ALL IN GOOD TIME: EXPLORING CHANGE IN NEANDERTHAL BEHAVIOURAL COMPLEXITY MICHELLE C. LANGLEY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in the School of Social Science, University of Queensland OCTOBER 2006 ii The race of men with social conscience enough to care for their weak and wounded, with spiritual awareness enough to bury their dead, the race of men with great brains but no frontal lobes, who made no great strides forward, who made almost no progress in nearly a hundred thousand years. The Clan of the Cave Bear by Jean M. Auel (1980:503). iii I certify that I have read the final draft of this thesis and it is ready for submission in accordance with the thesis requirements as set out in the School of Social Science policy documents. Dr Sean Ulm Dr Chris Clarkson October 2006 October 2006 Brisbane, Australia Brisbane, Australia I declare that the work presented in this thesis is the result of my own independent research, except where otherwise acknowledged in the reference list. This material has not been submitted either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university. Michelle C. Langley October 2006 Brisbane, Australia iv Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES viii LIST OF TABLES ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x ABSTRACT xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS CONTEXT Introduction 1 Background, Context and Rationale 1 Research Question and Aims 4 Research Design 4 Thesis Organisation 4 CHAPTER TWO: NEANDERTHALS, MODERN HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND COMPLEXITY: A REVIEW Introduction 7 Evolutionary Anthropological Background 7 Traditional Views of Neanderthal Behaviour 9 Modern Human Behaviour and Neanderthals 10 Redefining Modern Human Behaviour as ‘Complexity’ 13 Defining Complexity 14 Archaeological Signatures of Complexity 19 Faunal Extraction 19 Technology 23 Symbolism 26 Summary 31 v CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND DATASETS Introduction 33 Site Selection 33 Temporal Units 36 Faunal Extraction Analysis Methods and Dataset 37 Faunal Extraction Complexity Index 38 Faunal Extraction Analysis Methods 38 Construction of the Faunal Extraction Dataset 42 Analysis of Neanderthal Lithic Technology: Methods and Dataset 43 Technology Complexity Index 43 Technology Analysis Methods 44 Construction of the Technological Dataset 45 Analysis of Symbolism: Methods and Dataset 46 Symbolism Complexity Index 46 Symbolism Analysis Methods 47 Construction of the Symbolism Dataset 49 Imported Non-Utilitarian Objects 49 Burials 49 Modified Raw Material 49 Pigment 50 Composite Technology 51 Body Modification 51 Summary 51 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION Introduction 53 Faunal Extraction 53 Species Exploited 53 Environments Exploited 54 vi Mean and Coefficient of Variation of Body Mass of Exploited Prey Species 55 Shannon Weaver Function (H′) 56 Interpreting Changes in Faunal Extraction 57 Faunal Extraction Summary 59 Technology 60 Symbolism 63 Collective Results and Overall Trends 65 Summary 66 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND WIDER IMPLICATIONS Introduction 67 Key Findings 67 Change in Neanderthal Behavioural Complexity 68 Contribution to Current Debate 69 Recommendations for Future Research 71 Conclusion 72 REFERENCES 73 APPENDICES 87 Appendix A: Sites Included in Study 89 Appendix B: Faunal Extraction Presence/Absence Dataset 90 Appendix C: Top 40 Ranked Species Habitats and Body Mass (kg) 93 Appendix D: Lithic Dataset 95 Appendix E: Symbolism Dataset 97 vii List of Figures Figure 2.1 Temporal appearance of industries in the archaeological record. 8 Figure 2.2 One of the original portrayals of Neanderthals (left) and a modern 9 reconstruction of Gibraltar 1 (right) (Stringer and Gamble 1993:18; Roufs 2006:1). Figure 2.3 Châtelperronian bone implements (left) and the characteristic 10 Châtelperronian lithics (right) (d’Errico et al. 1998:s6; Mellars 1996:413). Figure 2.4 Temperature variation over the past 140,000 years estimated from ice- 20 cores (Mellars 1996:10). Figure 2.5 Shanidar IV flower burial exhibiting the foetal position of the body 29 (Leroi-Gourhan 1975:562). Figure 2.6 Examples of pigments with use-wear from Pech de l’Aze (left) and an 30 incised stone from Tata, Hungary (right) (Bednarik 1992:35; Mellars 1996:370). Figure 2.7 Examples of perforated bones and teeth from Repolosthőhle (left) and 31 incised bones and teeth from Prolom II (right) (Bednarik 1992:35; Stepanchuk 1993:34). Figure 3.1 Map of Neanderthal region (shaded in purple) with sites included in 35 study. (1) Grotte de Tournal; (2) Saint-Cesaire; (3) La Chapelle-aux- Saint; (4) Grotte de Neron; (5) Fonseigner; (6) Montagne de Girault; (7) Combe Grenal; (8) La Quina; (9) Pech de l’Aze; (10) Roc de Marsal; (11) Le Moustier; (12) La Ferrassie; (13) Spy; (14) Oliveira Cave; (15) Shanidar; (16) Teshik-Tash; (17) Amud; (18) Tabun; (19) Kebara; (20) L’Abric Chadourne; (21) Le Regourdou; (22) Grotte Vaufrey; (23) Grotta Guattari; (24) Grotta Breuil; (25) Grotte dei Moscerini; (26) Grotta di Sant’Agnostino; (27) Tagliente Rochshelter; (28) Tonchesberg; (29) Salzgitter-Lebenstedt; (30) Bocksteinschmiede; (31) Lehringen; (32) Taubach; (33) Kongisaue; (34) Abric Romani; (35) Castillo; (36) Cueva Morin; (37) Axlor; (38) Gorham’s cave; (39) Buran Kaya III; (40) Prolom II; (41) Staroselji; (42) Kiik-Koba; (43) Bacho Kiro; (44) Cioarei-Borosteni; (45) Tata; (46) Mujina Pecina; (47) Dederiyeh Cave; (48) Umm el Tlet. Note that Repolosthőhle and Temanta Cave not displayed on map. Figure 4.1 Results of faunal extraction analysis showing relationship of data to 54 oxygen isotope stages (OIS) and temperature variation (after Mellars 1996:10). Figure 4.2 Environments exploited by Neanderthals in each time-slice. 55 Figure 4.3 Faunal diversity calculated using Shannon-Weaver function (H′). 56 Figure 4.4 Number of Bordesian types in Western and Central European sites. 60 viii Figure 4.5 Number of Bordesian types (using Kuhn groupings) in Italian sites. 61 Figure 4.6 Relationship between the percentage of tree cover and abundance of 62 scrapers. Figure 4.7 Relationship between the percentage of tree cover and abundance of 62 burins. Figure 4.8 Symbolic instances by type and time of occurrence. 64 Figure 4.9 Number of symbolic instances against number of sites occupied during 65 the Middle Palaeolithic. Figure 4.10 Changes in faunal extraction and symbolic behaviour through time. 66 List of Tables Table 2.1 Hominin/industry relationships. 8 Table 2.2 Example of the trait list definition for Modern Human Behaviour 12 (McBrearty and Brooks 2000). Table 3.1 Example of the integration of individual strata from different sites into 36 each 10,000 year time-slice. Table 3.2 Faunal extraction dataset. 42 Table 3.3 Technology dataset. 45 ix Acknowledgements I could not have completed this thesis without the help of a number of people, who deserve special thanks. First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors, Sean Ulm and Chris Clarkson, for their support and advice (not to mention their unending patience) during the preparation of this thesis. Thanks also to Phil Habgood for his valued advice throughout the project. I’d also like to thank all those in Sean’s PG group (Dan Rosendahl, Sue Nugent, Cameo Dalley, Karen Murphy, Antje Noll, Steve Nichols, Nathan Woolford, Geraldine Mate, Clair Harris, Cass Venn and Jo Bowman) especially Robyn Jenkins and Bettyann Doyle for their great support, advice and laughs throughout the year. Finally I’d like to thank my friends and family for their support, particularly Dylan Barnes and Jenny Burt for their unending encouragement and above all for reading the continuous string of drafts. x Abstract Since their discovery 150 years ago, Neanderthals have been considered incapable of behavioural change and innovation. Traditional synchronic approaches to the study of Neanderthal behaviour have perpetuated this view and shaped our understanding of their lifeways and eventual extinction. In this thesis I implement an innovative diachronic approach to the analysis of Neanderthal faunal extraction, technology and symbolic behaviour as contained in the archaeological record of the critical period between 80,000 and 30,000 years BP. The thesis demonstrates patterns of change in Neanderthal behaviour which are at odds with traditional perspectives and which are consistent with an interpretation of increasing behavioural complexity over time, an idea that has been suggested but never thoroughly explored in Neanderthal archaeology. Demonstrating an increase in behavioural complexity in Neanderthals provides much needed new data with which to fuel the debate over the behavioural capacities of Neanderthals and the first appearance of Modern Human Behaviour in Europe. It supports the notion that Neanderthal populations were active agents of behavioural innovation prior to the arrival of Anatomically Modern Humans in Europe and, ultimately, that they produced an early Upper Palaeolithic cultural assemblage (the Châtelperronian) independent of modern humans. Overall, this thesis provides an initial step towards the development of a quantitative approach to measuring behavioural complexity which provides fresh insights into the cognitive and behavioural capabilities of Neanderthals. xi List of Abbreviations AMHs – Anatomically Modern Humans MHB – Modern Human Behaviour MSA – Middle Stone Age MTA – Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (in French initials) OIS – Oxygen Isotope Stage MNIs – Minimum Number of Individuals BP – Before Present xii Chapter 1 The Problem and its Context Introduction