Round River Conservation Studies

Fondo de Biodiversidad Sostenible

Preliminary Report

Salt Lake City, U.S.A. August 2017 Index

Background………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………….. 4 Methods……………………………………………………………………………………. 4 Rapid Inventories (RBIs)………………………………………………... 4 Interviews………………………………………………………………………………. 8

Results………………………………………………………………………………………. 8 Property Summaries…………………………………………………………………… 8 RBIs…………………………………………………………………………………….. 14 ………………………………………………………………………………... 14

Herpetofauna……………………………………………………………………… 16 ……………………………………………………………..…………… 16 Condition…………………………………………………………………. 19

Interviews………………………………………………………………………………. 19

Threats……………………………………………………………………………...….. 23 Conclusions and Recommendations……………………………………………………. 23 References..………………………………………………………………………………... 25

Appendix 1. Richness……………………………………………………… 27 Appendix 2. Herpetofauna Diversity……………………………………………………. 32 Appendix 3. RRCS staff……………………………………………………… 33

2 Background

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is an innovative market mechanism aimed at conserving wildlands. Its targets range from biodiversity conservation to climate change mitigation to watershed management and other ecosystem services. While it is impossible to quantify the “true” value of biodiversity or other ecosystem services, PES offers direct, monetary incentives towards conservation on private lands. Fomented by a growing number of programs and institutions, PES is of increasing application in diverse situations around the globe. Costa Rica has established itself as an international leader in PES, introducing its first program (Pagos por Servicios Ambientales) at the national scale in 1997.

Fondo de Biodiversidad Sostenible (FBS) is a subsidiary of the Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), which is the Costa Rican agency responsible for administering PES throughout the country. FBS has as its counterpart the Banco Nacional de Costa Rica, whose role is to manage funds that finance the project. FBS is unique among PES programs in its targeting of biodiversity as its core ecosystem service, as well as its combining of forest conservation with sustainable development objectives. These are achieved through an “accompaniment” (acompañamiento) component which complements monetary payments made on a per hectare (ha) basis.

Round River Conservation Studies (RRCS) is a U.S.-based 501c3 organization that employs the principles of conservation biology to formulate strategies that provide our partner communities, organizations and governments with a well-founded, scientific basis for their long-term conservation efforts. RRCS has operated a student-based conservation program in Costa Rica since 2016, with efforts focused primarily on the Osa Peninsula.

RRCS-FBS Partnership: Facilitated by Pax Natura’s president Randall Tolpinrud, initial discussions between RRCS and FBS began in 2016 and resulted in a series of in-person meetings in San José, Costa Rica in January, 2017. These were attended by Mateo Pomilia (RRCS), Doug Milek (RRCS), Silvia Rojas Fernandez (FBS), Lucía Valverde (FBS), and staff from Westminster College (Salt Lake City). During these meetings, a need for on-ground support for FBS’s biodiversity conservation program was identified, particularly in the realm of biological data generation and micro-tourism development.

3 Objectives

Main Objective

• Conserve biodiversity in Costa Rica’s using a sustainable PES model.

Focused Objectives

• Estimate biodiversity levels, and identify threatened and endangered species on FBS-enrolled fincas;

• Characterize threats to biodiversity; and

• Provide support for alternative livelihood development among FBS beneficiaries.

Methods

Facilitated by FBS, RRCS conducted fieldwork on four FBS properties on the Osa Peninsula (Figure 1) between March 14th and April 8th, 2017. Efforts were led by two RRCS conservation scientists (Christopher Smith and Elizabeth Brunner) and five undergraduate students. Four to six days (depending on property size and accessibility) were spent on each property employing the methodologies detailed below (Table 1).

Table 1. Overview of RRCS’s fieldwork

Property Sampling Camera Trap Bird Property Owner Size (ha) Days Days Surveys

Alcides Parajeles 259.4 5 15 4 José Tobías Sibaja 27.5 4 13 4 Juana Jiménez 83.8 5 19 4 Xinia Sánchez y hrmos. 202.3 6 21 5 TOTALS 573 20 68 17

Rapid Biodiversity Inventories (RBIs)

Even in one of the most researched regions in probably the most researched country in , there is a scarcity of species-specific data on the Osa Peninsula. In to most efficiently gather data on FBS properties in a short period of time, RRCS utilized a RBI approach. RBIs give a snapshot of biodiversity at a given place and time

4 by employing sampling methodologies that target specific taxonomic groups and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threatened species.

At each property, we spent the first day exploring and identifying appropriate locations for bird transects, camera trap stations, and herpetofauna surveys. Our goal was to cover as many and as large a portion of the property as possible.

Figure 1. Map of the Osa Peninsula and locations of FBS fincas that were part of this study

Birds

Our goal on each property was to generate baseline data on bird species richness and abundance. During the first day, we walked the property and established bird transects of at least 500 m, spaced at least 300 m apart to avoid double-counting. We walked

5 these transects between 5:30 - 9:00 on subsequent mornings, at the time of day when birds are most active. On each transect, we recorded species and number of individuals for all birds seen and heard, and recorded coordinates for breeding leks of Manakins or . Small birds found within 100 m of the property’s edge were included because their home range most likely includes part of the property. High-flying birds such as raptors and parrots were included when seen within 500 m of the property because their territories are larger. Water-associated birds like herons and shorebirds seen flying overhead were not counted because they were most likely flying between wetland habitats, as they do not typically utilize upland forest habitats.

On each finca we walked 4-5 bird transects, and the lists from each day were used to create species accumulation curves to estimate the total number of species on each property. Additionally, we recorded all other species encountered opportunistically while in the field. Visual sightings were required to confirm species presence initially; subsequent sightings of the same species could be either visual or by call. All observations presented here have been posted on eBird.org, which we hope will garner interest from guides and birders.

Herpetofauna

Amphibians are excellent indicators of ecosystem health because their skin is extremely permeable to contaminants such as pesticides, which affect them faster than most species (Ghose et al. 2014). Additionally, populations are in rapid decline due to a combination of chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), loss and degradation, UV-B radiation, climate change, and other causes, creating a strong need for monitoring (Whitfield et al. 2016). Amphibian monitoring is typically carried out during the wet season when species tend to breed and are most active (Savage 2002). However, due to time constraints, we conducted our surveys during the dry season; therefore, our results should be considered underestimates of the diversity present.

We actively searched for in upland habitats and conducted stream transects each night (when are most active), documenting each species we found. Whenever handling frogs for identification purposes, we used plastic bags to prevent the spread of chytrid fungus and other diseases. We only reused bags after they had been washed and completely dried for at least 10 minutes. All frogs were photographed and identified using The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica (Savage

6 2002) and Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica (Muñoz-Chacón et al. 2013), and with help from PhD student Michelle Thompson (Florida International University).

Mammals

On each property, we set out 4-5 camera traps for the duration of our stay at locations recommended by the property owner(s) based on their knowledge of activity. If the landowners did not spend significant time on the property or did not have recommended locations, we placed cameras where we judged there to be a high likelihood of passing, i.e. wallows or game trails. We recorded the GPS location for each camera station that we set up. After retrieving cameras, we reviewed photos and recorded each animal sighting, compiling the number of observations of each species using a 30-minute filter (i.e only recording one incident per 30-minute window).

Camera traps are a useful tool for observing shy and nocturnal animals, but they have limitations – many sampling days are needed to fully document species diversity. Due to the short duration of this study, we supplemented camera trapping data for mammals with other sources of information, including interviews and track surveys.

Forest and Stream Condition

FBS makes payments to beneficiaries whose properties contain either primary or secondary forest, and usually both. While both forest types have closed canopies, they provide dramatically different habitat and ecosystem services (Barlow et al. 2007); for example, important seed-dispersers like Geoffroy’s Monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) and White-lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari) are known to prefer mature forest stands. Our goal was to map areas of mature forest within properties and identify any incidences of since 2000, using a combination of field observations and online resources (www.globalforestwatch.org). As a rough indicator of mature forest, we mapped trees with trunk diameter >80 cm.

In Neotropical systems, freshwater streams act as conduits for the movement of energy and nutrients and provide important habitat for many species, including threatened amphibians. Furthermore, the integrity of riparian areas helps buffer the impacts of deforestation in tropical watersheds (Lorion et al. 2009). We plotted the location of all streams we found on properties and took photographs to visually document their condition. We also marked sign of Neotropical River Otter (Lontra longicaudis) where

7 we encountered it. Streams and adjacent riparian areas were targeted for amphibian surveys following the protocols previously described.

Interviews

FBS has multiple goals, including empowering owners of small and medium-sized forests to create sustainable income pathways. RRCS supported this goal by beginning conversations with landowners about their future plans, and providing guidance regarding micro-tourism development, an area in which all Osa beneficiaries have expressed interest.

Valuing the knowledge of local people is a foundational principle for RRCS. During property visits, we recorded Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) shared by FBS beneficiaries through a combination of semi-structured and unstructured interviews. These interviews also helped us compile species lists and build narratives of land-use history.

Results

Property Summaries

Sánchez

The first property we visited belongs to Xinia Sánchez and her four brothers. It is located approximately two km south of Corcovado National Park along the spine of Osa’s central range (Figure 2). The eastern side of the property drains into the Río Nuevo (flowing east into Golfo Dulce) while the western side drains into the Río Oro (flowing west into the Pacific Ocean). The property ranges in elevation from about 250 to 350 m.

This property has been in the hands of the Sánchez family for about 30 years, with land having been cleared for cattle grazing and other agricultural activities. Although the five siblings grew up on the property, none of them currently live there and the property has been left fallow for at least 20 years. Land that was previously grazed is now becoming secondary forest, with ferns and small, early successional trees. Other parts of the property were never deforested and are mature forest today. This property is facing many threats: there are signs of ongoing furtive resource extraction on the property – gold mining, shrimp harvesting, and illegal timber extraction.

8 Figure 2. Map of the Sánchez FBS property: green and black outline = perimeter; green trees = old growth forest patches; bull’s eyes = camera trap locations; blue lines = streams; blue triangle = waterfall; gray lines = travel routes; pink line = amphibian transect; yellow lines = bird transects; yellow birds = lek locations

The Sánchez property has two of the largest streams out of the four properties we visited: Ríos Oro and Nuevo have parts where the wet width is greater than two meters. These streams supported the highest number of amphibians and reptiles that we found at any of the properties, including glass frogs (Centrolenidae), a phylogenetic group of conservation priority in Central America (Mendoza et al. 2014). In addition to good riparian habitat, this property contains high ridgelines with significant wind exposure and a mid-elevation micro-climate, and a swampy area dominated by Bijagua (Calathea sp.). Sign of Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii), Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and Puma (Puma concolor) was seen in multiple locations throughout the property. Noel Sánchez reported a Jaguar (Panthera onca) sighting here less than a year prior to our

9 visit. We registered leks of three species of and three species of manakin, respectively (Figure 2).

Jiménez

The second property that we visited belongs to doña Juana Jiménez. It is located just outside the community of Rancho Quemado on the northern side of the Osa Peninsula (Figure 3). The property sits approximately 1 km northeast of the border with Corcovado National Park, and its forest is contiguous with forest that lies within the park, therefore it provides a buffer-zone. Many small streams run west to east across

Figure 3. Map of the Jiménez FBS property: green and black outline = perimeter; green trees = old growth forest patches; bull’s eyes = camera trap locations; blue lines = streams; gray lines = travel routes; pink line = amphibian transect; yellow lines = bird transects; yellow birds = lek locations

10 the property, creating steep, rugged terrain. So although it is small, the property contains more land than would be assumed based on aerial photographs. The land ranges in elevation from approximately 220 m at the corner closest to Rancho Quemado to approximately 600 m at its highest point near the Corcovado boundary. This property is not currently inhabited. Doña Juana and her family moved to the town of Rancho Quemado approximately 40 years ago and the land has been left fallow ever since. When they were living on the property, they had about 10 ha cleared for stock and their homestead. It is now a patchwork of secondary and primary forest, with secondary forest areas closest to Rancho Quemado, and primary forest predominately on the southern edge of the property, near Corcovado. This property is currently under threat from poaching, including shrimp harvesting.

Despite being the second smallest property we visited, this site contains very diverse wildlife, due in part to its elevation gradient and corresponding habitat diversity. Of all the properties surveyed, the highest elevation was found here. We recorded some elevation-restricted species, such as the White-ruffed Manakin (Corapipo altera). We also found recent sign of Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu) in the seasonal streams; according to local accounts, their herds come through frequently. Baird’s Tapir tracks were also seen commonly throughout the property and are known to be a crop nuisance in the area. This property showed evidence of use by several other species such as Spider Monkey, Puma, Ocelot, and Paca (Cuniculus paca).

Sibaja

The third property we visited belongs to don José Tobías Sibaja. He and his wife live on the property, which is a patch of secondary forest located along highway 245 near Bahía Chal (Figure 4). This part of the peninsula is an important corridor for wildlife movement between mainland protected areas, i.e. Piedras Blancas National Park, the Térraba-Sierpe National Wetlands, and the Osa Peninsula. The small area (27.5 ha) under payments surrounds their cattle pasture and consists of secondary forest with few large trees.

The Sibaja property is the smallest forest under FBS payments on the Osa Peninsula and is also the closest to a main road. The property overlooks the Golfo Dulce and has one small seasonal stream. The bird diversity is noteworthy, higher than that of any of the other properties including many species that we did not see at any other properties, such as the White-necked Puffbird (Notharchus hyperrhynchus). Because of the small size of this forest fragment, there is a lot of edge habitat – that is, transitional

11 habitat between forest and open areas, for example along highway 245; these habitats provide opportunities for certain species of plants such as Miconia spp., which draw several groups of seed-eating birds. Despite the small area and less mature forest, we found evidence of substantial use by mammals. In camera trap photos we identified Ocelot, Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata), and White-nose Coati (Nasua narica). Ours was not the first camera trapping done on this property: three years ago, a group of European researchers placed a series of camera traps here for two months, and were able to capture a Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi). We found sign of Collared Peccary, but not of Baird’s Tapir or Spider Monkeys, both which were reported to have been extirpated by poachers from the Bahía Chal area.

Figure 4. Map of the Sibaja FBS property: green and black outline = perimeter; green trees = old growth forest patches; bull’s eyes = camera trap locations; blue lines = streams; gray lines = travel routes; pink line = amphibian transect; yellow lines = bird transects; yellow birds = lek locations

12 Parajeles

The fourth property that we visited belongs to don Alcides Parajeles, a noted environmental activist in the Los Mogos region of the Osa. Alcides lives on the property with his wife Isabel and 44-year old son Javier. Two of his other sons live on adjacent properties with their families. The 259.4 ha property under payments is a mix of mature forest that has been selectively logged and secondary forest that is recovering from being used as pasture for the past 25 years. There are three streams on the property, two of which run year round. The forest fragments on this and nearby properties comprise a very important habitat corridor for wide-ranging species such as peccaries and feline predators, which are frequently spotted here. Don Alcides spends a large portion of his time and energy discouraging poachers and loggers, who intrude frequently. This conflict has, over the years, resulted in shot hunting dogs, arson, threats to life, and vandalism of his corral.

Figure 5. Map of the Parajeles FBS property: green and black outline = perimeter; green trees = old growth forest patches; bull’s eyes = camera trap locations; blue lines = streams; gray lines = travel routes; pink line = amphibian transect; yellow lines = bird transects; yellow birds = lek locations

13 The area of the Parajeles property under FBS payments is mainly secondary forest; the primary forest that is there is concentrated along the southern border. We did not see many large trees standing, but there were several large (> 80 cm DBH) down trees, which the family reports fell during a hurricane approximately 16 years ago. There are three main streams that flow through the property west to east, draining the highlands into the Térraba-Sierpe, which begins at the farthest edge of the land owned by don Alcides. The connectivity between the highlands and wetlands makes this location a key corridor for wildlife movement. The family sources their drinking and irrigation water from the largest of their three streams, which does not go dry seasonally. We walked up two of the streams until the channel was less than a meter wide and too narrow to walk any farther. There is a ridgeline that runs north-south on the property, and one of the streams ends in a swampy area that is popular with Collared Peccary, which Alcides stocks with water in the dry season, bananas, and oil palm fruits from his land. We found Great Currasow (Crax rubra), Crested Guan (Penelope purpurascens) and heard both Little (Crypturellus soui) and Great Tinamou (Tinamus major), birds all of which are threatened by hunting. We captured Ocelot and a herd of Collared Peccary on our camera traps, and Puma on another researcher’s camera during our time. We also found the Granular Poison (Oophaga granulifera) on this property. Like the Sibaja property, there was no evidence of Baird’s Tapir.

Rapid Biodiversity Inventories

Birds

On each property, we conducted bird surveys using standardized (morning transects) and opportunistic methods. From transect data, we created rarefaction curves for each property (Figure 6), and from these estimated an equilibrium number of bird species present on each property using the biodiversity calculation software EstimateS (http://viceroy.colorado.edu/estimates; Table 2). Complete bird lists for each property can be found in Appendix 1. The highest number of endemic birds were seen on the Parajeles and Sánchez properties, which are also the two largest. On these properties, we recorded nine species endemic to either the Osa Peninsula or southwestern Costa Rica and Western , respectively. In total we registered two species listed on the IUCN Red List; these were the Black-cheeked - (Habia atrimaxillaris) and Great Curassow (Table 2).

14 Table 2. Summary of bird transects

EstimateS Number of Property number of IUCN Red List species Notable Endemics Owner species Species observed present Charming Hummingbird; Baird's ; Fiery-billed Aracari; Golden- Alcides Black-cheeked naped ; Black-hooded 106 120 Parajeles Ant-tanager (EN) Antshrike; Orange-collared Manakin; Black-bellied ; Riverside Wren; Cherrie's Tanager Charming Hummingbird; Baird's Trogon; Fiery-billd Aracari; Golden- José Tobías Black-cheeked 91 124 naped Woodpecker; Black-hooded Sibaja Ant-tanager (EN) Antshrike; Riverside Wren; Cherrie's Tanager Baird's Trogon; Golden-naped Juana Black-cheeked Woodpecker; Black-hooded 78 105 Jiménez Ant-tanager (EN) Antshrike; Orange-collared Manakin; Riverside Wren Charming Hummingbird; Baird's Black-cheeked Trogon; Fiery-billed Aracari; Golden- Xinia Sánchez Ant-tanager (EN); naped Woodpecker; Black-hooded 102 111 y hrmos. Great Curassow Antshrike; Orange-collared Manakin; (VU) Black-bellied Wren; Riverside Wren; Cherrie's Tanager

Figure 6. Rarefaction curves for estimating bird richness on surveyed properties calculated using the statistical program EstimateS. Red dots represent daily special richness trends

15 Herpetofauna

We actively searched for frogs in upland habitats and conducted stream transects each night, photographing and identifying each species we encountered. In total, we recorded 29 species of reptile and amphibian among the four properties, with the greatest diversity on the Sánchez (Table 3). Qualitatively, we observed diversity to be correlated with riparian habitat quality and availability.

Table 3. Summary of herpetofauna surveys; full species list in Appendix 2

# of Species Property Owner IUCN Red List species Observed Oophaga granulifera (VU) Alcides Parajeles 13 Silverstonia nubicola (NT) *Craugastor taurus (CR) José Tobías Sibaja 8 Silverstonia nubicola (NT) nubicola(NT) Juana Jiménez 14 *Craugastor taurus (CR) (NT) Xinia Sánchez y hrmos. 17 Bolitoglossa lignicolor (VU)

*ID unconfirmed

Mammals

To document mammals, we used four difference methodologies: live sightings, camera traps (Figure 7), tracks, and interviews, which optimized our ability to capture shy and nocturnal animals.

Figure 7. Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) captured on April 6th (left); and (b) a herd of Collared Peccaries (Pecari tajacu) captured on April 7th (right) on the property of don Alcides Parajeles

16 We observed and/or located sign of many large mammal species, including the following (IUCN Red List status in parentheses): Geoffroy’s Spider Monkey (EN), Baird’s Tapir (EN), White-lipped Peccary (VU), Central American Red Brocket Deer (Mazama americana) (DD), Paca (a.k.a. Tepezquintle; LC), Collared Peccary (LC), Jaguar (NT), Margay (Leopardus wiedii) (NT), Ocelot (LC), Jaguarundi (LC), and Puma (LC). We even heard stories of animals long since extirpated from the Osa Peninsula, such as the Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) and Giant Anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), but none of these were recent. Mammal data are summarized by property in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Mammals documented by means of: I=Interview; L=Live sighting; C=Camera trap; and T=Tracks or call; Y=Young present. Red indicates that data was collected by a different organization

IUCN Species Scientific name Parajeles Sánchez Jiménez Sibaja Status Mantled Howler Monkey Alouatta palliata LC - T I T Geoffroy's Spider Monkey Ateles geoffroyi EN - L L - White-faced Capuchin Cebus capucinus LC L,C I I L Hoffman's Two-toed Sloth Choloepus hoffmanni LC I - I - Three-toed Sloth Bradypus variegatus LC I - I - Tayra Eira barbara LC I - - - Ocelot Leopardus pardalis LC C T T C Margay Leopardus wiedii NT I I - - Jaguar Panthera onca NT C I - C Puma Puma concolor LC C I - - Jaguarundi Puma yagouaroundi LC I I - C Neotropical River Otter Lontra longicaudis NT I T - - Hog-nosed Skunk Conepatus semistriatus LC - C - - Common Opossum Didelphis marsupialis LC - I - - Tamandua Anteater Tamandua mexicana LC - I T - Nine-banded Armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus LC C I - - Red Brocket Deer Mazama americana DD - T C - Collared Peccary Pecari tajucu LC L,C I - C White-lipped Peccary Tayassu pecari VU I I T,I - Baird’s Tapir Tapirus bairdii EN - S T - White-nosed Coati Nasua narica LC - - - L Raccoon Procyon spp. LC - C C - Spotted Paca Cuniculus paca LC C,T C C,T C Central American Agouti Dasyprocta punctata LC - L C C,T Murid rodent Muridae C - - - Alfaro’s Pygmy Squirrel Microsciuris alfari LC - - L,Y - Red-tailed Squirrel Sciurus granatensis LC - - L - Spix's disk-winged Thyroptera tricolor LC - - L - Greater Sac-winged Saccopteryx bilineata LC - - L -

17 Fourteen species, including 11 mammals, were captured by camera traps over a total of just 68 camera days. The nine species photographed on the Parajeles property were the most of any of the properties.

Figure 8. Camera trap events by property; events standardized per 100 camera days

60 Parajeles Sibaja 50 Jiménez

40 Sánchez

30

20

10

0 Observations per 100 camera days

Forest condition

On each property, we assessed forest condition using the following four methods: searching for large trees (trunk diameter >80 cm), remote sensing, learning about land- use history, and observing signs of logging or other human intrusion. We cross- examined recent stories of land-use history with a deforestation remote sensing database, Global Forest Watch, which detects both forest canopy loss and gain between 2001 - 2015. Using remote sensing data, we found only one deforestation even within these three properties which showed forest loss >30% in two adjacent pixels (each pixel is roughly equal to the canopy of one mature tree). It occurred in 2003 on the Sibaja Property of 7,200 m². We suspect this was the clearing of pasture land in an area that is not under payments. During our time on this property, we saw no evidence of recent clearing, although its trees were, on average, the youngest of all the properties, likely less than 30 years. old No other significant deforestation events were detected since 2001. We did not follow up on small events throughout the properties,

18 because the loss of one tree can frequently result from natural causes, such as storm blow-down or colonies. However, these smaller events could also be opportunistic illegal logging, as we witnessed on the Sánchez property.

Interviews

Sánchez

The Sánchez property is owned by five siblings who have equal say in decisions made about the property. We spent a week with Noel Sánchez (Figure 9), who is the sibling most interested in keeping the property protected and introducing tourism. His siblings are less interested in the property because of the effort required to reach it, as the road is impassible, and are considering selling the property. The majority of our information about the property comes from a series of interviews with Noel, who is 40 years old and grew up here. He has a background in construction and his tourism vision is to build a camping platform where their childhood home currently stands. He would use salvaged wood from the house as well as fallen logs around the property to construct the platform. This means he would only need money for nails and labor, which he estimates to be around USD$2000. He wants to use profits from ecotourism to hire a guard to protect the property. Other tourism professionals from around the Peninsula have expressed interest in bringing tourists here because of a large set of waterfalls on Río Nuevo.

Figure 9. Noel Sánchez demonstrates how to prepare heart of palm (palmito) while conducting research near Río Nuevo

19 Jiménez

During our time on the Jiménez property, we interviewed two members of the family, doña Juana (Figure 10) and her son Enrique, who lives 1.5km from the property in the nearby town of Rancho Quemado. Doña Juana has several other children who do not live in Rancho Quemado, and whom we were unable to meet. Doña Juana has a mind to selling the property, as she has not visited it in many years due to the difficulty of access. Her stories of the place provide a great background for what the landscape looked like 40 years ago, when she and her family were homesteading in the location under payments today. Enrique visits the property more than his mother, but perhaps only once a year in recent years. His ideas are about establishing an ecotourism destination here, with cabins, trails and maybe even a zip line, but the family does not have the funds nor expertise necessary to undertake this project. Juana is considering selling the house, because she is not confident that they will ever profit from tourism, and the payments they receive from FBS are not, by themselves, enough to live on.

Figure 10. Doña Juana Jiménez (left) and a stream at the northern boundary of the Jiménez property (right)

Sibaja

Doña María and Don José Sibaja live on their finca and are both very influential within their community of Bahía Chal. They have a son who lives less than 5 km away and three other children who live in San José. When they moved to their current location, the community did not have running water until the Sibajas fought for it. María has lived on the property for seven years and José has lived there much longer. They graze a few horses and cattle, but the grazing land is fenced off from the area receiving FBS

20 payments. There is also about one ha of pasture land that that has been left to regenerate under payments. José reported that Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía (MINAE) had promised them seedlings three years ago to replant the area, but they are still waiting to receive them. The Sibajas split time between their finca and San José, and when they are gone there is no one watching the property. José is suspicious of poachers entering at these times and, for this reason, he does not maintain trails on the property. The Sibajas have a dream of constructing cabins and running them as a care facility for elderly or sick folks, as María is a former nurse and many of their children also work in medicine. They were close to beginning this process a few years ago, but the funding fell through so now they are looking for an alternative.

Figure 11. View from the rancho of doña María y don José Sibaja

Parajeles

Don Alcides Parajeles (Figure 12) has a passion for conservation. He has lived on his property for 68 years, having moved onto the land with his mother when he was four years old. When his parents died 25 years ago, he inherited the land and began to let some of it that had been cleared for cattle grazing begin the process of natural regeneration. Don Alcides still maintains more than 10 ha of grazing land for their three horses and few dozen cattle. He reports that his motivation for enrolling in PES is to

21 have enough money to feed his family without having to sell the property. Alcides has no interest in tourism, but will continue to defend and support the wildlife on his property for as long as he lives. He maintains an orchard of banana trees and African oil palms to provide food for wildlife and, as mentioned above, there is also a wallow that he keeps wet for the Collared Peccaries so that they do not wander onto surrounding palm oil plantations to be shot. Alcides is aware of his 72 years and that his sons will soon be inheriting his domain. He hopes that he has instilled in them a conservation ethic such that they will carry on his legacy. Conversations with his son, Javier, revealed that he shares (at least to a degree) his father’s love for wildlife, and is interested in developing tourism: his vision involves horseback tours and accommodating visitors in small cabins.

Figure 12. Don Alcides Parajeles with a bunch of bananas that he will leave for the Collared Peccaries that regularly visit a nearby wallow

22 Threats

On each property we recorded potential threats to biodiversity based on information acquired from visual evidence (e.g. recent saw marks on trees or photographs of hunters) and interviews with beneficiaries. Threats are summarized in Table 5. It should be noted that the perceived severity of threats is only relative to what we found at a very small number of properties on the Osa Peninsula, and is not applicable elsewhere. The highest scores represent threats that we saw direct evidence of during our visit, such as a gold mining camp on the Sánchez property with food remnants that were not fully decomposed, indicating the camp had been recently occupied. Several beneficiaries discussed their deliberate choice not to create trails or access routes into their FBS properties, because they wanted to discourage illegal access.

Table 5. Perceived threats to biodiversity on FBS properties as subjectively assessed by RRCS scientists: A=threat Absent, indicating no evidence of threat and no potential for threat to appear; L=Low level, some evidence that threat occurred at some point in the past; M=Medium level, clear evidence that threat occurred in the past or is still occurring periodically; H=High level, clear and recent evidence of the threat was directly observed a Threat level Threat Parajeles Sibaja Jiménez Sánchez

Poaching H M H H Timber harvest L L M M Shrimp harvest by poisoning L A H H Gold mining A A A H Adjacent development M M L L Likelihood of selling within 2 years L L H H

Conclusions and Recommendations

Rapid Biodiversity Inventories are intended to quickly and efficiently inventory biological diversity across multiple taxa. In this study, RBIs were conducted to estimate bird, herpetofauna, and mammal diversity on four FBS-enrolled fincas over a period of 4-6 days (plants were not included in RBIs due to identification challenges and overwhelming species numbers). Overall, 178 species of bird, 29 mammals, and 29 amphibians and reptiles were documented over a ~1 month period. While these are certainly respectable figures, a longer sampling duration (e.g. 10 days per finca) and

23 conducting surveys in the wet season would yield more complete and rigorous inventories. It could also be of great benefit to leave camera traps installed over long periods (6+ months), though access and security are deterrents to this strategy.

For future surveys, RBI protocols might be revised to more specifically target indicator species and IUCN Red List species. On the Osa Peninsula, for example, a list of trees that indicate primary, intact forest such as Ajo (Caryocar costaricense) (VU) and Costus osae (VU; Osa endemic) and birds that indicate low hunting pressure such as Great Currassow (VU) and Great Tinamou (NT), could be compiled.

Ideally, RBI work would be standardized and expanded to include all FBS-enrolled properties throughout the country. This would require fairly extensive field (1 year) and office/lab (2 years) efforts. To maximize the quality and reliability of results, we would recommend partnering with experts in the various taxonomic groups under study.

We found FBS-enrolled forests on the Osa Peninsula to be in “good” ecological condition overall, with little to no erosion or physical impairments of streams, and effectively zero deforestation since 2001. In addition, the presence of sensitive species - including Jaguar, White-lipped Peccary, and Collared Peccary (on three out of four properties), and Baird’s Tapir and Red Brocket Deer (on two out four properties) - indicates a reasonably high quality of habitat for wildlife at the landscape scale.

Nevertheless, several threats to biodiversity were detected, including poaching, timber harvest, shrimp harvest by poisoning, gold mining, adjacent development, and the potential for property sale in the short term. The presence and level of these threats differed greatly between properties, and addressing them is complex. One measure that could be taken immediately, which was put forth independently by more than one beneficiary, is the installation of FBS signage on the perimeter of properties to discourage its illegal use. This is especially a concern for the fincas of Juana Jiménez and the Sánchez siblings, who do not live or maintain a regular presence on their properties.

To the extent that funding is available, RRCS would advocate for cautious expansion of FBS on the Osa Peninsula through a systematic process using biological and social criteria. In accordance with FBS’s mission, social criteria should target the poor, women, and indigenous groups. Precedence should be given to large properties and those adjacent to existing protected areas, including biological corridors. If possible, rare and threatened ecosystems (e.g. mangroves) should also be targeted.

24

To better evaluate the effectiveness of FBS, we should seek to better understand the indirect effects of payments (Sierra et al. 2006). What are payments being used for? Are they stimulating deforestation or degrading activities elsewhere? In the absence of payments, would properties be converted to alternative uses? Through detailed, structured interviews with beneficiaries, it should be possible to gain a more holistic view of FBS and its contribution to the conservation of Costa Rica’s forests.

The time that RRCS scientists and students spent on each finca was valuable far beyond the biological data collected. We were able to get to know the families, their hopes and fears, in some cases their dreams. Our students improved their Spanish, while the landowners improved their English. All the families expressed some interest in starting an eco-tourism business. Though the reality is they are not fully prepared to embark on such an endeavor at this time, spending a few days with adventurous, young Americans allowed beneficiaries to connect to a demographic that some of them hope to entertain one day as clients. We believe that for this, and many other, reasons, continued support from FBS in partnership with RRCS could help beneficiaries prepare for careers in tourism or other livelihoods of their choosing.

We advocate for facilitating more cooperation among beneficiaries, in the spirit of FBS’s acompañamiento philosophy. This could take the form of an eco-tourism cooperative, which would create a platform for sharing experiences while increasing access to micro-financing, marketing, and other potentially useful services. Above all, it would unite a community of like-minded individuals in the region. Because the financial solvency of beneficiaries is, by definition, critical for maintaining conservation gains achieved through FBS, assisting beneficiaries in this regard would engender the full realization of sustainable biodiversity conservation.

References

Barlow, J., T.A. Gardner, I.S. Araujo, T.C. Ávila-Pires, A.B. Bonaldo, J.E. Costa, and M.S. Hoogmoed. 2007. Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary, and plantation forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(47), 18555-18560.

25 Ghose, S.L., M.A. Donnelly, J. Kerby, and S.M. Whitfield. 2014. Acute toxicity tests and meta-analysis identify gaps in tropical ecotoxicology for amphibians. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 33:2114–2119.

Lorion, C.M., and B.P. Kennedy. 2009. Riparian forest buffers mitigate the effects of deforestation on fish assemblages in tropical headwater streams. Ecological Applications 19.2 (2009): 468-479.

Mendoza, A.M., and H.T. Arita. 2014. Priority setting by sites and by species using rarity, richness and phylogenetic diversity: the case of neotropical glassfrogs (Anura: Centrolenidae). Biodiversity and Conservation 23.4 (2014): 909-926.

Muñoz-Chacón, F., and R.D. Johnston. 2013. Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica: A Pocket Guide. Zona Tropical Publications, New York.

Savage, J.M. 2002. The amphibians and reptiles of Costa Rica: a herpetofauna between two continents, between two seas. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Sierra, R., and E. Russman. 2006. On the efficiency of environmental service payments: a forest conservation assessment in the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. Ecological economics, 59(1), 131-141.

Whitfield, S.M., K.R. Lips, and M.A. Donnelly. 2016. Amphibian decline and conservation in Central America. Copeia, 104(2), 351-379.

26 Appendix 1. Bird species richness by property; percentages represent the percentage of surveys in which each species was recorded at each location

Common Name Scientific Name Parajeles Sibaja Sánchez Jiménez Baird's Trogon Trogon bairdii 50% 100% 83% 50% Baltimore Oriole Icterus galbula 50% - - 50% Bananaquit Coereba flaveola 50% 25% 17% - Band-tailed Threnetes ruckeri - - 17% - Bay-headed Tanager Tangara gyrola - - 17% Incidental Bicolored Antbird Gymnopithys bicolor - - 17% 50% Black Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus tyrannus - - Incidental - Black Vulture Coragyps atratus - 25% 17% - Black-and-white Owl Ciccaba nigrolineata - - Incidental - Black-bellied Wren Pheugopedius fasciatoventris 50% - 17% - Black-cheeked Ant-Tanager Habia atrimaxillaris Incidental 50% 67% 50% Black-hooded Antshrike Thamnophilus bridgesi 50% 25% 50% 50% Black-striped Sparrow Arremonops conirostris 50% - - - Black-striped lachrymosus 50% 100% 17% 50% Black-tailed Flycatcher Myiobius atricaudus - - Incidental 50% Black-throated Antthrush Formicarius analis - - - 50% Black-throated Trogon Trogon rufus 50% 75% 67% 50% Blue Dacnis Dacnis cayana - 25% 17% - Blue Ground-Dove Claravis pretiosa 50% - 33% - Blue-black Grassquit Volatinia jacarina 50% 25% - - Blue-black Grosbeak Cyanocompsa cyanoides - - Incidental - Blue-crowned Manakin Lepidothrix coronata - 25% - 50% Blue-gray Tanager Thraupis episcopus - 25% - - Blue-throated Goldentail Hylocharis eliciae - - 33% - Boat-billed Flycatcher Megarynchus pitangua 50% - - 50% Boat-billed Heron Cochlearius cochlearius Incidental - - - Bright-rumped Attila Attila spadiceus 50% 25% 50% 50% Bronzy aeneus 50% 25% 100% - Buff-rumped Warbler Myiothlypis fulvicauda 50% - 33% 50% Buff-throated Foliage-gleaner Automolus ochrolaemus - 25% 17% 50% Buff-throated Saltator Saltator maximus 50% - 17% - Cabanis's Wren modestus Off FBS land - - - Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis - 25% - - Charming Hummingbird decora 50% 50% 33% - Cherries's Tanager Ramphocelus costaricensis 100% 25% 50% - Chestnut-backed Antbird Myrmeciza exsul 100% 100% 100% 50% Chestnut-headed Oropendola Psarocolius wagleri - 25% - - Chestnut-sided Warbler Setophaga pensylvanica 50% 75% Incidental 50% Clay-colored Thrush Turdus grayi 50% 25% 17% - Cocoa Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus susurrans 50% 75% 50% 50%

27 Common Pauraque Nyctidromus albicollis 50% - - - Collared Forest-Falcon Micrastur semitorquatus - Incidental - - Common Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum cinereum - Incidental - - Costa Rican fumosa - 25% - - Crested Caracara Caracara cheriway - Incidental - - Crested Guan Penelope purpurascens 50% Incidental 17% Incidental Crested Owl Lophostrix cristata Incidental - - - Crimson-fronted Parakeet Psittacara finschiO - - 17% - Crowned Woodnymph Thalurania colombica 50% 25% 17% 50% Dot-winged Antwren Microrhopias quixensis - - 17% 50% Dusky Antbird Cercomacroides tyrannina - - Incidental - Dusky-capped Flycatcher tuberculifer 50% - - - Fiery-billed Aracari Pteroglossus frantzii 50% 75% 33% - Gartered Trogon Trogon caligatus 50% - 50% 50% Golden-crowned Spadebill Platyrinchus coronatus 50% 50% 17% 50% Golden-hooded Tanager Tangara larvata 50% 50% - Incidental Golden-naped Woodpecker Melanerpes chrysauchen 50% 50% 83% 50% Gray-breasted Crake Laterallus exilis Off property - - - Gray-capped Flycatcher Myiozetetes granadensis Incidental 25% - - Gray-chested Dove Leptotila cassinii 50% - 17% 50% Gray-cowled Wood- Aramides cajaneus Off property - 17% - Gray-headed Chachalaca Ortalis cinereiceps - Incidental - - Gray-headed Tanager Eucometis penicillata - - 33% 50% Gray-lined Hawk Buteo nitidusO - - Incidental - Great Crested Flycatcher Myiarchus crinitus 50% 25% 67% 50% Great Curassow Crax rubra 50% - 17% Incidental Great Egret Ardea alba Off property - - - Great Kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus 50% 25% 50% - Great Tinamou Tinamus major 50% 75% 17% 50% Green Heron Butorides virescens Off property - - - Green Chlorophanes spiza - 25% 33% 50% Green Kingfisher Chloroceryle americana - - 17% 50% Green Shrike- Vireolanius pulchellus - - 17% - Hook-billed Kite Chondrohierax uncinatus - - 17% - House Wren Troglodytes aedon 50% Incidental - - King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa - 25% 17% - Laughing Falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans - - 17% - Lesser Greenlet decurtatus 50% 100% 50% 50% Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes Off property - - - Lesson's Motmot Momotus lessonii 50% 25% 33% 50% Lineated Woodpecker Dryocopus lineatus 50% 50% 17% Incidental Little Blue Heron Egretta caerulea Off property - - - Little Tinamou Crypturellus soui 50% 25% 100% 50% Long-billed Hermit longirostris 50% 75% 83% 50% Marbled Wood-Quail Odontophorus gujanensis 50% - - -

28 Magnificent Frigatebird Fregata magnificens - 25% - - Masked Tityra Tityra semifasciata - 25% - 50% Mealy Parrot Amazona farinosa 50% 25% 17% - Mottled Owl Ciccaba virgata - Incidental Incidental - Northern Bentbill Oncostoma cinereigulare 50% - Incidental - Northern Jacana Jacana spinosa Off property - - - Northern Waterthrush Parkesia noveboracensis - - 33% - Northern-Barred Woodcreeper Dendrocolaptes sanctithomae - - - 50% Ochre-bellied Flycatcher Mionectes oleagineus - - Incidental - Olivaceous Woodcreeper Sittasomus griseicapillus - Incidental - - Orange-billed Sparrow Arremon aurantiirostris 50% 50% 33% 50% Orange-chinned Parakeet Brotogeris jugularis - 25% 33% 50% Orange-collared Manakin Manacus aurantiacus 50% - 67% 50% Osprey Pandion haliaetus - 25% - - Pale-billed Woodpecker Campephilus guatemalensis 50% 50% - - Palm Tanager Thraupis palmarum - 25% - - Paltry Tyrannulet Zimmerius vilissimus - - - 50% Philadelphia Vireo Vireo philadelphicus 50% 25% - - Piratic Flycatcher Legatus leucophaius 50% 100% 17% 50% Plain Antvireo Dysithamnus mentalis - - Incidental 50% Plain Xenops Xenops minutus - - 33% 50% Purple-crowned Fairy Heliothryx barroti - Incidental 17% 50% Red-capped Manakin Ceratopipra mentalis 50% 100% 33% 50% Red-legged Honeycreeper Cyanerpes cyaneus 50% 50% 33% - Red-lored Parrot Amazona autumnalis 50% 50% 33% - Riverside Wren Cantorchilus semibadius 50% 75% 100% 50% Roadside Hawk Rupornis magnirostris 50% 50% - - Rose-throated Becard Pachyramphus aglaiae - - Incidental - Ruddy Ground-Dove Columbina talpacoti - - 17% - Ruddy Quail-Dove Geotrygon montana - 25% - - Ruddy-tailed Flycatcher Terenotriccus erythrurus - Incidental - - Rufous Mourner holerythra - - - 50% Rufous Piha Lipaugus unirufus 50% 50% 33% 50% Rufous-tailed Hummingbird Amazilia tzacatl 50% 25% - - Rufous-tailed Jacamar Galbula ruficauda 50% 25% - - Scale-crested Pygmy-Tyrant Lophotriccus pileatus 50% - Incidental 50% Scaly-breasted Wren Microcerculus marginatus 50% 50% - Incidental Scarlet Macaw Ara macao - 25% 50% 50% Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea 50% 25% - - Scarlet-rumped Cacique Cacicus uropygialis Incidental - 33% 50% Shining Honeycreeper Cyanerpes lucidus 50% 25% - Incidental Short-billed Pigeon Patagioenas nigrirostris 50% 100% 67% 50% Slate-headed Tody-flycatcher Poecilotriccus sylvia - - Incidental - Slaty Antwren Myrmotherula schisticolor - - - 50% Slaty-tailed Trogon Trogon massena 50% 75% 50% 50%

29 Social Flycatcher Myiozetetes similis 50% 25% - - Southern Lapwing Vanellus chilensis Off property - - - Spectacled Owl Pulsatrix perspicillata 50% - Incidental - Spot-crowned Euphonia Euphonia imitans - - - 50% Spot-fronted Swift Cypseloides cherriei - - 33% - Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius Off property - - - Spotted Woodcreeper Xiphorhynchus erythropygius - - Incidental - Squirrel Cuckoo Piaya cayana 50% - - 50% Streaked Flycatcher Myiodynastes maculatus 50% - - - Streak-chested Antpitta Hylopezus perspicillatus - 25% - - Streak-headed Woodcreeper Lepidocolaptes souleyetii 50% 25% - - Stripe-throated Hermit Phaethornis striigularis 50% 50% 33% 50% Sulpher-bellied Flycatcher Myiodynastes luteiventris 50% Incidental 17% - Summer Tanager Piranga rubra - - - 50% Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus 50% 50% - 50% Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides forficatus - - 17% 50% Tawny-crowned Greenlet Tunchiornis ochraceiceps Incidental - 33% 50% Tawny-winged Woodcreeper Dendrocincla anabatina - 25% Incidental 50% Thick-billed Euphonia Euphonia laniirostris Off property - - - Tropical plumbea 50% 25% - - Tropical Kingbird Tyrannus melancholicus 50% 25% - - Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura 50% 25% - - Variable Seedeater Sporophila corvinaC 50% - - - Uniform Crake Amaurolimnas concolor - - 17% - Wedge-billed Woodcreeper Glyphorynchus spirurus - - Incidental 50% Western Wood-Pewee Contopus sordidulus - Incidental - - White Hawk Pseudastur albicollis Incidental - - 50% White Ibis Eudocimus albus Off property - - - White-collared Swift Streptoprocne zonaris 50% - 17% - White-crowned Parrot Pionus senilis - 50% 17% 50% White-lined Tanager Tachyphonus rufus - - - 50% White-necked Jacobin Florisuga mellivora 50% - 33% 50% White-necked Puffbird Notharchus hyperrhynchus - Incidental - - White-ruffed Manakin Corapipo altera - - - 50% White-shouldered Tanager Tachyphonus luctuosus - - 17% 50% White-tipped Dove Leptotila verreauxi Incidental - - - White-throated Crake Laterallus albigularis - - Incidental - White-throated Shrike-Tanager Lanio leucothorax - - 17% 50% White-whiskered Puffbird Malacoptila panamensis - - - 50% White-winged Becard Pachyramphus polychopterus - 25% - - Wood Thrush Hylocichla mustelina 50% - - - Yellow Tyrannulet Capsiempis flaveola - - 17% - Yellow Warbler Setophaga petechia 50% - - - Yellow-bellied Elaenia Elaenia flavogaster 50% - - 50% Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus Incidental - - Off property

30 Yellow-billed Cacique Amblycercus holosericeus - - 17% - Yellow-olive Flycatcher Tolmomyias sulphurescens 50% 25% - - Yellow-throated Toucan Ramphastos ambiguus 50% 75% 83% 75%

31 Appendix 2. Herpetofauna diversity by property; X indicates confirmed presence; blank cells indicate that a species was not seen or heard.

Taxonomic Scientific Name Common Name Jiménez Sibaja Sánchez Parajales Group Frog Bufo melanochlorus N/A X Craugastor Frog Slim-fingered Rain Frog X crassidigitus Frog Craugastor fitzingeri Common Rain Frog X X X X Frog Craugastor rugosus Rugose Rain Frog X X Craugastor Stejneger’s Rain Frog Frog stejnegerianus X Frog Craugastor Taurus* Bull Rain Frog X X Frog Dendrobates auratus Green and Black X X X Hyalinobatrachium Frog Bare-hearted Glass Frog X colymbiphyllum Frog Hypsiboas rosenbergi Rosenberg’s Gladiator Frog X Smoky Jungle Frog Frog pentadactylus X X X Frog Leptodactylus poecilochilus N/A X

Frog Oophaga granulifera Granular Poison Frog X Sachatamia Frog Spotted Glass Frog X albomaculata Frog Silverstoneia nubicola Highland Rocket Frog X X X X Frog Smilisca sordida Drab Treefrog X X X

Lizard Ameiva ameiva Tropical Ameiva X X X

Lizard Ameiva leptophrys Reticulated Ameiva X X Lizard Amieva festiva Central American Ameiva X X X X Lizard Anolis aquaticus Water Anole X

Lizard Anolis humilis Ground Anole X X

Lizard Anolis polylepis Jumping Anole X X

Lizard Basilisca basilisca Common Basilisk X X

Lizard Leposoma southi N/A X Lizard Norops aquaticus N/A X

Lizard Sphenomorphus cherriei Striped Litter Skink X Salamander Bolitoglossa lignicolor Wood-colored Salamander X

Snake Amastridium veliferum N/A X Snake Bothrops asper Fer-de-Lance X

Snake Coniophanes fissidens N/A X

*ID unconfirmed

32 Appendix 3. Round River Conservation Studies – Costa Rica staff

Doug Milek, Programs Director Mateo Pomilia, Latin America Director Elizabeth Brunner, Conservation Scientist Chris Smith, Conservation Scientist

33