CULTURAL RESOURCES OVERVIEW

FOR THE PROPOSED BOUNDLESS ENERGY

New York Branch PROJECT, NEW YORK SEGMENT, 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, NY 14227 Tel: (716) 821-1650 RENSSELAER, ALBANY, COLUMBIA, GREENE, Fax: (716) 821-1607

Alabama Branch 2301 Paul Bryant Drive ULSTER, ORANGE, AND DUTCHESS COUNTIES, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 Tel: (205) 556-3096 Fax: (205) 556-1144 NEW YORK

Tennessee Branch 91 Tillman Street Memphis, TN 38111 Tel: (901) 454-4733 Fax: (901) 454-4736 Prepared for:

Corporate Headquarters ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT P.O. Box 20884 Tuscaloosa, AL 35402 368 Pleasant View Drive Tel: (205) 248-8767 Lancaster, New York 14068 Fax: (205) 248-8739

Prepared by:

PANAMERICAN CONSULTANTS, INC. Buffalo Branch Office 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, New York 14227-1735 (716) 821-1650

September 2013 CULTURAL RESOURCES OVERVIEW

FOR THE PROPOSED BOUNDLESS ENERGY PROJECT

NEW YORK SEGMENT,

RENSSELAER, ALBANY, COLUMBIA, GREENE, ULSTER,

ORANGE, AND DUTCHESS COUNTIES, NEW YORK

Prepared for:

ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT 368 Pleasant View Drive Lancaster, New York 14068

Prepared by:

Michael A. Cinquino, Ph.D., RPA, Principal Investigator/Project Director Mark A. Steinback, M.A., Senior Historian Donald A. Smith, Ph.D., RPA, Senior Archaeologist/GIS Specialist Frank J. Schieppati, Ph.D., RPA Preservation Planner/Sr. Archaeologist Christine Longiaru, M.A., Senior Architectural Historian

PANAMERICAN CONSULTANTS, INC. Buffalo Branch Office 2390 Clinton Street Buffalo, NY 14227 (716) 821-1650

September 2013

Table of Contents

List of Figures and Tables ...... iii

1.0 Introduction ...... 1-1 1.1 Project Description ...... 1-1

2.0 Background Research ...... 2-1 2.1 Cultural Background ...... 2-1 2.1.1 Prehistoric Summary ...... 2-1 2.1.2 Historic Summary ...... 2 -12 2.2 Documentary Research ...... 2 -32 2.2.1 Site File Data ...... 2-32

3.0 Proposed Construction and Cultural Resources Sensitivity Assessment by Section ...... 3-1 3.1 Cultural Resources Investigation Level of Effort ...... 3-1 3.2 Construction and Cultural Resources Sensitivity Assessment by Section ...... 3-1 3.2.1 Section 1: Reynolds Tap to New Scotland, MP 0 to MP 8.65 ...... 3-1 3.2.2 Section 2: Knickerbocker to Leeds, MP 8.66 to MP 32 ...... 3-2 3.2.3 Section 3: Leeds to Rock Tavern, MP 32 to MP 101.17 ...... 3-5 3.2.4 Section 4: Roseton to East Fishkill, MP 101.17 to MP 109.57 ...... 3-7

4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 4-1 4.1 Cultural Resource Sensitivity ...... 4-1 4.2 Assessing Proposed Project Activities ...... 4-1 4.3 Native American Consultation ...... 4-1 4.4 Summary of Recommendations ...... 4-2 4.4.1 Section 1: Reynolds Tap to New Scotland, MP 0 to MP 8.65 ...... 4-2 4.4.2 Section 2: Knickerbocker to Leeds, MP 8.66 to MP 32 ...... 4-2 4.4.3 Section 3: Leeds to Rock Tavern, MP 32 to MP 101.17 ...... 4-4 4.4.4 Section 4: Roseton to East Fishkill, MP 101.17 to MP 109.57 ...... 4-4

5.0 References ...... 5-1

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. ii Boundless Energy List of Figures and Tables

FIGURE PAGE

1.1 Approximate location of the Leeds Project West (LPW) project area in the Hudson Valley of New York State ...... 1-3

1.2 Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 0 and MP 44 in the Hudson Valley of New York State ...... 1-4

1.3 Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 44 and MP 81 in the Hudson Valley of New York State ...... 1-5

1.4 Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 74 and MP 109.57 in the Hudson Valley of New York State ...... 1-6

2.1 Manor of Rensselaerswyck in 1767. The red square is the approximate location of what is now the City of Albany ...... 2 -18

2.2 Sections of the project area with previously-recorded archaeological sites ...... 2-35

2.3 Approximate location of NRL resources in relation to the propose LPW project area .... 2-36

TABLE PAGE

2.1 Archaeological sites within or adjacent to the project area ...... 2 -32

2.2 National Register-Listed sites within or adjacent to the project area ...... 2-34

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. iii Boundless Energy 1.0 Introduction

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. (Panamerican) was contracted by Ecology and Environment, Inc., to conduct a Desktop Cultural Resources Study for the New York segment of the Boundless Energy (Boundless) Leeds Project West (LPW) Transmission Project (Project) in Rensselaer, Albany, Columbia, Greene, Ulster, Orange, and Dutchess counties (Figure 1.1). Boundless proposes to construct new 345-kilovolt (kV) transmission lines and to reconductor1 existing 345- kV lines in Rensselaer, Albany, Columbia, Greene, Ulster, Orange, and Dutchess counties, New York. Figure 1.1 shows the LPW project location within New York’s Hudson Valley. The Project will use new 345-kV lines in existing transmission corridors to connect clean and efficient sources of energy in upstate New York with southeastern New York. New transmission conductors will be installed primarily on new steel monopoles approximately 130 feet (ft) high in Sections 1, 2, and 4. H-frame structures will only be removed in Section 1. Reconductoring will be done on H-frame structures in Section 3. There will also be segments of underground construction in Sections 2 and 4, as well as horizontal directional drilling (HDD) under the Hudson River. The Project also includes construction of switching stations and a new substation, as well as expansion of the existing corridor.

Section 1 (Reynolds Tap to New Scotland, Mile Post [MP] 0 to MP 8.65) of the proposed LPW project will tap into the existing 345-kV line in the Town of East Greenbush in Rensselaer County (Figure 1.2). From there, new line will extend west approximately 8.65 miles within an existing right- of-way (ROW) as an overhead line across the Hudson River to connect with the New Scotland substation in Albany County. New monopole towers will be built to replace existing H-frame poles within an existing ROW, but additional area may need to be added to the ROW in places.

Section 2 (Knickerbocker to Leeds, MP 8.66 to MP 32) of the proposed Project will connect with the 345-kV lines of the existing interconnection with the New England region between New Scotland and Alps (see Figure 1.2). A new substation (Knickerbocker) will be constructed near the intersection of Knickerbocker and Muitzeskill roads in the Town of Schodack, Rensselaer County. Approximately three acres of land will be required for construction of the new substation. A new 345-kV line will extend approximately 23.3 miles south from the new substation to the Hudson substation near the City of Hudson, Columbia County. Approximately 18.6 miles will consist of new overhead lines within existing transmission-line corridors. A transition station will be constructed near the Hudson substation at which point the line will be constructed underground for approximately 2.75 miles, passing through the city as a buried cable. From MP 30, the Project will continue underground, crossing under the Hudson River by HDD. The line would continue approximately one mile underground in Greene County to connect to the Leeds substation.

Section 3 (Leeds to Rock Tavern, MP 32 to MP 101.17) of the proposed Project comprises a new 345-kV circuit, which would be added to an existing line starting at the Leeds substation (Figures 1.3 and 1.4; see Figure 1.2). The existing line would be reconductored with minimal or no modifications to existing tower structures. This section will extend approximately 55 miles south through Ulster County and connect to a new switchyard near East Road in the Town of Marlborough, just north of the Orange County line in Ulster County. Approximately three acres of land will be required for construction of the new substation. From the switchyard, the line extends west for approximately five miles before turning to the south, ending at the Rock Tavern substation in the Town of New Windsor, Orange County. Existing lines running east from the East Road switching station to the Roseton substation will connect Section 3 to Section 4.

1 To replace the cable or wire on an electric circuit, typically a high-voltage transmission line, usually to afford a greater electric-current carrying capability. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-1 Boundless Energy Section 4 (Roseton to East Fishkill, MP 101.17 to MP 109.57) of the proposed Project consists of approximately 8.4 miles of new 345-kV line hung on steel monopoles extending east from the Roseton substation to a transition site on the west side of the Hudson River (see Figure 1.4). An approximately 1.8-mile underground cable will be installed under the river by HDD to a transition station on the east side of the river. From the transition station, approximately 6.6 miles of new 345-kV line will be hung on steel monopoles and extend to an expanded substation in East Fishkill in Dutchess County. Approximately three acres of land will be required for the expansion of the East Fishkill substation.

The objective of the desktop cultural resources study was to identify known cultural properties, historic and pre-contact archaeological sites and historic structures, that are within or adjacent to a 300-ft corridor along the proposed transmission-line upgrade project, assess cultural resource sensitivity along the route, and propose the appropriate level of effort that may be required to assess any impact to cultural resources. The potential for visual impacts to historic structures was also assessed largely based on the placement location of new 130-ft high monopoles.

The report includes:

• Identification of known prehistoric and historic archaeological sites within a 300-ft corridor; • Identification of National Register of Historic Places-listed (NRL) sites including historic structures, historic districts, and National Historic Landmark (NHL) sites within a 300-ft corridor along the proposed route; • Preparation of brief prehistoric and historic cultural summary overviews for areas where the proposed routes are located; • Assessment of the prehistoric and historic archaeological sensitivity of the proposed project based on impacts associated with proposed construction activities; • Preparation of a general approach for appropriate cultural resource investigations for the various types of construction activities proposed by the client (e.g., new transmission towers, cable replacement of existing cables, tower and pole replacement, substation construction, etc.); • Discussion of potential visual impacts of the project • Recommendations for Native American consultation

A literature and records search was conducted to identify previously recorded cultural resources including National Register properties in the project study corridor. This research included desktop review, site visits to review records at the New York State Historic Preservation Office (NYSHPO), archival research, and literature review. Background research included summary discussions of the prehistoric/pre-contact and historical periods in the general vicinity of the study corridor. Background research and site file check determined if any previously recorded cultural resources are present within the 300-ft study corridor and evaluated the potential for both unrecorded prehistoric and historic cultural resources within the project area.

The potential for visual impacts to historic structures was also assessed largely based on the placement location of new 130-ft-high monopoles. This included identifying NRL structures and districts within the study corridor and assessing potential impacts to the viewshed within 0.5-mile radius around the proposed monopole locations. Use of existing H-frame towers will have no additional impact on cultural properties.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-2 Boundless Energy Figure 1.1. Approximate location of the Leeds Project West (LPW) project area in the Hudson Valley of New York State.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-3 Boundless Energy Figure 1.2. Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 0 and MP 44 in the Hudson Valley of New York State (USGS 100K quadrangles: Albany, NY, MA, VT 1989, Amsterdam 1986, Pepacton Reservoir, NY 1986, Pittsfield, MA, NY, CT 1985[1989]). Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-4 Boundless Energy Figure 1.3. Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 44 and MP 81 in the Hudson Valley of New York State (USGS 100K quadrangles: Monticello, NY, PA 1986 [1987], Pepacton Reservoir, NY 1986, Pittsfield, MA, NY, CT 1985[1989], Waterbury, CT, NY 1986).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-5 Boundless Energy Figure 1.4. Approximate location of the LPW project area between MP 74 and MP 109.57 in the Hudson Valley of New York State (USGS 100K quadrangles: Monticello, NY, PA 1986 [1987], Bridgeport, NY, CT, NJ 1986, Middletown, NY, NJ, PA 1986, Waterbury, CT, NY 1986).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 1-6 Boundless Energy 2.0 Background Research

2.1 CULTURAL BACKGROUND

2.1.1 Prehistoric Summary. The three major cultural traditions manifested in eastern New York State during the prehistoric era were the Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Woodland. Cultural evolution of the area can be summarized as a gradual increase in social complexity, marked by several important cultural and/or technological innovations. The earliest of these traditions is the Paleo-Indian, which lasted from ca. 12,000 to 8000 BC. Subsisting through hunting and gathering activities, Paleo-Indians lived in seasonal camps near freshwater sources (Ritchie 1957, 1980; Ritchie and Funk 1973). The Upper and Mid-Hudson areas of eastern New York may not have been hospitable for aboriginal groups prior to 11,000 BC, when glacial ice began to recede from the area.

The subsequent Archaic period (8000 to 1500 BC) was characterized by seasonally occupied campsites and, later, by seasonal villages. Changing environmental conditions required an adaptation of the economy, resulting in a shift to more efficient exploitation of temperate forest resources by Archaic hunter-gathers. The Archaic subsistence system included hunting and gathering and possibly incipient horticulture toward the end of the period (Curtin 1998; Funk 1988, 1993; Tuck 1977). In many areas of eastern North America, the Archaic is followed by a Transitional period (ca. 1500 to 1000 BC) that bridges the Archaic and Woodland periods. Although not representing a departure from Archaic social and economic patterns, this Transitional period is marked by important changes in the artifact assemblage and burial practices (Ritchie 1955, 1980; Nichols 1928).

Beginning around 1000 BC, the Woodland period is marked by the development of pottery, agriculture, fortified villages, and burial mounds, and resulted in a plethora of new and very different social and economic adaptations. While changes occur in burial practices and the artifact assemblage, the Woodland does not represent a departure from Archaic social and economic patterns, although the Early Woodland is poorly understood in the Hudson Valley (Ritchie 1955; Funk 1976). Native Americans of this period lived in seasonally occupied campsites and villages, subsisting through hunting, gathering, and horticulture (Granger 1978b; Ritchie 1980; Smith 1992; Dragoo 1963; Cassedy et al. 1993). The period lasted until the first contact between Europeans and New York’s aboriginal inhabitants ca. 1600 (Funk 1976; Bender and Curtin 1990).

During the Woodland period, external influences began to have an increasingly greater effect as groups associated with the Algonquian Mohican occupied the majority of the region. Culturally, these groups shared much with groups in northern New Jersey and the lower Hudson Valley. In addition, the introduction of corn horticulture ca. AD 1000 seems to have encouraged population growth, village life, and warfare in some areas of New York State. To the west, tribes that eventually formed the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy evolved from antecedents in the central sub-area between the Genesee River and the Tug Plateau. Prior to the time of European contact Mohican hunting territory comprised lands on both sides of the Hudson River, with the Mohawk occupying areas well west of the present-day cities of Albany and Schenectady. There was probably very little interchange between the groups prior to European contact (Tuck 1978b; Tooker 1978; Brasser 1978a). At the time of Henry Hudson’s voyage in 1609, the Hudson Valley was within territory traditionally occupied and utilized by the Mohican and Algonquian-speaking groups allied or nominally allied with them (Brasser 1978b; Goddard 1978; Dunn 1994). The arrival of European commercial interests, missionaries and, finally,

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-1 Boundless Energy settlers profoundly changed the use of the land. The Native population was essentially removed from the land prior to the Revolutionary War (Trigger 1978).

Paleo-Indian Period (ca. 12,000-8000 BC). In New York the last glacial retreat occurred approximately 14,000 years ago, followed by a series of changing environmental conditions. The earliest dated Paleo-Indian site in New York is the Dutchess Quarry Cave in southern Orange County (10,580 BC +370). At this time, Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River were locked in ice, but it is possible that the environmental fluctuations that occurred during this early period were conducive to periodic forays by the Paleo-Indian groups into the region when conditions were suitable. As the climate gradually became more temperate, these forays may have become more extended. Prior to 10,000 years ago, the ice had not retreated very far north of Lake Ontario and the area around what is now the City of Albany was subsumed under the waters of glacial Lake Albany (Funk 1972; Funk and Steadman 1994).

Paleo-Indians were highly mobile people who traveled over long distances to obtain resources such as food and lithic raw materials. Paleo-Indian cultures were adapted to a late Pleistocene tundra or park tundra environment similar to that of northern Canada today. A band-level social organization is attributed to Paleo-Indian groups, with each band consisting of 25 or 30 people, their movements controlled mainly by game and the availability of other food resources (Snow 1980:150). At the end of the Pleistocene, the Hudson River valley provided an important habitat for large mammals and other game potentially significant for human subsistence. The Paleo- Indian subsistence strategy has traditionally been viewed as one that emphasized hunting big game. These species, many of which are extinct, included mastodon, mammoth, caribou, and moose-elk, along with a variety of smaller game (Funk 1972, 1976; Ritchie 1980:10-11; Salwen 1975; Eisenberg 1978). Although no Pleistocene megafauna have been recovered in Rensselaer County, two mastodon and the remains of individual bison, deer and horse have been found in Albany County, and mastodon remains have been identified throughout Orange County, southern Ulster County, and western Dutchess County (Ritchie 1980:11).

Technologically, the Paleo-Indian has been associated with the fluted point industry. These points closely resemble the Clovis point, first discovered in the Southwest, and are generally classified as that type (Funk and Schambach 1964). The points are generally large (2.5 to 10 centimeters [1 to 4 inches] in length), with a flute on each face, probably to facilitate hafting (Snow 1980). Other items in the Paleo-Indian tool kit included leaf-shaped and ovate bifacial knives, end-scrapers, often equipped with graving spurs, and unifacial side-scrapers, knives, and retouched flakes. Drills, awls, and gravers are also diagnostic Paleo-Indian tools. Few tool associations have been made with aquatic resources remains. However, it is difficult to imagine these people not utilizing such a diverse and abundantly available food source once water conditions allowed (Salwen 1975:45; Kauffman and Dent 1982). With deglaciation, the megafauna declined and were replaced by more temperate species that migrated into the area. Caribou herds probably survived in eastern New York beyond the time of the megafauna extinction. Fluted points and Paleo-Indian components have been identified on the west side of the Hudson River at the West Athens Hill and Kings Road sites near the Hudson River in eastern Greene County and in northern Orange County west of the Wallkill River (Ritchie 1980:5).

Ritchie and Funk (1973:333) classified Paleo-Indian sites into two main categories: quarry workshops and camps. These categories are further subdivided into large, recurrently occupied camps, small special-purpose camps, and caves or rockshelter sites. Chert quarrying and the preliminary stages of tool production were carried out at the tool workshops. Settlement models include Paleo-Indian quarry and workshop sites at or near significant chert resources, kill- Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-2 Boundless Energy butchery sites, burials or caches, and isolated finds (Gramly and Funk 1990:13) as well as campsites on elevations overlooking valleys and in lowlands near water and aquatic resources. Fluted points gradually decreased in size as larger game animals moved north or became extinct (Kraft 1986:47).

Archaic Period (ca. 8000-1500 BC). The Archaic period is differentiated from the Paleo-Indian period by a stylistic shift in lithic assemblage, an apparent increase in population, changes in the subsistence strategy, and a less nomadic settlement system. Three subdivisions are generally recognized for the Archaic: Early, Middle, and Late (or Terminal). These divisions generally coincide with distinctive artifacts, especially projectile point types.

Early and Middle Archaic (ca. 8000-4000 BC). Settlement data for Early Archaic cultures in the Hudson Valley is scant (Ritchie and Funk 1973:337). Research in the upper Susquehanna drainage (Funk 1993) has shown a succession of Early Archaic occupations beginning no later than 7500 BC. Although archaeological sites from the Early and Middle Archaic are rare and poorly understood in this region, important sites from this period have been found in eastern New York in Ulster County and near Sylvan Lake (east of Poughkeepsie, Dutchess County), as well as western Connecticut, the upper Delaware drainage, and the Susquehanna River (Dent 1991; Funk 1991, 1993; Nicholas 1988). Early Archaic sites have been found on Green Island and in West Albany.

The Early Archaic population is usually regarded as relatively small and mobile, adapted to an environment with fewer nut-bearing trees and fish-poor waters. Aside from occasional technological changes and gradual environmental transformation, life continued much the same as it had in the previous era. Hunter-gathers of the Early Archaic period subsisted on fish, berries, roots, tubers, eggs, nuts, and deer, probably moving when food supplies dwindled (Kraft 1986:51), probably moving when food supplies dwindled. The Early Archaic tool kit consisted of Hardaway Dalton points, Palmer corner-notched, Kirk corner-notched, and bifurcate base points like Amos corner-notched and LeCroy, both of which frequently had serrated edges. People of the Early Archaic also used end-scrapers, side-scrapers, spokeshaves, drills, gravers, choppers, hammers, and anvil stones.

Although Early Archaic data is scant, it appears that big-game hunting was no longer central to subsistence and band movement was less erratic. It has been suggested that groups began to settle into territories and that camp movement adjusted to a seasonal round (Snow 1980). Floral resources, fish, and other aquafauna began to play a more significant role in subsistence. A few technological changes, such as the production of ground and polished stone tools, serve to identify the Middle Archaic period. The bannerstone, probably used as an atlatl weight, and the bell pestle were Middle Archaic innovations (Kraft 1986:51; Griffin 1967; Funk 1993:172). Changes in the cultural system were not qualitative, however; more elaborate planning seems to have been devoted to seasonal scheduling: "The ranges of activities carried out on special- purpose sites continued to narrow while the numbers and kinds of such sites utilized within a round continued to increase" (Snow 1980:183). The territorial "settling in" process begun during the Early Archaic continued into the Middle Archaic, stimulating a process of group isolation. Since qualitative changes cannot be seen between the Early and Middle Archaic periods, Mason (1981) does not distinguish them as separate periods. Instead, he views them as a single transitional period between the Paleo-Indian and the Late Archaic.

During the Middle Archaic, the climate was warm and moist, and water levels continued to rise forcing groups to move inland. Middle Archaic cultures occupied a land richer in resources as deciduous forests became more fully established. People of the Middle Archaic subsisted on Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-3 Boundless Energy chestnuts, acorns, and fish, as well as the abundant forest animals. People began to develop woodworking tools during the Middle Archaic, such as axes, adzes, gouges, and other rough stone tools. These heavy woodworking tools may have been used for canoe building. The Middle Archaic tool kit also included anvil stones, choppers, netsinkers, and an array of projectile points. A Middle Archaic campsite, which produced a Neville point, was identified at the Shaker Run development in the Town of Colonie, Albany County.

Late Archaic (ca. 4000-1500 BC). The Late Archaic is seen as the flowering of preceramic culture in the Northeast (Snow 1980; Mason 1981). The period began about 6,000 years ago and continued to the advent of pottery around 1500 BC. During this period prehistoric cultures "fully adjusted to the humid Temperate Continental climate which, with its oak-chestnut-deer- turkey biome, persisted to the present day" (Ritchie and Funk 1973). The increased carrying capacity of this richer and more diverse biome is reflected by an increase in the number, size, and kinds of sites documented in the archaeological record.

The relatively diverse and abundant biome provided a subsistence base that was much broader than that of previous periods. Food resources consisted of large game (deer and bear), small game, fish, shellfish, waterfowl, birds, insects, vegetables, and fruits. This diversity not only allowed for greater procurement efficiency, it also provided a cushion against seasonal failures of any single resource. The general increase in numbers of milling and fishing tools suggests a shift away from red meat as a preferred resource. Most sites of the Late Archaic period were seasonal, special purpose habitation sites, and included winter hunting camps, spring fishing stations, fall nut-gathering and processing stations, and shellfish-processing areas. Principal settlements, such as those at the Weir (northern Rensselaer County), River (southern Saratoga County), and Dennis (northern Albany County) sites, were located near the Hudson River and were multi-activity spring and summer villages (Ritchie 1969; Funk 1976; Ritchie and Funk 1973).

While increased territorialization occurs during the Late Archaic, group isolation decreases. Communication and trade networks, which characterize later periods, have their developmental roots in this period. Burial ceremonialism, established in northern New England a few thousand years earlier (Tuck 1978a), is conspicuously absent in some areas of New York and well developed in others.

In New York, two contemporaneous Late Archaic cultural traditions predominate: the Narrow Point tradition, generally restricted to western and central New York, and the Laurentian tradition, evident through all of New York. The Narrow Point tradition is recognized as the Lamoka phase. Most Lamoka phase sites are small, open camp sites, although large near- permanent base camps have also been identified (Ritchie 1980; Ritchie and Funk 1973). As with other Archaic peoples, Lamoka groups relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering. Deer and turkey were the preferred game, while in the floral group acorns and hickory nuts were impressively evident. However, the primary orientation of the culture was toward aquatic resources caught mostly with nets.

In contrast to the Lamoka, the Laurentian tradition is characterized by a primary reliance on hunting. This tradition, which is associated with the Lake Forest Archaic of eastern New York, Vermont, and New Hampshire (Snow 1980), is represented in this area by the Brewerton phase (3000-1720 BC). While some base camps are known for the Brewerton phase, the majority of sites are small, temporary hinterland camps on streams, marshes and springs. The emphasis on hunting is reflected by assemblages having large proportions of points and hunting gear.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-4 Boundless Energy Fishing gear and nutting stones are also present, but not in the quantities known from Lamoka sites.

Brewerton and Lamoka peoples occupied similar environments, and contact between the two groups is evident in central New York. Brewerton mortuary customs were somewhat more complex than Lamoka, although neither group featured regular cemetery areas. Grave goods were confined to utilitarian objects and there is no hint of the mortuary ceremonialism of the following Early Woodland period (Ritchie 1980).

Transitional Period (ca. 1500-1000 BC). The Transitional period features a continuation of Late Archaic cultural and economic patterns, with only a few innovative traits. Among these are a developing burial/ceremonial complex and, toward the end of the period, the introduction of ceramics. In New York, the Transitional period is manifested by the Orient and Frost Island phases. Because of their close association with cultural developments in the Susquehanna drainage, they are known as aspects of the Susquehanna tradition. The primary importance of the Orient phase is in its highly developed mortuary ceremonialism. However, the Orient phase culture was native to Long Island and generally restricted to the southeastern portion of New York. Carved steatite, or soapstone (talc schist), was important stone material exchanged over long distances during the Transitional period. It was made into usually flat-bottomed, lugged bowls that facilitated cooking and food preparation. The Transitional period has been radiocarbon dated between 1200-1100 BC in the Town of Colonie, immediately west of Watervliet Arsenal (Curtin 1991).

The Frost Island phase culture was generally situated in central New York with extensions into western and northern New York. Recognized by the Susquehanna Broad projectile point, numerous Frost Island sites have been found throughout this portion of the state, although few have been systematically investigated (Ritchie 1980; Trubowitz 1978; Curtin 1984).

Frost Island burial practices are not well known. Indirect evidence suggests the practice of cremation, heavy use of red ochre, and deposition of caches of projectile points in graves. Ritchie (1980) has characterized the Frost Island settlement system as riverine. This hypothesis was supported in the Genesee Valley where these sites were located no farther than one mile (1.6 kilometers) from the river (Trubowitz 1978). This phase has been tentatively dated to 1595- 1220 BC. This later date roughly corresponds to the beginning of the Early Woodland Meadowood phase and to the displacement of steatite vessels by Vinette I pottery.

Woodland Period (1000 BC-AD 1600). The definitive characteristic of the Woodland period in New York State is the adoption of pottery technology, a development that occurred at different times from one location to another (Feder 1984:101-102; Sears 1948; Snow 1980:262; Hoffman 1998). Native groups also became more dependent on domesticated plants—including maize, beans, and squash—during the Woodland in the Northeast, although this change does not seem to have significantly altered subsistence and settlement patterns until the Late Woodland, after AD 1000 (Ritchie and Funk 1973:96). In the meantime, hunting and gathering continued to be important elements of Native lifeways for much of the period, and people likely still employed these strategies, at least part time, at the time of contact with Europeans. The Woodland period in New York witnessed significant cultural developments, most of which were related to the adoption of agriculture. Among these were increasingly sedentary village life accompanied by increases in population and population densities; technological changes, including the refinement of pottery-manufacturing techniques and the adoption of small triangular projectile points; and an intensification of warfare. Researchers have traditionally divided the Woodland

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-5 Boundless Energy into three phases: the Early Woodland (1000 BC–AD 1); the Middle Woodland (AD 1–800); and the Late Woodland (AD 800–ca. 1600) (e.g., Funk 1993:Figure 40).

Early Woodland (1000 BC-AD 1). In Ritchie’s culture-historical framework, the Early Woodland is defined as the time during which people manufactured Vinette I-type ceramic vessels, gorgets, tubular smoking pipes, bar amulets, boatstones, birdstones, and copper ornaments (Ritchie 1980:194; Ritchie and Funk 1973:96). During this time, people throughout the Northeast and Midwest interred the deceased with elaborate burial goods (Tuck 1978a:39-43). People almost never placed ceramic vessels in Early Woodland graves. In central New York State, Ritchie identified a distinct burial complex that he termed “Middlesex” in which burials resembled those of people living in southern Ohio and represented archaeologically as Adena. These graves included copper items, leaf-shaped cache blades, and shell beads, among others. Ritchie divided the Early Woodland into two temporal phases: Meadowood and Middlesex.

In the Hudson Valley, as in other coastal and eastern valley areas (Kraft 1986), the Early Woodland is dominated by the Orient phase culture, which has projectile points that are similar to, although narrower than, the Transitional period Susquehanna Broad points. Orient Fishtail points were used as knives and spears and were reworked into drills and scrapers, strike-a- lights, and gravers (Kraft 1986:91-92). Orient Fishtail points were found at the Goat Island Rockshelter and Grouse Bluff (Dutchess County) as well as at several Bear Mountain region rockshelter sites. Orient points are found in association with early (Vinette I-type) pottery at the Dennis site (Funk 1976) near Menands, as well as the Menands Bridge site (Johnson 1979), and at Grouse Bluff (Lindner 1992). A Vinette I pot, now restored, was recovered from the Bear Mountain Railroad Station Rockshelter (Funk 1976:175). The Goat Island Rockshelter site, located in the Town of Red Hook near the east shore of the Hudson River, produced diagnostic artifacts of the Late Archaic and Early Woodland periods: Three Rossville points were found clustered around a burial in association with dentate-stamped, fabric-impressed, and rocker- stamped pottery (Chilton 1992:53).

However, the Early Woodland period is generally thought to have begun with the Meadowood phase about 3,000 years ago. Meadowood sites are found throughout the Northeast, and particularly New York, although traces of this culture are slim in eastern New York (Funk 1976; Granger 1978a). Meadowood bifacial blades were recovered at the Shaker Run No. 1 site, Town of Colonie, Albany County (Curtin and Kramer 1990). Meadowood people hunted, gathered, and fished, although it is believed their subsistence strategy east of the Finger Lakes involved a higher degree of mobility than people of the Orient culture (Kraft 1986:95). Meadowood people cremated their dead and buried them in cemeteries away from habitation sites in northern New York, or at burial grounds in western New York (Granger 1978b). However, no Meadowood cemeteries have been found in eastern New York. The Meadowood phase seems to post-date the Orient phase at the Dennis site, just south of Watervliet Arsenal (Funk 1976). But on a broader geographic scale, radiocarbon dates associated with both phases overlap significantly, indicating that these cultures were at least partly contemporaneous (Snow 1980).

While the previous hunting and gathering economy continued as a means of subsistence during the Woodland period, Native groups became more and more dependent on domesticated plants for food. The period is identified by the introduction of pottery. The significance of pottery is that it improved the efficiency of food preparation, helping to buffer against subsistence stresses possibly caused by the cooling climate, or population growth, an effect of increasingly settled life. Early pottery has been radiocarbon dated to about 700 BC at Menands north of Albany (Funk 1976). This gradual shift to domestication is in itself less important than the ramifications of the Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-6 Boundless Energy shift. Agriculture brought with it a score of new problems that required new adaptations, and every aspect of Native culture was transformed. With agriculture came settled village life, a general increase in population, technological changes, warfare, and a litany of social and political changes.

Mortuary ceremonialism, which had its roots in the Archaic and continued to develop through the Transitional period, became more developed during the Early Woodland. Typically, the dead were placed on scaffolds or in charnel houses, and were cremated after decay. Flexed, bundle, and multiple burials also occurred. Grave offerings were numerous, consisting of cache blades (sometimes numbering in the hundreds), smoking pipes, gorgets, birdstones, copper, fire- making kits, and a generous sprinkling of red ochre. Often the grave offerings were purposefully "killed" (broken). Meadowood and Orient cemeteries were generally situated on knolls, a fundamental concept which may have been a precursor of the Middle Woodland artificial burial mound (Ritchie 1955, 1959; Granger 1978b).

Cultural manifestations of the latter part of the Early Woodland in New York have been grouped into the Early Point Peninsula tradition. This tradition is somewhat vaguely defined and is primarily recognized by the presence of Vinette pottery. In some areas of New York, Point Peninsula traits are found in conjunction with elements of the Ohio Adena tradition, comprising the Middlesex phase in New York.

This Adena-Middlesex culture lasted from 800-300 BC, and Adena-Middlesex sites are more common than Meadowood phase sites in eastern New York. The Middlesex phase is poorly delineated in New York, and is primarily known from burial sites. Typical Middlesex-Adena burial offerings consist of stone blocked-end pipes, cache blades, copper celts and awls, points, copper and shell beads, amulets, pendants, birdstones, and red ochre. These graves generally contain up to 30 percent Adena-inspired artifacts. Although Middlesex phase components are often found in association with Meadowood phase materials, the connection between the two is presently unclear. Moreover, explanations regarding the presence of Adena traits in New York are controversial. It has been postulated that Adena burial customs were the result of migrations of Adena peoples from central Ohio, forced from their homeland by the expansion of Hopewell Culture (Ritchie and Dragoo 1960; Dragoo 1963). It can generally be said that sites farthest away from the Ohio Adena heartland will contain the fewest Adena traits (Ritchie and Dragoo 1960). Adena-Middlesex burials have been found at the Van Orden (Greene County) and Barton (southern Washington County) sites in the Hudson Valley (Funk 1976; Ritchie 1969).

Middle Woodland (AD 1-900). The temporal boundaries of the Middle Woodland are largely defined by changes Ritchie perceived in the relative frequencies of pottery types and diversified techniques by which the ceramics were decorated (Ritchie and Funk 1973:117; Ritchie and MacNeish 1949). The end of the period, which Ritchie argued came around AD 1000 (or shortly thereafter), occurred when people in New York adopted the suite of characteristics he associated with the Late Woodland: primarily agriculture based on maize, beans, and squash; Owasco-style pottery (collarless vessels with elongate bodies, conoidal bases, slightly everted rims, and cord-wrapped-stick impressed exterior decoration confined largely to their necks); and house structures resembling historical Haudenosaunee longhouses. Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that none of these developments occurred at AD 1000, nor did they happen together at any other single time (Hart 1999, 2000; Hart and Brumbach 2003; Hart et al. 2003; Prezzano 1988; Schulenberg 2002). Moreover, this research has altered how events during the Middle Woodland are interpreted. The direct dating of maize using the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) technique, for example, has demonstrated that people in southern Ontario and central New York were growing the crop before AD 700 (Crawford et al. 1997:114-115; Hart Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-7 Boundless Energy et al. 2003:634). Meanwhile, Hart et al. (2003:624-625) and Schulenberg (2002:160-164) have obtained AMS dates from charred residue on the interiors of Owasco vessels that indicate people were manufacturing those pots as early as the seventh century AD (see also Hart and Brumbach 2003:743-744). Beyond this, Hart has demonstrated that people did not contruct longhouses in central New York before the beginning of the thirteenth century AD and that they did not likely grow beans until a even later date (Hart 1999, 2000).

The Middle Woodland shows continued long-distance exchange, although perhaps with varying strength at different times. Certain occupation sites were becoming larger during this period (Funk 1976; Johnson 1979), and thicker middens were developing (such as at the Ford site, Columbia County). In addition, food storage was becoming a common practice along the Hudson River at such locations as the Dennis, Menands Bridge, and Black Rock sites. Fresh water mussel shells and sturgeon plates are found at several Middle Woodland sites, notably the Tufano site in Greene County, suggesting that people were exploiting a greater variety of foods, perhaps as another response to stress induced by increasing settlement stability and residential sedentarism (Reifler and Lindner 2000). These factors could favor population growth due to decreased mobility and shorter intervals between births.

This period was characterized by at least two cultural phases and a variety of interactions with other coastal and interior cultures. The earlier part of the Middle Woodland until approximately AD 500 is included in the Fox Creek phase throughout the Hudson Valley. Sites of this culture are often located near streams and are associated with fishing. Diagnostics of this period include net-marked pottery and Fox Creek lanceolate and stemmed projectile points (Funk 1976). Bolas, celts, pitted stones, hammer stones, anvil stones, and pestles are frequently found on Fox Creek sites (Kraft 1986). An innovation of the period was the Petalas blade, which was identified at the Petalas site near Athens in Greene County in the mid-Hudson Valley (Funk 1976; Reifler and Lindner 2000). Made from high quality local chert in the Hudson River valley, Petalas blades are thought to be fish-butchering knives due to their frequent association with sturgeon remains. Interregional exchange during the Fox Creek phase is revealed in the high frequencies of New Jersey argillite in the Hudson Valley and New York cherts distributed well south of their sources. Petalas blades have been recovered from numerous riverside middens, refuse pits, and caches at sites ranging from Green Island in Albany County to Saugerties in Ulster County, including the Joy, Dennis, Barren Island, Black Rock, Bronck House Rockshelter, LSR, and Rocky Point sites (Funk 1976; Reifler and Lindner 2000).

After AD 500, northern sections of the Hudson Valley were influenced by local expressions of the Point Peninsula tradition, including the Burnt Hill and Four Mile phases. The Point Peninsula tradition, expressed primarily by ceramic traits, notably dentate stamped and corded, collared pottery, includes Jacks Reef Corner-Notched and Pentagonal projectile points. Jacks Reef points were probably arrowheads, which suggests that the bow and arrow had come into use (Kraft 1986:114). Platform pipes, antler harpoons, and beaver-tooth incising tools were found at the Faucett and Minisink sites in the upper Delaware River valley, along with decorative artifacts like stone pendants, shark-tooth beads, and bone combs (Kraft 1986:114), similar to Point Peninsula finds in upstate New York (Ritchie 1980). Similar artifacts were found at the Dennis and Tufano sites in the Hudson Valley, and included stone and bone pendants, clay pipes, and bone tools.

Late Woodland (AD 900-1600). The Late Woodland is identified as the period between AD 900 and the time at which Native people traded for or otherwise obtained European goods, the precise timing of which varied throughout the region. In the 1930s, Ritchie (1937 [1936]) proposed dividing the Late Woodland into two shorter periods: the Owasco and the Iroquois Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-8 Boundless Energy (see also Ritchie 1944). At the time, he believed Iroquoian groups migrated to the New York State area and replaced the Algonquian Owasco people already living there (see Tuck 1971:11- 14). Although, since the 1950s, researchers have generally accepted that Iroquoian speakers did not immigrate to the Northeast at the beginning of the Late Woodland, the distinction between Owasco and Iroquois periods has remained. Also, with the development of radiocarbon dating, the two have acquired distinct temporal boundaries, with the Owasco lasting from AD 900 to 1300, and the Iroquois spanning the years thereafter (Hart and Brumbach 2003:747). In terms of material culture, the primary differences between the two entities are related to ceramic vessel form and decoration. While Owasco series pots tend to be collarless, decorated with a cord-wrapped paddle or stick, and have elongate bodies surmounting conoidal and subconoidal bases, Iroquois vessels generally have collars, are decorated with incised designs, and have globular bodies (MacNeish 1952; Ritchie and MacNeish 1949).

Although, as outlined above, some of the cultural developments Ritchie associated with the Late Woodland did not occur between AD 900 and 1100, some—particularly those related to the development of an agricultural system based on maize, beans, and squash—did happen in the succeeding years. In fact, several developments appear to cluster around AD 1200 to 1300: the earliest evidence for longhouses and multiple-household villages is from the thirteenth century AD and people added beans to their diets around AD 1300 (Hart and Brumbach 2003:744-746). In addition, Snow (2000:30) notes that groups in central New York began surrounding their settlements with defensive palisades after AD 1200. During the later years of the Iroquois period, people in some areas began clustering their villages within the territories occupied by historically known nations (Snow 2000:46-51). During this time, the techniques people (probably women) employed to decorate pottery diversified across space, probably reflecting concomitant changes in the ways and frequencies with which people interacted (MacNeish 1952; Whallon 1968). Likely in part because of the large amounts of wood consumed during the construction and maintenance of these settlements, as well as that needed for firewood, inhabitants periodically relocated their villages roughly every 10 to 20 years (Engelbrecht 2003:101-103). In several cases, researchers have reconstructed parts of the resulting sequences of settlements and produced detailed data concerning local culture change and the effects thereon of contact with Europeans (e.g., White 1961). However, as suggested by the results of Engelbrecht’s (2004) recent work comparing late prehistoric Jefferson County ceramics with those of other Iroquoian groups indicates, there are many questions regarding New York State’s Woodland inhabitants that remain unanswered.

In the Hudson Valley, the transition between the Middle and Late Woodland periods is marked by the Hunter's Home phase, an aspect of the terminal Point Peninsula tradition and sometimes designated Late Woodland (Mason 1981; Funk 1976). According to Ritchie and Funk (1973), most Hunter's Home sites are moderately large with heavy refuse concentrations, storage pits, house patterns, and a wide range of artifacts. The phase, which has been dated as late as 1000, is often difficult to distinguish because of the presence of both Kipp Island phase and later Owasco traits. The notched projectile points common in Kipp Island are less popular in Hunter's Home, and are generally replaced by the triangular Levanna points, which became commonplace during Owasco times and foreshadow the triangular Iroquois points (Mason 1981).

In the Hudson valley, however, the Owasco traditional does not occur in a pristine state (Ritchie 1969; Funk 1976). Instead, the prehistoric cultures of eastern New York developed under heavy influence from “resident Late Woodland groups, probably ancestral to the historic Algonkian [sic] tribes of this area” where potential hostile relations may have existed between the Owasco and Algonquian cultures (Ritchie 1980:273-274). Owasco or Owasco-like ceramics have been recovered from the middle and upper Hudson Valley and have been accompanied by other Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-9 Boundless Energy Owasco artifacts, such as Levanna points, scrapers, incised clay pipes, and strike-a-lights. However, sizable Owasco village sites have not been identified. Pottery was manufactured using the paddle and anvil technique as opposed to the coil or fillet method used prior to this time. Most tools were made from Onondaga chert; points were trianguloid, similar to Levanna points. Some antler points and bone awls have also been recovered. Late Woodland pottery found along the Hudson River in southern Orange County and northern Rockland County shows cultural relationships with the East River tradition of the New York coast, as indicated by pottery found at the Denniston site, the Riverbank Rockshelter, the Navy Rockshelter, and Iona Island Rockshelter.

Another important feature that marks the Hunter's Home phase is a decrease in elaborate mortuary ceremonialism. Both single and multiple in-the-flesh interments and bundle burials occur, but the presence of grave offerings is sporadic. The predominance of secondary burials seems to indicate that corpses were left above ground, possibly in charnel houses, for a considerable time before interment (Ritchie 1980).

Hunter's Home phase economy can generally be characterized as a hunting-fishing-collecting system. Increases in both social complexity and population are evident, leading to the hypothesis that "maize horticulture was already being practiced as an important aspect of the Hunter's Home economy" (Ritchie and Funk 1973:356). This hypothesis is partly founded on Ritchie's contention that some horticulture was practiced in the earlier Kipp Island phase (1980:240). However, most of the evidence for maize (Zea mays) horticulture up to this time is indirect; cultivated plant remains are rarely found archaeologically in New York State because of generally poor conditions for preservation of organic materials. The precise timing of this innovation is not known, but certain discoveries, such as at the Hurley site in Ulster County (Funk 1976), suggest that an agricultural adaptation which included food storage was underway by AD 1300. The earliest corn in the region (ca. AD 900) has been found at a transitional, Middle- Late Woodland period site on the Roeliff-Jansen Kill (Cassedy et al. 1993). Recent research in the Finger Lakes region of the state suggests that maize was consumed by the seventh century AD (Hart et al. 2003).

Corn horticulture actually became possible in the Northeast following the development of a cold- resistant strain, Northern Flint Corn, sometime between AD 500 and 1000. Northern Flint Corn diffused broadly after its first appearance in eastern North America, possibly in the northern Midwest or the Northeast (Fritz 1990). Corn horticulture seems to have encouraged population growth, village life, and warfare among some cultures, such as the Iroquois west of the Hudson valley (see Hart et al. 2003). It is not known whether similar effects occurred in the Hudson Valley, but since fortified Late Woodland village sites have not been documented by archaeologists in this region, chances are that such large, aggregated communities were not often established by the Mohican or their ancestors. It seems more likely that the late prehistoric peoples of the upper Hudson Valley lived in small, dispersed farmsteads or hamlets, in similar fashion to many of the New England and upper Delaware Indians (Bender and Curtin 1990; Cronon 1983; Kraft 1986).

The Late Woodland witnessed significant change: the subsistence system shifted emphasis from gathering wild foods to growing domesticated plants. Early maize cultivation began about AD 900 in the mid-Hudson drainage, and corn associations with radiocarbon mean dates between AD 850 and 950 are reported from coastal Connecticut and the Susquehanna and Hudson drainages (Cassedy et al. 1993). Along with corn horticulture came settled village life, population growth, an enriched religious and ceremonial life, and warfare among some cultures, such as the Haudenosaunee in New York. Between AD 1300 and 1600, ceramics with well- Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-10 Boundless Energy defined collars with incised linear geometric designs appear in the lower Hudson Valley correlating the local cultural history with the Minisink phase of the Proto-Munsee (Delaware) people (Kraft 1986:120). The cultural changes of the late prehistoric period have been cited as a possible movement of Munsee populations into the lower Catskills (Funk 1976:300; Snow 1980). Eventually, Delaware (Proto-Munsee)-speaking people emerged along the Delaware drainage. Other cultural groups included the Algonquian populations of the upper Delaware Valley, the Susquehannock of southeastern Pennsylvania, and the Haudenosaunee of upstate New York.

A lack of modern archaeological excavations hampers a more detailed understanding of the Late Woodland period in the Hudson Valley, while sparse information on prehistoric chronology and the initial contact period limit the interpretation of available information. Future research may show how the archaeology of the Late Woodland period in the Hudson Valley can aid understanding of cultural diversity in comparison to other Algonquian populations of the upper Delaware Valley or Iroquoian cultures of upstate New York.

Contact Period (AD 1500–1650). During the late prehistoric and Contact periods, tribal clusters of Iroquoian-speaking peoples were distributed throughout New York State and lower Ontario, Canada. Comprising several thousand people in at least one, and usually several, villages in proximity to one another, each tribal cluster was separated from the others by extensive and widespread hunting and fishing areas (Trigger 1978:344; Engelbrecht 2003). Further, Algonquian-speaking peoples were located along both sides of what is now the Hudson River, extending westward into the Highlands of New York and New Jersey and eastward into New England (Goddard 1978). Native American groups in eastern New York were profoundly affected by the introduction of the fur trade, long before the arrival of a permanent European- American population in the area. This period dates the beginning of the end of traditional Native American cultural patterns due to ever-increasing political, military, religious and economic interactions with Europeans.

The period conventionally begins in 1524 when Giovanni da Verrazano, a Florentine mariner in the service of the King Francis I of France, sailed up the eastern seaboard of North America and met groups of Native Americans at several locations, including North Carolina, New York Bay, and Narragansett Bay. He account describing the lower portion of the Hudson River valley as a “river of steep hills” is the earliest reference to the region (Rieth et al. 1995). However, there is some evidence that Basque, Portuguese, and Breton fishermen were traveling to the region and making sporadic contacts with Native groups somewhat earlier (Hoffman 1961; Brasser 1978a; Trigger 1978). This period dates the beginning of the end of traditional Native American cultural patterns as a result of ever-increasing political, military, religious, and economic interactions with Europeans.

Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the increasingly regular encounters between Europeans and Native Americans incubated a pandemic of European diseases among unprepared Native populations, which decimated many Native groups. The presence of typhus, smallpox, measles, and others ravaged Native communities. “According to a 1640 statement by Hudson River Indians, their numbers had decreased by disease to less than one-tenth of the original population since the arrival of the Dutch” (Brasser 1978a:83).

In addition to the tensions and population loss introduced through simple contact with Europeans, trade has been recognized as having a major impact upon traditional aboriginal cultural patterns. The most immediate changes were due to the introduction of a superior material culture. Once the fur trade was established, assuring a stable supply of these goods, Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-11 Boundless Energy the manufacture of Native goods rapidly declined until they were entirely replaced by European manufactured implements. Finally, changes occurred in sociopolitical relationships after 1640 as the fur trade intensified and the supply of furs declined. The most important of these changes was the formation of confederations such as the Haudenosaunee or Five Nations Confederacy of New York State, the Neutral Confederacy and the Huron Confederacy.

An important catalyst for these sociopolitical changes was the European policy of supplying guns and ammunition to Native groups as part of a strategy to enlist the various tribes and confederacies as proxies in the European struggle for control over the continent. The introduction of firearms in some quantity led to a major adjustment in traditional warfare and upset the traditional balance of power in the region. That the Haudenosaunee of central and eastern New York State were the first to exploit this upset in the balance of power, and eventually proved to be victorious, is thought to be the result of their geographical location (Trigger 1976). Unlike their major competitors, the Haudenosaunee were surrounded on all sides by sedentary agricultural groups and, therefore, had no direct access to the fur resources of the interior of the continent. The Huron Confederacy geographically straddled the major transportation networks and was able to exploit their hunter-gatherer neighbors' need for agricultural commodities by trading corn and other products for furs, thereby securing the advantage of access to the vast supplies of the interior. The “Iroquois wars” of the mid- seventeenth century were aimed at eliminating the Huron and other agricultural groups as middlemen to obtain direct access to fur supplies (Trigger 1976; White 1971; Hunt 1940). By the mid-seventeenth century, the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy of New York emerged as a politically, militarily, and economically united league with sole access to both the land and resources surrounding the lower Great Lakes and the Mohawk River.

2.1.2 Historic Summary. Despite the explorations of the lower Hudson River by Verrazano, and possibly Esteban Gómez (or Estêvão Gomes, Portuguese captain who sailed for Spain ca. 1525), the historic period in New York State generally begins in AD 1609, with the first significant European record of exploration and settlement of the region by the French in the St. Lawrence Valley and the Dutch in the Hudson Valley. While exploring the streams and rivers of the St. Lawrence drainage, Samuel de Champlain and a small party ventured inland until they reached what is now Lake Champlain. They encamped on the western shore where the French would much later establish Fort Saint-Frédéric (called Crown Point by the British), and where he would forever engender the enmity of the Haudenosaunee by engaging them in bloody skirmish. Also in 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the river that Dutch cartographers labeled “Noort-Rivier” (i.e., North, later Hudson, River), reaching as far north as what is now the City of Albany. Near the site of present-day Castleton (south of Albany), Mohicans living in a village along the river provided food and entertainment to Hudson and his crew (Brasser 1978a:79-82, 1978b:200-203; Ellis et al. 1967:18-25; Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv).

Dutch ships arrived soon after to trade with the Native groups they encountered, while the French remained preoccupied with their territories in what is now Canada. Ca. 1614, two employees of the Dutch Van Tweenhuysen Company—Captain Hendrick Christiaensz and Jaques Eelckens (sometimes Jacob Eelkens)—negotiated a treaty with the local Mohican and Mohawk that allowed for the establishment of a short-lived trading post (called Fort Nassau). This post was erected on Castle Island south of present-day City of Albany. A confluence of difficulties, including squabbles between the Dutch traders and their Native American customers, conflicts between the Mohawk and the Mohican, and seasonal flooding of the fort, forced the abandonment of this post prior to 1618. In 1621, the Staten Generaal of the United Provinces organized the West India Company and granted the company a monopoly to trade Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-12 Boundless Energy along the shores of the Americas for a period of 24 years (Brasser 1978a:79-82, 1978b:200- 203; Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv; Jacobs 2009:19-31; Dunn 1994:13-30).

Beginning with the establishment of the West India Company and during the next forty years, the Hudson River valley gradually became incorporated as part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. At its height New Netherland comprised sparsely settled clusters scattered along the North River, extending from present-day Albany, New York, and its satellite at Schenectady, in the north to what-is-now Delaware in the south, and encompassed parts of what are now the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Connecticut, and Delaware. The Dutch prosecuted the prized pelt trade from their base in New Netherland, competing with the English in the Connecticut River valley and the Swedes in the Delaware River valley. While the Dutch claimed both regions, only the Delaware valley would actively feel their influence (Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv; Kim 1978:3-5; Shorto 2004).

Amsterdam merchants recognized the potential value of the Hudson Valley for the trade in furs, and established a fortified trading post on the west bank of the Hudson River at what would become the City of Albany in 1624. This location, called Fort Orange, would become the first permanent European settlement along the Hudson River (Ellis et al. 1967:18-25; Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv; Burke 1991:3-18; Kim 1978:3-5).

At the time of the Dutch arrival at beginning of the seventeenth century, Algonquian-speaking Mohican hunting territory spanned both sides of the Hudson River, with Iroquoian-speaking Mohawk occupying lands well to the west and north (Dunn 1994:45-62). As the seventeenth century progressed, the Hudson roughly divided the territories utilized by the two nations, although the Mohican still hunted areas on the west side of the river. Mohican villages were situated near the rich alluvial flats and islands along the east banks of the Hudson (such as Papscanee Island south of Albany), while Mohawk castles laid some 30 miles west near the Schoharie Creek. The Albany-Rensselaer area was Mohican territory during the early Dutch period. However, after 1620, the Mohawk, protective of their position as suppliers of pelts to the traders at Fort Orange, expanded the range of their trading efforts into the traditional areas of other Native groups. The relationship between the Mohawk and the Mohican, as a result, became increasingly hostile during the seventeenth century (Dunn 1991; Brasser 1978b:198, 202-203; Fenton and Tooker 1978:466-469). While Dutch traders attempted to peacefully patronize both Native groups, tensions between the two escalated into bloodshed as the Mohawk attempted to prohibit Mohican access to both their traditional hunting grounds on the west side of the river and Dutch trade goods at Fort Orange. From about 1624 to 1630, the Mohican became embroiled in a losing war against the Mohawk over the beaver trade, resulting in Mohawk dominance of the territory around Fort Orange. The Mohawk became de facto middlemen between Dutch merchants at Fort Orange and other Native American groups (Dunn 1994:13-30; Fenton and Tooker 1978:466-469; Burke 1991:3-4; Trigger 1978:348-355; Gehring and Starna 1988:xix).

At the time of Hudson’s voyage, the Hudson-Leeds area was utilized by Algonquian-speaking Mohican or Mohican-related Catskill Indians, although the Esopus, related or allied with the Algonquian Delaware, are also referred to as living in the vicinity of Catskill Creek (Brasser 1978a:198; Goddard 1978:213-214). During the early Dutch period, Native Americans lived on the plain near the confluence of Catskill and Kaaterskill creeks, and cultivated maize and tobacco on the plains. Moreover, they maintained their “wigwams” on high ground above to Catskill and a burial area on the high ground overlooking the north bank of the creek (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:89).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-13 Boundless Energy In the area around what is now the City of Kingston, Dutch traders interacted with Native Americans related to or allied with the Algonquian Delaware, which included the Esopus, who occupied the west bank of the Hudson River between the Catskills Mountains and the Highlands near West Point, and the Wappinger, who occupied the east bank. The middle and lower Hudson areas were occupied by Munsee-speaking groups (related to Algonquian), such as the Wappinger (the Dutchess-Putnam area), and the Kichtawink (northern Westchester), although the internal politics and external boundaries of these groups are uncertain (aboriginal groups in the mid-Hudson are discussed generally as “Delaware Indians”). Although the Mohawk were dominant force at Fort Orange, the Mohican remained in authority in the Hudson Highlands. By 1675, the Mohican were the leaders of a confederacy of Highlands Indians which included the Wappinger, the Housatonic (western Massachusetts area) and the the Wyachtonok (western Connecticut) (Brasser 1978b:198, 202-204; Goddard 1978:213-214; Burke 1991:3-4; Trigger 1978:348-355; Gehring and Starna 1988:xix).

The fur trade not only motivated Dutch interactions with these groups, but also influenced the eventual attempts at colonization. Land grants in the Hudson River valley began in 1629 when the Staten Generaal encouraged settlement in New Netherland by offering large grants of land with feudal privileges and the title of Patroon to any person who established a settlement of more than fifty families on any of the lands in the colony. This led to the creation of large patroonships on both sides of the Hudson River; the most successful of which was Rensselaerswijck in the area around Fort Orange and Beverwijck (present-day Albany; which was laid out by the company in 1652). An Amsterdam diamond merchant and one of the directors of the West India Company, Kiliaen van Rensselaer purchased in 1630 an extensive tract covering the west side of the Hudson surrounding Fort Orange extending from approximately Cohoes Falls near the Mohawk-Hudson confluence south to below the present- day Normanskill. Small areas on the east side of the Hudson were included in his tract. This parcel was later expanded in the 1680s after the English takeover of New Netherland to encompass approximately 850,000 acres on both sides of the river (i.e., the Manor of Rensselearwyck) (Kim 1978:4-8; Ellis et al. 1967:18-25, 74-76; Burke 1991:3-4; Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv; Dunn 1994:13-14, 1991).

As expected, settlement of the Hudson Valley occurred first along the river and adjacent lowlands since the mountainous interior was considered impenetrable wilderness until after the Revolutionary War. While the manor comprised lands on both sides of the Hudson, settlement clustered along the flat alluvial lands along both banks of that river, especially near Fort Orange and Beverwijck. By the early 1650s the population of Beverwijck had increased to 230 people with 18 farms under cultivation (Burke 1991:18-19). As early as 1643, the Patroon and Adrian Van der Donck, a governmental official in Beverwijck, both wanted to establish a settlement near the confluence of Catskill Creek and the Hudson River, but neither did. Three years later Cornelius Antonissen Van Slyck acquired a grant for lands along the Catskill, but never claimed it. In 1649, Brandt Van Slechtenhorst purchased a large tract in this area from the Indians, but since his purchase had been obtained without the permission of the West India Company, Pieter Stuyvesant, the Direct General of New Netherland, had him arrested and voided the purchase by 1652. Farmers who had previously leased lands from Van Slechtenhorst were allowed to remain without feudal burdens (Vedder 1927:52; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:90).

As population slowly increased throughout New Netherland, settlements were established in the mid-Hudson Valley (notably Wiltwijck and Nieuw Dorp, present-day Kingston and Hurley), in what would become northern New Jersey, and on western Long Island (Burke 1991:18; Blumin 1976:2). Although the Dutch ostensibly controlled the area along both banks of the river, they continued to have difficulties with the local Native American groups with whom they traded. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-14 Boundless Energy These difficulties were exacerbated by the increasing number of Europeans and slaves entering New Netherland. These settlers were encouraged by Dutch officials to establish farming communities within the colony. Not unexpectedly, violence erupted between the Native Americans and the Dutch in the 1640s and 1660s over conflicting land issues. In 1643, Algonquian Delaware living either on or near what is now Constitution Island (east of West Point) retaliated against abuses inflicted by Dutch traders and farmers as part of what became two years of bitter conflict. As a result of that incident, Constitution Island was referred to as both "Murderer's Island" and “Martyr’s Island” (Headley 1908:263).

Farmers from Rensselaerwijck established bouweries (farmsteads) in the Esopus Creek valley beginning in 1652. This community was called Esopus and did not possess a true village. Later, when tensions arose between the Dutch and the Esopus Indians, Director General Pieter Stuyvesant order the erection of fortifications along the river in 1658. The area of fortifications (the present-day Rondout area) was called Rondhuit (Dutch for standing timbers); the village that developed around the stockade was called Wiltwijck (Dutch for wild place; the present-day City of Kingston). Several years later overcrowding at Wiltwijck led to the founding of Nieuw Dorp (Dutch for “new village”) near what is now the Village of Hurley. In 1663 the Esopus destroyed the newly established farming community at Nieuw Dorp and burned houses at Wiltwijck, killing at least 18 people and taking at least nine prisoners. While Dutch proprietorship of New Netherland ended when the English peacefully seized control of the colony in 1664, land-use and settlement patterns established in the region by the Dutch remained largely the same (Blumin 1976:2; Brasser 1978b:204; Goddard 1978:220-222; Kim 1978:4-8; Greene 1931:I:92: Gehring and Starna 1988:xiii-xxiv; Burke 1991:349, 66-67).

Despite increasing competition with the local Indians over land and resources, Dirck Teunisse Van Vechten acquired a tract of land near the confluence of Catskill and Kaaterskill creeks in 1681 and received a formal patent for the area in 1686. Van Vechten operated a sawmill and a flour mill on the Vosenkill, as well as purveyed molasses, rum and lumber. The gristmill was in operation until at least 1741. His farm produced maize, tobacco, wheat, flax, and wool. A wharf had been erected near the confluence by 1715 (Vedder 1927:43, 52-53, 1922:41-42; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:90-91). Samuel Van Vechten, heir of Dirck Teunisse Van Vechten, erected a dam across the Catskill in 1715, and operated grist and saw mills as well as a general store. Teunis Van Vechten, nephew of Samuel, built new grist and sawmills as well as a new mill-dam in 1770 at a cost of £1,000 (Vedder 1922:46).

English takeover of New Netherland—renamed New York, for James, Duke of York and Albany (later, king)—did nothing to reduce the importance of the fur trade, which remained an essential imperial concern. Subsequent competition between the English and the French in New France (Canada) resulted in the erection of fortified trading posts within the frontier. Moreover, the economic rivalry between England and France over the fur trade affected their Native American clients, who continued to be drawn into the episodic conflicts that marked the European struggle for empire. With the Dutch excluded from New World influence, the strategic importance of New York as a nexus of trade and commerce increased as the area became enmeshed in the power struggle between the two European kingdoms for control over North America during the eighteenth century. As the limits of settlement extended westward with the construction of Fort Oswego (1727) and Fort Stanwix (1755), the established areas in the east along the Hudson River, developed into staging areas for the military or semi-industrial and agricultural areas producing matériel for the incessant conflicts generally fought on the frontier (Abler and Tooker 1978:506-507; Burke 1991:95-110; Ellis et al. 1967:52-59).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-15 Boundless Energy In 1683, the province of New York was divided into ten counties—Albany, Dutchess, Kings, New York, Orange, Queens, Richmond, Suffolk, Ulster and West Chester. Albany included all of the northern part of the state including present-day Vermont. By the beginning of the eighteenth century territory on the east side of the Hudson River from Albany to New York City had been patented to rich, politically-connected entrepreneurs and divided into large manors or patents. The Van Rensselaers controlled Rensselaerwyck Manor (1685); Francis Rumbout and Gulian Verplanck acquired Rumbout’s Patent (1685); Robert Livingston established Livingston Manor (1686); Stephanus Van Cortlandt established Cortlandt Manor (1697); Adolph Philipse purchased Philipse Highland Patent (1697); Henry Beekman obtained Beekman’s Patent (1697); and nine investors combined to purchase the Great Nine Partners Patent, among others (Kim 1978). The west side of the river, more rugged and less hospitable, was also patented, but in smaller parcels and settled with less initial success.

At the time of their creation in 1683, the dividing line between Albany and Ulster counties stood, at first, at Murderer’s Creek near what is now the Village of Athens (Vedder 1927:4) and then, after 1733, readjusted to present-day Saugerties Creek in the Town of Saugerties (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:30). The Catskill Creek area originally was included within Albany County. On March 24, 1772, Albany County was divided into districts or precincts; the districts pertinent to present-day Greene County were the districts of “Coxsacky” (numerous spellings) and Great Imboght (also numerous spellings). These precincts were transformed into the towns of “Cocksackie” and “Cats-Kill” in Albany County on March 7, 1788. In April 1798 the Town of Catskill was annexed to Ulster County (Vedder 1927:37; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:31, 119).

Ulster County upon its creation included the towns of Kingston, Hurley, Marbletown, New Paltz, and Fox Hall and by 1733 comprised land between Murderers Creek near the Highlands on the south (present-day Orange County) and Saugerties Creek on the north (Brink 1906:227). Ulster County attained its present size in 1809 when sections were removed for the creation of Sullivan County and a piece was added to Orange County. Sections of Ulster County had been removed earlier: taken for the creation of Delaware County in 1797, and for Greene County in 1800.

The Catskill Patent was “the largest and most valuable patent ever granted for lands now entirely within [Greene C]ounty. It embraced five ‘great plains,’ called by the Indians, Wachachkeek, Wichquanachtek, Pachquiack, Assiskowacheek, and Potick, with all the land included in a sweep of four miles from the outer edge of the plains in all directions” (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:25). Containing in excess of 35,000 acres, the patent comprised the flats at what is now Leeds. The land was purchased from the Indians by Silvester Salisbury and Marte Gerritse Van Bergen on July 8, 1678, with the formal patent granted by Provincial Governor Edmund Andros on March 27, 1680. “A confirmatory purchase was made of the Indians by Cornelius Van Dyke and Martin Gerritse June 13th 1684, and a corresponding patent was issued by Gov[ernor Thomas] Dongan April 29th 1688. Several small tracts that fell within its limits were excepted” (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:26, 93-96; see also Vedder 1927:39-40; Gallt 1915:122- 124). Settlement in the Catskill Creek area increased slowly after 1675. Early industry in the area included tanning (using hemlock trees), sawmilling, and creating charcoal pits. Later industry included brick-making, and cement after 1900. The Catskill Cement Company founded in 1899 and produced 1,000 barrels of Portland cement a day by 1909 (Vedder 1927:39-50, 1922:21-22; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:94-97; Gallt 1915:151-152).

Although the first slaves were brought into New Netherland as early as 1626, private ownership was not customary until the 1650s. During the early decades of the colony slaves were owned for the most part by the West India Company. However, in the 1660s, while New Amsterdam Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-16 Boundless Energy remained under Dutch control, at least 400 slaves were landed in New Netherland by the company (Burke 1991:123-125). Prominent Dutch landowners usually owned several slaves, who were passed on to heirs. Under the British during the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century, the incidence of slavery increased in the New York colony in general (Burke 1991:193, 210; Davis 1991:83). For example, Ulster County as a whole had a population of 2,923 (including 566 slaves, 19.4 percent of the population) in 1723. In 1746, the county had 5,265 inhabitants including 1,111 slaves (approximately 21 percent of the population). However, on the eve of the American Revolution (1771), the population of Ulster County had risen to 13,950, which included 1,954 slaves (constituting approximately 14 percent of the population) (Davis 1991:88-89). English and Dutch farmers in the Hudson valley apparently relied heavily on slave labor, although the more steeply slopes areas were likely lightly populated.

Settlement of what is now Ulster County increased in the late seventeenth century after the English takeover of New Netherland. Although settlement focused on the Kingston-Hurley area, pioneers gradually filtered down the Rondout Creek and Wallkill River valleys so that most of the rest of the county was divided among colonial patentees between 1665 and 1715. For example, the New Paltz Patent covered 92,126 acres and was granted by Provincial Governor Edmund Andros to a group of French Huguenots that included Louis du Bois, Christian Deyo (or Doyou), Abraham Hasbrouck, Pierre Doyou, Louis Bevier, Antonie Crespel, Abraham du Bois, Hugo Freer, Isaac du Bois, and Simon Le Fevre (Ruttenber 1907:52; Clearwater 1907:265, 306).

The nearby Hurley Patent (from which much of the present-day Town of Rosendale was formed) was granted to Philip P. Schuyler, Matthew Blanchar (or Blanshan), Cornelius Wynkoop, Anthony Crespel, Roeliff Swartout, Thomas Hall, Heynear Albertse Roore, Louis du Bois, Jan Valckert, Goossen Gerritse, and Jan Thommassen, among orthers (Clearwater 1907:262). Marbletown was granted from Queen Anne in 1703 (Clearwater 1907:275; Sylvester 1880b:66-67). Early villages in what is now Ulster County included the renamed Dutch settlements of Kingston and Hurley as well as Marbletown (1667) and New Paltz (1679) (Ruttenber 1907:49-56).

In addition to Dutch and British settlers, German immigrants from the Palatinate arrived in the mid-Hudson Valley in the early eighteenth century. More than 3,000 German refugees left England for the Province of New York in January 1710 (more than 700 died on the journey over or while in quarantine on Nutten [later Governor’s] Island). They were initially settled in the Hudson Valley to work, serf-like, for the British government in order to “raise hemp for cordage, and to manufacture tar and pitch, so that the government would no longer be obliged to buy these much-needed commodities for ship-building from other countries” (German American Corner 2000; Benton 1999 [1856]). Robert Hunter had devised a scheme to supply necessary products to the British Navy and petitioned the Board of Trade to provide a labor force for his project. As a result, Palatine refugees, who had flocked to London to escape dire economic conditions in their homeland, would be resettled in the colonies to provided labor under Hunter’s "Naval Stores" project, among other locales in the British New World (Witthoff 1999). In 1710, while Hunter was appointed Governor of New York, the Germans were resettled on lands purchased from Robert Livingston of Livingston Manor (in exchange for the contract to provision the immigrants) as well as on tracts on the west shore of the Hudson River, such as West Camp, Kaatsbaan and Saugerties in what is now Ulster County (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:24; Witthoff 1999). For a variety of reasons, the project was a total failure and the Palatines were forced to fend for themselves. Nearing starvation, 50 families relocated to the Schoharie Creek area, with consent of the Indians in October 1712 (Witthoff 1999). Despite the failure of the “Naval Stores” project, the fertility and availability of land near the Wallkill and Rondout Creek Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-17 Boundless Energy beckoned settlers during the eighteenth century as farming was the primary economic activity in the area (Sylvester 1880b:229-231).

What is now Rensselaer County was initially part of van Rensselaer’s Patroonship, the Manor of Rensselaerswyck. Later, this manor was part of a much larger Albany County from 1683, when the ten original counties of the colony of New York were created, until 1791 (Sylvester 1880a:11-12). For the most part, settlement of the lands on the east side of the river commenced in the 1630s by tenants of the Patroon and filtered eastward at a glacially slow pace as the Patroon purchased land from the Mohican. For the longest time settlement hugged the alluvial lands along the shore (Sylvester 1880a:11-12, 398; Dunn 1991:13-14; Figure 2.1). Although areas in the present-day City of Rensselaer had European residents in the 1630s and 1640s, the eastern towns of Sand Lake, Nassau, and Stephentown were not permanently

Figure 2.1. Manor of Rensselaerswyck in 1767. The red square is the approximate location of what is now the City of Albany (Bleeker 1767).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-18 Boundless Energy settled by European-Americans until after the 1750s. As late as 1714, the manor contained a total population of 427, while Albany County had a population of around 1,708 (Kim 1978:235- 236). As early as 1642 ferry service was operated between the east and west side of the river (Sylvester 1880a:333; Anderson 2009 [1897]).

Prior to the Revolutionary War, much of present-day Orange County was parceled out to numerous patentees. During the eighteenth century, Orange County began the process of organizing into precincts and towns. By the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the Precinct of New Cornwall included the present-day towns of Blooming Grove, Cornwall, Highlands, Woodbury, and Monroe, as well as parts of Chester and Hamptonburgh (Eager 1846:29-30, 584). While increasing in Ulster County, the incidence of slavery under the British decreased in Orange County. In 1723, Orange County had a population of 1,244, including 147 slaves (approximately 12 percent of the population). In 1756, the county had 4,886 inhabitants including 430 slaves (approximately 9 percent of the population). On the eve of the American Revolution (1771), the population of Orange County had risen to 10,092, which included 662 slaves (6.6 percent of the population; Davis 1991:90). Vincent Matthews was the earliest settler in the Town of Blooming Grove. He purchased land, part of the Rip Van Dam patent, in 1721, and established a mill there. For a number of years the developing settlement where he lived was known as Matthews Field.

The ancient rivalry between the British and the French intensified during the course of the eighteenth century, reaching a crescendo during the 1750s, when the two kingdoms resumed active warfare (i.e., the French and Indian War). While the British controlled much of the Hudson Valley, the French commanded the Lake George area with Fort Saint-Frédéric at Crown Point and Fort Carillon at Ticonderoga (Starbuck 1999:54-57). A map of the east part of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck prepared by John R. Bleeker in 1767 showed structures or residences in the upper Hudson Valley within what is now Albany and Rensselaer counties (Sylvester 1880a:26- 27; Figure 2.1). In March 1772, what would become Rensselaer County was divided into four districts within Albany County: Rensselaerswyck, Hoosick, Pittstown, and Schaghticoke. These districts, as well as the new Town of Stephentown, were organized as towns within Albany County in March 1788. Rensselaer County was created from Albany County in February 1791 and contained seven towns: the four former districts as well as Troy, Petersburgh, and Stephentown. One act created the Town of Greenbush from the Town of Rensselaerswyck in April 1792 and another act created it in March 1795 (Anderson 2009 [1897]; Sylvester 1880a:12-13, 397).

During the American Revolution, British General John Burgoyne traversed northern New York during his ill-fated plan to divide the rebellious colonies. Part of this campaign, the Battle of Bennington was fought in what is now Walloomsac in the Town of Hoosick in the eastern part of Rensselaer County, less than ten miles northwest of Bennington, Vermont. The battle was fought prior to the decisive Battle of Saratoga in late summer 1777 and resulted in the death or capture of a significant portion of Burgoyne’s Hessians, undermining the strength of his offensive firepower. Without the Patriot victory at Bennington, the outcome of Saratoga may have been different.

During the war, both sides of the Hudson River became the focus of Patriot defenses. The strategic importance of the river was immediately recognized by both American and British strategists (Diamant 1994:2-5; Muller et al. 1988:6-9). By controlling the river and Lake Champlain the British could sever the physical link between the New England colonies and the “bread- basket” colonies of the Middle Atlantic. Defending the river thus was essential for Patriot military planners. During this time, the advent and development of American defenses resulted in the Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-19 Boundless Energy establishment of military posts. In Orange County, these military posts would eventually become the U.S. Military Academy in 1802. The fortification system was designed to prevent the British from sailing up the Hudson River (Diamant 1994:85-132; Muller et al. 1988:20-22, 50-52).

Relative peace of the Hudson Valley ended in October 1777, when British Major General Sir Henry Clinton successfully dispersed the American defenses at Fort Montgomery, resulting in the evacuation of American forces from the Hudson Highlands. The British overran West Point and burned the fortifications on Constitution Island. British forces continued to burn and pillage the larger farms and river towns as they moved northward up the Hudson. Upon reaching Kingston, Clinton's forces received news of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga and, after torching the village, quickly returned to New York City, leaving the mid-Hudson Valley to the colonials. With the return of the Orange County Highlands to American control by early November 1777, American military planners devised a stronger system of defense for the region (Diamant 1994:115-120, 131-132; Muller et al. 1988:50-52). After the American victory at the Battle of Stony Point in July 1779, the Highlands fortifications went militarily unchallenged by the British for the rest of the war; although the desire to capture West Point played a significant role in the treachery of Benedict Arnold during his command of the facility. The inhospitable mountains surrounding West Point were abandoned by the Army at the war’s conclusion, and the outlying fortifications were dismantled and sold or fell into ruin (Muller et al. 1988:201-202, 205).

During the Revolution, local residents were terrorized and subjected to attacks and thefts by Tory supporters. Claudius Smith, known as the “Cowboy of the Ramapose [sic],” and his sons were outlaws who stole horses and cattle, invaded and robbed homes, and even murdered some of the residents. Smith killed Major Nathaniel Strong in his home, which resulted in the Governor of New York posting a reward of $1,200 for his capture. Smith fled to Long Island and supposed British safety, but was caught and taken to Goshen where he was hanged on January 22, 1779. During the Smith gang’s tenure they hid in several caves and rockshelters. One of their main hideouts was a rockshelter located southwest of Oxford, about one mile from the project area (Eager 1846). Smith’s Clove is named for him.

Antislavery sentiments in the northern colonies emerged during the American Revolution. Despite these sentiments, between 1786 and 1790, the number of slaves increased from 18,998 to 21,329. Emancipation acts in the New York legislature were established in 1799 and 1817 (Davis 1991:80-83). In 1803, blacks in New York City rioted, burning parts of the city and destroying homes. Finally, in 1827, slavery was abolished in the state (Harper 2003; Becker 1999).

Rensselaer County. For the most part, settlement of the lands on the east side of the Hudson River commenced in the early 1630s by tenants of the Patroon and filtered eastward at a glacially slow pace. For the longest time settlement hugged the alluvial lands along the shore. As late as 1714, the eighty-year-old manor contained a total population of 427, while Albany County had a population around 1,708 (Kim 1978:235-236). After the Revolutionary War, New Englanders began migrating into and through Rensselaer County, resulting in conflict between the Massachusetts and New York over the area’s boundary (Kim 1978).

In March 1772, what would become Rensselaer County was divided into four districts: Rensselaerwyck, Hoosick, Pittstown, and Schaghticoke (at that time they were still part of Albany County). These districts, as well as the new Town of Stephentown (which had been removed from the eastern part of Rensselaerwyck), were organized as towns within Albany County in March 1788. Rensselaer County was created from Albany County in February 1791

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-20 Boundless Energy and comprised seven towns: the four former districts as well as the towns of Troy, Petersburgh, and Stephentown (Sylvester 1880a:12).

The earliest public roads in the county date prior to the Revolution and include the “Old Post Road,” that ran along the river and connected Troy to New York City, and paths that approximate the current Routes 9 and 2. The Farmers Turnpike along the river and the Boston- Albany Turnpike were utilized prior to 1800 (Sylvester 1880a:402). Once roads in the area had developed, settlement and growth followed. While the landowners worked the land in preparation to sow their crops or graze their animals, an abundance of wild animals provided options as a source of food. Deer, bear, raccoon, rabbit, partridge and wild turkey populated the area’s forests, as did dangerous competition from wildcats and wolves (Meinig 1966a:165-166).

During the War of 1812, troops were housed at the Greenbush Cantonment, which was approximately two miles southeast of what is now the City of Rensselaer. The cantonment was erected on a 400-acre farm initially leased by Christopher Yates from Stephen Van Rensselaer and later purchased outright by the government. It served as the headquarters for the Northern Division of the U.S. Army. Eight two-story, wood structures with stone foundations were erected to house the 4,000 soldiers stationed at the property, which also included a parade ground (Anderson 2009 [1897]). Declared surplus in May 1819, the complex was purchased in May 1831 by Hawthorne McCulloch. At present one of the Officer’s Barracks remains; the Red Mill School occupies the former parade grounds.

The present-day City of Rensselaer was formed by the merger of three villages—Bath-on-the- Hudson, East Albany, and Greenbush—and a portion of the Town of North Greenbush (Sinclair 1976:40-44). This area was part of the Town of Greenbush when it was created in 1792 (or 1795) from the Town of Rensselaerswyck. At formation, Greenbush included the towns of East Greenbush and North Greenbush as well as a part of the Town of Sand Lake. The Sand Lake portion was removed in June 1812. The area was originally settled by the Dutch by the early 1630s. A ferry connecting the town to Beverwijck (Albany) had been established by 1642 by Hendrick Albertson. Although a grist mill and a sawmill had been erected by 1806, the general lack of water power (i.e., adequate rivers and streams) retarded the town’s growth. The Village of Greenbush was surveyed in 1810 and incorporated in 1815 (Sylvester 1880a:334-339; Anderson 2009 [1897]). The village had a population of 3,303 in 1860. The upper or northern portion of the village where a railroad bridge crosses the Hudson River was referred to as East Albany and supported the depots, machine shops, and freight houses of several railroads (French 1860). Nineteenth-century storeowners included Henry Starks, John Smith, Richard P. Herrick, James Lansing, and Sheppard & Tufts.

The Village of Greenbush was surveyed and incorporated by 1815 (Sylvester 1880a:334-339). Settlement near the Village of Bath emerged around a mineral spring spa during the eighteenth century. The village was also organized ca. 1815. During the nineteenth century, industry began to develop. A tannery was established by Job Gould in 1818 which was operated by J. Royter and sons in the 1880s. This factory was joined by a boot and shoe factory. William Irwin and Company founded a grist mill prior to the Civil War which was later operated by William Magill and Charles C. Ludewick. During the last half of the nineteenth century T. Miles and Company and Warren and Wilber ran steam saw mills in the town. The village was also home to the East Albany Railroad and Machine Shops, which serviced the area’s numerous railroad lines (Sylvester 1880a:341). The Town of Greenbush became conterminous with the Village of Greenbush on February 23, 1855, when the towns of East Greenbush and North Greenbush were created. In 1875 the town/village had a population of 7,066 (Sylvester 1880a:12-13, 333). The present-day City of Rensselaer was formed in 1897 (Sinclair 1976:40-44). Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-21 Boundless Energy

East Greenbush was originally called the Town of Clinton, but adopted its present name in April 1858 (Sylvester 1880a:12-13, 344). Henry Frazee and Henry Kinney ran taverns in the village of Wynantskill in the early 1800s. Jonas Smith, Martinus Lansing, John Mason, and Cornelius Witbeck were early storekeepers in Blooming Grove. Since the Patroon’s time, a ferry had operated at various intervals between Albany and the Village of Bath. Population of the town in 1875 was 3,936 (Sylvester 1880a:344-347). Agriculture, sawmilling, and potash manufacture were the town’s primary economic activities (Sylvester 1880a:346).

In 1868, Albany Aniline and Chemical Company erected a factory to make fuchsia and aniline blue dyes in the southern part of the town, near the port. By the turn of the nineteenth century, this company was part of the Hudson River Aniline & Color Works, which subcontracted with the Friedrich Bayer Company and was later purchased by it. In 1905, Bayer erected facilities at the site for making aspirin, phenacetin, and other pharmaceuticals. The first commercial manufacture of Bayer aspirin in the United States was made at this Rensselaer site (Ricard 1994:25). The American government seized the Rensselaer plant during World War I (Bayer, as a German entity, was seen as a supporting the German government) and sold it at auction in 1918. Sterling Products, a maker of patent medicines, was the highest bidder and was awarded the plant and the American rights to the Bayer name and trademark. More interested in the pharmaceutical aspects of the company, Sterling Products sold the dye portion of the business to Grasselli Chemical Company (ca. 1919). The chemical plant passed through several owners during the twentieth century: American I.G. Chemical Corp. (1929), General Aniline & Film (GAF) Corp (1939), GAF Corp (1964), and BASF (1978). BASF (Badische Anilin und Soda- Fabrik Aktiengeschellschaft [AG]), which can trace its beginnings to 1865, shut down the plant at the end of December 2000 (Ricard 1994:25-27, 2001:17; Sinclair 1976:33).

By the 1870s, two railroad lines traversed the western portion of the county. The Boston-Albany Railroad and the New York Central-Hudson River railroad ran in a southerly direction through the then-Town/Village of Greenbush and the towns of East Greenbush and Schodack, with the Hudson River line hugging the riverbank (Beers 1876; Sylvester 1880a).

By the turn of the nineteenth century, the cities of Albany, Troy, and to a lesser extent Rensselaer had become industrial centers linked to the nation by a ribbon of rails. New industries, powered by steam and coal, propelled the region into the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. The variety of goods produced in these factories included textiles, stoves, bells, furniture, iron products, weapons, crockery, beer and tin products. The variety and availability of work attracted immigrant laborers to the region, especially Irish, German, British and French- Canadians (Walkowitz 1981:3-12). The western portion of the project area nearest the Hudson river was part of this industrialized area, although areas of agriculture were also present. The areas further east were either part of a generalized rural village/farming community or were utilized for stock-raising and lumbering-related industries during the nineteenth century as properties along the project area were parceled out to individual landowners. Agricultural activities continued to focus on dairying, cheese-making, poultrying, and potato cultivation with little market gardening. A few farms utilized fruit crops such as apples, cranberries, and cherries to supplement their incomes. Most of the industries in the towns were situated along the Hudson or along streams and rivers (Meinig 1966b:177-178; Sylvester 1880a).

The twentieth century brought the area infrastructure improvements, including the widening and paving of streets and roadways, and the erection of bridges. Other public services began to improve living conditions at the turn of the century: gas lines and water mains were laid starting in the 1890s and electricity was made available ca. 1900 (Meinig 1966b). These improvements Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-22 Boundless Energy were usually initiated along the more industrialized and populated area along the Hudson River. Gradually, these changes filtered into the eastern hills and valleys. With improved transportation, the rural parts of the county became increasingly attractive to people seeking more bucolic lifestyles. As the cities of Troy and Albany, and areas along the waterfront, attracted business and industry, nearby towns experienced growth as developments in transportation (e.g., the automobile, paved roads, bridges over the Hudson) improved access to jobs and resources for people who chose to live in less urban settings. The project area remained largely undeveloped although residential and commercial establishments have developed since World War II.

Albany County. Albany County was one of the original counties created by the English in the Province of New York in 1683; it attained its present geographic extent in 1809. Originally subsumed in the seventeenth-century Manor of Rensselaerswyck, the Town of Bethlehem in Albany County was established on March 12, 1793 from the Town of Watervliet. The Town of New Scotland was created from the Town of Bethlehem in April 1832. The Dutch were the initial European settlers of the town, establishing a short-lived trading post—Fort Nassau—on Westerlo (or Castle) Island at the mouth of the Normanskill in 1614. Mohicans may have farmed the Castle Island prior to the arrival of the Dutch, as they did Papscanee Island to the east. Located on the Hudson River flood plain, the fort was abandoned ca. 1617. Permanent settlement began by tenants of the Patroon in the 1630s along the area’s creeks and streams, as well as the flood plain. Growth of the future town was slow until after the American Revolution (French 1860).

During the nineteenth century, what is now Glenmont emerged at the present intersection of Glenmont Road and Route 144, which was identified as Frazertown in the 1850s. The Abbey Hotel was a local landmark constructed ca. 1710. It was razed in 1961. In 1897, Glenmont consisted of a West Shore Railroad station and post office. No other stores or businesses were located in the hamlet, which served as a site for shipping molding sand (Schreyer and Curtin 2002:7). A variety of mills and factories were established along the town’s streams in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, the area is largely a bedroom community for workers in the cities of Albany and Troy and other suburban business parks (New York State Museum 2001, 2002).

Areas along the Hudson comprise islands—Beacon, Cabbage, Castle Islands—which were more likely sand or gravel bars rather than true islands. Areas near the junction of Normanskill Creek and the Hudson once served as a coal ash dumping ground of Niagara Mohawk’s former Albany steam generating station south of the junction (Curtin 2003:2). When the creek was re- routed to the north, a ditch and an island between the ditch and the old shoreline were left behind. Niagara Mohawk then filled in this valley with ash, eliminating the island. Coal fragments can be found throughout much of the site (Ecology and Environment 2003).

Columbia County. Columbia County was settled from Albany through tenants of the great landowners (Van Rensselaer and Livingston), Palatinate Germans, and New Englanders beginning in the late seventeenth century. In 1685, the Patroonship of Van Rensselaer (1630) was confirmed as Manor of Rensselaerwyck, and contained 170,000 acres in the future Columbia County (The Hudson Gazette 1900:14-15). With a foothold along the river, settlement was established on these Columbia County acres in what is now Claverack, which served as the seat of the Lower Manor of Johannes Van Rensselaer and comprised approximately 170,000 acres. Further south, Livingston Manor contained 160,240 acres around the Roeliff- Jansen Kill and covered a large portion of the present towns of Livingston, Clermont, Copake, Ancram, Gallatin, Germantown, and Taghkanic. This manor was granted to Robert Livingston, Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-23 Boundless Energy an ally of the Van Rensselaers, by Governor Dongan in 1686 (and confirmed by royal charter in 1715) (Kim 1978:37, 284; Hughes 1887:iv-vi; The Hudson Gazette 1900:15-17, 24).

In 1710, New York Governor Robert Hunter purchased 6,000 acres of Livingston Manor for settlement by Palatinate Germans who had served in the British Army. Later called Germantown, this area contained 1,178 inhabitants engaged in tar-making and preparing “naval stores” in 1711. By the middle of the eighteenth century New Englanders began to filter into the eastern mountains of the future Columbia County, squatting in what are now the towns of Canaan, New Lebanon, Chatham, and Austerlitz (Hughes 1887:iv-vi; The Hudson Gazette 1900:15-17, 24).

From 1683 to 1717, the Roeliff-Jansen Kill served as the boundary between Albany and Dutchess counties. As a result, all of Livingston Manor north of the Roeliff-Jansen Kill was part of Albany County and all of the manor south of the creek was part of Dutchess County. From 1717 to 1772, all of Livingston Manor was included within Albany County. In 1772 the area that would become Columbia County was divided into four districts: the District of the Manor of Livingston; the District of Claverack; the District of Kinderhook; and the King’s District. Between 1772 and 1786 (when Columbia County was created), two additional districts were formed— Germantown (from Livingston Manor), and Hillsdale (from Claverack) (The Hudson Gazette 1900:34-35).

Columbia County was formed from Albany County in April 1786. Agriculturally-oriented, the county’s farmers produced rye, oats, corn, potatoes, buckwheat, and some wheat and hay. The eastern portion of the county specialized in stockraising and dairying (The Hudson Gazette 1900:1, 3). The seven towns erected at Columbia County creation were Canaan, Claverack, Clermont, Germantown, Hillsdale, Kinderhook, and Livingston. Town division and creation continued gradually between 1786 and 1837. For example, in the 1820s the Town of Stuyvesant was created from the Town of Kinderhook (April 1823), and in the 1830s, the Town of Stockport was created from the towns of Hudson (incorporated in 1785), Ghent, and Stuyvesant (April 1833), and the Town of Greenport from the Town of Hudson (March 1837) (The Hudson Gazette 1900:35-36).

Within the county, the initial roads included the Albany-Boston Stage Road in northern part of county (approximately Route 20) which followed the course of Wyomanock Creek in New Lebanon; the Stockbridge-Albany Turnpike through Canaan (approximately path of Route 90); the Hudson to Massachusetts Line Turnpike (1799-1800) through Taghkanic, Copake, and Hillsdale (approximate path of Route 23); and the Rensselaer-Columbia Turnpike (1799). More than six other routes were chartered before 1813 (The Hudson Gazette 1900:48). The earliest railroad in the county was the Boston & Albany Road, which connected Kinderhook, Chatham, and Canaan, (between 1838 and 1841). In 1852, the New York & Harlem Line (running northerly through Ancram, Copake, Claverack, and Ghent) intersected the Boston & Albany Road at Chatham. The so-called Harlem Extension (through New Lebanon into Rensselaer County) was known at one time as the Lebanon Springs Road was completed through the area to Vermont in 1869. The Poughkeepsie, Hartford & Boston line passed through Ancram by 1872, and the Rhinebeck to Connecticut Railroad (part of Philadelphia, Reading & New England system in 1900) reached Ancram by 1874 and complete in 1875 (The Hudson Gazette 1900:3, 76-80).

In the twentieth century, eastern areas of the county in the Harlem Valley comprised parts of generalized rural village/farming communities. Agricultural activities continued to focus on dairying, cheese-making, poultrying, and potato cultivation with little market gardening. A few Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-24 Boundless Energy farms utilized fruit crops such as apples, cranberries, and cherries to supplement their incomes. Most of the industries in the county were situated along the Hudson or along streams and rivers (Meinig 1966b:177-178; Sylvester 1880a). As expected, the twentieth century brought the area infrastructure improvements, including the paving of streets and roadways, and other public services, such as gas lines, water mains and electricity (Meinig 1966b). Gradually, with improved transportation, the rural parts of the county became increasingly attractive to people seeking more bucolic lifestyles and nearby towns experienced growth as developments in transportation (e.g., the automobile, paved roads, bridges over the Hudson) improved access to jobs and resources for people who chose to live in less urban settings. Areas along the Hudson River attracted residential developments and commercial establishments since before World War II.

Founded by businessmen, whalers, and merchants from Rhode Island and Massachusetts, the City of Hudson development as an important economic center in the area and was one of the busiest ports on the Hudson River. What is now the City of Hudson was formed from the Town of Claverack and was part of the land grant purchased from the Indians in 1662 by Jan Frans Van Hoesen. This purchase was confirmed by Governor Richard Nicoll in May 1667. Emerging as a local shipping center for area farmers during the eighteenth century, the developing settlement and harbor were called Claverack Landing. New Englanders arrived after the Revolution in 1783, and by April 1785 the settlement was incorporated as the City of Hudson, and became the home port of 25 whaling ships. It attained its present size in 1837 (The Hudson Gazette 1900).

However, international difficulties at the beginning of the nineteenth century followed by the War of 1812 decimated Hudson’s whaling economy, from which it would not recover until the 1830s. By the time the Hudson River whaling industry recovered, the City of Hudson was no longer the lone whaling port in the Hudson River valley. In 1832, Matthew Vasser, Paraclete Potter, and Alexander J. Coffin organized the Poughkeepsie Whaling Company, which operated between 1832 and 1837. A contemporary, the Dutchess Whaling Company operated between 1833 and 1844. In all, four Hudson River whaling companies operated at least 30 vessels, and the area prospered with the flow of sperm whale oil. However, economic dislocations associated with the Panic of 1837 undermined the whaling industry. Further, other options for artificial light were developed during this period, and whaling died out in the Hudson valley by ca. 1845 (Levine 2012; Attafuah-Wadee 2013).

During the nineteenth century general economic activities in the Taconic Hills continued to focus on hunting, trapping, lumbering, and limited agricultural production, as the rocky outcrops and steep slopes surrounding the project areas generally precluded commercial agriculture. Despite these obstacles, a few farmers devoted some of their activities to grazing livestock, including sheep, poultry, and pigs, and to fruit crops (Meinig 1966a:165-166). The area remained part of a generalized rural farming community during the nineteenth century as properties within the project area were parceled out to individual landowners who established farmsteads or other agricultural enterprises or left the land vacant. Agricultural activities continued to focus on dairying, cheese-making, poultrying, and potato cultivation with little market gardening. A few farms utilized fruit crops such as apples, cranberries, grapes and cherries to supplement their incomes (Meinig 1966b:177-178). During the late nineteenth century, numerous and varied small manufacturing plants flourished throughout the countryside in villages and small cities.

[D]escriptions in the 1870's [sic] of Columbia County reported more than sixty factories, mostly in country villages, and it may be taken as fairly typical of the counties along the main Hudson-Mohawk axis. Products were principally cotton goods, paper (much of it

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-25 Boundless Energy from raw straw), and agricultural equipment. ... This scale and variety of factories was partly a carry-over from an earlier era characterized by many small water-powered mills and partly of the newer era of larger steam-powered mills [Meinig 1966b:179].

Clusters of structures formed small villages in the vicinity of the route and transportation networks allowed the transportation of goods and people to the larger cities and villages along the river.

The twentieth century has seen increasing activity in the vicinity of the project area. A period of infrastructure improvements, including the widening and paving of streets and roadways, and the erection of bridges also occurred. Around the turn of the century, other public services began to improve living conditions in the area: gas lines and water mains were laid starting in the 1890s and electricity had been available since ca. 1900 (Meinig 1966b). As the cities of Hudson and Poughkeepsie and areas along the waterfront attracted tourists and businesses, such as IBM, towns experienced growth as developments in transportation (e.g, the automobile, paved roads, bridges over the Hudson) improved access to jobs and resources for the general population. The project area remained largely rural although residential subdivisions and commercial establishments have developed after World War II.

Greene County. Named for Nathaniel Greene, Major General during Revolutionary War, Greene County was formed in March 1800 from Ulster and Albany counties. Two towns from each county (Catskill and Windham [and a part of Woodstock] from Ulster and Coxsackie and Freehold [later, Durham] from Albany) were included within the new county, although the third ‘e’ was intermittently applied during its first years of existence (Vedder 1927: 4, 5, 11-12, 37; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:30-32, 119; Gallt 1915:57, 369).

Lands within what is now Greene County were subject to numerous colonial patents during both the Dutch and English settlement periods, but few pioneers settlers in this area prior to 1700. Saw and grist mills were operated at what are is now Athens and Leeds during the early eighteenth century. Ira or Stephen Day erected the first flouring mill in the hamlet of Leeds (Vedder 1922:38, 39). The village of Catskill’s shipyards constructed brigs, sloops and schooners for the Hudson River shipping industry and from 1792 to 1801 the number of residences robustly increased from ten to 156 in the village (Vedder 1927:44, 47; J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:138-139). The Village of Athens was a port on the Hudson-Athens ferry route and was a thriving hub for shipbuilding, brick making and ice harvesting during the nineteenth century. Prior to 1815, sloops dominated freighting industry and area leaders included Bogardus & Cook (ca. 1800), the Day family, Donnelly, Cook & Co., F.N. Wilson, and Penfield, Day & Co. With the coming of the steamboats in the early nineteenth century, Athens and Catskill became ports of call with numerous docks and wharves. In 1814 three steamboats regularly traveled past the region from New York. By 1828 steamboats began traveling between Catskill and New York and continued to until at least 1884. The Hudson River Day line was founded in 1855 (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:139; Gallt 1915:75-76, 82).

Improvements in transportation infrastructure during the nineteenth century played an important role in the economic prosperity of the area. Kings Highway, a north-south running road was created along the west bank of the Hudson in 1703. Authorized in 1800 by the State Legislature, the Susquehanna Turnpike (the present-day Mohican Trail [New York State Route 145]) ran through the northern portion of Greene County from the Village of Catskill west to Wattles’ Ferry on the Susquehanna River (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:44; Gallt 1915:370; Vedder 1922:24). The Town of Athens was created in 1830.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-26 Boundless Energy Lumbering was leading industry in the town at first as most settlers in order to grow their crops of corn, tobbaco, wheat or barley had to clear their lots of trees in this once heavily forested area. Once cut and dried, timber, such as elm, beech and maple, was burned and processed by asheries into either a white powder called “pearl ash” or potash, sometimes called “black salts.” The sale of wood ashes was the only cash-producing crop for many early settlers during their first years in New York. By 1796, potash and pearl ash were important commodities—“potash sold for $175 a ton, and to produce a ton, from five to seven hundred bushels of ashes were required. The ashes sold for one shilling a bushel” (Vedder 1927:38). Workers at this time received about $13 a month and were hard to find (Vedder 1927:38). While the pioneers cleared the land, an abundance of wild animals provided options as a source of food. Deer, bear, raccoon, rabbit, partridge and wild turkey populated the area’s forests, as did dangerous competition from wildcats, wolves and bears. Substantial bounties were advertised for killed wolves (Gallt 1915:235; Ellis et al. 1967:78-79).

While the Towns of Athens and Catskill remained agricultural, the arrival of the railroads contributing to the area’s subsequent industrialization, railroads traversed the town in the nineteenth century. “The railroads of 1838 and [18]82 found footing along the banks of the Catskill which has furrowed a channel and washed bare the rocky palisade along its course ...” (Vedder 1922:55). The Catskill & Canajoharie Railroad was constructed to Cooksburgh in 1838, then failed. And the Saratoga & Hudson River Railroad had a station at the Village of Athens, but was abandoned in 1867. The West Shore, the Stony Clove, and the Catskill Mountain railroads all opened in 1882. A new depot for the West Shore line was built in the Village of Catskill in 1912 (Gallt 1915:88, 93). In 1882 the Catskill Mountain Railroad “was built to open up the mountain section and operated to Palenville, Cairo, Leeds, South Cairo, Laurenceville and the Mountain House on Otis Summit, Haines Falls, and Tannersville” (Gallt 1915:93). The Catskill Street railroad (trolley) was built to Leeds in 1892 (Gallt 1915:89).

Aside from shipping and agriculture, manufacturing played an important part in the economic growth of the Town of Catskill in the nineteenth century. A lime factory that began operation in 1833 was still active in 1884. While the Swartout tan-yard, which made harnesses and other leather products went out of business ca. 1880, the Imperial Facing Mill (a foundry) was established in 1880. B. Wiltse & Co. were plowmakers whose operation was founded in 1808 as Dutchers. Other industrial operations included the National Register-listed Hop-o-Nose Knitting Company (1881), the Harris Manufacturing Co. (LTD) (a woolen mill, established in 1864), and the Excelsior Pottery and Drain Tile and Pipe Works (1865) (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:100-101). Improvements in communications occurred with the incorporation of the Catskill, Cairo, & Windham Telegraph Company (1879) and the Catskill Telegraph & Telephone Company (1881) (J.B. Beers and Co. 1884:138).

Prominent businesses in the mid-1920s were Catskill Hardware & Lumber Co., Welsh & Grey Lumber Co., New Era Apple Products Co., Inc. (in Leeds, incorporated 1926), Mayone Brick Co., (1916), Catskill Creamery (1925), Edison Post Apple Products Corp (sweet cider and vinegar 1924), Rip van Winkle Golf and Country Club, Catskill County Club and Jefferson Heights Improvement Co., (Vedder 1927:176). As the century progressed, a trend toward suburbanization affected the area based on its location approximately 30 miles south of the City of Albany and about 30 miles north of the City of Kingston. However, outside the larger villages the majority of the town remained rural. The New York State Thruway was completed east of project area in the 1950s and Route 23 has been during 1970s.

Ulster County. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the most important event in the economic history of the county was the creation of the Delaware & Hudson (D&H) Canal in the Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-27 Boundless Energy 1820s. Incorporated in April 1823, the D&H Canal Company broke ground for its venture in July 1825. The route of the canal nearly bisected Ulster County, connecting the Pennsylvania coalfields around Honesdale to the Hudson River at Rondout, just south of Kingston. In 1826, during the excavation of the canal through what is now the Town of Rosendale, D&H engineers discovered a natural hydraulic cement (Rosendale cement) along Rondout Creek near what was then known as the hamlet of Lawrenceville. As a result, the excavation of the 108-mile, 110-lock D&H led directly to the quarrying, burning and grinding of cement after 1826. John Littlejohn held the first contract to provide cement for the D&H (Clearwater 1907:358; Blumin 1976:51-55). Completed in October 1828, the D&H canal was built to a depth of four feet and was navigable by boats capable of holding 30 tons. The canal was enlarged in 1842 to accommodate boats of 40 tons. The canal carried boats loaded with Pennsylvania coal and Rosendale cement for the New York City market. By 1851 the canal was deepened again, and could accommodate boats capable of carrying 120 tons (Sylvester 1880b:153-155; Blumin 1976:54-56).

After a short-lived decline in the demand for cement with the completion of the D&H, production was revived by Judge Lucas Elmendorf (who was succeeded by Watson E. Lawrence) and Jacob Snyder (Clearwater 1907:357-358). Watson E. Lawrence founded the Lawrenceville Cement Works in 1828. The cement business boomed during the middle decades of the nineteenth century in the entire county. As Rondout Creek valley became flushed with cement money, the village of Rosendale changed from farming community to an industrial town. The village had an important canal that carried the Pennsylvania coal trade to the Hudson River and the burgeoning cement industry to the market of New York City. Economic prosperity brought immigrant laborers as well as social and financial changes and problems. In an effort to contain the cement industry within a single political entity, the Town of Rosendale was created from the towns of Marbletown, New Paltz, and Hurley in April 1844 and covered the majority of the cement deposit (Blumin 1976; Sylvester 1880b:15).

What is now Ulster County was settled initially during the middle of the seventeenth century by the Dutch and concentrated along the creeks, especially along Rondout, Esopus, and Wallkill (Clearwater 1907:268; Sylvester 1880b:125). In addition to Dutch and English settlers and their slaves, German immigrants from the Palatinate arrived in the mid-Hudson valley in the early eighteenth century as part of Governor Hunter’s “Naval Stores” scheme. Beginning in 1710, the Germans were resettled on lands purchased from Robert Livingston of Livingston Manor (in exchange for the contract to provision the immigrants) as well as on tracts on the west shore of the Hudson River, such as West Camp, Kaatsbaan and Saugerties (Witthoft 1999). Ulster County attained its present size in 1809.

Settlement in what would become the Town of Lloyd clustered around the future villages of Highland and Centerville. In these areas were the early entrepreneurial activities included stores and taverns. The first stores were located at what would be known as New Paltz Landing (Sylvester 1880b:126). Mills were also established along the county’s numerous streams, and were the area’s earliest industries. The earliest mills were operated by Solomon Ferris, Silas Saxton (at Centreville), George Pratt, Arthur Doran, and Daniel Ostrom (Sylvester 1880:130). The earliest roads were the post road along the Hudson River, the road to Modena, and the road between New Paltz and the landing at the river. This later road was replaced in importance by the improved New Paltz turnpike in 1832, traversing easier and more direct terrain between New Paltz and the river (Sylvester 1880b:127).

The area was generally farmland during the nineteenth century, although farming would be limited in the more steeply sloped areas. Agricultural activities consisted mainly of grain Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-28 Boundless Energy cultivation, potato-growing, sheep, horse, and cattle-raising and dairying, and general farming. Many farmers cultivated apple and other fruit trees to supplement their income. Ancillary crops included grape-growing and wine-making, honey production, and maple sugar and syrup production (Sylvester 1880b:239; Ruttenber 1907:27).

In the mid-nineteenth century, peat harvesting in the northeastern portion of the Town of Lloyd was practiced by the Hudson River Peat Company of New York. This business had been abandoned by 1880. Over the course of the nineteenth century, various grist and woolen mills were established by Charles White, A. Brinkerhoff, N.D. Elting, and Huram Hasbrouck. Termiening & De Graw had a wagon-felloes and bent-wood factory, as did James Weismiller (Sylvester 1880b:130).

Another industry in the town was the mining of bluestone, used for the bases of bridges, abutments, and arches. The first quarry was owned and operated by Charles Woolley in 1820. Another quarry was owned by J.I. Clearwater, beginning in 1845. This business eventually developed into the Fuller, Clearwater & Co. quarry, opened around 1880. Bluestone from Lloyd has been used for bridges in Poughkeepsie and Albany, the Odd-Fellows’ Hall on Centre Street in New York City, and the Brooklyn Water-Works (Sylvester 1880b:130).

Over the course of the nineteenth century, New Paltz Landing developed as an important river port. The first ferry across the Hudson River to Poughkeepsie was established by Abraham Elting in the eighteenth century, using oars, and then sails. By the late nineteenth century, the ships were powered by steam (Clearwater 1907:269; Sylvester 1880b:130). A trolley road was built along the New Paltz turnpike between New Paltz and Highland Landing in 1897. This was used for heavy freight and passenger traffic, and was the impetus for the development of summer boarding houses in the area at the turn of the twentieth century. It remained in operation until 1926 (Clearwater 1907:271; Greene 1931).

In the 1870s the Wallkill Valley Railroad was sited between the villages of New Paltz and Rosendale in the Town of Rosendale. Connecting with the Erie Railroad at Goshen, the Wallkill Valley line carried commuters, freight, and farm produce until the 1930s. The line eventually went bankrupt in the 1970s and the rails were pulled up in the early 1980s (Sylvester 1880b:154-155; Clearwater 1907:359).

Orange County. Orange County incurred slow population growth during the period between the mid-eighteenth century and the mid-nineteenth century as a result of the ruggedness of the area's topography and the lack of adequate roads (Muller et al. 1988:8). Most population centers were situated along the banks of the Hudson River prior to the American Revolution. Orange County had a population of 44,175 in 1800, and achieved its current boundaries in 1801. At that time, there were ten townships, including the Town of Blooming Grove, which was formed from Cornwall in 1799. The Town of Blooming Grove remained a largely rural township and the Village of Blooming Grove was the largest settlement, including a small number of houses and a church.

The establishment of the Wallkill Valley Railway in 1866 was a most important event for the Town of Montgomery. Connecting with the Erie Railroad at Goshen, the Wallkill Valley line carried commuters, freight, and farm produce until the 1930s. However, manufacturing operations were also notable components of economy during the nineteenth century. The Walden Woolen Factory was founded in 1823 and was a leading business in the village of Walden during the mid-1900s. The New York Knife Company, organized in 1852 at Matteawan in Dutchess County relocated to a former Walden cotton factory in 1856. It manufactured table Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-29 Boundless Energy and pocket cutlery of every kind. Other businesses included the Walden Condensed Milk Company (organized in 1864 and later replaced by the Walden Soap Works); the Walden Brickyard (1868); the Walden Knife Company (1870); the Schrade Cutlery Company (1904); the Rider Ericsson Engine Company; the Wooster Manufacturing Company; and, the William Crabtree & Sons (Headley 1908).

The Town of Blooming Grove was reduced in 1830 with the formation of Hamptonburgh, and again in 1845 with the creation of Chester. Wineries developed in various parts of Orange County during the nineteenth century. At Washingtonville, John Jacques established the Americans Oldest Winery in 1839. Portions of the county expanded during the nineteenth century after the New York, Lake Erie & Western Railway was built in 1850. The principal cities in the county during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were, and are still, Newburgh, Middletown, and Port Jervis. Newburgh became the largest city in the county and was incorporated in 1865. Middletown was incorporated in 1888. Although located on the Wallkill River, the city developed as a railroad hub, first with the Erie Railroad, and then also with the Ontario & Western Railroad. With the railroad came the establishment of factories and settlers. The population of the village was 433 in 1838, and increased to 12,000 in 1888. By 1920, there were 18,420 residents in the city. Port Jervis, located on the Delaware River, became the third largest city on the county. It was incorporated as a city in 1907 (Headley 1908).

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the City of Newburgh was the leading city of Orange County, with a population of nearly 27,000, and was “the largest commercial city on the Hudson between New York and Albany” (Headley 1908). The Newburgh area was patented to John Evans in 1694, but was reconveyed in smaller tracts after 1700. The area was originally settled in 1709 by a group Palatines, although the formal patent was not granted until 1719. After the Revolution, what is now Newburgh became a shipping point of importance as a result of its harbor, and the Village of Newburgh was incorporated in 1800. The lumber business was especially valuable and large quantities of ship timber, planks and staves were sent south to New York City. Shipbuilding was also conducted. During the 1830s, Newburgh's economy thrived as a nexus of river and land trade, as well as supporting its own indigenous industrial base. However, the completion of the Erie Canal, the D&H Canal, and, later, the Erie Railroad diverted much of this trade away from the city (Newburgh was incorporated as a city in 1865) (Headley 1908).

Between 1883 and 1885 John C. Rose acquired 300 acres of land approximately six miles north of Newburgh on the route of the Hudson River & West Shore Railroad in order to open a brick manufacturing establishment. At that time he also bought the Hudson River mansion and estate of Bancroft Davis. Rose razed the mansion for a brickyard. The firm of Rose & Company was incorporated in 1884. His 16 brick machines had a capacity of 24,000 bricks per day each; the firm produced 40 million bricks annually for shipment mostly to New York City. The company town that emerged around the brickyard was Roseton. At its peak, The Rose Brick Company sold 400 million brick a year worldwide, and its bricks were used in the construction of the the Empire State Building and the Waldorf Astoria, among other structures. The company filed for bankruptcy in 1919. The site is now occupied by a terminal of the Hess oil company (Hutton 2003). North of The Rose Brick Company brickyard, the Arrow Brick Company was located on Danskammer Point and produced five million brick annually during the early 1900s.

Dutchess County. When Dutchess County was formed in 1683, it included all of present-day Putnam County and part of what is now Columbia County (south of the Roeliff-Jansen Kill). The present-day towns of Germantown and Clermont (then part of Livingston Manor) were annexed to Albany County on May 27, 1717. Putnam County was created June 12, 1812. The county Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-30 Boundless Energy was divided into 13 large patents owned by absentee landlords who lived in New York City, including Rumbout’s patent (1685); the Pawling patent (1696); Beekman’s patent (1703); the Great Nine Partners patent (1697); the Little Nine Partners patent (1706); and the Oblong (1731). By 1714, “only 60 householders [were] established within these wide borders” comprising 445 people (Hasbrouck 1909:34-42, 57-58; Bayne 1937:3). Despite the slow start, population and increased rapidly in the years prior to the American Revolution. “In 1737 Dutchess ranked seventh in population among the counties of the state, and from 1756 to 1775 it ranked second only to Albany County. ... The growth was caused largely by the efforts of the patent owners to split up their lands. Contrary to the pattern of settlement in New England, Dutchess was settled by single families. Houses were widely separated, encouraged by unusually friendly Indians, and few villages existed until after the Revolution” (Bayne 1937:3).

The county has gone through several phases of economic development and extensive political subdivision. At its inception the economy was overwhelmingly agricultural. County farmers produced primarily wheat as a cash crop and hay as well as meat and leather. These activities were supplement by rural industries such as grist, saw, and fulling/carding mills. Each village community had their own specialists, including blacksmiths, carpenters, chandlers, coopers, harness makers, shoe makers, and wheelwright. Some towns also had a tanner or a hatter. The earliest road (1731) in the eastern portion of the county connected Dover farmers to Poughkeepsie. The completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 wrecked the wheat economy as better agricultural lands in western New York and beyond provided more and cheaper grain (Bayne 1937:3-7, 36, 53; Hasbrouck 1909:60-65).

From 1825 to 1870, Dutchess farmers switched from wheat to meat. Eastern, Harlem Valley farmers generally lacked sufficient transportation to make grain-growing profitable, so many switch to cattle or sheep raising and dairying. As a result, Harlem Valley villages served originally as watering or stopping points for cattle drovers on their way to the New York market. In addition, the towns and cities along the Hudson, such as Poughkeepsie and Wappingers Falls, developed textile industries where carding machines and other mills had the river route to market. Several eastern towns with water access also developed cloth factories, including Amenia and Stanford (Bayne 1937:7-8, 53). Railroad expansion during this period propelled the economy. In 1851, the Hudson River line opened, and connected Poughkeepsie to New York City. The Harlem line was completed through the county the following year, “providing the entire eastern tier of towns with transportation to New York. The Dutchess & Columbia and the Poughkeepsie & Eastern railroads were built between 1869 and 1873, opening up the central portion of the county” (Bayne 1937:13).

While industrial development continued after 1870, however, location mattered in regards to the type of activity conducted. Factories and urban areas in western Dutchess County continued to grow as numerous railroad lines increased the area’s access to New York. After 1900 industrial development became concentrated in larger villages and cities and larger factories instead of small village shops. In the more rugged areas of eastern Dutchess, dairying became the leading industry supplying cheese makers and the new Borden process for preserving (condensing) milk with raw material. Between 1870 and 1930 the population of the county rose from 74,041 in 1870 to 105,462 in 1930. After 1920, refrigerated trucks cut into the dairying business in Dutchess as western milk entered the market. In addition, suburbanization of rural areas began as non-farming rural residents (not including those on Hudson River estates) utilized the improving roads (such as the Eastern States Parkway (present-day Taconic Parkway) and interurbans to get to their jobs in the larger villages and cities. This process has intensified over the last 50 years (Bayne 1937:4-5, 17, 53).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-31 Boundless Energy 2.2 DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH

2.2.1 Site File Data. Access to the archaeological site files at the New York State Historic Preservation Office (NYSHPO) was limited at the time research was conducted for this investigation as a result of an on-going state digitizing project at NYSHPO. A review of available archaeological site file data at the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation (OPRHP) identified 29 archaeological sites within or adjacent to the project area (Table 2.1; Figure 2.2). Of these sites, 25 are prehistoric/precontact, nine are historic, and five contained limited information regarding period, but are likely prehistoric (Parker 1922). In addition, five cultural resources were identified as listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) within or adjacent to the project area (Table 2.2) and shown on Figure 2.3.

Table 2.1. Archaeological sites within or adjacent to the project area. Distance Project NYSOPRHP Additional Site # to Time Period Site Type Component Site # Corridor 17th-century Dutch Reynolds Tap Dutch, (ca. 1631); house site; to New 08303.000009 Van Buren site Within Woodland or early Native Scotland historic workshop New York State Reynolds Tap- Museum [NYSM] No Within No information New Scotland 355, Glenmont information Abby, A:B 28-4 Reynolds Tap- 00102.000206 TGP Site 4 Within Precontact Stray find New Scotland Reynolds Tap- Historic 20th 00102.000407 Tel/Alb 41 Within Midden New Scotland century Reynolds Tap- 00102.000406 Tel/Alb 1 Adjacent Precontact Stray find New Scotland Knickerbocker Precontact, No NYSM 8024 Within to Leeds Paleoindian information Knickerbocker No 02111.000038 No information Within Precontact to Leeds information Knickerbocker NYSM 3108, ACP Within Precontact Camp to Leeds Cmba 8 Knickerbocker No NYSM 9214 Within No information to Leeds information Knickerbocker No 03942.000601 No information Adjacent Precontact to Leeds information Knickerbocker No 03942.000600 No information Adjacent Precontact to Leeds information Knickerbocker No 03942.000265 No information Adjacent Precontact to Leeds information Leeds to Rock No 03942.000249 No information Within Precontact Tavern information Leeds to Rock NYSM 515, ACP No Within Precontact Tavern 9? information NYSM 517, Leeds to Rock Wachachkeek* No Within Precontact Tavern Site? Pachqueack information Site?

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-32 Boundless Energy Distance Project NYSOPRHP Additional Site # to Time Period Site Type Component Site # Corridor Leeds to Rock NYSM 3386, Within Precontact Village Tavern Wachachkeek* Leeds to Rock NYSM 5931, Van Precontact, No Within Tavern Vechten multicomponent information Leeds to Rock No 03904.000134 No information Adjacent Historic Tavern information Leeds to Rock No 03904.000135 No information Adjacent Historic Tavern information Leeds to Rock No NYSM 5041 Within No information Tavern information Leeds to Rock No NYSM 8877 Within Precontact Tavern information Leeds to Rock No NYSM 7491 Within No information Tavern information Orient, Narrow Leeds to Rock Buried 11118.000017 Ulster I Within Stemmed Tavern evidence Tradition Leeds to Rock Transitional, No NYSM 8871 Within Tavern Orient information Leeds to Rock NYSM 8869 Within Precontact Burials Tavern Leeds to Rock Transitional, No NYSM 7227 Within Tavern Orient information Leeds to Rock Transitional, No NYSM 8878 Within Tavern Orient information Leeds to Rock Unidentified Traces of NYSM 5060 Within Tavern precontact occupation Leeds to Rock Narrow stemmed 11114.000010 Prehistoric site Within Stray find Tavern tradition Leeds to Rock No NYSM 7824 Within No information Tavern information Leeds to Rock C. Lipsett House 07112.000059 Adjacent Pre-1856 Domestic Tavern site Leeds to Rock th House site 07112.000058 Site 2 Within 20 century Tavern (MDS) Leeds to Rock Unidentified Brick 07112.000056 Brick Chimney site Adjacent Tavern historic chimney Site 16 Farm Leeds to Rock 07112.000057 Complex Fowler- Adjacent ca. 1840-1860 Foundation Tavern Kells Leeds to Rock Unidentified Isolated 07112.000055 Prehistoric site Adjacent Tavern precontact find Leeds to Rock Unidentified No 07115.000122 Rowe Potato site Adjacent Tavern precontact information NYSM 6860, Roseton to Unidentified Danskammer Within Camp West Fishkill precontact Camp Roseton to No 02719.000032 No information Within Historic West Fishkill information Roseton to Unidentified Traces of NYSM 6879 Within West Fishkill precontact occupation

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-33 Boundless Energy Table 2.2. National Register-Listed properties within or adjacent to the project area. Project Distance NR Site # Description Address Component M (ft) Roughly bounded by Warren & Knickerbocker Hudson Historic State Sts., Eighth & Seventh 90NR00252 Within to Leeds District Sts., E. Allen & Allen Sts. & Penn Central Railroad, Hudson Knickerbocker Dr. Oliver Bronson 90NR00247 South of Hudson off of US 9 Adjacent to Leeds House and Stables Leeds to Rushmore Family 10NR06093 8748 US 9W, Athens Adjacent Rock Tavern Farm, 03902.000279 Beginning at Catskill, follows the Leeds to Susquehanna Mohican Trail (NY 145) and CR 90NR00552 Within Rock Tavern Turnpike 20 and 22 NW to the Schoharie County Line, Catskill Leeds to Perrine’s Bridge over Immediately east of I-87, Esopus 90NR01079 Within Rock Tavern Wallkill River and Rosendale

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-34 Boundless Energy

Figure 2.2. Sections of the project area with previously-recorded archaeological sites.

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-35 Boundless Energy

Figure 2.3. Approximate location of NRL resources in relation to the propose LPW project area (Inset base map: USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangles: Hudson North, New York (1953 [1980]); Hudson South, New York (1963 [1980]).

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 2-36 Boundless Energy 3.0 Proposed Construction and Cultural Resources Sensitivity Assessment by Section

As discussed in the Introduction (Section 1.0), Boundless proposes to construct new 345-kV transmission lines and to reconductor existing 345-kV lines in Rensselaer, Albany, Columbia, Greene, Ulster, Orange, and Dutchess counties, New York. Figures 1.2 through 1.4 show the proposed LPW project area within New York’s Hudson Valley by MP. The Project will use new 345-kV lines in existing transmission corridors to connect clean and efficient sources of energy in upstate New York with southeastern New York. New transmission conductors will be installed primarily on new steel monopoles approximately 130 feet (ft) high in Sections 1, 2, and 4. H-frame structures will only be removed in Section 1. Reconductoring will be done on H-frame structures in Section 3. There will also be segments of underground construction in Sections 2 and 4, as well as horizontal directional drilling (HDD) under the Hudson River. The Project also includes construction of switching stations and a new substation, as well as expansion of the existing corridor.

3.1 CULTURAL RESOURCE INVESTIGATION LEVEL OF EFFORT

Construction of the proposed project has the potential to impact historic and prehistoric archaeological sites, historic resources, and historic landscapes. These impacts will occur as a result of ground-disturbance activities including trenching, grading, use of heavy equipment, pole placement, construction of substations, etc., as well as potential visual impacts from monopoles placement and building construction. Construction activities in undisturbed areas will require Phase I archaeological investigations to determine if any cultural resources are present in the APE. Placement of 130-ft monopoles may have a visual effect on historic resources and historic landscapes. In these locations, an evaluation of historic resources greater than 50 years old is normally conducted within a 0.5-mile-radius (based on current Federal Communications Commission [FCC] regulations) of the monopole placement to determine if the monopoles will have a visual effect on any National Register-listed or -eligible (NRL/NRE) properties.

Briefly, the Phase I investigation includes archival and historic background research, preparation of prehistoric and historic contexts of the project area, a field investigation of the APE entailing both visual inspection and the excavation of shovel tests to determine if any cultural resources (archaeological sites and historic resources) are present, and preparation of a report presenting the results of the investigation with appropriate recommendations. The report also includes an evaluation of the visual effects of the proposed project on any identified National Register-listed properties or landscapes.

NYSHPO should be consulted regarding the proposed testing strategy and level of effort before initiation of any cultural resource investigations to assure the proposed level of effort meets their standards.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION AND CULTURAL RESOURCES SENSITIVITY ASSESSMENT BY SECTION

3.2.1 Section 1: Reynolds Tap to New Scotland, MP 0 to MP 8.65. The Reynolds Tap to New Scotland Section (see Figure 1.2) extends for approximately 8.65 miles from MP 0 in the Town of East Greenbush, Rensselaer County, to MP 8.65 in the Town of New Scotland, Albany

Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-1 Boundless Energy County, and will tap into the existing 345-kV line in Rensselaer County. In this section new overhead lines will connect with the New Scotland substation. From MP 1 to MP 8.65, an existing 115-kV line will be relocated to share the steel monopole with the new 345-kV line to minimize right-of-way (ROW) requirements. The new 130-ft steel monopoles will be built in an existing ROW replacing 85-ft H-frame structures which will be removed.

A ROW expansion of 25 ft will likely be needed, as well as some additional ROW in some locations. This section will also include an overhead crossing of the Hudson River.

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include the 25-ft expansion of the ROW, possible acquisition of additional ROW, placement of new monopoles, the removal of H- frame structures, and the overhead line across the Hudson River. These activities could potentially impact archaeological resources. The 130-ft monopoles will replace the 85-ft H-frame structures for transmission-line placement.

Archaeological Sensitivity in this area is generally moderate to high for the presence of archaeological sites. The highly sensitive areas are located in the vicinity of the Hudson River where both prehistoric and historic sites are likely present in many areas. A total of five previously identified archaeological sites (two historic, two prehistoric, and one with limited information, but likely prehistoric) and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2). One of the historic archaeological sites identified in this segment (between MP 0 and MP 1) is the Van Buren Site (OPRHP #08303.000009), a ca. 1631 Dutch occupation and possibly the earliest known Rensselearwijck farm site.

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This location is generally undeveloped with some agricultural land and a few subdivisions in the vicinity. The new transmission line will be constructed in the existing pipeline ROW. The sensitivity, in general, is low in most areas throughout the section as a result of the low density of buildings within the 0.5-mile radius area. No NRL properties were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area of expanded ROW and the locations of monopole placement are sensitive and generally undisturbed. A Phase I archaeological investigation should be conducted in these areas. Areas around the H-frames may also need to be surveyed due to potential disturbance to cultural resources since these locations may have never been tested in the past.

The monopoles will be approximately 45 ft higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates potential effects to historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed center line should be minimal. A limited evaluation of historic resources and viewshed analysis should be conducted in a few selected areas within a 0.5-mile radius of the monopole placement, especially in areas where there may be possible changes to the historic setting. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine the areas for which viewshed analyses should be conducted.

3.2.2 Section 2: Knickerbocker to Leeds, MP 8.66 to MP 32. The Knickerbocker to Leeds Section extends from MP 8.66 in Rensselaer County to MP 32 in Greene County. The LPW will connect with the 345-kV lines of the existing interconnection with New England between New Scotland and Alps. A new three-acre switchyard (Knickerbocker) will be built in the Town of Schodack in Rensselaer County at MP 8.66. Approximately 18.6 miles of this section will consist of a new overhead 345-kV line which will run south from the new substation toward Hudson, New York, with placement on new steel monopoles. Approximately 2.75 miles of the line through the City of Hudson will be buried either in a railroad corridor or along city streets. From Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-2 Boundless Energy MP 30, the Project will continue underground, crossing under the Hudson River by HDD. The line would continue approximately one mile underground in Greene County to connect to the Leeds substation.

A new three-acre substation is proposed and will tap into the existing line. The existing ROW ranges from 125 ft to 150 ft wide, and will need to be expanded to 165 ft (an additional 15 to 40 ft); some homeowner relocations and additional underground placement in some areas are likely to be required. No new land is needed at Hudson substation. For much of the overhead line ROW north of the City of Hudson, a gas pipeline runs parallel in the corridor on the west side of the ROW which is cleared for nearly the full width.

Knickerbocker-Hudson Substation MP 8.66 to MP 27

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include a new three-acre switching station, the expansion of the existing ROW by an additional 15 to 40 ft along the existing corridor, homeowner relocations, and additional underground placement. These activities will cause ground disturbance and have the potential to affect cultural resources. New steel monopoles (130 ft) will be placed throughout some portions of this section and will cause ground disturbance and have visual effects.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area in general has moderate to high sensitivity for locating archaeological sites. The area along the route is generally undisturbed. One prehistoric archaeological site and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This area is generally undeveloped with some agricultural land and a few subdivisions in the vicinity. The new transmission line will parallel an existing line which includes 85-ft H-frame structures. The added height of the monopoles will potentially create an additional visual effect beyond that resulting from the existing H-frame structures. The limited number of buildings throughout most of this section (except near the City of Hudson) suggests that the probability of impacts to historic resources is low to moderate. No NRL properties were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Table 2.2).

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area of the expanded ROW, the locations of the monopole placement, substation location, and homeowner relocations are sensitive and generally undisturbed. Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas.

The monopoles will be 15 to 40 ft higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates that the probability of impacts to historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed monopole placement is low in this section except along the southern portion in the vicinity of MP 27 which is near the City of Hudson. A limited evaluation of historic resources and a viewshed analysis should be conducted in selected areas within 0.5 miles of the monopole placement including the area near the City of Hudson. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine if the 0.5-mile radius for the visual effects analysis is acceptable. (On occasion, the radius is expanded in highly dense urban areas if the poles are visible beyond 0.5 miles.)

Hudson Substation to Leeds MP 27 to MP 30–Underground Line (City of Hudson)

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts. At the Hudson switch station the line will transition to underground. Approximately 2.75 miles will be installed underground Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-3 Boundless Energy through the City of Hudson which may follow either in a railroad corridor and/or along city streets. The underground section will begin at a transition station at the Hudson substation north of the city. From MP 30, the Project will continue underground, crossing under the Hudson River by HDD.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area in general has moderate to high sensitivity for locating archaeological sites. The area along the eastern part of the section is partially undisturbed while portions with the City of Hudson appear to be disturbed from past urban construction. The area near the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. A total of three archaeological sites (two prehistoric and one with limited information, but likely prehistoric) and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This area is located largely within or in the vicinity of the City of Hudson. The sensitivity for the presence of historic structures is high. There are two NRL properties within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Table 2.2).

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The areas of underground placement should be evaluated for prior disturbance. If prior disturbance can be sufficiently documented to NYSHPO requirements, no archaeological investigations will be recommended. If any area appears to be undisturbed or has the potential to contain buried historic archaeological deposits (e.g., historic structure remains, historic middens), a Phase I archaeological investigation will be recommended. The location of the substation is generally undisturbed and a Phase I archaeological investigations is recommended in that area unless prior disturbance can be documented.

Placement of the line underground will minimize impacts to historic resources unless demolition of existing buildings takes place or landscape around a NRL or NRE property is proposed. Presently, there are no plans to demolish any buildings in this section. The sensitivity for presence of historic resources is high. The route placement should be evaluated to determine if it will be located in the vicinity of National Register properties and if any impacts (e.g., cutting trees or shrubs, removing historic sidewalk or fences) to the landscape will occur from placement of the underground line. This appears unlikely since much to of the placement is proposed in a disturbed context but it should be verified. No above-ground historic resources evaluation survey is recommended beyond examining the placement of the underground alignment. NYSHPO should be consulted to evaluate this level of effort.

Hudson Substation to Leeds MP 30 to MP 31

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include placement of an underground transmission line beneath the Hudson River which will extend approximately one mile from the west bank of the river to the Leeds substation in Greene County. There will be one HDD site on each side of the Hudson River requiring approximately two or three acres.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area, along the Hudson River, has a high sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites. There are no archaeological sites or NRL sites within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. A small portion of this area is located in the vicinity of the City of Hudson. The likelihood of impacts to historic resources is low since there appears to be few buildings within 0.5-miles of the transmission line placement. There are no NRL properties within or adjacent to the proposed route. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-4 Boundless Energy

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Therefore, archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas and at both HDD areas along the Hudson River. The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to above-ground historic resources in this area. No formal above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

Hudson Substation to Leeds MP 31 to MP 32

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include underground placement of the line for one mile through this section. No additional room is needed at the Leeds Substation. There may be expanded ROW requirements and homeowner relocations.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area, along and in the vicinity of the Hudson River, has a very high sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites. A total of three prehistoric archaeological sites and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Table 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This area is located in the vicinity of the City of Athens, Greene County. The likelihood of impacts to historic resources is low since there appears to be few buildings within the vicinity of this section. There are no NRL properties within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Therefore, Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended throughout this section in the expanded ROW and homeowner relocation areas.

The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to above-ground historic resources in this area. No formal above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

3.2.3 Section 3: Leeds to Rock Tavern, MP 32 to MP 101.17. The Leeds to Rock Tavern transmission line extends from MP 32 (Leeds substation), Greene County to MP 101.17 in Orange County (Figures 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4). In this section, a new double 345-kV circuit will be added to an existing line starting at the Leeds substation. The existing line will be reconductored with minimal or no modifications to existing tower structures. This section extends approximately 55 miles south through Ulster County and connect to a new switchyard near East Road just north of the Orange-Ulster county line. From the switchyard, the line will extend west for approximately five miles before turning to the south, ending at the Rock Tavern substation in Orange County. Existing lines running east from the East Road switching station to the Roseton Substation will connect Section 3 to Section 4.

Two new 1222 (Cardinal) ACCC conductors will be hung on existing 345-kV H-frame poles. A new switching station will require approximately three acres and constructed near East Road in the Town of Marlborough in Ulster County at MP 87.6 (approximate). No new monopoles are proposed for this section.

The proposed East Road Junction switching station, connecting the Leeds to Rock Tavern line with an existing 345-kV line, and the Roseton Substation will require approximately three acres. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-5 Boundless Energy The new switching station will be constructed near East Road in the Town of Marlborough in Ulster County at approximately MP 87.6.

Leeds to East Road Junction: MP 32 to MP 87.5

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include adding a new double 345- kV circuit to an existing 345-kV H-frame tower structures within the existing ROW.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area’s sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites ranges from moderate to high. A total of 18 archaeological sites (two historic, 13 prehistoric, and three with limited information, but likely prehistoric) and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This part of the section is overwhelmingly rural and undeveloped with a small percentage of agricultural land and is in the vicinity of a few subdivisions. The new transmission line will be placed on the existing 85-ft H-frame structures. No new construction is proposed in this section. There are three NRL properties within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Table 2.2).

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. Since there is no new construction and no ground disturbance or new pole placement, no cultural resource investigations are recommended in this section. No subsurface impacts will occur from placement of the line on existing H-frame structures. No archaeological investigations are recommended. There will be no visual impacts from placement of the new transmission line on existing H-frame structures. Therefore no above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

East Road Junction to Rock Tavern Substation MP 87.5 to MP 101.17

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include adding a new double 345- kV circuit to an existing 345-kV H-frame tower structures within the existing ROW and construction of the proposed East Road Junction switching station requiring approximately three acres. The new switching station will be constructed near East Road in the Town of Marlborough in Ulster County at approximately MP 87.6.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area’s sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites ranges from moderate to high. A total of six archaeological sites (four historic and two prehistoric) and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This part of the section is overwhelmingly rural and undeveloped with a small percentage of agricultural land and is in the vicinity of a few subdivisions. The new transmission line will be placed on the existing 85-ft H-frame structures. Construction of the proposed East Road Junction switching station is the only new construction proposed in this part of the section. No NRL properties were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The only new construction is the proposed East Road Junction switching station. Impacts from construction activities could affect archaeological deposits. Therefore, a Phase I investigation is recommended at this location. There is no other new construction, ground disturbance or new pole placement in this section. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-6 Boundless Energy No other cultural resource investigations are recommended in this section except at the proposed substation location. There will be no visual impacts from placement of the new transmission line on existing H-frame structures and no above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

3.2.4 Section 4: Roseton to East Fishkill, MP 101.17 to MP 109.57. The Roseton to East Fishkill section extends approximately 8.4 miles from MP 101.17 in Orange County to MP 109.57 in Dutchess County (see Figure 1.4). It will consist of a new 345-kV line placed underground and extending east from the Roseton substation to a transition site on the west side of the Hudson River. An underground cable will be installed under the Hudson River by HDD beneath the river bed. The underground conductor will be approximately one mile long. A new overhead line with two 1272 ACSR conductors installed on new steel monopoles will extend approximately 6.6 miles to an expansion of the East Fishkill substation. Additional ROW expansion of approximately 50 ft will be required on the east side of the Hudson River to accommodate the new 345 kV line. Some additional easement rights will be required for off- ROW access rights.

The East Fishkill Substation will be expanded to interconnect to the double circuit 345-kV line that currently bypasses the East Fishkill Substation. Approximately three acres of property will need to be acquired for the expansion.

Roseton Substation to MP 102, Transition Station MP 101.17 to MP 102

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include placement of a new 345-kV line underground throughout this section.

Archaeological Sensitivity. This area, along the Hudson River, has a very high sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites. There is one prehistoric archaeological site and no NRL sites within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Table 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. The sensitivity for impacts to historic resources is low since there appears to be not many buildings within the vicinity of this section except for the Roseton substation, a few residences, and the industrial complex along the river. There are no NRL properties within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area along the Hudson River has a very high sensitivity for locating cultural resources. Some areas in this section appear to be disturbed form past construction activities and industrial development. A Phase I archaeological investigation is recommended in the undisturbed area within this section.

The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to above-ground historic resources in this area. No formal above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

Hudson River Crossing to Directional Drill MP 102 to 103

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include placement of an underground line beneath the Hudson River and directional drilling sites on both sides of the river. An underground cable will be installed beneath the Hudson by directional drilling to a transition station on the east side of the river. The underground conductor will be approximately one mile long. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-7 Boundless Energy Archaeological Sensitivity. This area, along the Hudson River, has a high sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites. There are no archaeological sites or NRL sites within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. Placement of an underground line beneath the Hudson River and directional drilling sites on both sites of the Hudson River will not affect above-ground historic resources or viewsheds. The sensitivity is low since there appears to be few buildings within 0.5 miles of the directional drilling sites except for the Roseton substation and the industrial complex along the river. No NRL properties were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Directional drilling sites on each side of the Hudson River have the potential to affect archaeological deposits. Therefore, Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas.

Placement of an underground line beneath the Hudson River and directional drilling on both sides of the river will have no effect on any above-ground historic resources or viewsheds. No above-ground historic resources or viewshed analysis is recommended.

MP 103 Transition Site to East Fishkill MP 103 to 109.57

Proposed Construction Activities and Potential Impacts include construction of a new 345- kV line hung on 130-ft high steel monopoles extending from the Hudson River to MP 109.6. These activities require approximately 50 ft of additional ROW, some additional easements needs for off-ROW access rights, and three acres of property to expand the East Fishkill Substation at MP 109.57.

Archaeological Sensitivity. The sensitivity for the presence of archaeological sites in this area ranges from moderate to high. The portion in the vicinity of the Hudson River has a very high sensitivity for the presence of both prehistoric and historic sites while other portions of the section have a moderate sensitivity. A total of two archaeological sites (one prehistoric and one historic) and no NRL sites were identified within or adjacent to the proposed route (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).

Historic Resources/Visual Sensitivity. This area is generally undeveloped and in the vicinity of a several subdivisions and residential complexes. The likelihood of impacts to historic resources is low since there appears to be few buildings within the vicinity of this portion of the section. No NRL properties were identified in this this area.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations. The area of the expanded ROW and the locations of the monopole placement are sensitive and generally undisturbed. The location of the proposed expanded three-acre substation is also sensitive. A Phase I archaeological investigation should be conducted at both of these locations area throughout the section.

The monopoles will be approximately 45 feet higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates that visual impacts to above-ground historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed center line should be minimal. A limited evaluation of above-ground historic resources and a viewshed analysis should be conducted in selected areas within a 0.5- mile radius of the centerline. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine the specific areas where viewshed analysis should be conducted. Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 3-8 Boundless Energy

4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 CULTURAL RESOURCE SENSITIVITY

In general, the study corridor has a moderate to high sensitivity for locating archaeological resources. The sensitive areas are undisturbed locations with relatively level terrain (i.e., less than 12 percent), generally well drained, and in the vicinity of bodies of water including rivers, creeks, and other fresh water sources. The most sensitive areas along the LPW corridor are along and in the vicinity of the Hudson River.

Placement of the 130-ft high monopoles can cause potential impacts to the historic resources, historic landscapes, and the viewshed along the LPW corridor. In general, the majority of the route is located in undeveloped areas within or adjacent to an existing transmission corridor. A portion of the route has existing 85-ft high H-frame structures where existing lines are present. The existence of the H-frame structures has impacted the viewshed along the route which reduces the sensitivity of the area.

4.2 ASSESSING IMPACTS OF PROPOSED PROJECT ACTIVITIES

Construction of the proposed LPW project has the potential to impact historic and prehistoric archaeological sites, historic resources, and historic landscapes. These impacts will occur as a result of ground-disturbance activities including trenching, grading, use of heavy equipment, pole placement, construction of substations, and other associated construction activities, as well as potential visual impacts from monopole placement and building construction. Construction activities in undisturbed areas will require Phase I archaeological investigations to determine if any cultural resources are present in the APE. Placement of 130-ft monopoles may have a visual effect on historic resources and historic landscapes. In these locations, an evaluation of historic resources greater than 50 years old is normally conducted within a 0.5-mile-radius (based on current FCC regulations) of the monopole placement to determine if the monopoles will have a visual effect on any NRL/NRE properties.

Areas of documented prior disturbance along the LPW project corridor will not require formal archaeological investigations. These areas can be excluded from survey after supporting documentation is presented to the NYSHPO. Proposed project activities that do not create ground disturbance or additional visual impact will not require cultural resource surveys. This will include the areas where the 345-kV lines are being added to an existing 345-kV H-frame tower structures within the existing ROW. No significant impacts will occur form this activity.

NYSHPO should be consulted regarding the proposed testing strategy and level of effort before initiation of any cultural resource investigations to assure the proposed level of effort meets their standards.

4.3 NATIVE AMERICAN CONSULTATION

Native American consultation is recommended at initiation of the proposed project with Nations that have traditional territories within the LWP project area. Consultation will initiate requirements under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (36 CFR 800) which allows companies and consultants to gather information on cultural resources within the

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proposed project area and identify any other issues Native American groups may have concerning the project. Formal consultation with Native American groups, by law, is the responsible of the lead federal agency.

There are four federally-recognized Indian Tribes that have traditional territories that overlap parts of the project area, including: the Delaware Nation (Oklahoma); the Delaware Tribe of Indians (Oklahoma) the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (New York); and the Stockbridge Munsee Community (Wisconsin) (Indian Affairs Bureau 2013; NYSHPO nd). Additionally, there are two state-recognized tribes in New Jersey with traditional territories that comprise portions of the project area: the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape and the Ramapough Mountain Indians (sometimes referred to as the Ramapough Lenape Nation) (Koenig and Stein 2007:126-128). Panamerican recommends including Indian Tribes in the consultation process as early possible during project planning.

4.4 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

4.4.1 Section 1: Reynolds Tap to New Scotland, MP 0 to MP 8.65. The Reynolds Tap to New Scotland Section extends for approximately 8.65 miles from MP 0 in the Town of East Greenbush, Rensselaer County, to MP 8.65 in the Town of New Scotland, Albany County. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts include the 25-ft expansion of the ROW, possible acquisition of additional ROW, placement of new monopoles, the removal of existing H- frame structures, and the overhead line across the Hudson River. These activities could potentially impact archaeological resources. The 130-ft monopoles will replace the 85-ft H-frame structures for transmission-line placement.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 0 and MP 8.65. The area of expanded ROW and the locations of monopole placement are sensitive and generally undisturbed. A Phase I archaeological investigation is recommended in these areas. Areas around the H-frames may also need to be surveyed due to potential disturbance to cultural resources since these locations may have never been tested in the past.

The monopoles will be approximately 45 ft higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates potential effects to historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed center line should be minimal. A limited evaluation of above-ground historic resources and viewshed analysis should be conducted in a few selected areas within a 0.5-mile radius of the monopole placement. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine the areas for which viewshed analyses should be conducted.

4.4.2 Section 2: Knickerbocker to Leeds, MP 8.66 to MP 32. The Knickerbocker to Leeds Section extends from MP 8.66 in Rensselaer County to MP 30 south of the City of Hudson, Columbia County, then to MP 32 in Greene County. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 8.66 and MP 27 include a new three-acre switching station, the expansion of the existing ROW by an additional 15 to 40 ft along the existing corridor, homeowner relocations, and additional underground placement. These activities will cause ground disturbance and have the potential to affect cultural resources. New steel monopoles (130 ft) will be placed throughout some portions of this section and will cause ground disturbance and have visual effects.

Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 27 and MP 30 include the Hudson switch station where the line transitions to underground. Approximately 2.75 miles will Panamerican Consultants, Inc. 4-2 Boundless Energy

be installed underground through the City of Hudson which may follow either in a railroad corridor and/or along city streets. The underground section will begin at a transition station at the Hudson substation north of the city and continue to approximately MP 30, where it will cross under the Hudson River by HDD. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 30 and MP 31 include placement of an underground transmission line beneath the Hudson River which will extend approximately one mile from the west bank of the river to the Leeds substation in Greene County. There will be one HDD site on each side of the Hudson River requiring approximately two or three acres. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 31 and 32 include underground placement of the line for one mile through this section. There may be expanded ROW requirements and homeowner relocations.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 8.66 and MP 27. The area of the expanded ROW, the locations of the monopole placement, substation location, and area of homeowner relocation are sensitive and generally undisturbed. Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas. The monopoles will be 45 ft higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates that the probability of impacts to historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed monopole placement is low in this section except along the southern portion in the vicinity of MP 27 which is near the City of Hudson. A limited evaluation of above-ground historic resources and a viewshed analysis should be conducted in selected areas within 0.5 miles of the monopole placement including the area near the City of Hudson. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine if the 0.5-mile radius for the visual effects analysis is acceptable.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 27 and MP 30. The areas of underground placement should be evaluated for prior disturbance. If prior disturbance can be sufficiently documented to NYSHPO requirements, no archaeological investigations will be recommended. If any area appears to be undisturbed or has the potential to contain buried historic archaeological deposits (e.g., historic structure remains, historic middens), a Phase I archaeological investigation will be recommended. The location of the substation is generally undisturbed and a Phase I archaeological investigations is recommended in that area unless prior disturbance can be documented.

Placement of the line underground will minimize impacts to above-ground historic resources unless demolition of existing structures takes place or landscape around a NRL or NRE property is proposed. Presently, there are no plans to demolish any structures in this section. The sensitivity for presence of above-ground historic resources is high. The route placement should be evaluated to determine if it will be located in the vicinity of National Register properties and if any impacts (e.g., cutting trees or shrubs, removing historic sidewalk or fences) to the landscape will occur from placement of the underground line. This appears unlikely since much to of the placement is proposed in a disturbed context but it should be verified. No above- ground historic resources evaluation surveys are recommended beyond examining placement of the underground alignment. NYSHPO should be consulted to evaluate this level of effort.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 30 and MP 31. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Therefore, archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas and at both HDD areas along the Hudson River. The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to historic resources in this area. No formal historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

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Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 31 and MP 32. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Therefore, Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended throughout this section in the expanded ROW and homeowner relocation areas. The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to above-ground historic resources in this area. No formal above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

4.4.3 Section 3: Leeds to Rock Tavern, MP 32 to MP 101.17. The Leeds to Rock Tavern transmission line extends from MP 32 Leeds substation, Greene County through Ulster County to MP 101.17 in Orange County. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 32 to MP 87.5 include adding a new double 345-kV circuit to an existing 345-kV H-frame tower structures within the existing ROW. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 87.5 to MP 101.17 include adding a new double 345-kV circuit to an existing 345- kV H-frame tower structures within the existing ROW and construction of the proposed East Road Junction switching station requiring approximately three acres. The new switching station will be constructed near East Road in the Town of Marlborough in Ulster County at approximately MP 87.6.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 32 and MP 87.5. Since there is no new construction and no ground disturbance or new pole placement, no cultural resource investigations are recommended in this section. No subsurface impacts will occur from placement of the line on existing H-frame structures. No archaeological investigations are recommended. There will be no visual impact from placement of the new transmission line on existing H-frame structures. Therefore no above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 87.5 and MP 101.17. The only new construction is the proposed East Road Junction switching station. Impacts from construction activities could affect archaeological deposits. Therefore, a Phase I investigation is recommend at this location. There is no other new construction, ground disturbance or new pole placement in this section. No other cultural resource investigations are recommended in this section except at the proposed substation location. There will be no visual impact from placement of the new transmission line on existing H-frame structures and no above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

4.4.4 Section 4: Roseton to East Fishkill, MP 101.17 to MP 109.57. The Roseton to East Fishkill section extends approximately 8.4 miles from MP 101.17 in Orange County to MP 109.57 in Dutchess County. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 101.17 to MP 102 include placement of a new 345-kV line underground throughout this section. Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 102 and MP 103 include placement of an underground line beneath the Hudson River and directional drilling sites on both sides of the river. An underground cable will be installed beneath the Hudson by directional drilling to a transition station on the east side of the river. The underground conductor will be approximately one mile long.

Proposed construction activities and potential impacts between MP 103 to MP 109.57 include construction of a new 345-kV line hung on 130-ft high steel monopoles extending from the Hudson River to MP 109.6. These activities require approximately 50 ft of additional ROW, some additional easements needs for off-ROW access rights, and three acres of property to expand the East Fishkill Substation at MP 109.57.

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Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 101.17 and MP 102. The area along the Hudson River has a very high sensitivity for locating cultural resources. Some areas in this section appear to be disturbed form past construction activities and industrial development. A Phase I archaeological investigation is recommended in the undisturbed area within this section. The complete route in this section will be underground. There should be no direct impacts to above-ground historic resources in this area. No formal above-ground historic resources evaluations or viewshed analysis is recommended.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 102 and MP 103. The area along the Hudson River has a high sensitivity for the presence of cultural resources. Directional drilling sites on each side of the Hudson River have the potential to affect archaeological deposits. Therefore, Phase I archaeological investigations are recommended in these areas. Placement of an underground line beneath the Hudson River and directional drilling on both sides of the river will have no effect on any above-ground historic resources or viewsheds. No above-ground historic resources or viewshed analysis is recommended.

Recommended Cultural Resource Investigations between MP 103 to MP 109.57. The area of the expanded ROW and the locations of the monopole placement are sensitive and generally undisturbed. The location of the proposed expanded three-acre substation is also sensitive. A Phase I archaeological investigation should be conducted at both of these locations area throughout the section.

The monopoles will be approximately 45 feet higher than the current H-frame structures. A preliminary map review indicates that visual impacts to historic resources within 0.5 miles of the proposed center line should be limited. A limited evaluation of above-ground historic resources and a viewshed analysis should be conducted in selected areas within a 0.5-mile radius of the centerline. NYSHPO should be consulted to determine the specific areas where viewshed analysis should be conducted.

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