The Use of Different Linguistic Codes in First, Second and Third Generation Italo-Costa Rican People at San Vito

Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Allan Castro Prieto Escuela de Formación Docente Universidad de Costa Rica

Resumen En el siguiente artículo presento un resumen de la administración y resultados de encuestas y entrevistas con el objetivo de investigar a fondo, utilizando una metodología mixta, si hablantes de primera, segunda y tercera generación de origen italiano en el cantón central de San Vito de Coto Brus cuentan en sus respectivos repertorios lingüísticos con el italiano estándar, el dialecto italiano de su región de origen o el de sus progenitores y el español de Costa Rica. Los resultados de las encuestas administradas en la tercera generación demuestran que los informan- tes no usan ni el italiano estándar ni tampoco el dialecto italiano y se consideran en su gran mayoría hispanoparlantes. Los resultados de las entrevistas administradas en la segunda y tercera generación, por el con- trario, demuestran que en estas dos generaciones y a diferencia de la tercera, el uso del italiano estándar y el español de Costa Rica constituyen los dos códigos lingüísticos o variedades de mayor uso. El uso del dialecto italiano es muy limitado en la segunda, pero se mantiene entre la primera generación en situaciones comunicativas muy específicas.

Palabras claves: dialecto, italiano estándar, español de Costa Rica, Costa Rica, San Vito de Coto Brus

Abstract In the following article, I present the administration and results of both a survey and interviews in a mixed methodology in order to find out if first,

Recepción: 28-09-16 Aceptación: 14-03-17 184 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933 second and third generation informants chosen at San Vito de Coto Brus spoke Standard Italian, Italian Dialect, or Costa Rican Spanish as part of their linguistic codes. The results of the survey demonstrated that in the third-generation speakers’ use of Standard Italian and Dialect is nonexistent and informants consider to be mostly a Spanish speaking community. On the other hand, the results of the interviews found in the first and second generation demonstrated that the use of Spanish and Standard Italian constituted their two major languages or codes used. The use of Italian Dialect is very limited.

Key words: dialect, standard Italian, Costa Rican Spanish, Costa Rica, San Vito de Coto Brus

Introduction Italian quite well without the languages significantly interfering with one anoth- he recent study of the dif- er. In other words, at least in the second ferent linguistic varieties in generation, Spanish and Italian seem to Tthree generation at San Vito coexist and develop independently. On de Coto Brus (southern region of Costa the other hand, Italo-Romance Dialects Rica) shows a very complex situation, are disappering or in the process of ero- particularly in the second generation; sion in the second generation of San these informants report having learned Vito. According to the results found in Italian as their first language at home, both the quantitative and the qualita- and Spanish as the second outside the tive research, this same competence and family home, in a secondary socializa- performance in the Italian language in tion process. Education in Italian seems the second generation may not be fully also to have played a very significant transmitted to members of the third one. role, especially because of the high value they give to Standard Italian in their linguistic repertoire. Other factors such 1. Description of the quantitative as different origins and different ver- research nacular languages spoken by previous generations, a high socio-economic level In order to assess the local reper- which allows them to travel to Italy toire in third- generation speakers, a together with their families, the use of quantitative survey was administered technology, and the importance they to two hundred thirty-eight informants give to Italian symbols abroad, all have or participants. The following charts made it possible for them develop a stan- and graphs show the most important dard use of Italian. This same conclu- uses of the three languages, that is, sion was reached by Franceschi during Spanish, Italian and Italo-Romance the early 70’s in the same community. It Dialect among third-generation speak- is also interesting to note that although ers in San Vito de Coto Brus. After this nowadays they speak Standard Spanish explanation, an analysis of results and and Costa Rican Spanish dialects fully, a summary are provided. they also can speak a very high form of CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 185

1.1 Samples of survey results in third-generation interviewees

Graphic 1 Distribution by spoken Dialect among interviewees

Graphic 2 Distribution by native language among interviewees 186 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Table 1 Distribution by native language among interviewees

Absolute Figure Relative figure

German 1 .4

Castilian Spanish 8 3.4

Costa Rican Spanish 1 .4

Iberian Spanish 224 94.1

English 2 .8

Italian 1 .4

Portuguese 1 .4

Total 238 100.0

Table 2 Distribution by spoken Dialect among interviewees

Absolute Figure Relative Figure

Bavarian 1 .4

Calabrese 1 .4

Castilian Spanish 6 2.5

Colloquial 1 .4

Costa Rican Spanish 1 .4

Iberian Spanish 125 52.4

“Pachuco” 3 1.3 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 187

“Pesimo” 1 .4

“Pezeteño” 1 .4

No accent 1 .4

“Tico” 6 2.5

Verbal 1 .4

No response 90 37.8

Total 238 100.0

Table 3 Distribution by spoken languages among interviewees

Yes No No Response

Spanish 235 2 1

Italian 201 36 1

Spanish 234 4 0

Italian 10 228 0

Italo-Romance Dialect 5 233 0

Other 21 217 0 188 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 3 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken with the mother among interviewees

Table 4 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken with the father among interviewees

Yes No No answer

Spanish 230 6 2

Italian 9 227 2

Italo-Romance Dialect 3 233 2

Other 19 217 2 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 189

Graphic 4 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken with the father among interviewees

Table 5 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken with siblings among the interviewees

Yes No No Response

Spanish 19 0

Italian 15 223 0

Italo-Romance 2 236 0

Dialect

Other 49 189 0

No siblings 16 222 0 190 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 5 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken with siblings among interviewees

Table 6 Distribution by language or Dialect used in moments of anger among interviewees

Yes No No answer

Spanish 219 16 2

Italian 23 213 2

Italo-Romance Dialect 6 230 2

Other 62 174 2 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 191

Graphic 6 Distribution by language or Dialect used in moments of anger among interviewees

Table 7 Distribution by language or Dialect used with friends in moments of joy among interviewees

Yes No No answer

Spanish 228 5 5

Italian 18 215 5

Italo-Romance Dialect 4 229 5

Other 65 168 5 192 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 7 Distribution by language or Dialect used with friends in moments of joy among interviewees

Table 8 Distribution by language or Dialect used when sharing meals among interviewees

Yes No No Response

Spanish 233 2 3

Italian 12 223 3

Italo-Romance Dialect 5 230 3

Other 29 206 3 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 193

Graphic 8 Distribution by language or Dialect used when sharing meals among interviewees

Table 9 Distribution by language or Dialect learned first as a child among interviewees

Yes No No Response

Spanish 230 6 2

Italian 3 233 2

Italo-Romance Dialect 2 234 2

Other 27 209 2 194 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 9 Distribution by language or Dialect learned first as a child among interviewees

Table 10 Distribution by language or Dialect learned in school

Yes No No response

Spanish 203 33 2

Italian 23 213 2

Italo-Romance Dialect 2 234 2

Other 179 57 2

No new language learned 6 230 2 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 195

Graphic 10 Distribution by language or Dialect learned in school

Table 11 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken by parents to interviewees

Yes No No Response

Spanish 237 1 0

Italian 17 221 0

Italo-Romance Dialect 5 233 0

Other 31 207 0 196 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 11 Distribution by language or Dialect spoken by parents to interviewees

Table 12 Distribution by language or Dialect known before starting elementary school

Yes No No Response

Spanish 233 2 3

Italian 3 232 3

Italo-Romance Dialect 4 231 3

Other 30 205 3 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 197

Graphic 12 Distribution by language or Dialect known before starting elementary school

Table 13 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees when thinking

Yes No No Response

Spanish 227 8 3

Italian 61 174 3

Italo-Romance Dialect 6 229 3

Other 104 131 3 198 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Graphic 13 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees when thinking

Table 14 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees when writing

Yes No No response

Spanish 235 0 3

Italian 86 149 3

Italo Romance dialect 6 229 3

Other 139 96 3 CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 199

Graph 14 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees when writing

Table 15 Distribution by language or Dialect preferred by the interviewees to read books or magazines

Yes No No response

Spanish 228 5 5

Italo-Romance dialect 67 166 5

Other 150 83 5 200 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Table 16 Distribution by frequency of language or Dialect preferred by the interviewees to read books or magazines in Italian

Absolute Figure Relative Figure

Yes, often 17 7.1

Yes, sometimes 118 49.6

No response 103 43.3

Total 238 100.0

Graphic 15 Distribution by frequency of language or Dialect preferred by the interviewees to read books or magazines in Italian CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 201

Table 17 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees to speak to teachers

Yes No No answer

Spanish 186 43 9

Italian 28 201 9

Italo-Romance dialect 3 226 9

Other 49 180 9

No communication with teachers 35 194 9

Graphic 16 Distribution by language or Dialect used by the interviewees to speak to teachers

1.2 Interpretation of results However, Italian is known by 201 informants or 85.45% of the infor- Third-generation Italo-Costa Ricans mants (table and graph 3). It is used in San Vito de Coto Brus definitely con- in very specific instances such as read- stitute a fully Spanish speaking com- ing magazines and newspapers (86 of munity. The use of Spanish as the first the informants or 36.13%, table and language both within and outside home graph 17 and 67 of the informants, is evident in most of the responses given. or 28.15% graph and table 16), when 202 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933 they engaged in mental processes (61 the elementary, secondary, and univer- of the informants, or 25.63%, table and sity levels in this town. graph 14), when talking to teachers in The understanding itself of the school( 28 people, or 11.76%, graph and word “Dialect” as seen in the answers table 18), and when they were angry to the survey is related to the differ- (23 subjects, or 9%, table and graph 7), ent varieties of Costa Rican Spanish, language learned in school other than “Peseteño”, “Pachuco”, “Costarrique- Spanish (23,or 9%, table and graph 11), ñismo” (Costa Rican Spanish), etc. (see with friends on joyous occasions or at table and graph 2) moments of happiness (18 informants, A single informant reported “Cal- or 7.56%, graph and table 8). Italian abrese,” and just one other informant was also the language taught by par- reported “Bavarese.” In fact, the term ents other than Spanish (17, or 7.14%, “Dialect” understood as such by schol- table and graph 12), and was employed ars in Italy was completely unknown when talking to siblings (15, or 6.30%, by these participants. table 6), at family meals (12 informants, or 5.04%, table and graph 6), when talk- 1.3 Summary ing to their mothers (10, or 4.20%, table and graph 4) as well as to their fathers In brief, the use of Italian in third (9, or 3.78%, table 5), and to fellow town generation speakers in San Vito may residents (7, or 2.94%). It is important also be observed in the following graph. to note that Italian was being taught at

Graphic 17 Most important uses of Italian in third generation speakers CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 203

In short, results again show that hesitation markers. In these stages it is Italian is not the main language but common to find that communication in Spanish. In Australia, language loss the family occurs in a bilingual mode, was also investigated from an ethno- with the parents speaking Italian and/ graphic perspective, by Rubino, this or Dialect and the children using Eng- time in the second-generation speakers. lish extensively. In this situation Dia- The last stages of language erosion lect and Italian no longer have any com- among the second generation were municative function for the children, found to be characterised by highly but are limited to a kind of phatic or variable language mixing, simplifica- expressive function (2000, p.5). tion, hypercorrections, and frequent

2. Description of the qualitative research

2.1. Background information of informants

Italo- Name Occupa- First Second Sex Place of Mother Romance Educa- Religion tion Generation Generation birth tongue Dialect(s) tion spoken

M agronomist X M San Vito Italian Tuscan, Flo- college - rentine C psychologist X F San Vito Italian Florentine, college Catholic Tuscan D retired X F San Vito Italian Pugliese college Catholic F retired X M Bologna, Italian Bolognese fifth grade Catholic Italy elementary G farmer X M San Vito Italian Triestine ‘ high Catholic School C doctor X M San Vito Italian Italian college - E retired X F San Vito Italian Poggiomoi- college Catholic nesse Lazio M farmer X M Rome, Italian, Roman high Catholic Italy Spanish school L Cook X F Bergamo, Berga- Bergamasque seventh Catholic Italy masque grade high school T retired X F Treviso, Venetian Venetian third Catholic Italy grade elementary AM Waiter X F Rome Roman Roman high Catholic school 204 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

Scale: Italo-Romance M=Male, F=Female, Dialect bold italics 1=First generation, 2=Second gen- Taken from Guerini, F. 2006 eration, Ret=Retired, Psych=Psychologist, Agron=Agronomist, Wai= Waitress, 2.3 Origins and languages spoken Doc=Doctor, Agric=Agriculturist, Co=Cook, First generation SV= San Vito, Berg=Bergamo, Bolog= Bologna, Trev= Treviso, Ro=Rome. The origins of the people inter- ST=Signora Teresa viewed, as well as the languages spo- DC=Dottore Cesare ken, reveal a number of different loca- M=Martino tions and diverse languages. Among Mau=Mauro the first-generation speakers (Fausto, C=Caterina Teresa, Liliana), their origins are re- D=Dora spectively Bologna, Veneto, and Ber- AM=Anna Maria gamo. Consequently, their Italian va- F=Fausto rieties correspond to northern Italy. G= Giampaolo Regarding languages spoken, two of E= Eva them recognized the Italo-Romance SL=Signora Liliana Dialect as the first language learned Int=Interviewer at home with parents, while the Ital- ian was the second language, which was learned in school. This is the case 2.2 Transcriptions conventions: of Liliana and Teresa, who stated that the corresponding Italo-Romance Dia- , Short break without pause lect constituted their mother tongue, . Short pause during the same turn and Italian the second. … Long pause during the same turn ((pause)) pause lasting longer than 3 (1)- seconds 552 Int: Signora Teresa parliamo un @@ laughing po’ della lingua imparata a casa. : lengthening (of a vowel sound) 553 T(F-1-TREV-RET): Io, il dialetto ? Interrogative intonation e l’italiano quando uno va a scuola ! sentence final exclamatory intonation impara l’italiano. - Break off, unfinished sentence On the other hand, Fausto mentio- CAPITAL LETTERS emphasis ned Italian as his mother tongue / self-corrections and Bolognese as the Italo-Romance […] omissions Dialect spoken. Both were learned Note: the languages occurring within simultaneously. Spanish is the third the extracts quoted throughout the language. Their repertoire indicates research have been transcribed using the influence of the three varieties. the following conventions: They report being fluent in the Italian Roman three varieties (Italo-Romance Dia- Spanish Italics lect, Standard Italian and Spanish) CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 205

although the Italo-Romance Dialect Quando io sono tornato in Italia ho is reported as little used in all the avuto difficoltà perché in Italia gli cases in this first generation of Ita- esami sono fatti tutti quanti orali lo Costa Ricans, except with family quindi per riuscire a expresarse o members and/or friends in Italy spiegare bene in italiano ci ho messo when traveling there, when talking qualche anno; non è che di un giorno on the phone, or using Internet: al altro può (pause). Arrivi e parli e ti capiscono. Ci si mette qualche anno (2)- vero? Qualche annetto per riuscire a 215 Int: Signor, ricordi di detti, pro- parlare abbastanza bene. verbi, canzoni in dialetto possiamo When they were asked to report dire qualcosa. phrases in Italo Romance Dialect, 216 F(M-1-BOLOG-RET): Quando they generated various expressions: sono in Italia l’uso. Quello che hai imparato da piccolo (pause). Quando (4)- parlo con altri si mi viene. 275 Int: Parliamo un po’della fre- quenza del dialetto. Second generation 276 DC(M-2-SV.DOC): Il napoletano tende ad usare molto spesso Ca nisciun On the other hand, second genera- è fess cioè qua nessuno è scemo anche tion speakers’ family origins differ from Chi ha avuto ha avuto, chi ha dato ha those of the first generation group. dato significa la vita deve continuare. These origins range from Puglia for Eva reported phrases in Poggiomoia- Dora, to Trieste for Gianpaolo, Lazio nese, an Italo-Romance Dialect from for Anna Maria, Mauro and Eva, and Lazio: Tuscany for Cesare, Martino and Ca- terina. In this case, Italian was report- (5)- ed as the first language and Spanish as 317 Int: Ricordi di canzoni, proverbi, the second. However, Martino and Ce- detti in dialetto. sare mentioned that the Italian learned 318 E (F-2-SV-RET): Metti la fame al at home was just very basic. This is a dente che la fame si risente. common discourse among most second Anna María in Romano: generation speakers whose competence and performance of Standard Italian is (6)- high though. In other words, they say 528 Int: In Dialetto se può dire qual- and seem to believe that their level is cosa? basic but in fact their performance in 529 AM (F-2-RO-WAITR): Si può the Italian language seems to contra- dire qualcosa per esempio Ce vedemo dict this assertion: se non ce vedemo accendemo le luce.

(3)- (7)- 20 Int: Adesso parliamo un po’ della 255 Int: Perdita del dialetto. lingua imparata a casa. 256 G (M-2-SV-AGRIC): Non sareb- 21 M (M-2-SV-AGRON): La lingua be colpa nostra perché non c’è con chi imparata a casa... È una base... parlarlo (pause).Non tanti vengono 206 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

da Trieste (pause). Il dialetto non si losing the Italo- Romance Dialect will perde mai (pause) con la mia mamma be a great loss for humanity, as stated si parla. by Liliana: 257 Int: Il futuro del dialetto. 258 G(M-2-SV-AGRIC): Non si perde (8)- mai. 465 Int: Parliamo della perdita del dialetto. The rest of the speakers stated that 466 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Pecca- they do not speak any Italo-Romance to, io sarei d’accordissimo di metterlo Dialect. Here the Italo-Romance Dia- come una lingua in più, lì c’ è tutto, le lect seems to dissappear but not the tradizioni, tutto. Standard Italian. Moreover, the two 467 Int: Parliamo sul futuro del groups agree that writing in the Italo- dialetto. Romance Dialect is not common, and 468 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Spero sia that reading it is very unusual. How- buono, impararlo, capirlo, per i giovani. ever, speaking and teaching the Italo- Romance Dialect in Italy nowadays is Again, some of them stated that very important in order to maintain remembering words or phrases in traditions and the sense of belonging. Italo-Romance Dialect was possible The two groups, both first and second in the family group or when traveling generation speakers, agree that the in Italy, but not in an interview. This use of Italo-Romance Dialects in San logically refers to the symbolic value Vito is very marginal. In the case of the they give to the Italo-Romance Dia- second generation, they recognize the lect as a language used strictly with existence of it inside the family, and very close group identity but not used understand some words in most cases, with outsiders specially those belong- but do not speak it in Costa Rica. It is ing to the Spanish community of the interesting to note that although they country. When there is a Costa Rican do not speak it, they give a high value speaking person Spanish is preferred to the Italo-Romance Dialect with re- as we will see ahead. gards the preservation of cultural identity and wish in some cases Italo-Ro- (9)- mance Dialects were preserved. This 177 Int: Ricordi di proverbi, detti, may be related to the very strong sense canzoni in dialetto. of belonging to the group, and a very 178 D(F-2-SV-RET): non mi viene. strong social network as well. Answers are divided, however, (10)- when the two groups are asked about 125 Io: Parliamo un po’ della fre- the future of the Italo-Romance Dia- quenza dell’ uso del dialetto. lect. According to the first generation, 126 (F-2-SV-PSYCH): Allora, io it still will continue to be used, but the penso che noi parliamo più il fio- second generation notes that the old- rentino della parte de mia madre er people are dying or dead, and that non si capiva niente, nulla. Quando young people do not speak it in Italy sono andata in Italia però ho capito or in Costa Rica. They all agree that alcune parole. CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 207

It is interesting to note that speak- and Italian are the language groups to ers whose parents come from Tuscany which they mostly belong. It is impor- reported the absence of an Italo-Ro- tant to note that when there is a person mance Dialect in their families. On the who does not belong to the linguistic other hand, they report the use of a community, they also switch to Spanish more Standard Italian. This is related as stated previously. Again Italian and to the linguistic situation of Tuscany Italo-Romance Dialects function as a and the closeness between Standard mark of identity, although specially sec- Italian and the Tuscan variety of dia- ond generation speakers recognize them- lect. For more examples see Berruto selves as full Costa Ricans and Spanish (1995, p. 248) who speaks of “Bidialett- speakers. This assertion has nothing to ismo” for Tuscany and Rome where do with their sense of belonging to an- speakers are proficient in using two dif- other linguistic community. ferent dialects of the same language in the discourse. For example, as with the (12)- following speaker, the regional variety 151 Int: Parliamo della lingua usata of Italian is noticed in the pronuncia- quando si è a tavola. tion of words in the Florence area. 152 D (F-2-SV-RET): Lo spagnolo anche il pugliese perché mi sono sposa- (11)- ta con un Costaricense. Adesso con 21 Int: Standard diciamo così? 22 M lui si parla lo spagnolo. Quando ci (M-2-SV-AGRON): Dopo c’è un van- sono altri è meglio parlare come loro. taggio. In Toscana si parla il vero italiano se vai in altri province è mol- (13)- to diverso però, se vai giù al sud, il 421 Int: Quando si è a tavola napoletano, il calabrese dove c’è mia 422 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Adesso zia, in Basilicata quando ero lì dicevo le spiego una cosa. Io ho avuto sette non capisco nulla parlami in italiano. figli, uno l’ho perso, dopo un altro. Ho Ad esempio Guariagnetto che vuo- avuto undici nipoti. Quasi tutti sono le dire Bambino rimane proprio nell’ a San Jose perché tutti studiano. Si aria, un’altra lingua. A Firenze, To- parlano tutte e tre le lingue a volte scana parlano con la /h/ Mihele la /c/ si comincia in italiano e se finisce con viene detta, a Firenze c’è questo in spagnolo. La tendenza dopo tanti /c/ non viene pronunciata. anni in Costa Rica noi, e che si tratta di più la gente Costaricensi, soltanto 2.4 The use of Spanish and Italian in la domenica si usa l’ italiano. first and second generation (14)- First generation 151 Int: Parliamo della lingua usata quando si è a tavola. Spanish is the language used for 152 D (F-2-SV-RET): Lo spagnolo an- everything in both the first and second che il pugliese perché mi sono sposa- generation groups, and the language ta con un Costaricense. Adesso con they use with other non-Italian groups. lui si parla lo spagnolo. Quando ci They reported that nowadays Spanish sono altri è meglio parlare come loro. 208 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

(15)- like Australia where language shift 421 Int: Quando si è a tavola or change in their repertoire increased 422 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Adesso among second generation speakers in le spiego una cosa. Io ho avuto sette endogamic marriages in the 1990s (Ru- figli, uno l’ho perso, dopo un altro. Ho bino, 2000, p. 5). avuto undici nipoti. Quasi tutti sono a San Jose perché tutti studiano. Si The studies regarding language parlano tutte e tre le lingue a volte shift and language loss among Ita- si comincia in italiano e se finisce lo-Australians continued well into in spagnolo. La tendenza dopo tanti the 1990s. A comparison between anni in Costa Rica noi, e che si tratta the 1991 and 1996 census data di più la gente Costaricensi, soltanto showed that the number of Italian la domenica si usa l’ italiano. speakers decreased by 10.3%, from 28 M (M-2-SV-AGRON): Ti ripeto a 418,804 to 375,752 (Clyne & Kipp, casa sempre l’italiano. Fuori, al lavo- 1997). The rates of shift also con- ro, in giro, in altri posti lo spagnolo, la tinued to increase: from 11.2% to mia moglie è Costaricense e lei parla 14.7% among the first generation italiano un settanta per cento, l’ha im- and from 49.8% to 57.9% among parato a San Vito perché c’è la Dante the second generation taken as a Alighieri dove danno corsi di italiano. whole (or 42.6% for the children of Lei avrà, fatto dieci, undici corsi. Mia intraethnic marriages only). moglie non parlava l’italiano; l’ ha imparato dopo di essersi sposata. In other words, while Italian seems to decrease in endogamic marriages in (16)- Australia, the tendency in Costa Rica 489 Int: Anna parliamo della lingua among Italo-Costa Rican unions is pre- usata prima di sposarsi. serving Italian in the second genera- 490 AM (M-2-RO-WAITR): Parlavo tion, spouses and offspring. lo spagnolo e anche l’ italiano. Sono Both groups mentioned, however, sposata con Costaricense. Mio marito that when talking to friends in Cos- parla l’italiano. Se la devo mandare a ta Rica, in most cases Spanish is the quel paese lo faccio e lui mi risponde language used unless they encounter andiamo insieme. someone whose language is Italian. If children are of Italian parents, the Marrying a Spanish speaking per- situation is the same, and well as for son; therefore, means that this non neighbors. It happens among groups speaking Italian spouse has to learn of Italian-speaking friends when they Italian to teach children this lan- organize parties for their families, or guage. In San Vito, the tendency is to commemorate special Italian days towards preserving Italian for every- like the unification of Italy. Meetings body inside the family. The fact that among Italian speakers also take place Italian is still preserved in the second when the National Italian soccer team generation, taught to children or to plays, as reported by Mauro: the non Italian speaking spouse seems to contradict data from other places CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 209

(17)- o questo. Loro sempre dicono pratica 347 Int: Parliamo un po’ della lingua o con noi per imparare di più... bellino. lingue usate quando lei è arrabbiato. 348 Mau (M-2-SV-AGRIC): A vol- Here we can see again the high te qualche parola in italiano. Anche value they give to Italian and Italian quando gioca l’Italia viene fuori l’i- culture and how this high value helps taliano. Noi sentiamo l’ Italia di più. preserving language the more stan- Noi che siamo all’estero. dard possible.

Again here in this example the val- (20)- ue second generation speakers give to 103 Int: Parliamo della lingua o lin- Italian and to Italian symbols reveals a gue usate con gli insegnanti, sacerdo- special respect and a need for preserv- ti, medico. ing their language. 104 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH): Con mia Both groups report that some- sorella medico parlo in italiano così times in moments of anger or emotion, nessuno lo capisce, anche con un sa- they express themselves in Italian if cerdote italiano il quale veniva molto they are surrounded by other Italian spesso. Dipende della persona. speakers. Otherwise, Spanish is usu- ally preferred. The same can be said (21)- when telling jokes. When all the peo- 425 Int: Lingua usata con gli amici. ple present speak Italian, then that is 426 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Par- the language mainly used, but if there liamo in italiano, tutte italiane. Se is one person who does not under- giochiamo Uno con i Costaricensi si stand, they prefer to use the national parla lo spagnolo per educazione così language. It is important to note that lo capiscono tutti. sometimes the Costa Rican people ask them to speak in Italian because they Regarding mental calculations, have homework at school or because both groups reported Spanish in most it sounds “nice” to speak in Italian, as cases as the language used for such reported by Caterina: purposes.

(18)- (22)- 123 Int: Parliamo dell’ uso dell’italiano 201 Int: Signor Fausto parliamo un in contesti spagnoli. po’ della lingua usata per i calcoli 124 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH): Non c’è proble- mentali. ma. Loro i Costaricensi si sentono bene. 202 F (M-1-BOLOG-RET): Il sistema di qua per stare a livello. (19)- 99 Int: Lingua usata con vicini, ami- The only two speakers reporting ci, bambini a San Vito. Italian in this instance were Caterina 100 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH): Molto inte- and Martino: ressante. Adesso io ho compagni di Liceo che sanno che io parlo l’italiano e mi domandano come si dice quello 210 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

(23)- (25)- 105 Int: Caterina mi piacerebbe se 111 Int: Passiamo a parlare della lin- parlassimo della lingua usata per gua usata per sentire la radio, guar- fare calcoli mentali. dare la TV. 106 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH):Per la mate- 112 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH): In italiano. matica? Lo posso fare in italiano e spa- Mi piace molto le canzoni di Zucchero, gnolo. Noi Italiani abbiamo più facilità. Marco Masini... Li vedo per internet.

(24)- Consequently, listening to Stan- 47 Int: Per fare calcoli mentali. dard Italian on TV or internet as stated 48 M (M-2-SV-AGRON): Uso di più previously may contribute enormously l’italiano. to the choice of a variety over another. For two of the interviewees, hav- However, Italian is also used to ing bilingual Spanish-Italian employ- pray at home or when the priest per- ees for public services such as banking forming a church service is Italian. is necessary especially for the elderly. The use of Italian for writing is re- For the rest, Spanish is preferred. This duced now that they have the tech- also confirms one more time that stan- nology to talk to friends in Italy via dard Italian works for very specific sit- Skype, for example. Communication uations among other Italian speakers with relatives in Italy is very com- as an “in group” language. mon. Nowadays and thanks to new technology, communication plays an (26)- important role not only with regards 115 Int: Lingua preferita per i servizi to the social network but also with re- pubblici. gards to the competence and perfor- 116 C (F-2-SV-PSYCH): A San Vito mance in Standard Italian which will lo spagnolo. A scuola loro danno l’i- also explain why they give Standard taliano, in generale lo spagnolo. Ma a special high value among the same sarebbe importante avere gente che community of speakers. parli l’italiano. Alla banca anche per- For reading, they stated that ché ci sono tanti Italiani grandi. there is little chance to read in Ital- ian because all the locally published (27)- newspapers and books are written in 167 Int: Adesso possiamo parlare Spanish. The situation changes when sulla lingua preferita per i servizi they were asked about the language pubblici. preferred for watching TV. They men- 168 D (F-2-SV-RET): Mi sembra che tion in many cases that they watch siccome è un paese con persone di ori- RAI. Listening to Italian on the radio gine italiana dovrebbero essereci più was not mentioned by anyone except servizi in italiano. Più persone che Caterina, who stated that she likes to parlassero l’italiano. listen to Italian singers like Zucchero on YouTube: (28)- 447 Int: Adesso parliamo delle lingue preferite per i servizi pubblici. CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 211

448 SL (F-1-BERG-RET): Bisogna che la lingua non è un sistema chiu- parlare solo lo spagnolo perché anche so, tuttaltro ti apri a altri mondi. Co- mica tutti parliamo l’ italiano. Gli lui che parla italiano lavora meglio la Italiani rimasti a San Vito sono molti lingua; è creare il senso di cultura. pochi, forse quattordici famiglie. (30)- In general terms, the use of Span- 449 Int: Parliamo dell’ importanza ish in both the first and second gen- dell’ insegnamento dell’italiano a eration groups is very similar. Being San Vito. bilingual represents an advantage and 450 SL (F-1-BERG-WAITR): Adesso reinforces their sense of belonging, c’è la scuola Italiana quando c’aveva i social network, and identity to both figli più piccoli non c’era niente. Io ho Italy and Costa Rica. Speaking Italian cinquanta cinque anni in Costa Rica means prestige and respect for the lan- la situazione è molto diversa ormai. guage of the parents. According to all of them, young 2.5 The teaching of Italian in San Vito people do not speak Italian fluently because they speak only Spanish. This Another variable that plays a very idea correlates to the answers given by important role in this community is third generation speakers to the quan- education in Italian from elementary titative research where they admitted to university level. All informants from using Italian mostly for very specific both first and second-generation groups academic purposes. agree that the teaching of Italian, especially for third generation speakers (31)- in elementary and high school, is very 61 Int: Modo in cui giovani parlano important, since they were youngsters, l’italiano. in some cases this type of bilingual 62 M (M-2-SAN VITO-AGRON):Già. education did not exist and now with I figli nostri? Non lo parlano molto education, language, and culture are bene lo capiscono però. reinforced at home and school. Even though Cesare’s children are (29)- trilingual, the rest agree that third 271 Int: Importanza dell’insegna- generation Italo-Costa Rican speak- mento dell’ italiano a San Vito.Nell’e- ers’ use of the Italian language has de- lementare, media, Liceo. creased considerably. 272 DC (M-2-SV-DOC): Lo sforzo è stato grandioso basta pensare che (32)- al fatto di insegnare l’italiano nelle 265 Int: Adesso lei si considera bilingue. scuole riesce a parificare molte cose. 266 DC (M-1-SV-DOC): Io sono stato Quando noi eravamo alle elementa- dal momento che sono nato bilingue ri noi eravamo visti come stranieri, nel senso che io ho imparato l’italia- saltava fuori questo fatto. Adesso l’ no a casa e ho imparato lo spagnolo insegnamento parifica, equalizza. Il a scuola. Io quando mi sono sposa- fatto di insegnare l’italiano significa to con una Costaricense prima di 212 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

avere i figli le ho detto devi imparare and phonological levels transferred l’italiano perché i miei figli devono from Spanish into Italian and in some imparare l’italiano. Per fortuna loro cases from spoken Italian as well. Be- sono trilingui, italiano, spagnolo, in- low are some examples. It is important glese. Questo è un vantaggio se c’è to mention that this particular linguis- un lavoro. Noi abbiamo grazie alla tic analysis would require more time, famiglia Sansonetti e grazie anche al and it is not part of the aims of the governo dell’ Italia la Dante Alighieri present research. perché c’è un progetto qua unico del- Examples of codeswitching: le Americhe, Soprattutto l’America Latina, Costa Rica, dove i maestri In the second generation: vengono stipendiati in un cinquanta per cento dal governo di Costa Rica e (34)- l’altro cinquanta percento pagato dal 479 Int: Anna Maria cominciamo a par- governo Italiano. lare del’Origine della parola Tutiles. 480 AM (F-2-ROM-WAITR): Tutiles? (33) Guarda te lo spiego io perché la gen- - 273 Int: Parliamo della perdita del- te si confonde. Gli Italiani c’è hanno la lingua italiana. una maniera di parlare. Andiamo 274 DC (M-1-SV-DOC): Succede tutti lì. Quiere decir vamos todos ahi. questo ormai l’umanità ha un conc- Entonces a la gente tica se le ha pega- etto molto pragmatico, materialista do la palabra Tútiles.Questa parola solo quello che mi serve, non per il vuole dire Tutti lì. piacere di farlo. Le lingue latine di fronte all’ inglese non hanno nulla di 2.6.2 Additional examples at the fare. Con l’inglese al meno mangi in morphosyntactic and phonological levels un CALL CENTER però te la cavi. Adesso con l’italiano che cosa faccio? In this section, some linguis- Allora noi dobbiamo entrare non da tic features found in the population quella finestra. Non possiamo com- under study will be analysed. While petere. Dobbiamo creare quel aperiti- these characteristics may constitute vo, quel sapore, la dolcezza per creare themselves real objects of investiga- una mentalità dell’ Italianità che va tion that give researchers material dal gioco, alla moda, all’ industria. for further study, they do not constitute part of the aims or objectives of 2.6 Other lexical, morphosyntactic, this research. By the same token, as and phonological issues explained above, it is also interesting to observe that although some of 2.6.1 Examples of codeswitching them may be transfers from Span- ish, one could also theorize about The analysis of the local repertoire, the influence of regional Italian, the especially among the first and second influence of Italo-Romance Dialects, generation informants, shows some oc- or even the influence from some low currences of some other important as- spoken forms currently in usage on pects at the lexical, morpho-syntactic, the Italian peninsula. CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 213

Moreover, in some cases references 7-Substandard subject-verb to other studies are provided in order agreement: to facilitate further understanding of mamma è stato dei prima…dei prime the linguistic behavior of migrants in donne che sono venute (vs. it. stan- different contexts around the world. dard mamma è stata una delle prime Examples: donne che sono venute)

1-Redundant pronouns, typical 8-Substandard syntactical con- of Spanish and also of some vari- structions: eties of informal spoken Italian. è stato dei prima… vs. It. standard A me me l’hanno detto però io non lo è stata una delle prime; so se è vero; Gli dicono agli italiani c’era un gruppo come de italiani vs. It. standard c’era un gruppo di 2-Excessive use of ci, typical of italiani; some varieties of low spoken Ital- tutti lì in posto vs. It. standard tutti ian (Berretta, 1993, p. 229): lì in un posto; mia mamma c’aveva un piccolo ne- noi siamo cambiato di casa vs. It. gozio; papà c’aveva l’acqua calda; standard noi abbiamo cambiato c’aveva le scale casa (different auxiliary) alle tre mattina vs. It. standard alle 3-Impersonal pronoun se instead tre di mattina\del mattino; of si (Spanish interference? or loan- era una casa di alto vs. It. standard word?) (Vietti, 2005, pp. 145-165): era una casa alta?; se pensa che è successo dopo de la farmacia vs. It. standard dopo la farmacia; 4-Use of the Spanish preposition in mia casa vs. It. standard a casa de instead of di (Italian) (Spanish mia\nella mia casa interference?) (Vietti, 2005, pp. 145- 165): 9-Use of non-standard lexemes questi de qui; c’era un gruppo come (Again, Spanish interference?): car- de italiani; nella finca de mio padre; niceria; attendere la carniceria; ha quasi era ora de andare a scuola schiavato la casa (then immediately corrected) It. standard ha schiodato 5-Use of Spanish article el in- le tavole) stead of Italian il (Spanish interference?): 10-Voicing of some voiceless con- y el secondo (vs. it. e il secondo); me sa sonants in intervocalic position. (vs. It. mi sa); faceva li maiali (vs. It. pabà vs. papà; berò vs. però; podeva faceva i maiali) vs. poteva; propriedà vs. proprietà

6-Preposition di instead of tra: 11-Fricativization of dental noi siamo stati dei primi figli nati in voiceless: Costa Rica vs. It. standard noi siamo Differensa vs. differenza; distansa vs. stati tra i primi… distanza 214 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

12-Nonstandard presentative generation speakers, on the other hand, form: being video recorded was not a problem. Dove adesso è la farmacia vs. It. The results of the quantitative re- standard dove adesso c’è la farmacia search show that Spanish constitutes non-standard accent: [far’ma:tʃja] vs. the main language used for almost all it. standard [farma’tʃi:a] (then cor- everyday interactions. Standard Ital- rected immediately) ian is basically employed only for academic purposes, given the fact that it is taught from elementary school to col- Conclusions lege level. Understanding of the word Dialect is related to those forms cor- The primary goal of the present re- responding to the different varieties search has been to investigate the dif- of Costa Rican Spanish. Consequently, ferent linguistic varieties of the Italo- neither Italian nor Italo-Romance Di- Costa Rican ethnic minority group in alects constitute part of their verbal the town of San Vito de Coto Brus in repertoire. This ideological answer Costa Rica, Central America, with the may also be understood because of the purpose of illustrating the use of Span- format itself of the research because ish, Italian and Italo-Romance Dialect they had only four choices when asked by three different generations. This about uses of Italian. topic was chosen because most of the studies of the Italian varieties in the How is the linguistic variety American continent have concentrated distributed among three diffe- on the areas of major emigration, that rent generations of Italo-Costa is, North and South America. More- Rican speakers? over, only a single publication refers to the linguistic repertoire of this colony In brief, using the diglossic position back in 1970 (Franceschi, 1970). of languages proposed by Bettoni as This choice of a mixed methodol- cited in Sobrero (1993), Spanish is the ogy was done because third generation high variety, and Costa Rican Span- speakers did not desire to be video or ish Dialects are low high varieties (pp. audio recorded. For first and second- 415-416).

High Variety -- Spanish from Costa Rica High Varieties

Low variety -- Dialect(s) of Costa Rican Spanish

High Variety -- Low Varieties Low variety -- CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 215

On the other hand, first and second- abroad. The situation with Standard generation speakers reveal very different Italian is a little different. Italian is used perspectives. First generation speakers, within the family group, that is, when for example, recognize Italo-Romance talking to their children or with other Dialect as the first language learned Italians at special gatherings, when the at home. Standard Italian was learned Italian national team plays and at some later when they went to school in Italy, other ceremonies when all of the people and Spanish was learned last as a result in the group speak Italian. On the other of their colonization of the valley of San hand, if there is a Costa Rican Spanish Vito in southern Costa Rica. Nowadays, speaking person in the group, everybody however, the use of Italo-Romance Dia- will switch to Spanish. Spanish again lect is very restricted, mainly limited to constitutes the number one language talking to people when they travel back used for almost everything else. First to their home towns in Italy, and when generation speakers have several differ- speaking to elderly siblings and other ent codes in their repertoire. As a matter relatives still living in San Vito. It is im- of fact, using again the diglossic posi- portant to mention that Italo-Romance tion of languages proposed by Bettoni as Dialect was not transmitted to their cited in Sobrero (1993), these languages children, although all of the informants are Spanish and Dialects of Costa Rica recognize the importance that speak- as the high variety, with Italian and ing Italo-Romance Dialects has in order Italo-Romance Dialect as high low vari- to preserve local culture in Italy and eties (pp. 415-416).

High Variety -- Spanish from Costa Rica High Varieties

Low variety -- Dialect(s) of Costa Rican Spanish

High Variety – Standard Italian Low Varieties

Low variety – Italo Romance Dialect(s)

The situation of the second genera- friends other than Italians in town. tion seems to be the most complex of Finally, although they all know some the three. As their mother tongue, they words of the family’s Italo-Romance all identify Italian as being the first Dialect, they all recognize that they do language learned at home, and to hav- not speak it. ing learned Spanish at school or with 216 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

However, they state that they are is important to note that some of them equally fluent in all the different variet- went to college either in Costa Rica or ies of Costa Rican Spanish dialect spoken in Italy. A much improved socioeco- in the area, as well as in Standard Span- nomic situation also made it possible ish and Italian. That is, the local Span- for these speakers to have a better edu- ish dialect or dialects have emerged as cation than the previous generation. As a marked endogenous code, a code also a result, a very high form of standard spoken with high degrees of proficiency. Italian is used with family members On the other hand, with administrative and friends in both Costa Rica and It- and institutional authorities, Standard aly. Teaching Standard Italian to their Spanish is used. It is important to men- children is very important for them, tion that English and Italian are also re- although they also recognize that the garded as high varieties in terms of me- situation of their offspring, the third- diums for education and international generation speakers, is very different, contacts. However, Italian and Spanish and that while these children under- are the only varieties used in both writ- stand Italian, they do not speak it. ten and spoken form. Second generation speakers exhibit This of course has to do with the several different codes in their reper- fact that in recent years, bilingual ed- toire. Again, using the diglossic posi- ucation was introduced in the whole tion of languages proposed by Bettoni public system in this part of the coun- in Sobrero (1993), Standard Spanish try. As a consequence, competence in and dialects of Costa Rica act as the both Italian and Spanish is common in high varieties, with and Italian as a members of the second generation. It high low variety (pp. 415-416).

High Variety -- Spanish from Costa Rica High Varieties

Low variety -- Dialect(s) of Costa Rican Spanish

Low Varieties High Variety – Standard Italian

Low Varieties Low variety –

As a matter of fact, during the in- A similar conclusion was reached by terviews, most informants used very Franceschi (1970), who noted that “even high forms of Italian with very little though the population that arrived in or no interference from Italo-Romance San Vito spoke Italo-Romance Dialect Dialects or Spanish. and regional Italian with influence from CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 217

Costa Rican Spanish, a high form of Ital- take into account Italy’s sociolinguistic ian was the most important language situation in those decades, we can as- used inside the community” (p. 359). sume that the hundreds of thousands It is very important to point out of migrants who arrived here, mainly that according to Franceschi, the sec- from small rural centers and the most ond generation spoke more Spanish depressed regions of Italy at the time than the first generation due to the (Sicily, Calabria, Veneto, Campania) prestige of the national language as spoke Dialect as their first language well as the education they had re- and Italian the second. ceived. Italian was disappearing from However, the dialectphone nature their repertoire because of the use of of Italian migrants as monolinguals the official language (1970). However, has at times been overstated and their in 2012 the same population was stud- knowledge of Italian underestimated. ied, and 42 years later the analysis In fact, the number of dialect mono- shows very different results. Not are linguals who arrived into Australia only these people fully proficient Span- can be estimated to have been low, ish speakers, but they also show high for at least two reasons: firstly, mi- proficiency and performance levels in grants are generally up wardly mobile the Italian language, which is contrary people, and hence highly sensitive to to what Franceschi stated. That is to the prestige of Italian (Bettoni,1993), say that Italian at San Vito nowadays and secondly, migration generally is similar to the conclusion reached by promotes a process of italianisation, Franceschi 40 years ago with regards since it brings people from different to the second generation, that is, Ital- regions into contact with each other ian is in the process of erosion in young (De Mauro, 1963). people in the present day. Perceptions, however, are not enough in order to ob- May low concentrations of Ita- tain reliable information. Future sci- lian emigrants in relatively small entific studies of the third-generation countries such as Costa Rica show speakers in San Vito, or at least quali- similar or different results in com- tative studies, are necessary. parison to large countries with It is important to note that the mi- high concentrations of migrants gration into Australia took place at and nationals such as Brazil, USA the same time the Valley of San Vito or Argentina? was colonized. Therefore, the choice for Standard Italian over other variet- The demographic variable plays an ies can also be observed from a histori- important role here as well because cal perspective. In this regard, Rubino the study of Italian abroad has not (2000, p.1) states that: “Mass migra- been concentrated on small countries tion from Italy to Australia took place like Costa Rica with lower populations from the early 1950’s until the end of in comparison to USA, or Brazil. Data the 1960’s. The peak was reached in found in San Vito show a very different the decade of 1951-1961, when an aver- situation with regards to language shift age of almost 18,000 new migrants ar- or change, language attrition, reper- rived every year” (Castles, 1992). If we toire, and other sociolinguistic issues. 218 Revista de Lenguas Modernas, N.° 27, 2017 / 183-219 / ISSN: 1659-1933

With this data in mind one may argue most authors in different parts of the that when all these socio-demograph- world is visible neither in the first nor ic variables are present like in Costa in the second generations in San Vito de Rica, the use of high form of Italian Coto Brus, at least with this data. On seems to increase mainly in the second the contrary, the evidence shows that at generation. On the contrary, language least in the second generation knowing attrition, and language shift, tend to and using standard forms is common. decrease in countries with these char- Moreover, it is interesting to note that acteristics, that is, low density of popu- in Costa Rica the assimilation process lation, small territory and low flows of has also permitted Italians to preserve European or Italian migration. Italian the languages of their forefathers migration took place in many other dif- without losing their national identity ferent Latin American countries that as Costa Ricans. Again, education in also show similar socio-demographic Italian plays a key role in avoiding features. It would be interesting to see language change or attrition, and con- if there is a correlation between data tributing, on the other hand, to create found in Costa Rica and in neighbor- a sense of inclusion in the national cul- ing Central America or the Caribbean ture and those of their ancestors. countries with similar characteristics. New approaches, though, are need- ed to explain the complex situation in How does a language of origin the second generation. Research into coexist with new language(s) in a the sociolinguistic and sociocultural different land? processes taking place among younger generations is indicated. Taking the ex- In the same line of thought, another amples in Rubino (2000, p. 12) for the important conclusion is that the data Australian situation, the following list found do not support the thesis of a new of topics is presented for further re- ethnic variety of Costa Rican Italian search in the Costa Rican environment: as opposed to other varieties of Italian around the world. In other words, with 1. The role of language in the negotia- this data it is impossible to either say tion of an Italian identity by Italo- that Italians are changing Spanish in Costa Ricans. Costa Rica, or vice versa. With this as- 2. The extent to which they are ex- sertion I can well answer question num- posed to and use Italian, not only ber three mentioned in the methodology. within the Costa Rican context but The language of origin in this case Ital- outside the country, through new ian co-exists, with Spanish as a high- means of communication such as e- high variety and Italian as low-high one, mail and chat rooms. and no new “third language” or “ethnic 3. The impact on language proficiency variety” has emerged like in other parts of increased access to Italian media. of the continent like Brazil or Argentina. 4. The elements that may trigger pro- It is clear though that speakers show cesses of shift or change and lan- different level of interference from Costa guage revitalization. Rican Spanish. Language attrition in the second generation as commented by CASTRO. The use of Different Linguistic Codes... 219

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