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Photonic Crystal Stimuli-Responsive Chromatic Sensors: a Short Review

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Photonic Crystal Stimuli-Responsive Chromatic Sensors: a Short Review micromachines Review Photonic Crystal Stimuli-Responsive Chromatic Sensors: A Short Review Andrea Chiappini 1 , Lam Thi Ngoc Tran 2 , Pablo Marco Trejo-García 1,3 , Lidia Zur 1, Anna Lukowiak 4 , Maurizio Ferrari 1 and Giancarlo C. Righini 5,* 1 Institute of Photonics and Nanotechnologies (IFN-CNR) CSMFO Laboratory and Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK) Photonics Unit, 38123 Povo (Trento), Italy; [email protected] (A.C.); [email protected] (P.M.T.-G.); [email protected] (L.Z.); [email protected] (M.F.) 2 Department of Materials Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Ho Chi Min City 70000, Vietnam; [email protected] 3 Faculty of Physico-Mathematical Sciences, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP), Puebla 72570, Mexico 4 Institute of Low Temperature and Structure Research, PAS, 50-422 Wroclaw, Poland; [email protected] 5 Nello Carrara Institute of Applied Physics (IFAC CNR), 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Firenze), Italy * Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected] Received: 15 January 2020; Accepted: 8 March 2020; Published: 10 March 2020 Abstract: Photonic crystals (PhC) are spatially ordered structures with lattice parameters comparable to the wavelength of propagating light. Their geometrical and refractive index features lead to an energy band structure for photons, which may allow or forbid the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a limited frequency range. These unique properties have attracted much attention for both theoretical and applied research. Devices such as high-reflection omnidirectional mirrors, low-loss waveguides, and high- and low-reflection coatings have been demonstrated, and several application areas have been explored, from optical communications and color displays to energy harvest and sensors. In this latter area, photonic crystal fibers (PCF) have proven to be very suitable for the development of highly performing sensors, but one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) PhCs have been successfully employed, too. The working principle of most PhC sensors is based on the fact that any physical phenomenon which affects the periodicity and the refractive index of the PhC structure induces changes in the intensity and spectral characteristics of the reflected, transmitted or diffracted light; thus, optical measurements allow one to sense, for instance, temperature, pressure, strain, chemical parameters, like pH and ionic strength, and the presence of chemical or biological elements. In the present article, after a brief general introduction, we present a review of the state of the art of PhC sensors, with particular reference to our own results in the field of mechanochromic sensors. We believe that PhC sensors based on changes of structural color and mechanochromic effect are able to provide a promising, technologically simple, low-cost platform for further developing devices and functionalities. Keywords: photonic crystal; optical sensing; nanostructures; mechanochromic sensors 1. Introduction Photonic bandgap (PBG) crystals, often referred to simply as photonic crystals, are materials characterized by the periodic modulation of the dielectric constant along one, two, or three directions of space. Correspondingly, one speaks about one-, two-, and three-dimensional (1D, 2D and 3D, respectively) photonic crystals (see Figure1). Micromachines 2020, 11, 290; doi:10.3390/mi11030290 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines Micromachines 2020, 11, 290 2 of 25 Micromachines 2020, 11, 290 2 of 25 FigureFigure 1. Sketch 1. Sketch of the of representationthe representation of the of the three three kinds kinds of photonicof photonic crystals. crystals. The The di differentfferent color color representsrepresents materials materials with diwithfferent different dielectric dielectric constants. constants. Adapted Adapted with with permission permission from from [1 ].[1]. One canOne think can think about about the interferencethe interference of light of light scattered scattered from from lattice lattice planes planes which which may may lead lead to to the the resultresult that some that frequenciessome frequencies are not are allowed not allowed to propagate, to propagate, giving risegiving to forbiddenrise to forbidden and allowed and allowed bands. Strictlybands. speaking, Strictly however, speaking, the twohowever, terms the PBG two and terms PhC shouldPBG and not bePhC considered should not as equivalent,be considered since as the latterequivalent, (PhC) actuallysince the applies latter (PhC) to any actually periodic applies dielectric to any or periodic metallic dielectric structure, or irrespective metallic structure, of the presenceirrespective of a full of photonic the presence band of gap. a full photonic band gap. WhatWhat is interesting is interesting is the is similaritythe similarity of the of the periodic periodic modulation modulation of of the the refractive refractive index index in in a a PhC PhC with the atomic lattice in a solid; hence, the behavior of photons in a PhC is similar to electron and with the atomic lattice in a solid; hence, the behavior of photons in a PhC is similar to electron and hole hole behavior in an atomic lattice. From a theoretical viewpoint, the determination of the behavior in an atomic lattice. From a theoretical viewpoint, the determination of the eigenfunctions (or eigenfunctions (or resonant frequencies) in a PhC is very similar to the calculation of the particle wave resonant frequencies) in a PhC is very similar to the calculation of the particle wave functions in the functions in the solid-state; in this way one can compute and design the photonic band structure. solid-state; in this way one can compute and design the photonic band structure. Many structures and applications have been explored since the milestone papers on PhCs by ManyYablonovitch structures [2] and John applications [3], that followed have been the explored pioneering since works the on milestone spontaneous papers emission on PhCs control by Yablonovitchin 1D structures [2] and Johnby Bykov [3], that [4,5] followed and on the the concept pioneering of 3D works photonic on spontaneouscrystals by Ohtaka emission [6]. controlMaybe the in 1D structuressimplest byexample Bykov of [1D4,5 ]PhC and is on represented the concept by ofthe 3D Bragg photonic grating, crystals namely by a layered Ohtaka structure [6]. Maybe made the of simplestalternating example high-index of 1D PhC and is represented low-index films; by the the Bragg 1D structures grating, namely are widely a layered used structureas antireflecting made of alternatingcoatings or high-index highly reflective and low-index mirrors in films;certain the lase 1Dr cavities. structures The areperiodicity widely of used the permittivity as antireflecting along coatingstwo or directions highly reflective allows a mirrorslarger variety in certain of configurations: laser cavities. A The periodic periodicity arrangement of the permittivity of circular holes along in two directionsa silicon substrate allows a or larger of dielectric variety ofrods configurations: in air provides A two periodic good examples arrangement of 2D of PhCs. circular Thanks holes to in the a siliconnoticeable substrate advances or of dielectric in Si-based rods sy instems, air provides the integration two good of 2D examples PhCs with of 2D electronic PhCs. Thankscircuits tois now the noticeablewithin advances reach. Much in Si-based interest, systems,however, the is focused integration on the of design 2D PhCs of new with geometric electronic configurations circuits is now of within3D reach. PhCs, Much which interest, may pave however, the way isto focusedthe development on the design of novel of newdevices. geometric It is clear configurations that the ability of to 3D PhCs,completely which maycontrol pave the theemission way to and the the development propagation of of novellight simultaneously devices. It is clear in all that three the dimensions ability to completelywould control represent the a emissiondisrupting and achievement the propagation in the fiel ofd lightof photonics. simultaneously Fabrication in allof 3D three PhCs, dimensions however, wouldis represent a tough and a disrupting challenging achievement issue, even in if the laser field direct of photonics. writing, laser Fabrication lithography of 3D and PhCs, self-assembly however, is a toughmethods and have challenging already produced issue, even valuable if laser results. direct The writing, reader laserinterested lithography in a deeper and knowledge self-assembly of the theory and applications of PhCs is referred to some of the many existing books [7–15]. methods have already produced valuable results. The reader interested in a deeper knowledge of the A relevant field of application of PhCs is sensing, and design and fabrication methods and theory and applications of PhCs is referred to some of the many existing books [7–15]. techniques have been developed, leading to feasibility demonstrations. Still, at least to our A relevant field of application of PhCs is sensing, and design and fabrication methods and knowledge, no commercial PhC-based sensors exist, even if, in addition to journals’ publications, a techniques have been developed, leading to feasibility demonstrations. Still, at least to our knowledge, number of MSc and PhD thesis works on this subject contribute to testify the research efforts in this no commercialdirection of PhC-based academic
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