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The Entanglement of Gender and : Human Actors, Work place Cultures, and Knowledge Production Helene Götschel

Research in an area that might be called gender and physics lies neither in the focus of science studies nor in the centre of gender studies. However, there is a rich tradition of interdisciplinary research that studies the entanglement of gender and physics from different perspectives. In this review article, I give a survey on this inadequately discussed research area by presenting selected examples of often-cited as well as internationally less known literature. Furthermore, I propose a systematisation of three different dimensions, comprising research on human actors, work place cultures, and knowledge production in physics. In so doing, I uncover some achievements and gaps of this interdisciplinary research. Following E. F. Keller (1995), I finally plea for a trading zone for scholars working on the entanglement of gender and physics.

Keywords: Gender Studies, Gender and Physics, Systematisation

Introducing Three Dimensions at natural and technological sciences. The of Analysis in Regards to research areas that study natural science Gender and Physics while stressing feminist and gender issues are often summarized as Gender and The body of this paper is a systematisation Science (e.g., Keller, 1995) or as Feminist of the existing literature on gender and Science Studies (e.g., Mayberry et al., 2001; physics, introducing research on human Wyer et al., 2001). Gender and science or actors, work place cultures, and knowledge feminist science studies can be understood production in physics. In providing this as a research field that covers research review I hope to indicate some of the less on women in natural and technological obvious ways in which physics is gendered. sciences as well as analyses of feminist Furthermore, I suggest trans-disciplinary critiques of science and technology. Most research that brings together expertise from of the research done in this area, however, science studies and gender research as a is generated by interdisciplinary efforts that promising way to work on open research focus on biological sciences and information questions. First, I start with the presentation and communication technologies. First of three dimensions of analysis. attempts to analyse the entanglement of For more than three decades scholars of gender and physics where done in the different disciplines have looked critically late 1970s and early 1980s (e.g., Benckert,

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1983; Keller, 1977; 1979). There is now a in physics and any instructions on how flourishing literature exploring a range of to practice physics fairly and sustainable inter- and trans-disciplinary approaches, in the future (Götschel 2010: 51-52) is methods and theories in the area of critical not discussed here, because there are no physics research. The systematic analysis of case studies so far that show any impact the theories and methodologies employed on physics (Schiebinger, 2008: 20-21). is still in its infancy (Scheich, 2004) as is Furthermore, questions on gender and the the inclusion of approaches coming from pedagogy of physics, although important physics into the development of new for gender politics in physics (and beyond) theoretical and methodological concepts are not addressed in this article (e.g., (Barad, 2001; 2007). Therefore, a sensible Danielsson 2009: 24-38, Whitten/Burciaga, systematisation of feminist and gender 2000). Nor will questions of philosophy studies in physics, in my view, follows the of science be addressed, although they respective epistemological interests and the might deepen the understanding of the objects of research being examined. Taking entanglement of gender and physics from an Keller’s system ‘, science epistemological perspective (e.g., Hallberg, of gender, and gender in science’ (Keller, 1992; Rolin, 2008; Rouse, 2002). Moreover, 1995) as well as Schiebinger’s system because I concentrate on research that ‘women in science, culture of science, and deals with both gender and physics from an knowledge of science’ (Schiebinger, 1999; interdisciplinary perspective, I will exclude 2008: 5) into account I suggest the following outstanding literature from science studies three dimensions of analysis in regards to scholars on physics which has not taken gender and physics: into account gender questions as well as • Human actors in physics prominent literature from gender studies • Work place cultures in physics that does not focus on physics. • Knowledge production in physics Human Actors in Physics In the following three sections I will examine these three dimensions with Statistics and biographical studies create examples of well-known studies of critical detailed knowledge in the dimension of physics research as well as some less analysis on human actors in physics. A internationally discussed work by taking selection of studies, which explore the into account literature written in English, situation of historical and contemporary German, and Swedish. Every dimension is physicists, will be discussed in this section. introduced with an example, followed by an For centuries women have not been a part overview on this area. Subsequently I draw of professional natural philosophers and conclusions on strength and weakness of physicists. Therefore women’s studies research in this particular dimension. In the researchers as well as some scientists first final section I summarize my findings and and foremost started their gender studies by suggest promising research strategies. looking at the paucity of women in the field, Although I aim to give an insight into by studying statistics and by implementing gender and science studies for researchers biographical studies of historical and in related fields, my overview is not contemporary physicists. Austrian physicist exhaustive. The ongoing debate in gender and historian of physics Brigitte Bischof studies whether gender and physics research (2003), for example, searched for female provides any indications for transformations physics students and physicists at both the

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University of Vienna and the Institute of showed that the number of university Research. She discovered the names women lecturers in physics worldwide of more than one hundred female physicists had ranged from under 5% to over 30%. and indicated that between 1910 and 1945 Surprisingly, highly developed industrial seventy of these women researched for their countries—such as Japan, Canada, former doctoral theses at the Institute of Radium Western , and Norway—with Research, were employed as assistants, or large physics establishments and strong worked as freelance physicists. The annual women’s rights movement, had the poorest proportion of female physicists at the records of women in physics (Barinaga, research institute was 22% and increased 1994; Megaw, 1992). Huge differences during World War I to 57%. In her study also exist across Europe. Statistics of the Bischof advances three reasons why such European Union for the year 2003 show that an extraordinary large proportion of women the percentage of female PhD graduates worked at the Radium Institute. First, like in physical science in different European spectroscopy (Tobies, 1996), radioactivity countries vary from less than 25% in Austria, was an up-and-coming branch of physics Germany, and Switzerland to more than with not yet rigidly gendered research 45% in , Portugal, and Spain (European structures. Second, these women had Marie Commission, 2006: 41-42). Moreover, Curie as a role model; and numerous female statistics at a national level reveal that the employees of the Radium Institutes met the proportion of female physicists employed Nobel Prize winner at her Paris laboratory in industry, at the university, or in research in person. Third and most significantly, institutes outside the university as well as in Bischof underlines the importance of the the individual subsections of physics varies institute’s first director Stefan Meyer, who considerably in the different subareas (e. g. considered women to be capable physicists Benckert, 1997; Whitten, 1996). However, and apt professionals. Rentetzi (2004), taken on whole these recent statistics on in addition, points to the significance of women in physics tell about their current political context as well as experimental lower proportion and status at all levels culture for the participation of women in in comparison to men, at least in most radioactivity research. The national socialist industrialised countries, and asks for a dictatorship, however, often stopped the deeper understanding of the gender gap in careers of the female physicists on ground physics across countries and cultures. of Jewish background, political attitude, or Biographical studies on historical gender (Bischof, 2003). Consequently, the and contemporary physicists explore large participation of female physicists in the situation of women (and men) radium research has been faded from the working in the field. While publications collective memory. of scientists and science writers often International statistical comparisons concentrate on biographies of individual show that women appear to be in the outstanding women physicists, in order minority in physics in many Western to create role models for female science industrial countries, but their low students, historians of science in the last percentage is not to be taken as a natural decades framed their biographies with fact. Megaw (1992) was the first to collect far reaching questions on the working- data on the percentage of female students life and conditions that women physicists and academics of more than 400 physics encountered in academia, industry, or departments around the world. His statistics education. Insightful studies are available

68 Helene Götschel about outstanding female physicists such and have recovered the stories of women as the first female professor in Europe, at laboratories, who until recently were the 18th century physicist Laura Bassi invisible to historians of science (Gould, (Ceranski, 1996; Findlen, 1993) or the 1963 1998). Nobel Prize winner Maria Goeppert Meyer, In summary, female physicists who between her doctoral dissertation at are highly represented at the level of Göttingen University, Germany, in 1930 biographies. However, literature that is not and her appointment as full professor at the written in English, is virtually unknown University of California at San Diego, USA, internationally–a case in point is the in 1960 worked for 30 years as a poorly paid biography on the cosmopolitan physicist ‘volunteer’ in theoretical Tatiana Afanaseva-Ehrenfest (Litvinko, and during that time developed her nuclear 2003), which has been published in Russian. shell model (Moszkowski, 2006, Willisch, In contrast, research on male physicists 2008). Other findings spotlight on less from a gender-aware perspective, such celebrated physicists such as the researcher as the critical reflection on ‘the physics in quantum chemistry Hertha Sponer, who idol’ Richard Feynman, are rare (Barad, from 1920s to the 1960s worked as professor 1995: 43-44). The research on the shaping at universities in Göttingen/Germany, Oslo/ of Isaac Newton’s image as genius (Fara, Norway, and Durham/USA (Maushart, 2002), or the study of Michael Faraday’s 1997; Tobies, 1996), or the first Swedish rootedness in working class (Whitten, female assistant professor Eva von Bahr, a 2001) can be understood as contributions productive scientist in and to masculinity studies. Up to now, most between 1908 and 1914 (Wennerholm, historical and biographic gender studies 2009). Furthermore, Byers and Williams give portraits of white middle class and (2006) edited a collection of 40 biographies upper class scientists without taking into of women who contributed to twentieth- account that various socially and culturally century physics. Other works examined constructed categories–such as gender, historical couples and collaborations in race, and class–interact on multiple levels. physics such as and Mileva Some research, however, showed that Mar´c (Trbuhovic-Gjuric, 1982; Pycior et discriminatory structures frequently are al., 1996) or the occupational group of paired with anti-Semitic biases, as in the professional female physicists (Rossiter, case of British crystallographer Rosalind 1982; 1995; Sandner, 1999) to understand Franklin (Delamont 2003; Wiesner 2002: structural possibilities and obstacles for 125-181), or with racist prejudices as in women in physics. Research on networks US-American physicist and historian of historical and contemporary female of science Evelynn Hammonds’ case physicists revealed the power and limits (Hammonds/Subramaniam, 2003; Sands, of their political strategies for institutional 2001). The quantitative and biographical change (Götschel, 2001; 2003). Studies approach, however, is limited when it on individual research institutes such as comes to understanding structures as well the Vienna Institute of Radium Research as processes on a larger scale. (Bischof, 2003; Rentetzi, 2004; 2007), the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Advancement Work place Cultures in Physics of Science (Vogt, 2007) or the Cavendish Increasingly, historical, sociological, Laboratory at the and anthropological studies of scientific (Gould, 1997), focused on places of activity institutions such as laboratories, research

69 Science Studies 1/2011 groups, subfields, associations, and print media showed that even progressive organisations are looking more carefully magazines fail to offer a desirable job at the dimension of work place culture of description because they fail to picture physics. Relevant studies will be discussed women physicists simultaneously as in this section. successful researchers and likeable females. German anthropologist Agnes Senganata Anthropological and ethnomethodological Münst (2009), for example, analysed the studies described research and technology efficacy of gender in teacher-student- as part of a cultural framework and interactions in co-educative science observed how research environments and engineering courses at a technical negotiate their own sub-cultural values, university. Using participant observation, meanings, and practices. Traweek (1988) Münst looked at different situations in in her study ‘Beamtimes and Lifetimes’ lectures and courses for undergraduate noted how scientists in high energy physics physicists and engineers. In a physics construct gender in male tales told during course she observed the spatial distribution a life in physics. Knorr-Cetina (1999: 232- of students and teacher in the classroom 233) compared gender in the laboratories and the interactions that were supported or in molecular biology and high energy hindered by this spatial distribution during physics, and noticed that physicists (with some weeks. All female students used to the exception of Italians) exhibited a kind of sit in the front rows while most of the male “mono-gender” that is closer to masculinity students used to sit in the back rows of the than to femininity. Other scholars analysed classroom. Most of the time, the teacher the historical presentation of physics as a stood not in front of the class, but next to male genealogy or a ‘male master–male the front rows. From this position he could disciple’ relationship that decided which easily make eye contact to the male students gender may or may not continue the cultural in the back, but had to turn if he wanted to heritage (e.g., Lucht, 2004; Traweek, 1988: address the female students. This spatial 77). distribution supported that the teacher was Several studies point out the appeal always looking at and talking to the male of doing physics but also the blatant and students. Only if he did not get satisfying subtle discriminatory structures female answers he turned around and addressed physicists experienced in their professional the mostly female students in the front rows. training and work at universities (e.g., Lucht, Münst showed in detail how subtle micro- 2004; Lundborg/Schönning, 2007). Hasse inequities initiate, in a world of formal and her research team on ‘Understanding equality, immense differences in the way Puzzles in the Gendered Map of Europe’ female and male students were noticed, looked in detail at both, the diversity of addressed and confirmed to possess national cultures and gender difference in the necessary professional qualification university work place cultures of physicists (Münst, 2009). in , Estonia, Finland, Italy, and The cultural turn in humanities and social Poland, to understand the huge differences sciences led to a variety of understandings in numbers of female physics professors of the term culture, covering different ranging from 3% (in Denmark) to 23% (in aspects of investigation. Media studies Italy). One factor the group identified for look at the gendered image of physics in supporting or hindering women’s careers society. Erlemann (2009) in her analysis of in physics was the different understanding the representations of physics in German of creativity in national work place cultures,

70 Helene Götschel attributing creativity in physics to individual centuries and showed that the priestly or teamwork achievements or seeing it as an culture predominates in contemporary undesirable attribute (Hasse/Trentemøller, physics when research projects in particle 2008; Hasse et al., 2008). Keeping in mind physics are advertised by employing a quasi- that physics is an almost male and white religious rhetoric. This atmosphere can be a activity (e.g., Nelson, 2002), US-American powerful gendered barrier to women (Rolin, feminist science studies scholars who 2008: 1115-1117; Wertheim, 1995). examined the culture of physics noted the In summary, these historical, increasing entanglement of science with sociological, and anthropological studies gender, race, class, and sexuality. Ong (2005), on physics in Western cultures as well for example, examined the strategies of ten as on physics as a work place culture minority female physics students trying to highlighted different aspects of physics’ manage challenges to their competence gendered cultures. In shifting the focus and membership that were caused by racial from the “problem of women in physics” to and gender prejudices in their local physics the “problem of physics with women”, the communities. Although some important research gave insight into the external and preliminary work has been done (e.g., internal processes that created a welcoming Jordan, 2006), intersectional investigations or chilly climate for women and minorities on physics are underdeveloped. at the work place and that supported or Historians of science get information on hindered their careers in physics. Therefore, local scientific cultures by looking at women the empirical outcomes of these studies in science (and vice versa). Gould (1998) on work place cultures in physics have a studied partnerships and collaborations political interest and are useful to develop between male and female physicists to programmes to overcome unbalance and make female researchers visible. She injustice in physics. At the same time this examined the work place atmosphere for research, in my view, is limited in such a seven female researchers at the Cavendish way that while examining gender in the laboratory at Cambridge University and social and cultural context of physics, it characterised the culture of university does not reflect on gender in the knowledge physics by collaboration, integration, and production and the consolidated knowledge partnership (Gould, 1997). Rentetzi (2004) in physics. in her work on the Institute for Radium Research in Vienna stressed the importance Knowledge Production in Physics of the work place culture and identified two crucial causes supporting women at The dimension of analysis on the knowledge this institute. The social democratic party’s production in physics consists of research concepts of health care and education questions on the entanglement of gender supported medical research on radium and the body of consolidated knowledge therapy as well as girls and women in in physics. A few historical, linguistic, higher education and professional training. philosophical, and theoretical works already Moreover, Hans Pettersson’s research group exist and will be discussed in this section. on artificial atomic decays practised an Studies on the knowledge production of encouraging, team oriented experimental physics shifted the image of physics from an style at the institute. Wertheim described area of eternal truth and solid knowledge to the style of physics as a religious activity an area of human endeavour and processes with a conspired club of priests throughout of solidification. Gender researchers

71 Science Studies 1/2011 explored how physics constitutes images of the discourse practice as it pertained to of gender, how gender feeds into the post-structural feminist theories. Similar to description of the material world, and how discourse practices, physical measurement epistemological concepts relate to gender. practices created materiality. Feminist Materiality is one of the epistemological theories should consider this ‘intra- concepts that have recently gained action’ of researchers and bodies, and the attention in gender research. Karen Barad’s production of materiality via discourses and theoretical work, for example, explicitly performativity (Barad, 2007). relates to materiality in physics (1998; 2001; While scholars in mainstream social 2007). Barad, a theoretical physicist and studies of science explored the social professor of feminist studies at University of constructions of scientific realities and California, Santa Cruz, explored ‘how matter the production of knowledge in scientific comes to matter’ (Barad, 2001), through an laboratories without stressing a gender analysis of piezoelectric processes that occur analysis (Erlemann, 2009: 94; Rose 1997: in ultrasound measurement instruments 27), connections between gender and the when used in foetus examinations. She consolidated knowledge of science were developed a feminist theory of ‘agential successfully studied in gender research realism’, an understanding of reality that (although mostly in biology, psychology, comes into being by activities of agents, medicine, and anthropology). In her to overcome the dichotomy between analytical level of gender in the results discovery/subject/culture (epistemology) of science and engineering, Schiebinger and being/object/matter (ontology) and (2008: 14-21) focused on analysing how lead to ‘epistem-onto-logy’. Barad’s theory gendered practices and ideologies have builds upon Judith Butler’s theory of structured scientific knowledge. Moreover, performativity (Butler, 1993) as well as other she underlines that frameworks of gender US-American theoretical discourses. For analysis in physics and chemistry should Barad post-structuralist feminist theories be developed. Keller (1995: 86) sub- have a one-sided focus on the cultural divided research on gender and science in representations of objects and too little a narrower sense into studies of scientific on the objects themselves. In Haraway’s constructions of sexual difference (science sense (Haraway, 1991), however, bodies of gender) and studies of the uses of gender in material sciences are understood as in scientific constructions of subjects and resistant and actively performing entities objects (gender in science). Having scholars that humans can interact with in material- from feminist theory, history of science, semiotic nodes. Barad uses this concept and and natural science (mostly biologists) in discusses ‘intra-actions’ in order to show mind, Keller stressed gender in science as that research subjects and research objects a trading zone, trading multidisciplinary come into being through this process. studies of gender, language, and culture. In this approach, she used ’s Bauer (2006: 169) enhanced Keller’s physical-philosophical interpretation of classification by adding a perspective of (Bohr, 1957). In Bohr’s “feminist epistemologies”. He argued that ‘Copenhagen Interpretation’ the unusual feminists discussed epistemological issues, performance of small particles compared such as objectivity and materiality, which to macrophysics can be explicated in that in their fundamental scope exceeded the the observed characteristics only come into perspective of gender in science. being during the process of observation. In all there are only a few researchers Barad drew parallels to the performativity who focused their gender analyses on the

72 Helene Götschel dimensions of knowledge production in chemistry, although their analysis ignored physics. Some analysed “physics of gender” gender questions and that Boyle actively and studied how the representation of engaged in the gender debate of his time. the concepts in physics advanced ideas Potter, in responding to Marie Boas Hall about men and women, about masculinity (Boas, 1958) and Rose-Mary Sargent (1995), and femininity. For example, around the worked on that question and argued that year 1900 scientists inferred from laws of English notions of class and gender of the thermodynamics that women would only 17th century influenced Boyle’s choice of a follow their ‘nature’ and give birth to healthy corpuscular or mechanical interpretation children, if they avoided intellectual work of the experiments with the air-pump, and did not waste their energy by working which were inscribed into Boyle’s law of as professors in academia. Thus, gases (Berner, 2004: 99-102; Potter, 1988; and others used the concept of energy 2001). Potter’s interpretation, however, was conservation of thermodynamics to prevent discussed within the feminist discourse of the rivalry between men and women in philosophers of science as only possible academia (Heinsohn, 2000). Similarly, but not truly evident (e.g., Rolin, 1999: 512; the natural philosopher Johann Wilhelm Sargent, 2004). Not only do historical case Ritter used concepts of indifference and studies analyse scientific knowledge from polarisation of 18th century research on a gendered perspective, other writings magnetism to explain woman’s ‘natural’ discuss the gendered language of today’s longing for conception and pregnancy physics, especially in the nuclear arms race (Holland, 2006). and the military (e.g., Cohn, 1987; 2001; Other researchers analysed “gender Easlea 1983), or in prestigious subfields in physics” by looking at the history or such as high energy physics, where (hetero) language of physics. Some gender studies sexuality is inscribed in the devices and the scholars took the historical analyses of the of elementary particles connections between physics and society as (e.g., Götschel, 2006; Traweek, 1992), while a starting point to add gender to the picture. notions of patriarchal hierarchy exist in For example, when Wolff (1978) published the understanding of scientific theories his history of the concept of impetus and and the conceptualisation of particle described this scholastic theory of motion in physics (Rübsamen, 1983; Whitten, 1996). analogy to economical concepts of medieval Moreover, gender attributions become very time, Scheich (1985; 1993) criticized this apparent in popularized physics, e. g. when work because of the lack of gender analysis. the proton ‘Protoni’ is described as a ‘poor She argued that the disregard for female lonesome cowboy’ (Gisler, 2001). reproduction work in the economical theory Further, researchers considered of that time is reflected in the scholastic epistemological reflections on the attributes theories of the impetus; and this erasure of experimentally produced ‘nature’ is continued in Newton’s laws of motion. from a gender point of view. They work Shapin and Schaffer (1985) addressed the in the area of “feminist epistemology of question of how Boyle’s epistemological physics”. Objectivity, as discussed in the assumptions on experiments in general, US-American feminist philosophical and on the vacuum in particular, were discourse, can be understood as socially influenced by his social and political negotiated knowledge, as a reflection of thoughts in times of British civil war. Their cultural values that need reworking, or as work was highly celebrated for showing partial and situated knowledge (Longino, the influence of social currents on physical 1990; Harding, 1991; Haraway, 1991: 183-

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202). Materiality is another concept that each of these dimensions with one selected recently has undergone an epistemological example in greater detail and an overview reflection in the USA feminist theorists’ of further results of gender and physics discourse (Alaimo/Hekman, 2008) which research. World-wide, numerous studies opens up possibilities to connect physics have emerged that focused on human actors with theories of performativity, as done by in physics. Analyses of physics’ work place Barad (2007) (see above). cultures are a promising research interest In summary, gender research on the in gender and physics studies because they knowledge production in physics, while in shifted the focus from women to physics. In my opinion very exciting and fascinating, contrast, gender research on the knowledge is an underdeveloped area of research. production in physics is quite rare. All in Early attempts to analyse the physics of all, many challenging questions have not gender, gender in physics, and feminist yet been examined in feminist and gender epistemologies in physics often referred to physics research. Too little is known, for standpoint theories and history of ideas, example, about the conditions and contexts whereas more recent analyses in many that induce innovative ideas and their cases correspond to cultural studies and integration into the knowledge system of post-structuralist theories. The analysis of physics, and about the role that cultural social influence on the body of consolidated contexts and their associated gender knowledge in science, although being on systems play in this process. Furthermore, the agenda since the rediscovery of Ludwik gender analyses should be tightly linked Fleck’s work (Fleck 1979), seems to be the with other categories of social inequality most difficult and challenging area for and cultural differentiation, such as class, both science studies scholars and gender race, ethnicity, and sexuality. studies scholars. Definitely more research Because expertise in physics, science needs to be done and these research results studies, and gender studies is needed to certainly need to be discussed, criticised, address these research questions in an and defended by an interdisciplinary adequate way, the exchange of ideas and research community. Furthermore, actor- expertise between science studies scholars network-theory, the most successful theory and gender researchers seems to be the in the social studies of science, explaining most promising approach to analyse the the effects of successful translations of entanglement of gender and physics, actors, forces, and interests, has to my particularly the gendered, consolidated knowledge not yet been applied to gender knowledge of physics. For over a decade, and physics, but might be a fruitful way to Keller (1995) has called for establishing entangle human actors, work place cultures, trading zones for multidisciplinary exchange and knowledge production in gender and of research on gender and physics between physics research. gender studies scholars and science studies academics. This suggestion could bring Conclusion together the different research interests and expertise in the three outlined dimensions The research on gender and physics is of analysis and beyond. Moreover, it could multifarious and can be systematised into overcome some of the limitations and blind three dimensions of analysis focused on spots of today’s research on gender and epistemological interests and the objects: physics. How this might be put into practice, Human Actors, Work place Cultures, and however, remains to be seen. Knowledge Production. I have illustrated

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Acknowledgement Bauer; R. (2006) ‘Degendering Science – Developing a Gender and Science Studies I would like to thank Cathrine Hasse, Tora Curriculum’, in R. Bauer & H. Götschel Holmberg, and Elvira Scheich for their (eds) Gender in den Naturwissenschaften insightful comments and suggestions. [Gender in Natural Sciences] (Mössingen- Furthermore, I greatly benefited from Talheim: Talheimer): 167-182. discussing earlier drafts of this paper with Benckert, S. (1983) ‘Kvinnoperspektiv på my colleagues at the Centre for Gender naturvetenskapen med utsiktspunkt Research at and my från fysiken’ [Women’s perspective on colleagues of the ‘i-gap’–Network for natural sciences, looking from physics], Engendering the Material Sciences. I also in Rapport från Kvinnouniversitetet want to thank the guest editors of this special [Report from the womens’ university] edition and the three anonymous reviewers (): 70-75. for helping me to clarify my arguments and Benckert, S. (1997) ‘Är fysiken könlös? to address a science studies audience. Reflektioner kring ett universitätsämne’ [Is physics body-less? Reflections on a References university subject], in G. Nordberg (ed), Makt och kön [Power and body] (Eslöv: Alaimo, S. & Hekman, S. (eds) (2008) Östlings Bokförlag Symposion): 53-70. Material Feminisms (Bloomington: Berner, B. (2004) Infrågasättanden. Indiana University Press). Forskning om genus, teknik och Barad, K. (1995) ‘A Feminist Approach to naturvetenskap [Questioning. Research Teaching Quantum Physics’, in S. Rosser on gender, technology, and science] (ed), Teaching the Majority. Breaking the (Linköping: Linköpings Universitet). Gender Barrier in Science, Mathematics, Bischof, B. (2003) ‘Junge Wienerinnen and Engineering (New York: Teachers zertrümmern Atome’. Physikerinnen am College Press): 43-75. Wiener Institut für Radiumforschung Barad, K. (1998) ‘Getting Real: [‚Young Vienneses demolish atoms’. Technoscientific Practices and the Women physicists at the Vienna Institute Materialisation of Reality’, Differences of Radium Research] (Mössingen- 10(2): 87-128. Talheim: Talheimer). Barad, K. (2001) ‘Performing Culture/ Boas, M. (1958) Robert Boyle and Performing Nature: Using the Seventeenth-Century Chemistry Piezoelectric Crystal of Ultrasound (Cambridge: Cambridge University Technologies as a Transducer between Press). Science Studies and Queer Theories’, in C. Bohr, Niels (1957) Atomfysik og menneskelig Lammer (ed), Digital Anatomies (Wien: erkendelse [Atomic physics and human Turia & Kant): 98-114. knowledge] (Copenhagen: Schultz). Barad, K. (2007) Meeting the Universe Butler, J. (1993) Bodies that matter. On the Halfway. Quantum Physics and the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (New York, Entanglement of Matter and Meaning : Routledge). (Durham: Duke University Press). Byers, N. & G. Williams (eds) (2006) Out of Barinaga, M. (1994) ‘Surprises across the the shadows. Contributions of Twentieth- Cultural Divide’, Science 263(11): 1468- Century Women to Physics (Cambridge: 1472. Cambridge University Press).

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