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Rampal and Kleiman Microsystems & Nanoengineering (2021) 7:29 Microsystems & Nanoengineering https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-021-00249-y www.nature.com/micronano ARTICLE Open Access Optical actuation of a micromechanical photodiode via the photovoltaic-piezoelectric effect A. Rampal1,2 andR.N.Kleiman 1 Abstract Radiation pressure and photothermal forces have been previously used to optically actuate micro/nanomechanical structures fabricated from semiconductor piezoelectric materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs). In these materials, coupling of the photovoltaic and piezoelectric properties has not been fully explored and leads to a new type of optical actuation that we call the photovoltaic-piezoelectric effect (PVPZ). We demonstrate this effect by electrically measuring, via the direct piezoelectric effect, the optically induced strain in a novel torsional resonator. The micron- scale torsional resonator is fabricated from a lattice-matched single-crystal molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)-grown GaAs photodiode heterostructure. We find that the strain depends on the product of the electro-optic responsivity and piezoelectric constant of GaAs. The photovoltaic-piezoelectric effect has important potential applications, such as in the development of configurable optical circuits, which can be used in neuromorphic photonic chips, processing of big data with deep learning and the development of quantum circuits. 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; Introduction limited by the thermal constants of the materials. A fur- Optical actuation of micro/nanomechanical resonators ther limitation of these mechanisms is that extra steps are has been developed across various material platforms and required to integrate an electrical transducer to quantify – geometries1 23. Of particular interest is optical actuation the optically induced strain. The extra steps can come – of semiconductor materials1 15, given their technological either in the form of additional fabrication steps for ubiquity in devices such as computers, cell phones, solar integration of a transducer11,14,15 or via complicated cells, lasers, photodiodes, and micro/nanomechanical experimental setups to integrate a transducer external to – sensors. One of the main reasons for their ubiquity stems the device3,5,7 10,12. These constraints limit the use of from the capability for high-volume, high-yield manu- optical actuation to either lab settings or customized facturing of micro/nanodevices. applications in commercial settings. The most common mechanisms used for optical Here, we introduce and demonstrate a new optical actuation are radiation pressure and photothermal forces. actuation mechanism that we call the photovoltaic- Radiation pressure is a weak force; hence, large optical piezoelectric (PVPZ) effect. This effect can occur in intensities and/or complex optical setups are required, semiconductor materials that possess both piezoelectric which limits the circumstances in which these forces can and photovoltaic properties such as those in the III–V and be used. Mechanical structures actuated photothermally II–VI compound semiconductor families. The piezo- can undergo large strains, but their frequency response is electric property enables coupling between the mechan- ical and electrical degrees of freedom (DOFs) via the inverse and direct piezoelectric effects. In these effects, an Correspondence: A. Rampal ([email protected]) applied voltage results in a mechanical strain, and a 1Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada. 2Present address: CircuitMind Inc, 185 Spadina Avenue, Toronto, mechanical strain results in a charge, respectively. Using ON M5T 2C6, Canada © The Author(s) 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a linktotheCreativeCommons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Rampal and Kleiman Microsystems & Nanoengineering (2021) 7:29 Page 2 of 9 both effects together, mechanical strain can not only be The demonstration of the PVPZ effect extends the electrically induced but also measured. Both of these application of semiconductors to the optoelectromechanical effects are utilized in research and commercial piezo- domain, addressing the long-standing open issue of pro- electric pressure sensors24,25 and accelerometers26,27 to viding optical actuation in a semiconductor platform for all- measure the strain resulting from external forces. Simi- optical computing, processing, and telecommunication larly, resonant quartz tuning forks making use of both the applications. The advantages of using semiconductor inverse and direct piezoelectric effects are employed in materials are the ability to make use of conventional scanning probe microscopy28,29 and atomic force micro- batch fabrication methods and the opportunity to leverage scopy30,31 for imaging topographical features of material mature highly integrated on-chip optical and electronic surfaces. Building on the photovoltaic effect and the functionalities. inverse piezoelectric effect, the optical actuation is a result of a two-step process in which the incident light induces a Results and discussion photovoltage that causes mechanical strain. Making use of We experimentally demonstrate the PVPZ effect by the direct piezoelectric effect, the mechanical strain can optically actuating a novel micromechanical structure, a be electrically measured directly, hence mitigating the planar torsional resonator (Fig. 1a), and electrically need for extra fabrication steps or complicated experi- measuring the resulting optically induced strain near mental setups for the integration of a transducer. The resonance via the direct piezoelectric effect. The tor- PVPZ effect therefore couples the optical, electrical, and sional resonator is fabricatedfromanepitaxiallygrown mechanical DOFs of the material. Broadly speaking, GaAs photodiode heterostructure (Supplementary Sec- the PVPZ effect leads to relatively large forces with a tion I). The torsional deformation arises from the anti- geometry-limited frequency response. symmetric flexural bending of the two diagonally We demonstrate the PVPZ effect using a single-crystal oriented tines that comprise the structure. The driving micromechanical device fabricated from a GaAs p-n force for this antisymmetric bending is the result of (a) junction photodiode-solar cell heterostructure, with het- using the antisymmetric piezoelectric property of GaAs erostructure layers added to ensure successful release of in the plane of the device and (b) designing the photo- the mechanical resonator. GaAs is chosen because it is diode heterostructure with vertical asymmetry about the commonly used to make high-efficiency photodiode-based neutral plane to resemble a unimorph structure. The – solar cell structures32 35 and has a robust piezoelectric formercanbeunderstoodbyconsideringthepiezo- – effect36 38. Piezoelectric micromechanical devices fabri- electric matrix for a [001]-oriented wafer of GaAs, a cated from GaAs heterostructures have previously been III–V semiconductor having a zincblende crystal studied. For example, Masmanidis et al.36 demonstrated structure37: electrical tuning of the device resonant frequency in a 2 3 GaAs PIN structure. In their studies, the device was elec- 00Àβ 6 7 trically driven, and its mechanical strain was measured 6 00β 7 39 6 7 using optical interferometry. Okamoto et al. demon- 6 7 d14 6 0007 strated dynamic mechanical coupling between two GaAs dij ¼ 6 7 ð1Þ 2 6 2α 2β 0 7 bridge structures. In their studies, the devices were elec- 6 7 4 5 trically driven using the inverse piezoelectric effect, and À2β 2α 0 their motion was detected using the direct piezoelectric 000 effect, as in quartz tuning fork resonators. Our micro- mechanical structure is a novel planar torsional resonator where dij are the piezoelectric coefficients, β ¼ cosð2φÞ, designed to minimize clamping losses and null out residual α ¼ sinð2φÞ and φ is the rotation angleÂÃ about the photothermal actuation. We chose to use the direct pie- [001]-direction with respect to the 110 -direction, zoelectric effect to provide a direct measure of deflection φ = 0. For GaAs, d14 = 1.345 pm/V. To make use of the due to the seamless and natural integration with the device planar antisymmetry, the two tines of the torsional structure. We also use the indirect piezoelectric effect for resonator are aligned parallel to the two orthogonally electrical actuation of the device for calibration purposes. oriented [110]-directions (Fig. 1b).Accordingtothis Our device has a resonant frequency of 76.7 kHz, a room- matrix, d13 and d23 are equal in magnitude but opposite temperature Q of ~6000 and an electro-optic responsivity in sign; hence, an electric field applied in the [001]- of 0.178 A/W. We find that the optically induced

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