Background Guide to the ACE Program Alaska Coastal Ecology Program

Background Information on the Ecology, Geology, and Archeology of Kachemak Bay

Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies P.O.Box 2225, Homer, AK 99603 . (907) 235-6667 www.akcoastalstudies.org Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 1 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program Table of Contents

Alaska Coastal Ecology (ACE) Program Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies...... 4 The Alaska Coastal Ecology (ACE) Program...... 5 Alaska Coastal Ecology Major Learning Concepts...... 6

I. Kachemak Bay Kachemak Bay is ...... 7 Kachemak Bay - An Estuary ...... 8 Geology of Kachemak Bay...... 11 Kachemak Bay - An Area of "Edges"...... 17 Kachemak Bay Biodiversity Factoids ...... 17 Prehistoric Use of Kachemak Bay...... 20 Changing Ecosystems in Kachemak Bay...... 23 Kachemak Bay - A Place for Stewardship...... 28

II. Intertidal Ecology Intertidal Diversity in Kachemak Bay ...... 31 Organisms in the Intertidal Zone...... 35 Who Lives Where and Why?...... 37 Intertidal Food Webs...... 44 Ecological Relationships...... 48

III. Forest Ecology Conifers of Kachemak Bay ...... 50 Plants on the Forest Floor ...... 50 Temperate Rainforest?...... 51 Plant Adaptations ...... 52 Forest Succession...... 53 This Alaska Coastal Ecology Program content guide was originally Traditional Uses of Plants...... 58 Revisions and additions to the guide have occurred in 2004 by Bree Murphy, in 2009 by Katie Villano, and in 2014 by Katie Gavenus in an Other Curriculum Resources...... 60

References...... 63

2 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 3 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies The Alaska Coastal Ecology (ACE) Program

The Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies The Alaska Coastal Ecology program is Lab. Intertidal ecology, forest ecology, geology, (CACS) is based in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. More the capstone program for the Center for Alaska and archeology are taught during the ACE than just our location, Kachemak Bay is our Coastal Studies. The program was started in program through a variety of hikes and hands- special place; the unique ecology of this place 1983 at the Peterson Bay Field Station and has on activities. Groups choose to participate in a and the richness of human connections to it steadily grown ever since. The ACE program day trip, or spend the night for two- or three-day were the impetus for the founding of CACS and a consistent source of inspiration and curiosity grades 3-12. Kasitsna Bay Laboratory in partnership with the In addition to the great outdoor CACS, we strive to foster connections between University of Alaska Fairbanks and NOAA. The experience and exposure to hands-on science, people, Kachemak Bay, and the broader natural purpose of this guide is to help prepare teachers many teachers have told us that the most and CACS educators for the content covered in of all ages to connect with the outdoors through the Alaska Coastal Ecology program. are the important emotional and social bonds guided walks, tours, educational programs, Teachers and students from schools that their students form on the trip both with overnights, school programs and more. Our throughout Alaska travel to Homer each spring each other and with the environment. mission is to foster responsible interaction to participate in this unique program and utilize with our natural surroundings and to generate the living laboratory at the doorstep of the knowledge of the unique marine and coastal Peterson Bay Field Station and the Kasitsna Bay ecosystems of Kachemak Bay through science- based environmental education and stewardship.

CACS Location

CACS is based in Homer, on the north shore of Kachemak Bay. Homer is located at the southwest end of the Kenai Peninsula and the drive from Anchorage, on dry roads and The Seldovia Native Association owns Headquarters for our Alaska Coastal Ecology the coastal forest, but CACS has an agreement Program and Natural History Day Tours is with the Native Association to use their land for forest trails and access to China Poot Bay. from Homer on the shores of Peterson Bay. The CACS also owns 140 acres at the Carl E. Peterson Bay Field Station is considered semi- Wynn Nature Center. This land is managed for wildlife habitat and education of the public. only accessible by boat. CACS owns about four acres of land at the programs throughout the summer, with school entrance to Peterson Bay Lagoon on the south day programs occurring in the spring and fall. shore of Kachemak Bay. Our land is located next to a coastal forest on the Island Peninsula between Peterson and China Poot Bays.

4 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 5 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

I. Kachemak Bay Alaska Coastal Ecology Major Learning Concepts

Kachemak Bay is . . . 1. Kachemak Bay, its beaches and coastal watersheds have favorable conditions for supporting a diversity of plants and animals. * An estuary. * One of the richest, most diverse marine and intertidal areas in Alaska. 2. Plants and animals have adaptations for survival that allow them to survive best under certain conditions. a) Adaptations to the conditions in the intertidal zone. environments. b) Adaptations to conditions in the coastal forest

4. Plants and animals have a variety of relationships with other * A special place where stewardship is needed. predator/prey, competition, parasitism, and commensalism.

5. Kachemak Bay is shaped by a number of geological processes and

6. People and cultures have been shaped by the unique resources of Kachemak Bay for thousands of years

7. Appreciation and understanding about the ecology of the coastal forest and intertidal zone is linked to stewardship - what people can do to avoid or minimize harm to these environments

Figure 1. Kachemak Bay and surrounding area.

6 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 7 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Diverse and Abundant Life in Kachemak Bay Some of the entering salt water was diverted meaningful ways since the 1970s. back to the outer bay when it encountered Kachemak Bay Research Reserve, Kasitsna The richness of marine life in Kachemak of Prince William Sound, the Alaska Coastal the Spit. Since fresh and salt water do not mix Bay Laboratory, and University of Alaska Bay is evident in a cruise on the bay or a walk Fairbanks are all currently studying the Bay’s along the shores of China Poot Bay at a low tide. Twice-daily tides move Alaska Coastal Current inner bay into the outer bay formed a current water in and out of Cook Inlet, but the direction outward along the north shore, while the sea and discovering that the system seems to be A number of factors account for this diversity more dynamic and complex than revealed by to the south. At the mouth of the bay, currents earlier studies. The results of their work are from the rotation of the earth and causes surface expected within the next 1-3 years, including 1. Nutrient-rich estuarine water, derived from waters in the northern hemisphere to move in public access to a real-time, high-resolution a counterclockwise direction. In Cook Inlet, The net result was the development of semi model of water movement in Kachemak Bay permanent circular currents, called gyres, at the surface in both the inner and outer bay. understanding of currents in Kachemak Bay will 2. The staying time of the water. the east side of Cook Inlet and down the west help inform research and public understanding side. These water movements cause salt water to and round, sometimes for as long as two weeks. of many pressing issues, from recruitment of 3. The geology of the area and the large tidal enter Kachemak Bay predominantly along the The gyres are disrupted by storms and high larval crustaceans and bivalves to the incidence range. south shore and to leave along the north shore. winds and likely change with seasonal changes of harmful algal blooms. Similar to other estuaries, the physical Movements of water below the surface 4. The relatively mild climate. have not been measured, but measurements of the inner bay circulated in a counterclockwise salinity have shown that mixing of salt and fresh direction while the gyre in the outer bay water occurs throughout the bay. The general Kachemak Bay - An Estuary with the exception of a deep trench on the south circulated in a clockwise direction. This is side (more than 500 feet deep in places). It is of relatively fresh water at the surface and an Kachemak Bay is a place where fresh somewhat sheltered from prevailing winds by during the 1970s. However, it is quite likely water and seawater meet. Because the bay has a It is believed that the saline oceanic waters large input of fresh water and is less salty than mountains. The Homer Spit, extending more and with changes in precipitation or melting. carry large amounts of nutrients that upwell the ocean, it is called an estuary. The salt water than halfway across the bay from the north side, Furthermore, it is possible that the circulation into the Alaska Coastal Current at Kennedy moved by the tides and currents of Cook Inlet Entrance at the end of the Kenai Peninsula. water from numerous streams, including eleven major glacial rivers. Kachemak Bay Characteristics The most recent published study to CIRCULATION PATTERNS was done during spring in the mid-1970s using drifting objects (drogues). The picture that The key to understanding the ecology of Kachemak Bay is an understanding of its observed during this study. During spring, substantial amounts of fresh water from the Fox, created by the interaction of ocean currents and Bradley, and Martin Rivers and Sheep Creek at o o The water along the north shore encountered the - 55 F Spit and some of the water was diverted back 32.5 ppt at entrance to inner bay then west towards the Aleutian Islands. East to 0.0 ppt near stream mouths Kachemak Bay on the south side of the bay. Gulf of Alaska.

8 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 9 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Oceanographic researchers at the Kasitsna become depleted of nutrients and oxygen. by phytoplankton and macro algae results in a Bay Laboratory and Kachemak Bay Research Therefore, Kachemak Bay’s primary productivity transfer of organic carbon to the benthic food Reserve have documented a fairly stable lens of is dependent upon, among many other factors, chains that is three times as high as elsewhere in warm, fresher water over the colder, more saline lower Cook Inlet (Lees et al. 1980). water below during the spring, summer, and early fall and mixing during the late fall, winter, Primary productivity, or the amount fall seasons (Field & Walker 2003). Throughout and early spring. Kachemak Bay and many sub-bays, this lens photosynthesis, is highly seasonal. In summer, tends to be approximately 5-10 meters in depth NUTRIENT DYNAMICS the rate of primary production is high due to before the pycnocline, where density changes increased daylight hours. In spring and fall, dramatically as cold, saltier water is encountered The Alaska Coastal Current and tides production shifts with increasing or decreasing (K. Holderied, Pers Comm). This thermohaline bring the ocean water that enters the bay along amounts of light. In winter, daylight is limited the south shore in twice-daily tidal currents. and photosynthesizing aquatic organisms have in the colder months when freshwater input The surface waters are enriched by upwelling of a harder time accumulating biomass. Another PACIFIC PLATE decreases dramatically as primary precipitation cold, clear, nutrient-rich water northwest of the reason for seasonality in primary production is shifts to snow, glacial melt stops, and many Chugach Islands at the tip of the Kenai Peninsula the fact that many plankton blooms and macro- creaks freeze over. This is compounded by (ADFG 1998, Field & Walker 2003). One study algae die and regenerate with life cycles timed to cold air temperatures, which cool the surface indicates that it takes 2 days for water to move the seasons. waters and increase their density. During this from the Kennedy Entrance to Seldovia, and In addition to light, nutrient availability an additional 3 days to travel from Seldovia to limits productivity in marine systems. In with the less rich surface waters is driven by Halibut Cove (Field & Walker 2003). The gyre many coastal areas, plankton blooms generally decrease fairly rapidly after the supply of American Plate is responsible for creating the volcanoes in the outer bay is thought to recirculate these warmer and include more rain, it is possible some of the upwelled nutrients for 1-2 weeks nutrients is exhausted. In Kachemak Bay, basalt present in the bay in the accretion process. along with plankton and invertebrate larvae. however, upwelling and the gyre system for much longer (K. Holderied, Pers Comm). One study of phytoplankton production in are thought to maintain high nutrient levels plant communities and a diversity of marine Kachemak Bay documented a productivity level throughout spring and summer. In addition invertebrates. This is largely due to the fact that productivity in the bay; because the pycnocline that was much higher than that of any other area to nutrients brought into the bay by the tides the patchy terrain provides an abundance of is fairly stable during summer, phytoplankton measured in lower Cook Inlet (Larrance et al. are less likely to be mixed below the photic 1977) and placed it as one of the most productive from the many streams around the bay wash zone where light is available to them for nutrients into the marine habitat. Water from the perennial plants, small invertebrates, and worms photosynthesis. However, if the thermohaline and Lorenzen 1986). Additional primary fed upon by shorebirds and waterfowl. Fox River production occurs by macro-algae (also known to the circulating nutrient soup that fuels the Flats and China Poot Bay have extensive salt would occur and the surface waters would as seaweeds). The combination of production marine food chain. marshes that export large amounts of nutrients Geology of Kachemak Bay winter. The Kenai Peninsula and Cook Inlet have Biodiversity in Kachemak Bay is exploring for oil and gas, coal, and mineral beach types. The three main types of coastline resources. In addition, geologists study this area are steep, rocky beaches, eroding shorelines shaping processes that are active throughout the inner bay, and pocket beaches of mixed rock, world. Evidence of plate tectonics, earthquakes, cobble, and mud such as those in China Poot volcanoes, glaciers, erosion and deposition can all be found in Cook Inlet and Kenai Peninsula. Figure 3. Currents in Kachemak Bay, based on 1970s studies and prelimary results Bay. Rocky substrates support the most diverse from recent research at the Kachemak Bay Research Reserve (Field & Walker 2003) 10 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 11 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

inches per year (Field & Walker 2013). process, because evidence may be buried The “recent” landscape has been shaped under glaciers, oceans, or thousands of feet of by the numerous cycles of glacial advance and retreat and the accompanying rise and fall of sea The explanations included in this section are level during the last several hundred thousand the work of one group of geologists. Other years. In the last major glaciation Kachemak Bay explanations have been developed and may be plausible, so some caution is advisable in glacier that reworked the surface of the highly interpreting current theories and reconstructions erodible sedimentary deposits on the north side. The topography of steep-sided valleys and theory, however, is widely accepted (E. Berg, Pers Comm). of the action of valley and alpine glaciers on On the north side of the bay, the rocks much less-erodible rocks. Some of these glaciers are sedimentary and terrestrial in origin. The remain today and are easily observable from the Map from www.avo.alaska.edu sedimentary deposits on the north side, as Homer road system. The hills north of Skyline Locations of volcanoes near Kachemak Bay and Homer. thick as 25,000 feet in some areas of the Kenai drive and the Caribou Hills further north were Lowlands and underneath Cook Inlet, were not glaciated in the last major glaciation, which side of Kachemak Bay, is a sedimentary marine died tens and hundreds of millions of years ago, formed during the Tertiary Period of the climaxed 18,000 years ago, but were glaciated in rock, as previously noted. it is likely to contain remnants of the tiny fecal Cenozoic Era 2 to 55 million years ago. the penultimate glaciation 60,000 years ago and Radiolarians are single-celled, amoeba- pellets that encapsulated the radiolarians after On the south side of the bay, the rocks probably in earlier glacial cycles. like animals with spiky internal skeletons they were consumed by predators! are largely sedimentary or metamorphic, with made of siliceous opal. These chert layers were The prominent layering of the radiolarian a minor igneous component, and are marine PLATE TECTONICS created from the remains of the radiolarians in origin. The south side rocks are 100 to 240 that rained down slowly onto the ocean viewer’s eye and raises the question of how million years old and were formed during the it might be formed. There are two theories. Mesozoic Era. The path and duration of their north and south sides of Kachemak Bay are thousands of years into an ooze layer on the The chert layers, typically 1-4 inches thick, tectonic plate journey to their current place on are separated by thin seams of what was earth is not known with certainty, but there is processes. Plate tectonics refers to large-scale deep ocean waters and overlying sediments, originally mud (i.e., clay), but has since been reasonable evidence that the journey began in forces that shape and build the earth’s crust. the ooze layer consolidates into silica rock metamorphosed into argillite. One theory Southern Alaska is considered one of the most we call chert. Some geologists estimate that proposes that layers of radiolarians skeletons probably emerged as land in southern Alaska tectonically active areas on the earth. In this only 1% of the original silica material in the were laid down during “algal blooms” of no earlier than 55 million years ago. The fossils region, plate tectonics has shaped the base skeletal structure is contained in the ooze; the radiolarians in tropical waters, and then turbidity of radiolarians, a marine zooplankton, can be landscape and the upper layers have been rest is dissolved into the water column as the subsequently sculpted by the action of streams tests sink. The sheer amount of radiolarians layers of clay more or less instantaneously. A and glaciers eroding and depositing sediments. variation on this theory suggests that turbidity of the bay. These fossils are conclusive evidence The rocks of Gull Island and the rocky the formation of radiolarian chert indicate that currents deposited the radiolarians themselves, there was a great abundance of radiolarians at and that the clay came from the slow rain of ocean, formed from the gradual accumulation the time, saturating the ocean water with silica. of radiolarian fossils. The igneous basalt that pillow basalts on Gull Island demonstrate The tests of radiolarians that were consumed down the water column. The second major the form taken by erupting molten lava when by zooplankton and other small animals are theory proposes that the radiolarians and clay erupted at the mid-ocean spreading centers it encounters cold ocean waters. Basalt also sometimes excreted in fecal pellets. These fecal were originally deposited together, and then the between tectonic plates and was moved underlies the Island Peninsula between Peterson pellets protect the silica from dissolution and clay particles were mechanically squeezed out northward by the conveyer-belt like movement and China Poot Bays. Radiolarian chert, the also speed up the rate at which they sink to the of radiolarian layers as the silica from dissolved of the spreading tectonic plates. This movement type of rock that is exposed in Shipwreck Cove radiolarians began to set up as a silica gel. In currently takes place at a rate of about two in China Poot Bay and other places on the south the fossilized tests of microscopic organisms that this case the layering is entirely the result of a

12 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 13 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

secondary process (an example of “diagenesis”), Seldovia Bay, under the Homer Spit, along the Inlet and Kachemak Bay have likely experienced seismic activity seen 2004-2006. Evidence of past front of the Kenai Mountains, crosses Turnagain several cycles of glaciation, but it is hard to say volcanic activity can be observed in the ash layers due to normal sedimentation. Geologists are Arm and then bends to the east and then south how many because each glaciation tends to erase still of divided opinion on these origins, but the through the Chugach Mountains, ultimately or bury the products of previous glaciations. Peninsula, where the Peterson Bay Field Station diagenetic theory is probably the more accepted terminating near Baranof Island in SE Alaska. Plate tectonics is also implicated in the sits, also provides easily observable evidence view at this time (E. Berg, Pers Comm). On the Kenai Peninsula the BRF separates the of the great 1964 Good Friday Earthquake. According to plate tectonics, the present Chugach Terrane to the east from the Peninsular Kachemak Bay. As plate subduction occurred, The ground sank or subsided up to six feet location of pillow basalts and radiolarian cherts Terrane to the west, which includes the Kenai volcanoes were formed along the north and as a consequence of the earthquake. A ghost in Kachemak Bay is due to a tectonic process lowland, Cook Inlet and the Alaska Peninsula. west borders of the subduction zone and the forest of dead trees remains along the Low Tide called “accretion.” Accretion is the process of Kenai and Chugach Mountains were uplifted Trail between Peterson and China Poot Bays, Plate at a very shallow angle at the Aleutian to the east. A lower-lying basin and trough demonstrating the lethal intrusion of salt water plate as it subducts below the earth's surface. In Trench, runs under the Kenai Peninsula and area formed between the two uplift areas. This into areas normally above the reach of the tides. then dives at steep angle under the Alaska basin and trough formed in the area that is now The 1964 Good Friday Earthquake was the largest the continental North American Plate presently Range across Cook Inlet. When the top of the the Kenai Lowlands and Cook Inlet. A sharp earthquake ever recorded in North America starts along the Aleutian Trench in the Gulf of subducting plate reaches 100 km (62 miles) it change in the geology occurs at the base of the and measured 9.2 on the Moment Magnitude Alaska. begins to melt and the rising magma feeds the Kenai Mountains on the north side of Kachemak Scale (8.4 on the Richter Scale) at its epicenter in How did the pillow basalts become chain of volcanoes running down the west side Bay. To the west lie the Kenai Lowlands with Valdez. The trail to Earthquake Point crosses a Gull Island and how did the radiolarian cherts of Cook Inlet and out the Aleutian Chain. deep deposits of younger sedimentary rocks, The Kenai Mountains were uplifted as terrestrial in origin (coal-bearing conglomerates, Good Friday Earthquake. The process took millions of years and likely sort of compressed ripple in the thin Chugach sandstones, and siltstones). To the east lies Terrane as it was squeezed to the northwest by the older uplifted Kenai Mountains bedrock, GLACIERS spreading center, transport by plate tectonics, marine in origin. This abrupt change occurs subduction in a deep ocean trench, accretion rise of the Kenai Mountains, which have been at the Border Ranges Fault Zone, which is the Many of the surface features on the land onto the continental plate, and uplift over a long through several cycles of uplift and erosion in western boundary of the Chugach Terrane. on both sides of the bay are the result of events period of time (E. Berg, Pers Comm). The twisted the past 55 million years, created a basin between Geologists trace the initiation of sedimentation that took place much later in the geologic records nature of the sedimentary layers, which were themselves and the Alaska Peninsula mountains. into the Kenai Lowlands and Cook Inlet to - the Pleistocene Ice Ages. Beginning 230,000 once horizontal, would have occurred during the This basin has received sediments from both approximately 55 million years ago (beginning of years ago, glaciers advanced repeatedly from accretion process when the rocks were scraped mountain ranges, as well as from the Matanuska- the Tertiary period in the Cenozoic Era). mountain sources and covered various portions Susitna drainage to north. A broad Yukon-style Accreted rocks that form units of land EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES of similar composition and history are called “terranes.” Most of the area on the south side of mud and sand on top of swamps that would glaciation was the last major Ice Age advance. Kachemak Bay is part of the Chugach Terrane ultimately become shale, sandstone, and coal. North American plates that extends along When it ended about 10,000 years ago, it covered that extends north toward Anchorage. The Coarse sandstone and conglomerate (gravel) the southern coast of Alaska is a part of the parts of what is now Kachemak Bay such as the portion of the Chugach Terrane that forms layers would ultimately become reservoir rocks geologically active area called the “Ring of upper parts of China Poot and Peterson Bays. Ice the Kenai Mountains is termed the McHugh for oil and gas percolating upwards from deeply Fire.” Faults, volcanoes, and earthquakes are all from this major Ice Age last covered the lower Complex, after its type section at McHugh Creek buried older marine rocks of the Jurassic age. common geologic features of this area. Nearby bays about 15,000 years ago (Reger and Pinney on Turnagain Arm. This complex is referred to During the Pleistocene glacial period glaciers Mt. Iliamna frequently has small steam plumes 1997). Two minor glacier advances occurred as a “tectonic mélange” because of the jumble of came out of the mountains on both sides of the come out of it. Mt. Redoubt, Mt. Augustine, and basin and carved out the modern Cook Inlet. An Mt. Spurr have had dramatic eruptions in within which did not begin retreating until 1850. The ancestral Kachemak River drained as a tributary recent history. Mt. Redoubt erupted in 1989- Harding Ice Field between Homer and Seward matrix. into the old Yukon-style river, and was similarly 1990 and again in 2009. Mt. Augustine erupted is a remnant of the great Ice Ages, as are the A large fault called the Border Ranges excavated by glaciers from the southern Kenai in 1986 and 2005-2006. Crater Peak on Mt. Spurr glaciers on the south side of Kachemak Bay east Fault (BRF) runs up from Kodiak, through Mountains during the glacial period. Both Cook erupted most recently in 1992, with increased of Peterson Bay that are viewable from Homer.

14 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 15 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Glacial retreats carved the Cook Inlet on the northwest and southeast sides as sandbars Kachemak Bay - An Area of "Edges" basin. Glaciers also carved Kachemak Bay and erosion on the west side which has been stabilized by man made rip-rap. The harbor is Kachemak Bay. The Homer Spit is considered regularly dredged to remove sediment that has edge area, or ecotone, for the land and the ocean. due to the fact that Kachemak Bay is located to be the terminal moraine of a glacier. While been deposited there. Edge ecosystems often have high numbers of in a transition zone in Alaska between large the glaciers carved the valleys on the south side The underlying geological processes and species, or high species richness, because they of the bay, glacial action shaped the surface the surface activity of erosion and deposition provide a combination of environments in forest biomes, and geologic history. A visit to topography and stream courses on the north determines the types and stability of substrates close proximity. This increases the number of side even more extensively because of the more available for colonization by intertidal plants and the bay to compare and contrast the geology erodible nature of the sediments on the north animals. organisms to live there. and ecology of these two regions. Much of side. These glaciers left behind moraines that Kachemak Bay is home to two very can be observed along the Sterling Highway CLIMATE already, but topography, shorelines, and forest between Soldotna and Tern Lake because later of the bay and one on the south side of the bay. communities will be addressed in this section. ice age advances did not go far enough to wipe The climate of Cook Inlet is a transitional out till deposits. Other early moraines were area between the cold, dry continental climate wiped away by later glacial action in the area. of Interior Alaska and the relatively wet and Kachemak Bay Biodiversity Factoids The glaciers that remain on the south side of the mild maritime climate of Gulf of Alaska coastal areas. The Kenai Mountains shelter Kachemak shallow soils that have built up since the last Bay from Gulf of Alaska storms and create a over 225 species of birds. During spring and fall migration, biologists have counted over a million waterfowl, seabirds, and shorebirds. Approximately 90% of the marine birds in Poot Bay and in the root masses and holes left by snow. The moisture-laden maritime air masses lower Cook Inlet overwinter in the bay (Trasky 1982) which is the only ice-free bay. wind thrown trees along Island Peninsula trails. from the Gulf are lifted by the Kenai Mountains Lost and Found Lake was likely formed in a where condensation occurs and rain or snow depression left by a remnant piece of glacial ice. is mostly deposited on the windward side 16,000 birds. It is currently a study site for scientists who are comparing its productivity and tops of the mountains. The rain shadow is EROSION AND DEPOSITION more pronounced on the south side of the bay colonies in upper Cook Inlet where waters are warmer, less saline, and less productive of resulting in lower snow depths than on the north The geological processes that continue side of the bay. As a result, bare ground can appear much earlier in the spring on the south side than on the north side of Kachemak Bay. and storm events interact to cause erosion of Compared to other parts of Alaska, the climate some shoreline areas and deposition in others. of Kachemak Bay is relatively mild. The bay provide spawning habitat for salmon, including important intertidal spawning habitat for Erosion generally occurs on the western edge usually remains ice-free during the winter. pink salmon. of the south side of Kachemak Bay and along During severe winters, however, ice does form the north side of the bay. Erosion can be seen in in the inner bay and along the Homer Spit. Hard freezes of the upper intertidal zone have Steller sea lions, harbor porpoises and occasionally by humpback, orca, and minke whales. Homer. Depositional zones and relatively neutral occurred throughout the bay in some years. The force of Gulf of Alaska storms are blunted by underlying geological processes and the surface the Kenai Mountains on the south side of the has applied his own test on beaches throughout the world, by picking up a rock the size activity of erosion and deposition determines the types and stability of substrates available for orientation of the bay, the spit, and surrounding colonization by intertidal plants and animals. topography. These storms are highly seasonal, been exceeded at only one beach he visited in southern Australia. (C. Field, Pers. Comm.). The Homer Spit has its own unique occurring mostly in winter.

16 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 17 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

TOPOGRAPHY SHORELINES On the north side of the bay you'll The south side of the bay grows forests With the exception of the Homer Spit, the typical of the northern and western edge of westward to arctic tundra. Like on the south sides of Kachemak Bay is the topography. On northern shoreline is relatively straight. Beaches the north temperate coastal rainforest. These to the west of the Homer Spit are a combination types of forest extend southward to northern California. The dominant tree on the south side can also be found. The understory plants, on the north side of the bay have adaptations to deal drainages. To the east of the Spit and within white spruce (a tree characteristic of the with 6-8 months of snow cover. north and also drops steeply to the Homer northern boreal forest) and Sitka spruce (a tree Although many species thrive on both Bench. These ridges and rolling hills further to The deltas of the large rivers at the head of the sides of the bay and in both forest types, many the north and northeast are the Kenai Lowlands, bay have also formed a large interdigitated array a small number of western hemlocks growing on thick deposits of sand and clay. Streams along the northern edge of their range. The understory example, moose are more common on the north the north shore have cut deep ravines through shoreline is typical of that carved by the retreat plants on the south side of Kachemak Bay are the deposits. of glaciers on mountain slopes; it is complex, primarily evergreen, and are adapted to the in the amount of willow available for moose to On the south side, the landscape is with a number of smaller bays, spits, islands, milder climate and well-developed canopy that eat. Fungus, ferns, and lichens also occur on both mountainous. The Kenai Mountains form intercepts snow in the coastal forest. sides of the bay, however, their abundances and the spine of the southern part of the Kenai shoreline of Southeast Alaska. diversities are much greater on the south side of Peninsula. Several glaciers and bays front the the bay. mountains on the southern side of Kachemak FOREST COMMUNITIES Bay. "edges" on the north and south side of Kachemak topography on the two sides of Kachemak Bay have resulted in the most dramatic edge of all history. The origin, type and age of rocks are -- the edge of the boreal and coastal forests. Kachemak Bay is a transition area for these two the Geology section, starting on page 11 for more major forest types in Alaska. detailed information. A Comparison of the North and South Sides of Kachemak Bay

Characteristic North Side South Side Topography Mountainous Shoreline Straight shore and the spit Climate More snow, melts later Less snow, melts sooner Forest type Boreal forest Northern temperate coastal Geology rainforest Primary rock type Sedimentary Igneous and metamorphic Rock origin Terrestrial origin Marine origin Rivers and streams Plate tectonic forces Rock age Younger-Tertiary Period Older-Mesozoic Era Massive ice sheets Valley and alpine glaciers

18 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 19 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Prehistoric Use of Kachemak Bay – many Alutiiq-Sugpiak people call Seldovia, (also referred to sometimes as a barabara in Athabaskan people began to move into the Nanwalek, and Port Graham home, while Russian) with a nearby midden pile on the Kachemak Bay area starting about 1,500 to 1,000 Peterson Bay Field Station trail system provides Station provides opportunities to view and years ago. They fused their more interior way Dena’ina people. A number of communities an opportunity to discuss how people from learn about archaeological sites and what along Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay integrate both Alutiiq-Sugpiak and Dena’ina cultures archaeologists have learned about prehistory in land mammals with a maritime life style like that may have lived and what remains as evidence of the Alutiiq-Sugpiak. Native Alaskans from throughout the state, of their culture. Large rectangular depressions, only been available for Kachemak Bay since 1780, The majority of archaeological sites in descendants of Russian explorers and fur so "prehistory" encompasses the vast majority of this area have been discovered on the south traders, and more recent newcomers from the of the winter home of a Dena’ina family that time that humans have inhabited this area. side of Kachemak Bay. This is likely due to the lower 48. once lived there, overlooking China Poot Bay. abundance of food resources, access to trees Almost 5000 years ago, Ocean Bay The midden pile, on the other hand, is evidence mammal resources of Kachemak Bay made the for building materials, good kayak landing and people came from the Alaska Peninsula and that the Sugpiak-Alutiiq people also probably launching sites, and good viewpoints for hunting used the area. CACS has a kit of authentic and bay has been relatively accessible by sea from the and warfare. The availability of chert, slate, Bay people were probably part of the larger replica artifacts for use at the site. These tools Aleutians, the Alaska Peninsula, Prince William basalt, greenstone, and graywacke provided Alutiiq-Sugpiak culture. The Ocean Bay people are Sugpiak artifacts (and replicas of Sugpiak Sound, and overland. One unique aspect of good materials for creating tools. subsided primarily on marine mammals. Ash artifacts) excavated from midden piles similar prehistoric use of the area is the evidence that it Based on archeological evidence, people from a catastrophic volcanic event about 3000 to the one at the China Poot Bay house site. was used by both coastal Alutiiq-Sugpiak and years ago covers most of the ancient Ocean Bay more interior Dena’ina Athabaskan cultures. Kachemak Bay during prehistory. Two major archeological sites. of the spiritual beliefs related to the concepts Alutiiq-Sugpiak people probably came to cultures have dominated the prehistory of the Following the Ocean Bay culture, of animal reincarnation and of beggesh and Kachemak Bay from coastal areas to the south, area, Alutiiq-Sugpiak and Dena’ina. Most likely, the Kachemak Tradition people occupied beggesha (Osgoode, 1976). Because the Dena'ina west, and east, such as the Alaska Peninsula, Alutiiq-Sugpiak people occupied Kachemak Bay Kachemak Bay for about 2,500 years. The believed that an inanimate object could carry a Kodiak Island, and Prince William Sound. from approximately 5,000 to 1,500 years ago with Kachemak Tradition people subsisted on a trace of human use -- beggesh -- that transmits peak use around 1,600 - 2,000 years ago. They information about past events or abstract ideas, evidence, accounts of migration of Alutiiq people were followed by the Dena'ina culture, beginning marine mammals. The Kachemak Tradition the tools most frequently used by people were from Prince William Sound exist in the oral about 1,500 years ago. Both cultures exist in people disappeared from the archeological rarely abandoned. The use of beggesh denotes tradition. Evidence indicates that the Dena’ina the Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet area today record around 1500 years ago. Archeologists that the trace is negative or impure, while are not sure why this culture disappeared. beggesha indicates a more pure state. Leaving Pictographs (drawings on rocks) can be seen on behind artifacts to those that could detect the Culture Approximate Date in Kachemack information could have potentially negative done by people from the Kachemak Tradition. consequences. Furthermore, the Dena'ina It is believed that both the Ocean Bay and cremated their dead along with their personal Alutiiq-Sugpiak Kachemak Tradition cultures are part of the belongings to ensure reincarnation and purify larger Alutiiq-Sugpiak tradition. the articles of beggesh. Because of this, it is Ocean Bay Culture 3000 B.C. - 1500 B.C. Right around the time the Kachemak Tradition people disappeared from the anthropologists learn about this culture instead Kachemak Tradition 1500 B.C. - 1000 A.D. archeological record, evidence of the Dena'ina from the house sites that have been left behind people begins to show up. The Dena'ina are Athabaskan a group of Athabaskans who moved from interior Alaska to the coast. Many Dena'ina Dena'ina 500 A.D. – Present continue to live here today. A nichil, the Dena’ina word for house

20 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 21 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Changing Ecosystems in Kachemak Bay

that weight upon the land. The average coastal suggestions. uplift rate in Kachemak Bay is estimated to Kachemak Bay and its surrounding be about 0.34 inches per year over the next 2 lands have undergone major changes in recent decades, outpacing the predicted rate of sea level decades. The human population is increasing and so is the human impact on Kachemak This example serves to highlight the complexity Bay. The consequences of a changing global of changes occuring in our ocean at both a local climate can also be seen in Kachemak Bay. The and global scale. Equally important, the project combination of human and climactic forces has to measure coastal uplift in Kachemak Bay changed many facets of life in the bay, from drastic changes in the spruce forests to serious science, traditional knowledge, and decision- makers. The project was inspired by local people who noticed "more beach showing at low tides" CHANGING OCEANS collaboraation between scientists and decision- Earth’s oceans are in a period of rapid makers from the coastal communities, City of change. Ocean temperatures are rising (Cane Homer, Seldovia Village Tribes, Sate of Alaska, et al. 1997) threatening both the distribution of and Kenai Peninsula Borough. On-going citizen and the stories and culture that live on with Dena’ina people throughout the region. marine organisms and the thermohaline currents science monitoring is occuring in salt marshes that act as a conveyor belt of water and nutrients throughout the world’s oceans (Nellemann et al. coastal uplift. 2008). The amount of Arctic Ocean covered in sea ice is rapidly decreasing each year (Stroeve et al. Top-Down Control 2007). By the end of this century, anthropogenic of Food Chain of Food Chain carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are expected to decrease the surface ocean pH dramatically of marine mammals and unsustainable Large Fish functioning of marine ecosystems (Nellemann et al. 2008). Global sea levels rose an average rate of Small Fish & 1.7 mm per year during the 20th century and by Crustaceans the year 2100 sea level is expected to be 310 mm higher than it was in 1990 (Church and White 2006). At the same time, coastal uplift is occuring on a local level in Kachemak Bay, caused by Zooplankton residual rebound from the 1964 earthquake, steady build-up of pressure before the next big earthquake release, and isostatic rebound following the melting of glaciers and release of Phytoplankton

22 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 23 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

populations declined dramatically. Steller sea Now, the invasive grass threatens to dramatically change wetland ecosystems (Slemmons 2007). CHANGING BIODIVERSITY lions are now federally listed as an endangered species. As sea lion and seal populations Orange hawkweed was introduced to coastal declined, the orcas then had to switch to preying communities in Alaska as an ornamental plant In the Gulf of Alaska, crab and shrimp in the 1950s (Hulten 1968). The colorful orange populations have decreased, while walleye of orcas hunting smaller and smaller prey increased (Anderson et al. 1997). These changes climate that shifts every 20-30 years from a warmer water regime to a cooler water regime. declined as well. This process is known as a in its pollen (Murphy 2001). The south side in biodiversity may be caused by a combination The cooler water regime supports crab, shrimp, “megafaunal collapse” (Springer et al. 2003). herring, and capelin populations in the Gulf invasive plants due to reduced levels of human the food chain. Alterations to food chains can disturbance. of Alaska region, while the warmer regime NON-NATIVE SPECIES INVASIONS supports cod, Pollock, and salmon. water temperature, salinity, and nutrients can Similarly, the removal of predators at the Invasions by non-native species are SPRUCE BARK BEETLE OUTBREAK alter phytoplankton populations, the base of top of the food chain, or “top-down” control becoming more and more likely in Kachemak virtually every marine food chain. As surface of the food chain, can dramatically change the Bay marine and terrestrial habitats. With Increases in the number of insect pests, waters warm, it is harder for ocean layers to ecosystem as well. In the Aleutian Islands, the increasing amounts of human disturbance especially spruce bark beetles, have caused mix because warm water is less dense than cold and warming temperatures, conditions have dramatic changes around Kachemak Bay. water. Without vertical mixing to bring nutrients caused urchin populations to increase (Estes and become more hospitable for species that have Spruce bark beetles () Palmisano 1974). In turn, the increased urchin evolved in other climates. In Kachemak Bay, no are a natural part of the forest ecosystem growth becomes limited (Odate et al. 1999). As population consumed the productive kelp forest and are important for culling and initiating a result, everything above phytoplankton in the and converted it into urchin barrens (Estes however, a large Early Detection and Rapid decomposition of stressed trees. They prefer to breed in slow-growing mature trees. Spruce bark populations are on the increase, changes have the invasion of European green crab (Carcinus been seen in the incidence of urchins and urchin maenas) from invading Kachemak Bay. The have been weakened by natural or human-caused barrens. Large changes in marine mammal larvae of the green crab can be easily transported disturbance, (Zogas et al. 2012). The removal of populations have occurred in Alaska as well. around the world in the ballast water of mature or damaged trees provides opportunities With small baleen whale populations left after ships, and the green crab has been sighted for young, healthy trees to grow. Because beetles the whaling era, orcas have had to hunt smaller as far north as British Columbia (PWSRCAC burrow into the phloem (inner bark) layer of the prey such as harbor seals, fur seals and sea lions 2004). Kachemak Bay Research Reserve is tree, they provide an entrance for decay fungi, (Springer et al. 2003). An orca must consume also monitoring for invasive tunicates, such as many more sea lions and seals to obtain as Didemnum spp., which can be transported in the ballast water of ships during their planktonic single whale. Harbor seal, fur seal, and sea lion stage and are also common fouling organisms marine environment. Another growing concern is that invasive organisms may be transported on large pieces of marine debris. On land, invasive plants have become well established in Homer. Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) and orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum) have become persistent problems. Reed canarygrass was Spruce bark beetles killed over 1.4 million acres of spruce Figure from Springer et al. 2003 planted intentionally on the Kenai Peninsula as a trees on the Kenai Peninsula in the 1990s. Picture from Reed Canarygrass Orange Hawkweed forage crop and soil stabilizer (Slemmons 2007). Ross et al. 2001.

24 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 25 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

as well as inoculating the tree with fungal areas of Prince William Sound. Most species two designated facilities at the Homer Harbor accidentally. Marine debris can enter the ocean spores that they carry on their bodies. At low, are now considered recovered or recovering by through intentional dumping, wind or wildlife persistent levels, beetles contribute to the health the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustees Council. disposed of for recycling. Response equipment of the ecosystem and are controlled by parasites, for small spills is available to the public 24 hours receptacles, or accidental loss. Marine debris is a predators, and the low occurrence of the old or herring are considered “not recovering.” There a day, and the harbor has a Spill Prevention, persistent and invasive problem along the 40,000 damaged trees that they prefer for breeding. is much debate about how much of these Control, & Countermeasure plan that all harbor miles of Alaska’s shoreline. Marine debris impacts are related to the oil spill and how much devastates ocean and shoreline ecosystems. the last severe bark beetle epidemic in forests can be linked to other changes in the ocean, but Measures have also been taken on a local, Marine debris destroys terrestrial and marine around Kachemak Bay occurred in the 1880’s. regional, national, and international scale to habitats, is fatal or dangerous to marine and In general, studies on the Kenai Peninsula have of the oil spill still linger in ecosystems and prevent larger oil spills from happening and terrestrial organisms, and can harbor hazards shown that bark beetles thin the forests on communities throughout Southcentral Alaska. ensure an appropriate and timely response to human health. Marine debris such as average every 52 years, although the intervals There are many sources of oil pollution to any incidents that do occur. Double hulls, can vary from 30 to more than 150 years (Berg et connected to the human use of oil. While which can prevent or mitigate the spilling of major oil spills like the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill oil when a tanker runs aground or crashes into have been known to entangle and kill marine something, will be phased in on all tankers by 2015 (PWSRCAC 2009). Trainings are regularly and sea turtles. Small marine debris pieces such 25% of human-caused oil input to marine conducted in Cook Inlet, Kachemak Bay, and as small pieces of plastic, plastic toys, pieces waters worldwide. Releases related to the Prince William Sound to ensure a speedy consumption of oil account for about 70% of the response to any oil spill that might happen in Spruce bark beetle egg, larva, and adult. the future. Geographic Response Strategies have The ingestion of marine debris by these animals on Oil in the Sea 2002). This category includes been crafted with input from local communities causes the animals to starve, regurgitate plastic slow drips from vehicles, improper disposal of for most coastal areas in Alaska, helping instead of food for their young, and/or absorb OIL POLLUTION used oil, outputs from two-stroke engines, and decision makers and incident response teams toxins from the plastic into their blood system. leaks from personal and commercial boats other In 1984, the China Poot Bay Society Because the oil from oil spills enters than oil tankers. It is estimated that in North up and containment in the event of an oil spill. and local residents concerned with the trash the marine environment rapidly and in a America, an average of 25 million gallons of oil These maps highlight sites that are especially accumulations along Kachemak Bay beaches localized area, even relatively small oil spills can and petroleum products enter marine waters vulnerable or have extraordinary ecological, launched a beach cleanup and wildlife economic, or cultural importance (ADEC 2014). monitoring program called CoastWalk. For people that rely on them for food, livelihood, This is about twice as much oil was spilled With Kachemak Bay and the larger Cook Inlet the past 29 years, community volunteers and and recreation. In Alaska, the Exxon Valdez during the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. the renamed organization, the Center for Oil Spill dramatically changed ecosystems and Much work has been done to prevent oil and small, and with continued development Alaskan Coastal Studies, have conducted annual communities from Prince William Sound to the pollution from major spills as well as smaller, of oil and natural gas in the Cook Inlet region, CoastWalk shoreline cleanups over a two month Alaska Peninsula. The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill non-point source pollution from small leaks the threat of a large oil spill or accumulation season. In this time we have seen a change in occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska on and improper disposal of oil. The Alaska Clean of non-point source oil pollution is a constant the trash picked up on our beaches. In the early March 24, 1989. About 11 million gallons of Harbors program strives to prevent non-point concern, but oversight organizations, response years of CoastWalk the majority of the debris crude oil were spilled into the Sound after the source pollution in harbors and promote clean companies, local governments, and individual collected consisted of abandoned cars, personal Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground on Bligh boating practices. In 2011, the Homer Port & citizens are working hard to minimize the risk Reef (EVOSTC 2014). Storms carried the oil and maximize our readiness. the past several years CoastWalk cleanups have throughout Prince William Sound and almost started to see a decrease in these items. This 500 miles southwest to the Gulf of Alaska, Cook may be contributed to the increase in outreach Inlet, Kachemak Bay and Kodiak Island. Marine, MARINE DEBRIS Harbor implements 100% of legally required intertidal, and even terrestrial species were best management practices for harbors and the CoastWalk program. at least 90% of the practices recommended by items which enter the ocean intentionally or Spill, especially in the most extensively oiled Alaska Clean Harbors. For example, there are Illustrations from plants.usda.gov. 26 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 27 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Kachemak Bay - A Place for Stewardship History of Stewardship in Kachemak Bay

Kachemak Bay is a popular place to live and visit, and its natural resources are abundant. With so many changes As a result, the environmental stewardship of 1970 Kachemak Bay State Park designated 1996 Homer Airport Critical Habitat Area occurring in Kachemak Bay established (280 acres) the bay is an ongoing process. Even educational and nearby areas, careful 1971 Kachemak Bay State Wilderness Park 1996 Kachemak Bay designated a site in the and day tours led by CACS, can have negative conservation and stewardship international Western Hemisphere impacts on sensitive biological communities. of our habitats are more Early State oil leases in the bay "bought Shorebird Reserve Network CACS is constantly aware of its impacts to the important than ever before. 1990s back" 1998 National Estuarine Research Reserve intertidal area. We have established monitoring 1974 Kachemak Bay State Critical Habitat designated for bay and adjacent public projects to study the diversity and abundance Area designated (subtidal and tide lands of life and our impact on it. We also have a set PROTECTING HABITAT lands of the bay) 1998 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill restoration funds impacts from our educational programs. We try The growing human population of 1982 Incorporation of the China Poot Bay used to purchase lands along Beluga Slough and to restore the shoreline at to inspire a spirit of stewardship in all people Kachemak Bay has threatened the diversity studies Mariner Park on Homer Spit and productivity of the bay. Residential and commercial development can reduce water 1983 The Middleton, another jack-up rig is 1999 Kachemak Bay National Estuarine Re- Ecological Changes in Kachemak Bay quality. Oil and gas development and salvage anchored in Peterson Bay in front of the search Reserve Bay becomes the largest logging of bark beetle killed trees may increase Field Station for six months for repairs. reserve in the system. Since the 1970s Mike McBride et al. are outraged. marine transportation and the possibility of The bay was a major producer of shrimp 2001 Jetskis banned from Kachemak Bay spills or leaking vessels. and king and Dungeness crab in the 1970s. 1985 CACS begins purchase of Peterson Bay The Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies was In the 1990s, these species are rare and well Field Station and two acre site 2001 5 acres added to Wynn Nature Center created in response to the appearance of an below levels that could sustain harvests by oil drilling rig in the bay in the early 1980s. 1988 23,000 acres of timber rights sold on 2003 9 acres added to Wynn Nature Center people. Native-selected lands on south side of protects an upland bog and headwaters A group of people became concerned about the Bay of Homer water supply potential impacts of oil development and the 1990 China Poot Bay Society changes its name to the Center for Alaskan Coastal 2004 2 additional acres added to PBFS the bay’s rich and diverse environment area. Studies in recognition of its broader increased dramatically. The local citizens organized themselves and mission 2004 26-acres on the Homer Spit, known as Louie's Lagoon, which was granted successfully lobbied the state to buy back the oil Smaller forage species such as smelts Early Additions to Kachemak Bay State Park by the City of Homer and protected as leases. The Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies and eelpouts have expanded their distribu- to important coastal habitat for migratory also played a key role in persuading the State of tion but decreased in relative abundance. 1990s protect south side forest areas from birds Alaska and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Council to purchase lands added to Kachemak Bay State 2007 Homer Chamber of Commerce forms Humpback and minke whales are seen 1991 Donation of 126 acres to CACS from Park to protect them from clear-cut logging. The less frequently in the bay. Carl E. Wynn Foundation for a nature record of citizen, state, and federal government center footprint in Kachemak Bay actions to seek protective status for the bay Gull Island seabird populations have and surrounding lands has gone a long way to 1994 Cook Inlet Keeper organization generally been increasing. protect the values and ecological integrity of the formed to support citizen monitoring a small portion of China Poot Bay to har- of water quality in the watershed vests in order to preserve it for educa- area. A spruce bark beetle epidemic has killed tional purposes spruce trees on thousands of acres on the 1995 Wynn Nature Center open for public Kenai Peninsula use

28 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 29 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

II. Intertidal Ecology A STEWARDSHIP GUIDE TO BEACH EXPLORATION Not only do the waters teem, but there is no rock too small to harbor some living thing, and no single cluster of algae without its inhabitants. Since these To the extent possible, walk in the same footsteps and step on bare areas or areas with the fewest number of plants and animals. Don't walk in the "no impact zone" in China Poot Bay - - your group leader will point it out and lead you around it. 2. Turning over small rocks is encouraged because that’s where a lot of animals hide out bright colors and unexpected shapes. So keen is the struggle for existence here when the tide is out. To avoid dropping big rocks and crushing animals, however, these that not only is every square inch of shore surface likely to be utilized, but the holdfasts and stipes of kelp are also occupied; and such forms as sponges, tube to be put back, gently, just as they were found. worms, and barnacles often take up positions on the shells of larger animals.

3. You may want to pick up an animal to touch it or look more closely at it. Small buckets will be available so you can add sea water and observe how the animal behaves underwa- ter when the tide is in. Be careful picking an animal up, as many are slippery or slimy. Stay low to the ground when you pick it up in case it escapes. Return it gently, just where and INTERTIDAL DIVERSITY IN how you found it. KACHEMAK BAY minutes as the tide moves. 4. Avoid walking in the water. Our beaches are muddy and people walking in the water During your visit to the CACS Peterson Kachemak Bay is in a very interesting stirs up the mud which makes life harder for plants and animals and makes it hard for us Bay Field Station, you will be visiting intertidal geographic location from the standpoint of to see them. Your trip leader will go into the water to bring you plants or animals that live areas in Peterson or China Poot Bay. This visit biodiversity. It is far enough south so that below the tide line at the time of your trip. will be memorable for your students and an the bay and intertidal zone rarely freeze, but excellent hands-on learning opportunity for far enough north that the rhythms of life are 5. Don’t take anything away from the beach as a souvenir. Everything is important - from the concept of biological diversity. Over the distinctly seasonal. Bursts of biological activity the empty shell that can be used by a hermit crab to a piece of detritus that will be recycled occur during spring, summer, and early fall into the food web to the rock or piece of driftwood that could become habitat! (A CACS when light levels are high enough to support of seaweed. photosynthesis by phytoplankton in the water tanks or for observation under the microscope. CACS had to get a special permit to do Beyond providing the sheer experience of column. The protected nature and current this.) seeing, touching, hearing, and smelling diversity, environment from the rest of Cook Inlet. Both the study of adaptations to intertidal conditions on the west side of Cook Inlet and to the north, and developing an understanding of the factors the movement of sediments and ice scour away many of the plants and animals that manage animals. To experience the same amount of to get established in the intertidal zone. This is much less of a factor in Kachemak Bay. The bays communities on land, you would need to hike on the south side of Kachemak Bay, in particular, up a mountain or cross a broad river valley. harbor diverse arrays of seaweeds and marine The diversity of life in the ocean is similarly invertebrates. The tidal regime and the expanse intertidal zone of Peterson and China Poot Bays, in the conditions for diversity.

30 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 31 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

HOW ARE TIDES CREATED? Throughout the year, the size of the tides changes. These changes are due to the alignment KACHEMAK BAY TIDES The tides are partly caused by the gravitational of the sun, moon, and earth, as depicted in the pull of the moon and the sun on the earth's are aligned, we get the highest and lowest tides. The movements of the tides create the oceans. The moon's pull on the ocean is much These are called "spring tides." When the sun conditions for life in the intertidal zone. Tides stronger than the sun's because it is closer and moon form a 90 degree angle with the earth, carry nutrients and food items along with larval to the earth. The earth and moon actually the tidal range is at its lowest. These tides are forms of many animals that spend their adult revolve together around a shared center of called "neap tides." life in the intertidal zone. Many organisms even mass. They are held together by gravitational time their reproductive cycle to coincide with force, but pulled apart by an equal and opposite the tides. Alaska’s coasts tend to have two tide centrifugal force. While this force is equal on SPRING TIDES cycles daily and a very large tidal range. The the earth as a whole, the side closest to the moon tide cycles are unequal each day with a higher experiences more gravitational force. Because of cycle and a lower cycle; between the two cycles, this, water on the side of the earth closest to the there is a less extreme low tide (the high low) moon creates a bulge towards the moon that is and a more extreme low tide (the low low) as experienced as a high tide. well as a less extreme high tide (the low high) and a more extreme high tide (the high high). right, the tides also rise on the side of the earth Furthermore, the extremity of the tide varies opposite the moon. This is because the side of day to day and month to month in a predictable the earth opposite of the moon experiences less way based on interactions with the sun, moon, of the earth-moon gravitational force and more coastline, and ocean bathymetry. Storm surges of the earth-moon centrifugal force. The water in this area bulges AWAY from the shared earth- well. You can see an example of these unequal moon center of mass. For this reason, at any tides in the below graph for a single day's tides given high tide in Alaska, the region opposite us in Kachemak Bay. Because of the high latitude, on the globe is also experiencing a high tide. The all of Alaska's coastal areas have a large tidal water for these high tides is being pulled from NEAP TIDES range. In Kachemak Bay, for example, the other places on earth, creating troughs that are maximum daily tidal range is 28.5 feet and the experienced as a low tide. As the earth rotates, average 15.4 feet. Upper Cook Inlet has an even points on the earth travel through the bulges greater tidal range of up to 38 feet because the (high tides) and troughs (low tides.) Most points tides are constricted by the geography of the on earth experience two high tides and two low inlet north of Kachemak Bay. This constriction tides each day, called semi-diurnal tides. In a creates the fast-moving tidal bore that moves up few areas, local geography and hydrography Knik and Turnagain Arms, the second largest tidal bore in North America after the Bay of one high and one low tide is experienced each Fundy. Similar constriction of water happens in day, called diurnal tides. the upper reaches of Bristol Bay, creating tidal For more information, see NOAA’s Tides ranges of approximately 30 feet. On the other hand, the relatively wide Prince William Sound tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles1.html).

32 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 33 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Organisms in the Intertidal Zone MEASURING TIDES What determines the distribution of life between the tides? THE FAB FOUR PHYLA Phylum Mollusca ("soft") conditions for life, its important to understand that tidal range is measured vertically, as if The intertidal zone is home to a wide • Muscular foot used for locomotion 1. Substrate type (mud, cobble, variety of invertebrate organisms. In Kachemak zone in Kachemak Bay, the water would move Bay the intertidal invertebrates are dominated • Mantle that could secretes an internal or sand, or boulder) external shell up and down along the pole a total of 28.5 feet by four major phyla of animals known as the 2. Slope of the shore "Fab Four." These four groups of invertebrates over the course of a day with extreme tides. On • Soft-bodied less extreme tidal days, it might only move up 3. Amount of time exposed at are molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, and and down 10-15 feet. At low tide, this vertical low tide cnidarians. Each phylum is described below. movement of water can translate into many feet 4. Changes in moisture, grazers, predators Phylum Echinodermata ("spine skin") of steep shoreline or even miles of gently sloping temperature, and salinity as • Grazers and predators have a radula, beach being exposed. Another important the tide changes • 5-pointed (pentameral) radial symmetry concept for understanding how tides are 5. Water movement and grasping, biting, drilling and tearing measured is the concept of the zero-tide level, • Unique water vascular system which which is the average (mean) of the low tides over turbulence allows for movement of "tube feet" • Some members of this phylum include the course of a month. The tide level above or • Calcareous skeletal structures that make below zero in relation to the tidal range provides endoskeleton an indication of the amount of the total intertidal zone that is exposed at a particular place at a 1. Competition particular time. For example, a -2.0 tide at China 2. Predation sea stars Phylum Arthropoda ("jointed foot") sea urchins Poot Bay (with an extreme low tide level at 3. Food availability sea cucumbers • Incredibly large diverse group around -5.0) would expose only a portion of the 4. Mobility low intertidal zone and communities compared Phylum Cnidaria ("stinging thread") • Bilaterally symmetrical to a -2.0 tide at a southern California beach where a -2.0 tide is the lowest tide of the year. • Animals with stinging cells • Animals with jointed legs (nematocysts) used for protection and predation • Exoskeleton • Radial symmetry • Generally grow by molting exoskeleton

• Single sac-like body space (coelenteron) Class Crustacea ("a crust") used for gas exchange and digestion • Head bears 5 pairs of appendages (mouth and digestive cavity) • 2 pairs of antennae • Pair of compound eyes • Primarily carnivorous • Respire through gills barnacles • Hydrostatic skeletons shrimp Peterson Bay Lagoon from Field Station crabs steps at high and low tides sea anemone sea jelly coral

34 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 35 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Who Lives Where and Why? PHYCOLOGY: THE STUDY OF ALGAE and food items. Wave action can extend the Phycology is the study of algae. For our Imagine that you are a mussel. Where intertidal zone even higher up on the land or purposes in the intertidal zone, we will focus on would you live in the intertidal zone? What do species of macroalgae such as popweed (Fucus you think are the most important aspects of the spp.) and Sugar Kelp (Saccharina spp.) that are important food sources and habitat for intertidal imagine you are a sea star. How will you manage other hard substrate or temporarily by crawling organisms. Kelp and seaweed are not true or burrowing, along an invisible gradient of plants, though they share many similarities with to eat higher up on the beach without drying out conditions from the lowest low tide to the plants. They are considered macroalgae. Rather before the tide comes back? Questions of this highest high tide and splash of salty water. than leaves, macroalgae has blades to capture sort fascinate scientists, naturalists, and anyone Four important physical gradients help sunlight for photosynthesis. Rather than a stem who spends time roaming a rocky beach at low explain plant and animal distribution within an or trunk to allow the kelp to reach the sun, it has tide. a stipe. While plants have roots to anchor them Scientists have sought answers to these from terrestrial (land) to marine (ocean) in the soil, seaweeds cement themselves to the questions through studies on beaches and shores conditions, 2) a horizontal gradient of exposure rocks using holdfasts. all around the world. The intertidal environment to air and variable temperatures, 3) a gradient Macroalgaes are generally broken into is a dynamic and harsh environment to which of particle size from bedrock to silt (mud) three groups, the green algae (Chlorophyta), plants and animals must have adaptations that in substrates, 4) gradients of salinity, and 5) red algae (Rhodophyta) and brown algae allow them to cope and survive. In addition to gradients of water movement, wave intensity, (Phaeophyta). These groupings are based on the environmental stresses in the intertidal zone, and turbulence. life cycle of the algae, not necessarily the color, organisms must also deal with pressure from but in most cases, color is a good indicator of interacting with other living organisms. It is What determines the distribution of life between progressively more crowded at the lower tidal the tides? are more often found in the upper intertidal levels, where the environment tends to be less zone, red and brown algae in the middle zone, stressful but complex dramas are played out and brown kelps in the lower zone and subtidal 1. Substrate type (mud, cobble, sand, or areas. Kelps that are annuals are among the while avoiding predation. The distribution of boulder) fastest-growing organisms in the world. They organisms in the intertidal zone appears to be a 2. Slope of the shore grow rapidly during May and June. combination of responses to physical conditions 3. Amount of time exposed at low tide and to biological interactions, primarily 4. Changes in moisture, temperature, and competition and predation. Upper limits for salinity as the tide changes 5. Water movement and turbulence set by their tolerance to physical factors while the lower limits are often set by biological interactions. For mobile animals, however, behavior often provides important adaptations The major and controlling factor in the 1. Competition life of this area is the range and timing of the 2. Predation tides. The action of the tides moves the water's 3. Food availability edge up and down the land in a predictable 4. Mobility and regular fashion, creating living space for plants and animals and transporting nutrients

36 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 37 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

ROCK, SAND, OR MUD? high concentrations. Dense stands of seaweeds, few species of worms and clams in Mud Bay and mussel beds, and tubeworm colonies can beaches with less current, especially where Beluga Slough provides a critical food supply for The type of substrate in the intertidal zone establish in certain substrates, which provide migratory shorebirds and waterfowl. plays an important role in determining the type shade, reduce water turbulence and prevent particles get progressively smaller, however, the of seaweed and animal community that occurs desiccation for one another. Dense seaweeds and habitat area available in and on the substrate is BETWEEN THE TIDES in a particular area. The beach sediment particles mussel beds can also shelter small crustaceans and worms and trap sediments that provide a for oxygen between the tiny, tightly packed Life on any shoreline is particularly substrate for burrowing animals. particles. A short distance below the surface Rocks of various sizes provide a variety The type of substrate is an indicator of the oxygen disappears altogether, making this an terrestrial and marine habitats over a relatively stability of the beach sediments. Wave action inhospitable environment for most animals. on, including under rocks, in crevices, in tide Sand and mud provide habitat only for animals organisms to share the same space. On land, pools, and on the sides and tops of boulders. these sediments and scours the beaches. Cobble able to withstand burial by shifting sediments. and boulder beaches can also be unstable - water Adaptations to shifting sediments include meet the forest or where forests meet meadows. sites to help withstand the force of tides and burrowing and building tubes below the surface. Along ecological edges, animals often feed in waves or to shelter organisms from desiccation, substrates. Even moderate wave action can temperature extremes, and predation. Some rearrange cobbles and boulders frequently. Rock must also be adapted to tolerate low oxygen seaweeds and animals can modify the beach conditions. mink, Harlequin ducks, and pigeon guillemots the most stable substrates. are all examples of animals that feed in the of species compared to rock and combination- intertidal zone and rear their young on land. type intertidal areas. The abundance of these The shoreline is a particularly rich edge Rocky Beaches of Peterson and China Poot Bays few species can be high and important to non- because of the ever-changing tides. Between resident predators. The seasonal abundance of a the highest and lowest reach of the tide, there rocky shore niches in crevices, depressions, and various aspects of the boulders

- tures of large and small boulders and cobbles, semi-cemented together with sand and mud (one of the best combinations of habitat stability and diversity to support the largest number of plant and animal species of any type of beach.)

under the rocks. Interesting places to look for a diversity of shells and other plant and animal remnants that are washed up by storm tides.

North Shore Beaches for Comparison

38 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 39 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

exists a range of conditions related to the degree bit of disturbance from waves, or other factors, mussels in Washington demonstrated that, if and duration of submersion in water. The a warm day, water can evaporate, leaving the ochre stars (Pisaster ochraceus) are removed slope of the shore determines the length of the remaining water saltier than ocean water. On a adaptations and competitive abilities more of a from an area, California mussels (Mytilus intertidal zone. A gentle slope means a larger rainy day, fresh water can dilute the salt water chance. californianus) will grow lower in the intertidal in the pool. Salinity gradients play a large role in zone than when the ochre stars are present. the distribution of intertidal plants and animals FRIENDS AND ANEMONES Scientists concluded that the sea stars were able slopes are great places to see a large diversity of in Kachemak Bay as a whole and in individual to determine the lower limit of the mussels, organisms close together. Within a short distance bays from the head to the outlet. However, In addition to physical factors, biological and thus the width of mussel beds, through in China Poot and Peterson Bays, they are predation in the intertidal zone. conditions. observable only on the small scale of fresh water In Southeast Alaska, shield limpets are Exposure to air (emersion) and exposure seeps across the intertidal areas. grazing, and predation thin the crowded found higher in the intertidal zone than plate to variable temperatures are stressful to marine limpets. Both limpets are preyed on by the ochre SHELTER FROM THE STORM conditions of the lower intertidal zone. Behavior organisms. The ocean is always wet and is a star. The plate limpet can move faster than the relatively constant environment with respect to shield limpet. From these observations, scientists The degree of shelter from wave action where they are found. Mobile animals, such temperature. As a result, there is a much greater as limpets and sea stars, rarely move so high number of seaweeds and marine animals that behaviors and distribution of the two limpets. intertidal zone. Seaweeds and some animals up in the intertidal zone that they are exposed have adapted successfully to the less stressful The shield limpet avoids predation by staying adapt to the wave action, or turbulence, in the to conditions that they can’t tolerate. Barnacle lower intertidal zone than in the upper intertidal higher in the intertidal zone than the ochre star larvae have chemical sensing capabilities and areas. can forage, while the plate limpet stays lower rock or other hard substrate. Seaweeds cement Mobile animals, however, can range in the intertidal zone and escapes predation by themselves to the rocks using their holdfasts, and is present rather than on bare rock. Small sea higher in the intertidal zone at low tide to feed running away from the sea star. barnacles cement themselves in place to resist Scientists have also studied being dislodged by the waves. Some animals microclimates on the underside of rocks as the Only a few terrestrial species, such as lichens, interrelationships in small patches of habitat on remain mobile, but cling to the rocks using insects, and arthropods, can survive the upper smooth limestone ledges in the Irish Sea among suction. Limpets and chitons use their strong rocks, as do larger sea stars on the surface. intertidal zone because they can tolerate barnacles, rockweed, limpets, and a type of Clumping together helps conserve water more exposure to the marine environment. Although whelk that preys on barnacles. They discovered using their pedal disk. Other organisms, such as than if the individuals were alone because the diversity is lowest in the upper tidal zone, a complex cycle that occurred in every patch. crabs and worms, hide from wave disturbances amount of exposed surface area per star is species such as barnacles and rockweed have temporarily by crawling or burrowing. successfully adapted to the severe conditions a bare patch of the rock, rockweed could also At the Peterson Bay Field Station or avoid drying and extreme temperatures. in this zone and are found over thousands of Kasitsna Bay Lab, you will have the opportunity Examining behaviors and ecological miles of coastline. These organisms also have But as rockweed grew into clumps, it had a to see both relatively sheltered and relatively to be able to tolerate the harsher environment exposed beaches. If all other physical variable seaweeds and animals in the intertidal zone is a throughout the exposure period. clumps provided shelter for the whelks which are held constant, beaches with intermediate preyed on the barnacles, and 2) as the fronds amounts of wave disturbance tend to have the Several studies outside of Kachemak Bay have of the rockweed swept back and forth in the HOW MUCH SALT? greatest amount of intertidal diversity. Storms, unraveled complex stories about the dramas being played out between intertidal animals. rockweed also provided shelter for the limpets. Kachemak Bay is an estuary with a exposed beaches tend to cause lower intertidal On rocky shores, studies have documented how Predation took a toll on the barnacles, and biodiversity than on beaches that are more without new barnacle recruitment, the barnacle protected. Only the organisms best adapted being washed away, how prey animals defend colony aged. Eventually the rockweed clumps directly into the intertidal zone, the diversity of to high turbulence can survive on beaches themselves from mobile predators, and how plants and animals is limited to those that have exposed to rough waves. Beaches that are very seaweeds and animals can actually add structure and were swept away. Rockweed eggs (termed adapted to water less saline than ocean water. calm tend to have low diversity because the to the environment and modify it for other Tide pools that are formed when tidal water is few organisms that are best adapted and the organisms. the sweeping action of the remaining rockweed trapped in a rock depression in middle of the strongest competitors will dominate the area. A

40 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 41 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

canopy provided shade and moist conditions for the crumb-of-bread sponge and also seemed Six-rayed Star growth occurred, it was grazed by the limpets. to provide shelter from predators. When the low intertidal zones (see next page), 2) a focus Limpets - Mask Limpet, Shield Limpet, and As the rockweed cover decreased, the limpets barnacle colony was eliminated by a disturbance, on only a few organisms characteristic of each Plate Limpet and whelks dispersed in the absence of cover. both the kelp and the sponge disappeared. All zone, and 3) predicting the relative position of three species recovered together in two years. intertidal organisms in relation to their habitat Lower Intertidal Zone without rockweed, limpets, whelks, or live requirements and adaptations. Area below lower edge of mussel or rockweed barnacles. A young, growing barnacle colony PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: beds to extreme low tide exposed approximately started the cycle all over again. Splash Zone 0-1.5 hours before and after low tide. This area is The northern geographic location of LIFE IN THE ZONE The very highest limit of the intertidal zone, often covered in lush growths of algae, especially Kachemak Bay adds complicating factors of this zone is splashed with saltwater by crashing red and brown and has the greatest diversity of The diversity that you will observe in seasonality and temperature extremes that waves at high tide. Organisms in the splash invertebrates. Plants and animals can tolerate intertidal areas has obvious bands or zones of may have greater control over the behavior zone are never submerged by the tide, but are daily periods of exposure. biological communities that run parallel to the and zonation of intertidal organisms than do biological interactions. Questions remain waves. zonation. Zonation is a concept in intertidal about whether these types of interrelationships Red Algae ecology that is used to relate the distribution exist for similar species in Kachemak Bay. In Kelps/Brown Algae of various species in distinct upper, middle one Kachemak Bay study, scientists observed Black Seaside Lichen (forms a band) Crumb-of-bread Sponge and lower intertidal zones to their abilities to a ribbon kelp () that grew well Orange Lichen Thatched Barnacle withstand physical and biological pressures in the Gull Island lower intertidal zone only Christmas Anemone between the tides. Zonation is most distinct on Upper or High Intertidal Zone True Star the faces of large boulders or bedrock outcrops The upper or high intertidal zone is covered by acorn barnacles (Semibalanus cariosus). The kelp Black Katy Chiton where all seaweeds and animals are adapted water only when the tide is high or nearly high. Leather Star to life on the same type of rock substrate, and Plants and animals are rarely covered by salt Lined Chiton the zones can be viewed in close proximity to water or covered for only a short period of time. Green Sea Urchin one another. A typical rocky shore zonation is This provides a predator-free zone for barnacles Sea Cucumbers pictured to the side. and periwinkles. Both Peterson and China Poot Bays are Extreme Lower Intertidal Zone rocky beaches, but provide good examples of the variety of condition that can occur which Periwinkles The upper edge of the Subtidal Zone is exposed make a “neat” zonation inaccurate. Large Acorn Barnacles Plants and animals are primarily subtidal but can Middle Intertidal Zone tolerate short periods of exposure occasionally. Exposed about 2.5 hours after high tide. Bands Animals from upper tide zones may retreat to boulders and cobbles with mud and sand. The this area to avoid exposure as tide goes out. addition of new habitat niches under rocks on of this zone. Plants and animals are adapted to a sandy beach, or in a sandy pocket of a rocky periods of both submergence and periods of beach increases the species richness (number exposure to drying. Coralline Algae of species) compared to that of a typical rocky Dunce cap Limpet beach. Ultimately, the types of organisms Nudibranchs - various species Rockweed - distinct band Gumboot Chiton predictable than the type of organism that occurs Tunicates Periwinkles Zonation in the Alaska Coastal Ecology Barnacles - Acorn Barnacle Program can best be presented in terms of 1) a & Northern Rock Barnacle

42 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 43 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Intertidal Food Webs SUSPENSION-FEEDERS it indigestible by most species, so it is rarely (INCLUDES FILTER-FEEDERS) grazed. There is even an acid kelp (Desmarestia ) that produces and secretes sulphuric acid PRODUCERS high and sustained primary productivity of A number of intertidal animals consume that can damage nearby seaweeds and dissolve phytoplankton in Kachemak Bay are described in small particles of organic material suspended cavities in the teeth of sea urchins hungry Phytoplankton and seaweeds are the the introduction. Light levels increase to support in the water column, including phytoplankton, enough to feed on the seaweed. Grazers can producers in the intertidal zone. Phytoplankton a plankton bloom in early April, which is fueled zooplankton, and detritus (dead material). Their have a dramatic impact on an ecosystem. For are small, unicellular organisms capable of feeding method is collectively called suspension example, many studies have examined the bring and keep nutrients in the surface waters of feeding because they are feeding on what is the upper layer of water that receives enough the bay. suspended in the water column or in sediments. can occur when predator populations, such as light to support photosynthesis. Phytoplankton include microalgae, unicellular organisms, sponges, clams, mussels involves passing water reach high levels, the levels of herbivory that through their bodies using siphons, pores, cilia common phytoplankton in Kachemak Bay. other hard surfaces (even the shells of molluscs) and other structures, capturing particles in kelp density and abundance. If the urchin with holdfasts rather than rooting in mud or mucus and moving the food particles to their population continues unchecked, kelp forests appear as a slimy scum on intertidal rocks. sand. They have a stipe instead of a stem, and mouth or place where food is digested. Other can be decimated, leading to an urchin barren. have blades instead of leaves. They reproduce by With the loss of the kelp forest as habitat, many and sort out the organic particles, sea cucumbers mussels, and barnacles or consumed by The distribution of seaweeds in the intertidal extend tentacles covered with mucus and zooplankton and other small animals in the zone is related to their ability to photosynthesize contract them one at a time into their mouth there are higher amounts of both kelp and sea water column, many of which are the larva of at varying light levels, and tolerance to desiccation (drying out), freezing, and grazing. across the substrate and use their tube feet and Bay. In the past two decades, many CACS rocks in the intertidal zone such as barnacles Seaweeds are consumed by grazers such as mucus to pass particles to their mouth. naturalists and volunteers have noted that the and mussels. The factors that contribute to limpets, some snails, chitons, and sea urchins. population of green sea urchins in China Poot GRAZERS Bay near Octopus Rock seems to have decreased, with a potentially corresponding increase in kelp living in the channel. Prior to this, the channel Grazing occurs at both the micro- and appeared to be nearing a state of urchin barren, macro-level. Several species of molluscs like dominated by coralline algae, sea urchins, and periwinkles and limpets are microherbivores, using their radula (whip-like tongue with teeth) between predators, grazers, and kelps. hard surfaces. Sea urchins and larger mollusks,

such as chitons, can bite or rasp chunks of seaweed. Seaweeds have few defenses against PREDATORS grow in dense patches and tend to lose less mass Intertidal predators come in all sizes, from to grazers. Others are encrusting species that the microscopic zooplankton and larva in the coralline algae limits the grazers that feed on can grow to more than 20 feet long in deeper this type of algae to just a few micro-herbivore waters (Woodford & Donohue, 2007) . Most species. Some species of algae have noxious predators are mobile and have a large advantage substances that grazers avoid. Rockweed, over the many animals that are sessile. Some for example, contains chemicals that make predators remain in one place, however, like the sea anemone that relies on its stinging cells to

44 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 45 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

their tentacles. Slow-moving predators may have the substratum sweep surfaces with tentacles, adaptations to open the shells of bivalves (the limpets and periwinkles sweep the rocks, other tube feet of sea stars) or to bore into their shells (radula of whelks and moon snails). annelid worms eat dirt and sand to extract Intertidal prey species have evolved nourishment. The smallest particles are a variety of passive responses to predators, including spines, thick shells, tough that phytoplankton and seaweeds can use in exoskeletons, noxious chemicals, and photosynthesis. its shell, closes its operculum, and seals the door MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL with mucus can survive being swallowed and FOODWEB LINKAGES digested by a sea anemone for 20 hours! Prey have also developed behavioral responses such The tides obviously link the intertidal as the chemical detection of predatory sea stars zone with the estuary and ocean ecosystems. by several bivalves, followed by rapid movement Animals are also an important means for away from the area. transporting nutrients between the intertidal Prey can escape predation if they can zone, ocean, and forest. For example, pigeon develop refuges either temporally or spatially. guillemots, which nest near the entrance to Temporal refuges include shifting activity to Peterson Bay Field Station, spend the major a time when the predator is not active such as portion of their life at sea, but they also require when predation or competition is lower. Spatial where they raise their young. The life cycles refuges can include adapting to a zone out of the reach of predators. Prey can also grow so ecosystem linkages, as they require both streams fast that they escape predation by becoming too and the ocean during the course of their life cycle. Fry and juvenile salmon of some species of the evolution and consequential biodiversity spend several years in stream food webs, and in intertidal areas is the result of this type of then move out to become part of the ocean predator-prey arms race. food web for several years. When the adult salmon return to streams to spawn and die, SCAVENGERS AND DECOMPOSERS their carcasses fuel a food web of predators, scavengers, and decomposers that recycles the While small, suspended detritus is nutrients into the food webs of streams and recycled by the suspension-feeders, scavengers land. and decomposers eat larger chunks of dead A recent study in Southeastern Alaska are the clean-up crew in the intertidal zone. nutrients from the intertidal zone to the forest. Sea urchins, usually an herbivore, will also By analyzing isotopes of nitrogen in the fur and passes through what can be thought of as a series of sieves in the intertidal zone. Crabs eat big chunks, beach hoppers (amphipods) eat minute urine fertilized the plants at latrine sites. particles or break up large pieces into small

46 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 47 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Ecological Relationships PARASITISM MUTUALISM Parasitism is a relationship where one The intertidal zone is a wonderful Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship association and one member is harmed. For opportunity to study ecological relationships in which both members of the relationship example, the boring sponge is able to secrete a beyond those of “who eats who”. Examples substance that dissolves the calcareous shells of competition and the varieties of symbiotic in the splash zone are a combination of an alga of mollusks and barnacles, so it penetrates relationships - commensalism, parasitism, and a fungus. The fungus provides structural the shell and takes up residence. The parasite and mutualism - abound. The following support but can’t photosynthesize and the alga seriously weakens the shell. The wandering pages, based on information from the Alaska makes food for both partners by photosynthesis sponge encrusts on the shell of a hermit crab and Wildlife Curriculum, describe these symbiotic hitches a ride with the crab wherever it moves. relationships in Alaska ecosystems. fungus. It eventually dissolves the shell, destroying Some anemones have microscopic the commensal relationship of the crab with COMPETITION algae living in their tissues. These anemones its snail shell. Another example of parasitism have a greenish color as a result from the involves epiphytic algae. Epiphytic algae, such Competition occurs when a number of photosynthesis occurring. Photosynthesis results as seagrass laver, grow on host species like in some leaked mineral products that provide eelgrass or large algae species. The epiphytic utilize a resource that is in short supply. nutrients to the anemone and the algae are Competition occurs in the intertidal zone for protected from grazers by their residence inside space, for food, and for light. Some plants the anemone whose stinging cells protect it well and animals compete by growing on top of from predators. other organisms. Competition is avoided by acquire more light to photosynthesize. The host, whether it be another algae species or eelgrass, is specializing and adapting to conditions that COMMENSALISM other species are not able to match. Species that harmed by this arrangement since the epiphytic algae blocks sunlight from reaching it and can dominate large areas such as barnacles, mussels, Commensalism is a relationship where and rockweed are good competitors for space. increase drag on the host, leading to higher rates of destruction during times of high wave or For example, the common acorn current action. nor negatively. The commensal scaleworms brown barnacle for space by growing faster that live on sea stars and gumboot chitons are an example of this type of relationships. The found around the mouth of the partner, but upper intertidal zone where the acorn barnacle the sea stars and gumboot chiton are not really cannot. Acorn barnacles respond to crowding by harmed by having the scaleworm living on growing taller and thinner. Another good example of competition use of snail shells as their portable shelter with is limpets and barnacles. Limpets compete successfully for space by removing newly- a good commensal habitat. A number of animals of the rock. When the barnacles reach a large currents and places to stay moist when the tide is enough size, they are no longer susceptible to bulldozing. impacted.

48 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 49 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

mosses make up a tremendous proportion of III. Forest Ecology the biomass in the forests on the south side compared to the north side of the bay, although of Kachemak Bay. Like other northern forests climactic changes in the past few decades have The forest accessible from Peterson Bay in northwestern North America, the ground Field Station is an example of Alaska’s coastal Due to the lack of massive rainfall, many is usually completely covered by mosses Alaska. The canopy layers are somewhat temperate forest. It is near the northern and and lichens. As much as half of the material complex and epiphytes are abundant. The western edge of this type of forest, which as true rainforests, however the bay forests produced in these forests can be mosses and understory is relatively dense and shrubby stretches from northern California to the south, have several other characteristics of temperate lichens. These abundant species play a vital . A number of plants are adapted to stay Kodiak to the west and about the middle of role in recycling nutrients and water drainage evergreen. All these characteristics, however, the Kenai Peninsula to the north. Because it is control. are considerably more pronounced in forests of so close to the edge of this biome, Kachemak Another type of plant that is typical of the Bay is a transitional area, with a mixture of ). coast of Canada and the U.S. Evergreenness (at the ground level dur- Ericaceous plants tend to be shrubs with Coastal rainforests are characterized by elements from the Sitka spruce-western hemlock ing winter) temperate rainforest and those of the white leathery, often-evergreen leaves. These shrubs their proximity to oceans, the presence of coastal spruce-paper birch boreal forest to the north. An abundance of epiphytes (plants that create moist, acidic organic layers. The organic mountains, cooler summer temperatures, and Tree line is at approximately 500 meters in live on the surface of other plants such as layers can build up to be nearly 30 centimeters in altitude, so unique communities of alpine plants hanging lichens and mosses) depth, particularly in boreal forest areas, because conditions lead to a unique set of dynamic links it is harder for plant material to decompose between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The can also be found on the mountains and ridges A complex structure with several canopy in wet, acidic environments. Many ericaceous on the south side of the Bay (Field & Walker, layers 2003). shrubs are berry-producing plants like blueberry of coastal sea life and a number of animal A range of tree sizes and ages within a and lingonberry. More than 50% of the shrubs species return the favor by carrying marine patch of forest CONIFERS OF KACHEMAK BAY nutrients into coastal watersheds. The forest on berries that are dispersed by mobile animal the south side of Kachemak Bay supports many A dense, shrubby understory dispersal rather than by wind. terrestrial-marine linkages. A hugely important Alaska has only three families and terrestrial-marine linkage occurs when salmon twelve species of conifer trees, but the forests Dominance by conifers surrounding Kachemak Bay are particularly TEMPERATE RAINFOREST? lacking in conifer diversity - they are completely shifts from a high proportion on the south side The forest on the south side of Kachemak dominated by spruce trees. White spruce, of the bay to a lower proportion on the north Bay is considered a coastal temperate forest. characteristic of the northern boreal forest, side. Three degrees of hybridization can be It shares many characteristics with coastal and Sitka spruce, characteristic of the southern seen in the cone scales, which grade from the temperate rainforests and old growth forest of coastal forest, meet and hybridize. The mix is thin feathery edges being mostly Sitka to the thicker solid edges of pure white spruce. These forests on the uplands surrounding Kachemak intermediate forms are best displayed between preponderance of evergreen species, a complex Bay are dominated by these fertile, hybridized structure of many canopy layers, a variety of tree western hemlock trees is found in south shore ages and sizes, an abundance of hanging lichens, contribution from either species of spruce forests, living on the northern edge of their mosses and ferns (known as epiphytes), and a depends on the dominance of that species on range. dense, shrubby understory. In North America, the north or south side of the bay. Forests near temperate coastal rainforests are dominated by Cook Inlet on the south side of the Bay around PLANTS ON THE FOREST FLOOR conifers. Nanwalek and Seldovia are almost pure Sitka Like the temperate coastal rainforest, the spruce, whereas trees north of Ninilchik are Northern coniferous forests contain coastal forest on the south side of Kachemak primarily white spruce. In between occurs the Mosses, liverworts, ferns, horsetails, and club compared to the north side of the bay. This Northern Geranium (Geranium erianthum ) contribution of Sitka spruce to the hybrid mix

50 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 51 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

return to their natal streams to spawn and die. have a disturbance regime of relatively small, The low diversity of conifers and hybridization amount of nitrogen available to the tree (Darris, As their carcasses decompose, the nutrients localized disturbances from windthrow and of Sitka and white spruce in the forests 2011). Because their roots create an interlaced, support a wide range of organisms, from tiny disease followed by succession in patches of surrounding Kachemak Bay are indicators of the bacteria to riverbank plants to scavengers like the forest where old trees have fallen and the transitional nature of climactic conditions and disturbed areas such as eroded stream banks, foxes and birds. One study found that riparian canopy has been opened to more light. Prior disturbance regimes. landslide and avalanche chutes, steep and rocky plants along salmon spawning streams derive to the recent bark beetle epidemic, the forests slopes, and areas exposed by glacial retreat more than 20% of their nitrogen from salmon on the south side of the bay might have been (Darris, 2011). A quick look around the Peterson PLANT ADAPTATIONS considered old growth forests. Such a wide Bay Field Station will yield many alders living terrestrial organisms enter the intertidal or scale disturbance, however, has clearly changed “on the edge,” using their roots to cling to the Plants in northern forests must be marine environment to gather food, like bears that characterization. Parts of the bay that were adapted to a short growing season. In both the alders and other unique species are able to coastal and boreal forests around Kachemak epidemic, such as some areas of forest near capitalize on all available space in the forest. Bay, many plants are evergreen. This adaptation The south side of Kachemak Bay exhibits Kasitsna Bay, still demonstrate characteristics of In some areas, water collects in low-lying allows these plants to begin photosynthesize many coastal forest qualities. However, the an old-growth forest. areas and soils are too saturated to permit the as soon as the temperatures are warm enough. forest does not qualify as an actual coastal The forests of the south side of Kachemak growth of trees. A short hike from the Peterson Plants that are deciduous or annuals must rainforest because it does not receive the Bay Field Station provides an excellent example qualifying 50 inches of annual precipitation. The forest between a subpolar rainforest and a of a bog and the variety of plant adaptations sprouting rapidly. average annual precipitation for Homer is 30 subalpine forest. Subpolar rainforests are that allow survival in this distinct environment. While evergreen plants have an inches, and for Seldovia is 25 inches. The mild characterized as having very wet summers Marsh cinquefoil ( and advantage in the spring because they already summer temperatures in Kachemak Bay reduce and persistent snow at sea level during winter, buckbean () are two common have their leaves or needles, they must cope the amount of moisture that evaporates from with Sitka spruce and mountain hemlock down bog and wetland species. As an adaptation all winter with the inclement weather. Many the forest, which helps sustain the coastal forest to sea level. The best example of a subpolar to these wet habitats, both these species have evergreen species have developed to cope with through the growing season. rainforest in Alaska is the forest surrounding Drosera wind, cold and snow. Spruce trees have needles Old trees characterize old-growth forests. Prince William Sound. Subalpine forests are ) can also be found in the bog. To rather than leaves to minimize the area exposed The old age of the trees is due to a long time characterized as having substantial, persistent deal with low nutrient availability in the bog, to wind, cold and snow. In addition, the cone- interval between catastrophic disturbances. snowpack and diverse conifers. Fire is the sundews extract extra nutrients from insects that like shape of the spruce helps to shed the heavy The old-growth forests of southeast Alaska predominant disturbance in subalpine forests. they lure and trap with small, sticky tentacles. with leaves, like bog cranberry and other small ericaceous shrubs, survive by being very small STEWARDSHIP GUIDE TO so they are covered and protected by insulating snow during the winter. FOREST EXPLORATION Many plants are specially adapted to particular types of habitats. Elderberry shrubs, 1. Keep everyone on the trails, even through wet and muddy spots. for example, tend to grow most often in moist clearings, on stream banks, or in swampy thickets. In open areas, their fanning leaves are able to capture the most light. Sitka alder educational project) or other souvenirs, with the exception of () is another small tree Round-leaf sundew ( ripe berries. or large shrub that you will see commonly around Kachemak Bay. Alder is well-adapted 3. Bears have the right of way at all times. Avoid bear encounters to grow in disturbed areas. Alders can survive and leave no trace of food or garbage on the trails. bacteria in the genus Frankia exist along the root nodules of the tree, increasing the 52 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 53 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

SPRUCE BARK BEETLE through the sugar-rich phloem. If a tree is subdivision of land that probably wouldn’t have infested with hundreds of beetles, the tunneling otherwise been developed for decades (Hansen winds that created a windthrow area. When Throughout the 1990s and into the mid- larvae will girdle the tree. When the tunnels 2013). the tall trees are cut down or blown over by the 2000s a spruce bark beetle outbreak caused rapid disrupt the phloem, the tree is not able to The most recent spruce bark beetle wind, light-loving plants have the opportunity to changes in Kenai Peninsula forests, killing over transport sugar to the roots, and generally epidemic has caused obvious and relatively thrive. In addition to more light, more nutrients 1.4 million acres of spruce (Ross et al. 2001). The succumbs in 1-2 years. The beetles deliver a rapid changes in Kenai Peninsula forests — in and water are available to smaller plants due to increase in spruce bark beetle activity was driven second punch in form of blue-stain fungi, carried terms of both death of individual trees and the removal of such a large competitor. primarily by an 11-year run of warm summers on their bodies, which generate fungal hyphae human responses to dead trees. Management The most recent bark beetle outbreak between 1987 and 1997. Local disturbances, such of the forest after the bark beetles have killed was another major disturbance that killed the as logging, blowdown and powerline right-of- trees presents a dilemma for landowners and many of the large trees. As you hike the forests way clearing prior to 1987 created small pockets leaves. public land managers. How do you balance around Kachemak Bay, you are witnessing of beetle infestation, but the outbreak did not As the susceptible trees are killed by the the process of secondary succession and forest become regional until the run of warm summers beetles, the beetles run out of preferred breeding regeneration. This process of forest regrowth got underway with the 1986-87 El Niño, followed material. They quite literally “eat themselves of harvesting timber? The key management and an abundance of sunlight now available has by the El Niños of 1991-92, 1994-95, and 1997-98 out of house and home” (E. Berg, Pers Comm) question is whether or not to leave infested trees established Devil’s Club, blueberry, currants, (E. Berg, Pers Comm). Populations are also checked by native predators alone to die and rot in place or to cut down trees and elderberry as some of the most common High wind events that topple numerous like woodpeckers, and in time, the beetle that were killed for human use. plant species. spruce trees, as well as slash left behind from population is reduced to low, background levels. logging and right-of-way clearing, can set the FOREST SUCCESSION stage for local outbreaks of spruce bark beetles. beetle epidemic, which peaked in Kachemak Bay A storm that toppled trees over hundreds of in the mid 1990s. Aerial forest surveys in 2012 The coastal forests in Alaska are relatively acres around Mallard Bay in early 1980’s was the recorded the lowest levels of spruce bark beetle young. Most have developed since the last likely epicenter for the most recent spruce bark activity in Alaskan forests since the surveys period of glaciation, as recently as several began in the 1970s (Zogas et al. 2012). Cool La hundred years ago. Over time lichens, small Kachemak Bay, peaking in the mid-1990s with Niña-driven summers in recent years have kept plants, and Sitka alder, with its unique ability to the run of warm summers (Zogas et al. 2012). the beetle population in check, but many trees Spruce bark beetles use a complex have grown rapidly since the 1990’s and are now bacteria living in special root nodules, began Devil's Club () pheromone-based communication system to large enough to be of interest to the beetles. A to grow on the glacial till and thin soil layers run of several years of warm El Niño summers that top it. This is an excellent example of defenses of host trees when the mass dispersal will likely initiate another outbreak, although it primary succession. The climax phase of this will be smaller in scale because there is not so primary succession is the spruce forest. A days of warm dry weather (Zogas et al 2012). much available host material as there was in the great illustration of all these phases can be seen Cool, wet weather on the other hand will either traveling out from Grewingk Glacier, where While the spruce bark beetle outbreak recently exposed glacial till is being colonized has subsided in recent years, the consequences by early successional species. As you walk weather in the spring also stresses the trees and still ripple throughout the ecosystem, including farther from the glacier, you move through possible increases of moose habitat in some their natural defenses, including the production of the areas of burned beetle-killed forest, Throughout Kachemak Bay forests, the thin layer higher water tables, decreases in moss cover, of soil over the glacial till can be observed in the their burrows (E. Berg, Pers Comm) and increased opportunity to salvage the logs root balls of fallen, dead trees and on the top of The female beetles burrow into the for human use (Ross et al. 2001). The most phloem layer to mate and deposit their eggs. Secondary succession is also occurring When these eggs hatch, the larvae tunnel in the Homer area is the extensive clearing and around Kachemak Bay. Secondary succession has been initiated by disturbances such as the 54 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 55 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Insert Forest Succession Diagrams Here Insert Forest Succession Diagrams Here

56 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 57 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

slivers and other skin irritations.

stems and branches and made a tea to reduce fever. They could also make a black dye from the devil’s club by burning it and mixing the ashes with water.

peeled stems in water and made a tea for TRADITIONAL USES OF PLANTS Forest resources were a vital part of sphagnum moss for bedding, menstrual the livelihoods of Native Alaskan groups. pads, wound dressings and baby diapers. Traditionally, the native peoples of Kachemak They also used it as a candlewick for their Bay lived in permanent villages in the winter. stone lamps. During the spring and summer, they split into family groups to travel to food gathering and hunting grounds and process the food. sip cramp bark decoctions for stomach The annual round of plant harvest began with upsets from the highbush cranberry. berry, and seaweeds) and the inner bark of trees marsh violet roots on the top of hot wood stoves. They believed During summer, they harvested berries such the fragrance from the violet would ward as elderberries, blueberries, currants and high bush cranberries. Later in the summer they would harvest the roots of chocolate lily, wood fern, lupine, and hemlock-parsley. Trees played Northwest cultures formed. Trees were used Kachemak Bay. Sketch by Toby Tyler. in almost every aspect of life, including food, clothing, cooking, storage, and medicine. Spruce was very important for the Dena’ina people of decoctions for ailments ranging from Kachemak Bay. colds to tuberculosis. To prepare the tea, The following list is some common they would peel and discard the outer plants around Kachemak Bay and some of their bark and boil the remainder in water. traditional uses. spores of the club moss for theatrical build their houses and kayaks. The young purposes by throwing the spores into shoots can be eaten raw for a source of vitamin C. The pitch was chewed for create sparks as they were thrown into the pleasure and as a medicine for boils, Sphagnum moss

58 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 59 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Other Curriculum Resources II. Forest Ecology

I. Intertidal Ecology Pre-trip Description of Coastal Forest Description of Boreal Forest 1. Gulf of Alaska CoastWalk Curriculum Student Activities Forest Food Webs (Grades 5-12) This is a curriculum CACS has recently published on a coastal monitoring program designed for Alaska students. The guide has a series of activities related to marine ecology Student Activities and coastal monitoring techniques and provides an excellent opportunity to engage your Change in our Lives (Grades 4-6) students in a "real science" monitoring program. The curriculum will be available for Successions's Path (Grades 5-12) Flipbook Succession (Grades 4-8) Animal Adaptations for Succession (Grades 3-8) Post-trip Excellent background and activities on tides, intertidal and marine ecosystems, plankton, food Student Activities relationships, science inquiries with seashore animals, and rocky shores. Has a set of species Tree History (tree "cookies" can be taken home from the Field Station for cards, but many species are not present on Alaskan beaches. Available from University of this activity) Alaska Sea Grant Program, P.O. Box 755040, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5040 at cost of $25.00. Student Activities 3. Alaska Seas and Rivers Curriculum Forest Management Dilemma This is the new and revised Alaska Sea Week curriculum. The entire curriculum is available online and covers a wide array of marine biology topics. Lessons include investigations on water, oceanography, marine biology, climate change, and human impacts on marine ecosy Guide to Lost and Found Loop Trail through the North Temperate Rain Forest of the stems. The website has all worksheets and lessons downloadable in PDF form, as well as inter Island Peninsula (The guide provides information about highlights of various active links to hundreds of other ocean science resources. aspects of the ecology of the forest that you will see around the Field Station) Background information on Archaeology Who's Who in the Intertidal? (An Atlas for Peterson and China Poot Bays published by Archaeology of Kachemak Bay, Alaska - Janet Klein

Beachcomber's Guide to Marine Invertebrates of Southcentral Alaska. (Laminated card)

60 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 61 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

II. Both Intertidal and Forest Ecology References

Description of Ocean Ecosystem loads/2010/05/Homer_ACHSummary_2011.pdf Description of Forest Ecosystem Student Activities It’s Alive! — Or Is It? (Grades 3-12) What Makes Up an Ecosystem (Grades 3-6) A World Tour (of ecosystems) (Grades 4-10) Alaska Department of Fish and Game and U.S. Department of Commerce. 1998. Proposed Kachemak Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. Draft Environmental Impact Statement/Draft Student Activities Management Plan. Juneau, AK. Who Eats Whom? (Grades K-8) What’s for Dinner? (Grades 3-8) Anderson, P. J., J. E. Blackburn, and B. A. Johnson. 1997. Declines of forage species in the Gulf of Spinning a Yarn About Ecosystems (Grades K-12) International Symposium on the Role of Forage Fishes in Marine Ecosystems November 13-16, 1996, Anchorage, Alaska. University of Alaska Sea Grant Rep 97-01, p 531-543 Description of Symbiotic Relationship in Alaska Student Activities Take a Deep Breath (dependence on gas exchange in photosynthesis) (Grades K-6) 441-445. Procs. Forage Fish in Marine Ecosystems. Alaska Sea Grant Program, Fairbanks, AK. Mineral Cycling through the Ecosystem (Grades 6-12) AK-SG-97-01. Oh Moose! (Grades 4-12) Ecosystem Partners (Grades 4-12) Berg, E.E., J.D. Henry, C.L. Fastie, A.D. De Volder and S. Matsuoka. 2006. Long-term histories of Musicosystem spruce beetle outbreaks in spruce forests on the western Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and Kluane National Park and Reserve, Yukon Territory; relationships with summer temperature. Forest A Guide to the Five Kingdoms of Living Things Student Activities Bradley, D.C., T.M. Kusky, S.M. Karl, and P.J. Huessler. 1997. Field guide to the Mesozoic Five Kingdoms but No King (Grades 1-6) Accretionary Complex along Turnagin Arm and Kachemak Bay, South-Central Alaska. Pp. Investigating the Nonliving Environment (Grades 4-12) 2-12 in S.M. Karl, N.R. Vaughn, and T.J. Ryherd, eds. The 1997 Guide to the Geology of the Investigating Water Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alaska Geological Society, Anchorage, AK. Investigating the Living Environment (Grades 4-12) Investigating Monerans and Protists Brusca, G.J. and R.C. Brusca. 1978. A Naturalists Seashore Guide - common marine life of the Investigating Fungi northern California coast and adjacent shores. Mad River Press, Inc., Eureka, CA. 205 pp. Investigating Plants

Cane, M. A., A. C. Clement, A. Kaplan, Y. Kushnir, D. Pozdnyakov, R. Seager, S. E. Zebiak, R.

population dynamics in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. PhD Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska. 226 pp.

62 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 63 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Church, J. A., and N. J. White. 2006. A 20th century acceleration in global sea-level rise. Geophysical Ecosystems and People. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Dept. of Forest Sciences. Combellick, R.A. 1997. Evidence of prehistoric great earthquakes in the Cook Inlet Region, Alaska. Pp. 68-82 in S.M. Karl, N.R. Vaughn, and T.J. Ryherd, eds. The 1997 Guide to the Geology of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alaska Geological Society, Anchorage, AK. Hultén, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. pp. 958-960. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 307 pp. Jacob, K.H. 1986. Seismicity, tectonics, and geohazards in the Gulf of Alaska. Pp. 145-186 in The Gulf Council of the National Academies, Ocean Studies Board and Marine Board. Washington, The National Academies Press. Karl, S. R. Reger, D. Pinney, D. Bradley, R. Swenson, R. Combellick, J. Kurtak, P. Haeussler, and D. Brimberry. 1997. Road log for the 1997 Guide to the Geology of the Kenai Peninsula. Pp. 83-128 Connor, C. and D. O’Haire. Roadside Geology of Alaska. Mountain Press, Missoula, MT. 250 pp. in S.M. Karl, N.R. Vaughn, and T.J. Ryherd, eds. The 1997 Guide to the Geology of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alaska Geological Society, Anchorage, AK. King, P.B. 1977. The Evolution of North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 197 pp. Relative Sea-level Rise. Kachemak Bay Research Reserve and the University of Alaska, Klein, J.R. 1996. Archeology of Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Kachemak Country Publications, Homer, assessing-coastal-uplift-and-habitat-change_2011-13.pdf Alaska. 94 pp.

Darris, D.C. 2011. Plant guide for Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp.sinuata). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plant Materials Center. Corvallis, OR. Videotape.

Estes, J. A., E.M. Danner, D. F. Doak, B. Konar, A. M. Springer, P. D. Steinberg, M. T. Tinker, and T. M. Williams. 2004. Complex trophic interactions in kelp forest ecosystems. Bulletin of Marine intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats in lower Cook Inlet, Alaska. Dames and Moore. Final report to NOAA.

Middleton, J. 1995. Species list of seaweeds observed in Peterson and China Poot Bays, Kachemak Bay, Alaska. 2 pp. mimeo.

Middleton, J. 1998. Species list of marine invertebrates observed in Peterson and China Poot Bays, Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Revised by A. Middleton.

Kachemak Bay Research Reserve, a unit of the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. Kachemak Bay Research Reserve Homer, AK. Flores, R.M., G.D. Stricker, and L.R. Bader. 1997. Stratigraphic architecture of the Tertiary alluvial Programme, Arendal, Norway. 61 pp. Beluga and Sterling Formations, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Pp. 36-53 in S.M. Karl, N.R. Vaughn, and T.J. Ryherd, eds. The 1997 Guide to the Geology of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Alaska Geological Society, Anchorage, AK. lichens. Plant Press, Auke Bay, AK. 152 pp.

64 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 65 2014 2014 Background Guide to the ACE Program Background Guide to the ACE Program

Bay, AK. 562 pp.

Odate, T., N. Shiga, S. Saitoh, T. Miyoi, and S. Takagi. 1999. Distribution of phytoplankton abundance Springer, A. M., J. A. Estes, G. B. van Vliet, T. M. Williams, D. F. Doak, E. M. Danner, K. A. Forney, and physical properties on the southeastern shelf of the Bering Sea in summer. Polar 12228. Osgood, C. 1976. The Ethnography of the Tanaina. Yale University Papers in Anthropology No. 16. New Haven, CT. News (1). 8 pp. Mimeo. Swenson, R.F. 1997. Introduction to Tertiary tectonics and sedimentation in the Cook Inlet Basin. Pp. Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council (PWSRCAC). 2004. Non-indigenous Anchorage, AK. Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, AK. Spring, 1982. Changes in Prince William Sound Crude Oil Transportation Since the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Trasky, L, L.B. Flagg, and D.C. Burbank. 1977. Environmental studies of Kachemak Bay and Lower Miscellaneous publication, Anchorage, AK. Cook Inlet. 12 vols.

Physical Environment and Biological Resources. D.W. Hood and S.T. Zimmerman, eds. U.S. Zogas, K., R. Burnside, and S. Swenson. 2012. Beetle response to recent wind events and other disturbances. Forest Health Conditions in Alaska, 2012. U.S. Forest Service Alaska Region. Reger, R.D. and D.S. Pinney. 1997. Last major glaciation of Kenai Lowland. Pp. 54-67 in The Gulf of State and Private Forestry.

Ed Berg, geologist & forestry scientist, Soldotna Fifth Edition Stanford University Press. Stanford, CA. 652 pp. Dwight Bradley, geologist, U.S.G.S., Anchorage Conrad and Carmen Field, naturalists, Homer (Kachemak Bay Research Reserve) Ross, D. W., G. E. Daterman, J. L. Boughton, T. M. Quigley. 2001. Forest health restoration in Kris Holdereid, oceanographer, Homer (NOAA’s Kasitsna Bay Laboratory) Janet Klein, archaeologist, Homer Toby Wheeler, geologist, Homer

hydrogeographic, sedimentary, and geochemical environment. Springer-Verlag, New York.

66 Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies Center for Alaskan Coastal Studies 67 2014 2014