayintothe Theyhadintegrated,gonepartly - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 lious Gaelicand Gaelicisedlineagesattimes ofheightenedsecurity fears(1574and Both HenryAckworthand Edmund Spenserurgedacull,or‘extirping’,oftherebel of itsusagemightbeaworthwhile topicforaresearchstudent. English statepapersandofficialcorrespondence,down toSpenser’sday;aclosestudy leading acampaignagainstGeraldinerebels. tion’ inthissensewasalettertoHenryVIIIbySirWilliam Skeffington,writtenwhile need be,thepopulationslivingundertheirrule.Possibly theearliestuseof‘extirpa followers weretobeweededandkilled,buttheentire bloodlineoftheirstock,and,if Gaelicised lineagesandother‘enemy’groups.Notjust rebel lordsandtheirimmediate about Ireland,asametaphorforthemilitaryextermination oftroublesomeGaelicand destroy completely,bypullingoutfromtheroot.Itisfrequently usedinTudordiscourse about agricultureandgardening,particularlyinregard toweed-killing. century Englishwordforannihilation.Usuallyitisfound indomesticEnglishwritings dates allthewaybacktoreignofHenryVIII–‘extirpation’. Thiswasthesixteenth- to thepersistenceofafundamentallyhostileapproach‘Gaelicproblem’that examples ofverysimilaropinions. Careful examinationofothertextsandauthorsisbeginningtorevealmuchearlier Tudor period,inthemid-1590s.Ackworthwroteagenerationearlier,mid-1570s. stopped, thelineagesterminated. government andthedevelopmentofacommonwealth.Theblood-flowneededtobe corrupting andharmfultothewholepopulationwasaconstantobstaclegood long generationsofruthlessschemingwarlords,oneviciousthugafteranother,was veniae of therealunderlyingproblem–uninterruptedflowwhathecalled‘ ing foritsracialistclarity.MilitantCatholicismwasonlythemostrecentsymptom would soonaffecttheislandatlarge.Buthisprescriptionforde-Gaelicisationisstrik Gaelic lordshipstomilitantCounter-ReformationCatholicismimportedfromEurope most prompted his advice was concern that the exposure of the southern and western persistent action. Ackworth, it should be noted, was acommitted Protestant. What tion, and the establishment of garrisons; it was time, he said, for more concerted and the country,throughtreatiesofsurrenderandre-grant,seneschalschemes,colonisa reduction of Gaelicpower had been only intermittently pursued in afewregions of Ackworth, acaptaininMunsterandcloseclientofBurghley,broadlyagreed.The might shecompeltheHiberno-Englishto‘showthemselvesEnglishindeed’. extreme force, ‘to make all the Irishry in Ireland [live] in terror’. Then and only then reduce the‘inhumanityandbeastliness’ofGaelicrulinglineages,ifnecessaryby take ye enterprise in hand’ and ‘apply the medicine requisite for the purpose’ – to first themselves, solowhadtheyfallen.QueenElizabeth,heurged,mustbemoved‘to forceful de-GaelicisationastheonlyeffectivewaytosaveHiberno-Englishfrom ideologue on‘Irelandmatters’whoseviewswereheldinhighregardatWhitehall,saw the taskofimposingAnglicisingmeasuresandallthatentailed. counties andtowns;onlytrueEnglishmen,borninEngland,couldbeentrustedwith government insignificantnumbers,andwhodominatedlocalthe Such views are often identified with Edmund Spenser, who wrote at the close of the Such viewsareoftenidentifiedwithEdmundSpenser,whowroteatthecloseof Edmund Tremayne,theclerkofElizabethanPrivyCouncilandaleadingEnglish ’, orinfected bloodline, ofthecountry’s Gaelic rulers. Their descentthrough DAVID EDWARDS 32 33 Indeed, a single word provides an important clue Indeed,asinglewordprovidesanimportantclue 30 V 35 The word recurs regularly thereafter in Thewordrecursregularlythereafterin 34 It means to Itmeansto 31 Henry spes - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 sion torebelin1595.Below thiselitelevelitisalsosignificantthatalargeproportion during theyears1588–1603,andHughO’Neill,earlof Tyronebeforehisfatefuldeci Barnaby Fitzpatrickbetween1554andhisdeathin1581, Donough,LordThomond Gaelic lordsdidplaytheirpart,notleastShaneO’Neill priortohisrebellionin1557, ‘journeys’. RegardingtheGaelicIrish,theirrolewas lesspronounced,butmajor Fleming ofSlaneandPlunkettDunsanyparticipated innumerous‘hostings’and again during 1594–7; and lesser lords such as Nugent of Delvin, Eustace ofBaltinglass, and 1566;therestored of Kildare assumed a leading role from1554–75 and the FitzgeraldearlsofDesmondprovidedextensivemilitary assistancebetween1543 Ulster andthefrontiersofConnacht.TheButlersaside, amongtheHiberno-English , sometimes have wished)andtheydidsobyprovidingextensive militaryreinforcementstothe . Inthistheypartlysucceeded(thoughnotnearlyasmuchwould England aswellinIreland,oneofthegreataristocratichousesTudor Tudor expansionenthusiasticallyasanopportunitytoenhancetheirstandingin the defeatofKildareFitzgeraldsin1534–5,ButlerearlsOrmondembraced were theButlers.ByadistancemainHiberno-Englishdynastyincountryafter assistance fromtheIrishthemselves.Themostprominentofcrown’sallies parts ofsixteenth-centuryIrelandbyforce,andexterminateopposition,receivedvital They couldhelpmakeEnglishdominionsafe. best. Nomajorcampaigncouldrealisticallybeundertakenwithouttheirparticipation. royal army.Theywerecheap,theyreadilyavailable,andknewtheterrain policy. Besideswhich,Irishforceswereavaluableadditiontowhatconstitutedthe accepted pragmaticallyasanecessarypreconditionforthesuccessfulrealisationof self-preservation, forfearofimpendingdestruction,wasperfectlyunderstood.It power andlandthroughcrownreward,oroutofmoredesperateconsiderations leaders whocooperateddidsooftenoutofnarrowself-interest,expectingtogain all, mightfollowtheirexample.ThefactthatthoseHiberno-EnglishandGaelicIrish in itsundertakingsseemed,tosome,confirmtheviewthateventuallymost,ifnot crown policyatthebeginningofnextcentury,underStuartmonarchy. ing evasion,andcountlessrebellions,thisidealingered.Itremainedattheheartof government andstandards of behaviour.Despite difficulties ofimplementation, ongo ‘reformable’ and ultimately would accept the extension of superior English forms of control. Itwasalso,though,areflectionoftheTudors’convictionthatIrishwere trim andmakesavingswhilepushingaheadwiththeimpositionofgreaterterritorial part thiswasduetoeconomicconsiderations,withthegovernmentunderpressure more usual,mixingnegotiationandaccommodationwithcoercionseverity.In suitable measures.ForlargepartsoftheTudorperiodanin-betweenapproachwas extermination andapartheidrequiredspecialcircumstancestoberecommendedas quarantining the Hiberno-English from Gaelic infection (1575 and 1581). Partial 1596 respectively).ItwasmuchthesamewithBurghleyandRussell’sproposalsfor and riskedtheir liveswereEnglishcampaigns, inpursuitofEnglish crownobjectives, English andWelshmen. Gaelic extraction,hiredby Englishofficersascheapsubstitutesfordeador missing of theordinaryrankand file troops inthecrown forceswereofHiberno-English and And sowehavetheparadoxthatEnglishmilitaryoperationsdesignedtoAnglicise The willingnessofmanyIrishlordsandpeopletoservethecrownparticipate But ofcoursethecampaigns inwhichtheseIrishlordsandsoldiersparticipated TUDOR IRELAND: ANGLICISATIONTUDOR IRELAND: ANDMASSKILLING gratis , acrossthesouthernhalfofcountry,andoccasionally in 31 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 that didnotmatter. ‘Albeititweretobe wishedthatthecommonpeople shouldnot wheresoever wefoundthem’. Therebels,hesaid,haddepartedbeforehisarrival, but part ofCo.Limerick‘consuming withfireallhabitationandexecutingofthepeople As Pelhamdescribeditin a lettertothequeen,hehadundertakenjourney into Munster campaignledbySir WilliamPelham,thegovernmentarmyfoughtpitilessly. curiously, able-bodiedpersons foundactingasguidesto‘blindfolk’. less peopleintheprovince,includingGaelicharpers, bardsandrhymers,aswellas, it wouldbelawfulforthecrown’sofficerstoput deathallwanderingandmaster tion wasissuedspecifyingthatinadditiontoFitzMaurice himselfandhissupporters, the arrivalfromEuropeofMunsterCatholicrebel JamesFitzMaurice,aproclama ments ofTudormilitarytacticsinIrelandwasAugust 1579.Respondingtonewsof serviceable, to execute ‘all manner of persons’ whatsoever. also allowedtoissuesub-commissionsofmartiallaw‘under hishand’towhoeverwas Offaly wherehethoughttheO’MoresandO’Connors mightbehidingout.Hewas like manners was required‘toplague,punishandprosecutewith sword andfireotherwar Midlands in October 1557: Sir Henry Radcliffe, the commander of forces, orders issuedfortherenewalofwaragainstO’MoresandO’Connorsin many othersoflessconsequence. killed duringhis 1580–1 operations – including a five-year-old boy–besides agreat tion’ of‘theentireracetheBurkes’.Byhisestimate200Burkesandtheirkinwere becoming ConnachtgovernorafewyearsearlierMalbyhadproposedthe‘extirpa Mordaunt, EnglishofficersoftheprovincialgovernorSirNicholasMalby.Onfirst massacre of1581,atCarrickMulgreeny,wascarriedoutbyGeorgeAcresandNicholas Captains WalterRaleighandHumphreyMackworth.TheoftenneglectedConnacht in 1575 was done by Sir John Norris and Francis Drake; that at Smerwick in 1580 by troops underhischarge,nottrustingnativeforces.ThemassacreofRathlinIsland ble notjustforthebrutalityhedeployed,butalsobecauseGilberthadonlyEnglish women andchildreninMunsterbytheDevonknightSirHumphreyGilbertisnota prime movers ofthe massacre ofMullaghmast in 1577. The slaughter of oldmen, including FrancisCosbyandRobertHarpole.Harpolewouldlaterbethe as earl,SirHenryRadcliffe,supportedbyachosenteamofNewEnglishcaptains, Laois andOffalywasthebloodycreationofSussex’sbrothereventualsuccessor marshal SirGeorgeStanley(brotheroftheearlDerby).Thesecondplantation 1563 wasthatofThomasRadcliffe,thirdearlSussex,andhisright-handman north-west ofEngland;thefurtherpenetrationprovincebetween1556and the workofAndrewBreretonandNicholasBagenal,bothwhomhailedfrom Brabazon, theEnglishLordJustice. requiring anethnicallyverymixedforce,wasoverseentochillingeffectbySirWilliam the Englisharmy’.TheattemptedclearingofLaoisandOffalyduring1546–8,though the mainjournalofSkeffington’swarinbordersPalewascalled‘Thefeats of successiveEnglishviceroysSirWilliamSkeffingtonandLeonardGrey.Thisiswhy rebels inthe1530swerecarriedoutbyEnglishforcesactingonimmediateorders does notbearinspection.TheworstexcessesoftheoperationsagainstGeraldine influence thatmadetheTudorcrownforceswagewarsosavagely,andkillmany, and underEnglishdirection.TheimputationsometimesadvancedthatitwasIrish English governmentinstructionsdemandedthislevelofseverity.Considerthe And soitcontinued: the initialTudor incursions intoUlsterinthelate1540swere all Irishmen [my italics] and their countries’ in the vicinity of Laois and DAVID EDWARDS 36 32 37 One of the starkest state 38 Intheensuing ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 this hepresentedadetailedaccountofwhatmostwantedtoberememberedfor– lengthy vindicationofhisbriefgovernmentIreland,addressedtothequeen.In Similarly, followinghisdismissalasviceroyin1582,LordGreydeWiltonpenneda than 500otherswhobyhisownadmissionwereinnowayrelatedtotargetgroup. killing of200Burkes,referredtoabove,wasaccompaniedbytheslaughternoless troubled ground,butinpracticeitwasnotverycarefulatall.SirNicholasMalby’s with scantregardforcivilians.‘Extirpation’mayhavesuggestedacarefulweedingof they commenced, most of the larger-scale crown campaigns in Ireland were conducted Tudor wars.This lastfaminewasstrongest inUlsterandConnacht, butMunstertoo in thesouth-west,and,probably mostdeadlyofall,in1601–4,attheveryend the by allthisburninganddestruction, in1557–9theeastandnorth-east,1580–84 periods oftimethanitsopponents. Therewereatleastthreesizeablefaminescaused every campaigninwhichit wasinvolvedburningmorewidelyandovermuchlonger them. ButheretootheEnglish armyacquitteditselfwithparticularvigour,inalmost Irish rebelsoftenburnedtheirownlandstodenysuccour tothecrownforceschasing responsibility forthis.Aswellasburningthelandsoflocal enemiesandcrownloyalists scorched earth and the inducement of famine.Both rebel andcrown forces share the leaders. Theotherreasonforthedevastatingmortality wasthegeneralrecourseto order todenysubjectsandworkerstheGaelicHiberno-English rebellordsand counting. Worse,theyweren’tworthcountingyetwere oftendeliberatelytargetedin the numbersofcombatantskilled,theyweresmall consequence,notworththe Irish populationatlarge.Civiliancasualtieswerenot onlywelloutofproportionto executions bylaw,norkillingofchurls, these servicesofnotecomesto1,485,notaccounting thoseofmeanersort,neither appended attheend.Themosttellinglineislastone:‘Sonumberofslainin Kerry. Helistedallthekillings,givingnumbersandlocations,inanabstractofservice Carlow, O’RourkesinLeitrim,andGeraldinesWaterford,Cork,Limerick in Wicklow,O’MoresandO’ConnorstheMidlands,KavanaghsEustaces mander-in-chief. His officers, he boasted, hadslain various O’Byrnes andO’Tooles provinces of thecountry.Heattempted to demonstrate his discrimination as com the killing of rebelGaelic and Hiberno-English lords and their supporters in all four them hisprotection,andtoputtheswordwhenrequired. reluctant tokillwomenandchildren:inApril1580hewasorderedstopoffering ing theirlives.AmongtheNewEnglishitisrecordedthatSirGeorgeBourchierwas criticism forhisuseofprotectionstopersuaderebelssurrenderinreturnspar account written on his behalf he killed thousands, his style of soldiering drew heavy mediate forthecrownandadvancehisdynasty’sinterests.Althoughaccordingtoan carnage thebettertoprotecthisreputationamongIrish,withwhomhetried how best to isolate them. But it was also because the earl needed to avoid unnecessary magnate, could avail of much better intelligence about the rebels’ whereabouts and and civilians,alittlemoreeffectively.ThismayhavebeenbecauseOrmond,asnative earl’ ofOrmondtendedtodiscriminatebetweenrebelsandnon-rebels,combatants tions wagedbyPelham’ssecond-in-commandtheHiberno-Englishlord‘Black must lightuponsome.’ with theirbloodbear the burden of the[rebels’] offence In thefinalanalysis,however,itisclearthatBourchierwasarareexception.Once This isoneofthemainreasonswhyTudorwars weresodevastatingtothe Not allcrowncommandersfollowedthispractice.Asfaraswecantell,theopera TUDOR IRELAND: ANGLICISATIONTUDOR IRELAND: ANDMASSKILLING 39 Non-combatantswerekilledasanexampletocombatants. the accountofwhichisbesidenumber. 33

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the example with terror 40 ’ 41 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:27 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781315719054, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315719054.ch3 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Anglicisation. Gaelic noblepowersoonfollowed,undertheStuarts,alongwithresumptionof especially the was badlyaffected.WhenitalloverthepopulationofmanypartsIreland,but 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Extermination from Sparta toDarfur Extermination from Sparta pp. 19 inIreland, 1541–1641 Ideology Ireland’,lingualism andidentityformationinsixteenth-century inHiramMorgan(ed.), 1691 X. MartinandFrancisJ.Byrne(eds), HMSO, 1970),p.79; Index totheTestamentary ofLondon, 1489–1570 Court records intheCommissary (Yale: NewHaven,CT, 2009),pp.152–3,403. Wordwell Press,2004),pp. 125–9. besides numerousothercrowncampaignsinwhichtheButlersplayedapart. (1615) AFM Elizabethan IrishWars Cal. Carew MSS,1515–74 Cal. Carew MSS,1515–74 the EnglishPale inTudor Ireland, 1496–1566 Merlin Publishing,1987),pp.90–117;GeraldPower, Cal. Carew MSS,1601–3 in HiramMorgan(ed.) pp. 17–19;SeánConnolly, Houston, Gillespie, Ireland’,enteenth-century Transactions oftheRoyalHistoricalSociety Modern Ireland Pádraig LenihanandClodaghTait (eds), (Oxford: Blackwell,1997),p.102. (7 vols,Dublin1851)[hereafter Courts Press,2007),pp.139–42. the Galloglass:Kings, Warlords andWarriors inIreland andScotland,1200–1600 Academy Proceedings Fitzwilliam toBurghley, 25Sept.1572 (TNA SP63/37/60). Alison Cathcart,‘JamesV, kingofScotland –andIreland?’, (ed.), inSeánDuffy Micheál ÓSiochrú,‘Foreigninvolvement intherevoltofSilkenThomas,1534–5’, See the pioneering statement of Ben Kiernan, David Edwards,‘BlindCruise,theElizabethanharper’, Brian ÓCuív, ‘TheIrishlanguageintheearly modernperiod’, inTheodoreW. Moody, Francis Kevin Sharpe, Hiram Morgan,‘DisasteratKinsale’, inHiramMorgan(ed.), David EdwardsandKeithSidwell(ed.&trans.), Laurence McCorristine, Carey,Vincent ‘“What pencanpaintortearsatone?” Mountjoy’s scorchedearthcampaign’, Population figuresvary. Allareconjectural.SeeL.M.Cullen,‘Population trendsinsev Hiram Morgan,‘“Never anyrealmworsegoverned”: QueenElizabeth and Ireland’, Ireland’,David Edwards,‘Theescalationofviolenceinsixteenth-century inDavidEdwards, Fynes Moryson, Edmund Spenser, TNA, SP62/2/44; (Oxford:O , v, subannum1577. – (Turnhout: Brepols, 2012), contains much new information on the Desmond war, 32. The Transformation of the Irish Economy, 1550–1700 The Population History ofBritainandIreland, 1550–1750 The Population History Gaedhealtacht (Dublin:FourCourtsPress,2007),pp.63–9. Selling theTudor England Monarchy; AuthorityandImage inSixteenth-Century An Itinerary UP Annals oftheFour MastersoftheKingdom ofIreland 96C,1996,pp.49–62. , 1976), p. 511; Vincent Carey,, 1976),p.511;Vincent ‘“Neither goodEnglishnorIrish”: bi- A View oftheStateIreland A View (Dublin:IMC,2014),no.1. Calendar ofPatent Rolls, Philip&Mary , no.260. The BattleofKinsale , nos.207,211–2,215;DavidEdwards(ed.), , nos.49,52–3. Contested Island:Ireland 1460–1630 The Revolt of Silken Thomas: A Challenge to Henry VIII The RevoltofSilkenThomas:AChallenge toHenry , hadbeengreatlydecreased.Thefinalemasculationof (4vols,Glasgow:MacLehose,1907–8),iii,p.283. (Dublin:FourCourtsPress,1999),pp.51 Economic &SocialReview AFM DAVID EDWARDS (Yale: New Haven,CT, 2007),ch.5. A New History ofIreland, III;EarlyModernIreland, 1534– A NewHistory ], v, subannum1557. 14,2004,p.308. Notes Age andPolitical ofAtrocity: ConflictinEarly Violence 34 (Bray:Wordwell Press,2004),pp.205–16. (Hanover:Wehrhahn Verlag, 2012),pp.72–4; Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Blood and Soil: A World History The Tipperary Hero:The Tipperary DermotO’Meara’s Ormonius , (ed.)AndrewHadfieldandWillyMaley A European Frontier elite:Thenobilityof 6, 1974–5, pp. 149–65; Raymond 6,1974–5,pp.149–65;Raymond (Dundalk, 1991), pp. 12–14; R.A. (Dundalk, 1991), pp. 12–14; R.A. Ossory, Laois&Leinster Ossory, (Oxford:O , 1553–4,p.412. The BattleofKinsale (Cambridge:C , (ed.)JohnO’Donovan – Campaign Journalsofthe 7. UP , 2007),pp.404–5. (Dublin: Four The World of (London: UP Royal Irish (Dublin: 5,2012, , 1992), , 1992), Political Political (Bray: -

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