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The Long-Term Impact of Parental Mental Health on Children's Society and Mental Health 2021, Vol. 11(1) 54–68 The Long-Term Impact Ó American Sociological Association 2020 DOI: 10.1177/2156869320912520 of Parental Mental Health journals.sagepub.com/home/smh on Children’s Distress Trajectories in Adulthood Christina Kamis1 Abstract Using six waves of data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (2007-2017) and the Childhood Retro- spective Circumstances Study (2014) (N = 3,240), this paper estimates how childhood experiences with parental mental health problems shape trajectories of children’s distress in adulthood. Findings indicate that those who experience poor parental mental health have consistently greater distress than their non-exposed counterparts throughout adulthood. More severe and longer exposures to parental mental health problems correspond to even greater distress in adulthood. The gender of the parent afflicted does not predict differences in adult mental health, but those individuals exposed to both maternal and paternal poor mental health have the greatest distress in adulthood. Together, results suggest that parental mental health during children’s formative years is a significant predictor of life course distress and that heteroge- neity in this experience corresponds to unique mental health trajectories. Keywords adversities, distress, life course, stress process The outcomes of children who are exposed to Stress process literature has likewise suggested parental mental health problems are of growing that current stress may be fundamentally linked concern as recent research estimates that 18.2 per- to experiences with past stressors (Aneshensel cent of parents suffer from mental illness and 3.8 2015). However, research in both of these frame- percent of parents suffer from serious mental ill- works has highlighted that the link between early ness (Stambaugh et al. 2017). Parents’ psycholog- life stress and later stage mental health is not ical problems may lead to negative parenting deterministic and that the impact of these stressors behaviors, lack of attention to children’s needs, may, in fact, wane across the life course (George or increased dysfunction within the home (Elgar 2013). Although much is known about the conse- et al. 2007; Wilson and Durbin 2010). As such, quences of parental mental health problems on mothers’ and fathers’ mental health problems are children during childhood, a key question remains key sources of stress for children and have been regarding how this childhood stressor continues to linked to worse mental health and more behavioral problems for children during their youth (Mead- ows, McLanahan, and Brooks-Gunn 2007; Schep- 1Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, man et al. 2011). NC, USA Life course scholars have long suggested that Corresponding Author: negative events in childhood may be associated Christina Kamis, Department of Sociology, Duke with poor health throughout the life course (Elder University, 417 Chapel Drive, Durham, NC 27708, USA. 1998; Ferraro and Wilkinson 2013; Pearlin 2010). Email: [email protected] Kamis 55 negatively impact children’s mental health as they self-esteem, and belonging (Schepman et al. age throughout adulthood. 2011; Umberson, Crosnoe, and Reczek 2010; Wil- The current study contributes to research on kinson and Andersson 2019). Mothers and fathers early life exposures and mental health in several with mental health problems may display impaired ways. First, by drawing on the stress process parenting behaviors such as harshness or disen- model and the life course perspective, I conceptu- gagement from the children’s needs (Elgar et al. alize parental mental health problems as a stressor 2007; Wilson and Durbin 2010). These behaviors, with long-term consequences for children’s dis- in turn, can lead to a range of deleterious emotions tress. Second, I use a large, nationally representa- for children including, but not limited to, insecu- tive panel data set that includes measurements of rity and distress (Cummings, Keller, and Davies children’s distress as adults over six waves to con- 2005; Elgar et al. 2007; Noonan, Burns, and Vio- struct age-based mental health trajectories. This lato 2018; Wilson and Durbin 2010). In addition to strategy allows for a dynamic understanding of parenting behaviors, parents’ mental health could how poor parental mental health influences child- lead to other sources of stressful family dysfunc- ren’s baseline and growth of distress across adult- tion, such as increased marital conflict, parental hood. Furthermore, although research on other abuse of drugs/alcohol, or parental divorce that adverse childhood circumstances has emphasized may add to children’s distress (Avison 2010; that experiences with adversity may differ across Hanington et al. 2012; Williams and Cheadle individuals (Friedman et al. 2015; Schilling, Asel- 2016). Although research has predominantly tine, and Gore 2008), few studies have questioned focused on the impact of this stressor on children whether heterogeneity in the experience with in early life, the consequences of parents’ psycho- parental mental problems corresponds with differ- logical problems may extend past this window. ent long-term consequences for children once they Both the stress process model and the life reach adulthood. Therefore, I extend prior work course perspective have highlighted that stress that typically treats the presence of poor parental during a sensitive period can lead to worse health mental health dichotomously (was present/was outcomes for individuals throughout their lives not present in childhood) by refining the measure- and into adulthood (Kuh et al. 2003; Pearlin ment of parental mental health to include severity 2010). Although literature on the long-term conse- of the mental health problems, the duration for quences of childhood circumstances was origi- which the individual was exposed to this particular nally developed to explain differences in adult stressor in childhood, and the gender of the parent physical health outcomes, this literature is often with mental health problems. In doing so, this extended to explain disparate adult mental health study clarifies which experiences with parental outcomes (Aneshensel 2015; Avison 2010; mental health are particularly harmful to child- George 2013). This research suggests that child- ren’s life course outcomes. hood misfortune may define starting points of adult mental health (Avison 2010; Pearlin 2010) as well as the growth of distress with age (Schafer BACKGROUND and Ferraro 2013). First, childhood stressors may have an endur- Linking Parental Mental Health ing influence on mental health over the life course Problems with Life Course Mental that remains stable across age (Schafer and Ferraro Health 2013; Umberson et al. 2014). Consequently, those exposed to childhood adversity may have consis- Early life is a crucial period of biological, emo- tently higher distress than their non-exposed coun- tional, and mental development. The plasticity of terparts throughout adulthood. Second, childhood this period makes individuals extremely vulnera- adversity may lead to mounting distress with age ble to the impact of stressors and has therefore (Ferraro and Shippee 2009; Umberson et al. been referred to as a sensitive period (McFarland 2014). This may be due to a compounding of 2017; Miller, Chen, and Parker 2011). Parental depressive or anxious symptomatology throughout mental health problems may act as a stressor for the life course or through the accumulation of children during a sensitive period because parents related stressors that further worsen adult health are central to the lives of their children and pro- (Ferraro and Shippee 2009; Ferraro and Wilkinson vide an essential source of social control, 2013; George 2013; Umberson et al. 2014). Thus, 56 Society and Mental Health 11(1) in addition to higher baseline distress, individuals activities and hospitalization, was predictive of exposed to childhood stressors may have increas- children’s increased depressive symptoms. And, ingly worse mental health compared to their non- the presence of negative emotional expressiveness exposed peers with age. Finally, research suggests (more severe presentation of mental health prob- that childhood stressors may only be relevant for lems) has been found to contribute to the impact children’s health early in the life course and that that parental depression has on children in their the impact of childhood stressors wanes as indi- youth (Cummings, Cheung, and Davies 2013). viduals age (Oldehinkel et al. 2014; Schaan Thus, the severity of parental mental health prob- 2014; Schafer and Ferraro 2013). Therefore, indi- lems may predict even greater distress in adulthood. viduals exposed to childhood misfortune may In addition to severity, the duration of exposure experience initial increases in distress but eventu- to poor parental mental health may predict the ally converge to mirror the mental health of their stress placed on children. This is a particularly non-exposed counterparts. salient source of heterogeneity given that some The few studies that have analyzed the long- psychological problems last only for a short while term impact of parental mental health problems and may not occur again for many years, if at all have concluded that exposure to this stressor is (Coryell et al. 1994). Children who are exposed related to children’s poor adult mental health to poor parental mental health for most of their (Angelini et al. 2016; Goosby 2013). However,
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