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Structure and Preservation of Chiton Valves: Resolution of a Taphonomic Quandary

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Structure and Preservation of Chiton Valves: Resolution of a Taphonomic Quandary Structure and Preservation of Chiton Valves: Resolution of a Taphonomic Quandary Bryce A. Peebles A thesis submitted in fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Otago May 2017 Abstract Chitons are marine molluscs common worldwide that form their shells out of aragonite and are rare in the sediment and fossil records. The rarity of chitons in these records is not surprising, as dissolution readily removes aragonite from the fossil record. Yet, recent studies have suggested that chitons have an unusual capacity to resist dissolution, which implies that dissolution does not remove chiton material from the sedimentary and fossil records. The purpose of this thesis was to address this apparent contradiction of chiton preservation. The valve structure and the effects of abrasion and dissolution on eight New Zealand chiton species (Acanthochitona zelandica, Notoplax violacea, Chiton glaucus, Onithochiton neglectus, Sypharochiton pelliserpentis, Sypharochiton sinclairi, Ischnochiton maorianus, and Leptochiton inquinatus) were examined. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and Raman spectroscopy were used to determine the mineralogy, ultrastructure, and organic components of chiton valves. The ability of these chiton valves to resist abrasion and dissolution was directly tested by tumbling isolated valves in a rock tumbler for 96 hours and subjecting another group of isolated valves to two treatments of different pH: 8.10 (ambient) and pH 7.70 (projected pH for the year 2100) for 12 days. XRD and Raman spectra confirmed that valves from all analysed species were made of aragonite. The tegmenum was primarily granular and contained one or two carotenoid pigments. The articulamentum was formed by alternating crossed lamellar and spherulitic structures and a ventral-most acicular sublayer. The number of sublayers varied among species, and L. inquinatus displayed a unique crossed lamellar structure in its valves. The valves lost 9- 44% of their initial weight after tumbling, which is unusually resistant compared to other molluscs. Abrasion damaged the tegmentum more than the articulamentum. Valves lost 1 to 5% of their initial weight after 12 days in a pH of 7.70 and less than 1% in the ambient pH control. SEM images of valves in the pH treatments revealed that dissolution damaged the articulamentum more than the tegmentum. While these results suggest that chiton valves are resilent, taphonomic forces do not act in isolation. The two different main layers of the valves are vulnerable to different forces; abrasion will remove the tegmentum and expose the articulamentum to rapid dissolution. Chiton valves are estimated to last about 5 years before being rendered unrecognizable. It is likely that chiton valves require a rapid burial ii event to be preserved since they can be exposed to taphonomic forces for hundreds of years in temperate intertidal and shelf environments. Acknowledgments Both the work presented in the thesis and who I am as a person would be lesser if not for the following people. I must acknowledge them as I owe them all gratitude for their support and would not be where I am, or who I am, today without them. I need to thank my incredible supervisors Abby Smith and Hamish Spencer for their constant academic support, advice, and patience. Thank you to Erin Bowkett for her patience and support throughout the entire journey. Thanks to my parents, Aunt Anitra, and Uncle Jack for their mental and financial support. This journey would have been impossible without these people. Thanks to Geoffrey Smith and Keith Gordon for their advice and expertise on Raman Spectroscopy; to Doug Mackie for his guidance on pH photospectroscopy methods and the proper use of the tris and amp buffers; to Reuben Pooley and Linda Groenewegen for their help with setting up space and tanks for the OA treatments; Rebecca Zitoun for inspiring me with her previous work on chitons; to Brent Pooley for his advice on resin casting, cross-sectioning, and polishing of chitons material; to Liz Girvan for her support and tutelage on proper use of the SEM, and understanding of the sessions that went into the night; to Gemma Kerr and Damian Walls for guiding me through the process of using the XRD. I also wish to thank the Departments of Marine Science and Zoology for their support and my dear friends at Abbey College whom I have had the pleasure of meeting and getting to know over the duration of my studies. Thank you to the members of Destreza Pacifica, Humboldt State Fencing, the Golden Gate School of Arms, and Salle Angelo for keeping me physically and mentally agile during the final stages of the thesis. iii Table of Contents Title Page ............................................................................................................................................. i Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. iv Chapter 1 - Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 – Valve Microstructure and Phylomineralogy of New Zealand Chiton Valves ........ 8 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Manuscript ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 10 Materials and Methods .............................................................................................................. 14 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 16 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 24 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 25 Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 3 – First record of carotenoid pigments and indications of unusual shell structure in chiton valves .............................................................................................................................. 27 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 27 Research Note ............................................................................................................................... 28 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 28 Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 30 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 30 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 33 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 35 Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 4 – Abrasion Provides Clues on a Chiton Taphonomic Conundrum .......................... 37 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 37 Manuscript ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 39 Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 42 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 44 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 49 iv Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 57 Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................
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