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Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72

Dinnerstein, E. 1983. , plant phenology and succession National Wildlife Refuge. Tall Timbers Research in the lowland forests of Nepal. In Biology and Station Tallahase. Florida. Bulletin 25:13-62.van Management of the Cervidae. C.M Wemmer Ed. Mourik, S and V. Schurig. 1985. Hybridization Smithsonian Institute Press. Washington, D.C 289-298. between sambar ( () unicolor) and rusa Hsia, L.C., Z.W Sun and C.K. Chang. 1987. A survey of deer (Cervus (rusa) timorensis) deer. Zoolog-isher Anzeiger farmers in Taiwan. Proc. 4th AAAP Anim. Sci. Congr. Jena 214:177-184. Hamilton. p. 432. Simon, E.S. 1943. Breeding season of the Indian sambar Mishra, H.R. 1982. The ecology and behaviour of (Axis (Rusa unicolor). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. XLIV: 118- axis) in the Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal (with 119. comparative studies of hog deer (Axis porcinus), Stafford, K.J. 1995. The stomach of the (Cervus sambar (Cervus unicolor) and barking deer (Muntiacus unicolor). Anat. Histol. Embryol. 24:241-249. muntjak). PhD Dissertation. University of Edinburgh. Sukmaraga, H. 1982. Beberapa aspek kemungkinan Scotland. pelestarian Cervus unicolor bookei dengan cara Mishra, H.R and C. Wemmer. 1987. The comparative pendayagunaan sebagai hewan ternak. Technical report. breeding ecology of four Cervids in Royal Chitwan Universitas Brawijaya. Malang. 23 pp. National Park. Proceedings of Biology and Whitehead., G.K. 1993. Encylopaedia of Deer. Swann Hill Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Publ. 259- Press. Shrewsbury 271. Zuckerman, S. 1953. The breeding seasons of in Muir, P.D, G. Semiadi, G.W. Asher, T.E. Broad, M.L. Tate captivity. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 122: 827-950. and T.N. Barry. 1997. Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) x (C. elaphus) interspecies hybrids. J. Hered. 88: e-mail: [email protected] 366-372. Mylrea, G.E. 1992. Natural and artificial breeding of farmed chital deer (Axis axis) in Australia. PhD Dissertation. BIOLOGY AND PRODUCTION University of Sydney. Australia. ATTRIBUTES OF THE FARMED RUSA Ngampongsai, C. 1987. Habitat use by the sambar (Cervus unicolor) in Thailand: A Case study for Khao-Tai DEER National Park. In: Biology and Management of the G. McL. Dryden Cervidae C. M Wemmer, Ed. Smithsonian Institute School of Studies, The University of Press. Washington, D.C. 289-298. Queensland, Gatton, Australia, Q4345 Santiapillai, C., M.R Chambers and C. Jayawardene. 1981. Observations on the sambar Cervus unicolor in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Ceylon J. Sci. (Biol. ABSTRACT: Rusa deer were introduced to Queensland in Sci.) 14:193-205. the 1970s and 1980s, and they now are about half of the Semiadi, G. 1997. Oestrous behaviour and oestrous cycle of farmed deer herd. Rusa tolerate the subtropical climatic and sambar deer (Cervus unicolor). Zoo Indonesia 29:10-12 disease environments. Rusa venison has a low fat content and Semiadi, G. and K. Subekti, 1996. Pola kelahiran rusa is acceptable to consumers. Protein and energy requirements Bawean di penangkaran dan perbandingannya dengan are similar to values for other tropical deer. Growth may be kelompok Cervidae lainnya. Berkala Penelitian Hayati limited by the low protein content of tropical grasses during 2:81-86. winter. Rusa deer could contribute to the diversity of the Semiadi, G., T.N Barry and P.D. Muir. 1993. Growth, milk Australian livestock industries. intake and behaviour of artificially reared sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) fawns. DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 121:273-281. BIOLOGY Semiadi, G, P.D Muir, and T.N Barry 1994. General biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) in captivity. NZ J. Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) are an Indonesian Agric. Res. 37:79-85. species, members of the Sunda sambar subgenus, and Semiadi, G., T.N Barry and P.D. Muir. 1995a. Comparison of with eight subspecies (Grzimek, 1972). Although seasonal patterns of growth, voluntary feed intake and present locates rusa within the genus Cervus, plasma hormone concentrations in young sambar deer genetic analysis using blood proteins (Emerson and (Cervus unicolor) & red deer (Cervus elaphus). J. Tate, 1993) suggests that the sambar (C. unicolor) and Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 125:109-124. rusa should be grouped together, and separately from Semiadi, G., T.N. Barry, P.D Muir, and J. Hodgson. 1995b. the other . Hybrid-isation between sambar and Dietary preferences of sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) offered browse, forage rusa gives a viable offspring (Van Mourik and Schurig, legume and grass species. J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 1985). 125:99-107. (C. t. russa or C. t. timorensis) are Semiadi, G, C.W. Holmes, T.N. Barry and P.D. Muir, 1996. widely farmed in the subtropics, with herds of several Effects of cold conditions on heat production by young thousands in Mauritius, Malaysia, New Caledonia, sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus Reunion Island and Taiwan (Maudet, 1999). There are elaphus). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 126:221-226. feral rusa in Papua and Irian Jaya Semiadi, G., C.W Holmes, T.N. Barry, and P.D. Muir, 1998. (Stewart, 1985; Kilmaskossu 1990). The efficiency of utilization of energy and nitrogen in Javan rusa were introduced into Australia in the young sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 130:193-198Thom, early 1900s (e.g. to Sydney’s Royal National Park in W.S. 1937. The Malayan or Burmese sambar. J. 1907; Bentley, 1978), and came to Queensland via Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 309-319. Victoria in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The smaller Shea, S.M., L.B. Flynn, R.L Marchinton, and J.E. Lewis. Moluccan rusa (C. t. moluccensis) was introduced to 1990. Part II. Social behavior, movement, ecology and the Torres Strait in 1912 (Bentley, 1978) and a nucleus food habits. In: Ecology of sambar deer on St. Vincent herd was brought from there to Queensland in 1980

Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72

(Hart, 1986). Rusa deer have increased in popularity approximately 102 kg (Le Bel et al., 1997; Le Bel, so that they and the red deer (Cervus elaphus) are now 1999). Target weights (modified from Sinclair, 1999) the two major farmed species in Queensland (Sinclair, for Queensland Javan rusa are 35 and 30 kg (stags, 1997a). Most Queensland rusa are Javan or Javan × hinds) at 5 months, 65 and 60 kg at 13 months, and 140 Moluccan hybrids. There have been preliminary studies and 90 kg at maturity. of the deer (C. t. florensis) as another possible Autumn-born Javan rusa stags grow steadily farmed species (Bale-Therick et al. 1996). throughout their first year (150 to 200 g/d), but more slowly in their second year, especially during winter REPRODUCTION (20 to 45 g/d) (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; R. Rutting (mating) in Javan deer lasts for about 3 Sookhareea, pers. comm.). Weaner stags fed a grain- months (late June to late September). Javan rusa may rich, 17.5 % protein, ration grew at 160 g/d (Puttoo et calve throughout the year but most are born in autumn al., 1998). This may be a practical upper limit to stag (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; Maudet, 1999), after a growth. 249 ± 3.1 (mean ± SE; Van Mourik, 1986) or 253 ± Venison is the major commercial product of rusa 1.0 (Woodford and Dunning, 1992) day gestation, deer. Growth rate and carcase fat content determine which is independent of the calf’s sex. Moluccan rusa the profitability of venison production. Queensland have a second calving peak in spring. Javan rusa hinds processors require for slaughter (Sinclair, calve each year, at intervals of 366 ± 6.8 days (Van 1997b) which are in good to prime condition, have 3 to Mourik, 1986), or between 280 and 400 days 8 or 12 mm subcutaneous fat at the 12 rib, and depending on the previous calving date (Woodford and importantly will yield a minimum 35 to 40 kg carcase, Dunning, 1992). Calving rates are over 90 % preferably more than 50 kg. As the dressing percentage (Mackenzie, 1985; Van Mourik, 1986; Woodford and of rusa deer is between 51 and 64 % (Woodford and Dunning, 1992). Reproductive success is greatly Dunning, 1992; Sookhareea et al., 1993; Le Bel, 1999), influenced by hind nutrition during the rut: 95 % this corresponds to liveweights of 70 to 80 kg. calving for hinds on improved pasture v. 57 % for Slaughter before 15 months of age takes advantage of hinds on native grass (Le Bel et al., 1997). However, the steady first-year growth and ensures that stags are overfat hinds may experience dystocia (J. McCosker, sold before the onset of the first rut with its possible pers. comm.). Calves are naturally weaned at 3.5 to 4 behavioural problems. months. Mature hinds wean over 85 % of calves born Attributes of rusa venison were reviewed by (Woodford and Dunning, 1992). Juvenile stags initiate Dryden (1997). In brief, rusa carcases yield more lean (pedicle) growth at 5 to 7 months, when they meat than , and typically have little fat (e.g. 5.2 to weigh 30 to 35 kg (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; 9.6 % in carcases of entire rusa stags, Sookhareea et Puttoo et al., 1998). Stags cast their in al., 1995a). Subcutaneous fat in rusa stags varies February/ March, begin to grow velvet antler in seasonally and with age (see Dryden, 1997), and is March/April, and are in hard antler during the rut. undetectable by ultrasound in animals younger than 13 months. Possibly because of its low fat content, HEALTH venison does not always score highly for organoleptic properties (Sookhareea et al., 1993). Venison is rich in Rusa deer are susceptible to a range of environ- polyunsaturated fatty acids (Sookhareea et al., 1995b), mental and disease challenges. Le Bel et al. (1997) and perhaps because much of the carcase fat is structural. Woodford and Dunning (1992) reported 26 % and 11 % perinatal losses, respectively, due to cold stress, NUTRITION abandon-ment, stillbirths and abortions, predation, and accident. Clinical cases have been reported of Johne’s Daily voluntary dry matter (DM) consumption (of disease (NZ; Gumbrel, 1986), leptospirosis (New roughage/concentrate, and roughage-only, diets) varies between 52 and 160 g per kg metabolic liveweight Caledonia; Desvals et al. 1993) and malignant catarrhal 0.75 0.75 fever (Queensland; Tomkins, et al., 1997). Parasitism (Wkg ), with most values between 55 and 75 g/kg of rusa deer was reviewed by Presidente (1984). (see Dryden, 1999). Limited data suggest that appetite Endoparasites infect rusa deer, but infection rates are is highest in autumn and winter (R. Sookhareea, pers. low to moderate (e.g. 3 to 13 %, Gill et al., 1986), and comm.). There is evidence (Hmeidan and Dryden they do not often display clinical signs. Rusa deer are 1998) that the consumption of digestible dry matter apparently resistant to liver fluke, and yersiniosis (Gill (DM) in rhodes grass may be limited by low et al., 1986; Jerrett et al., 1990). They may carry, but palatability. are not good hosts for, Boophilus microplus (Desvals et Digestibilities in vivo of grass and legume hays are al., 1993) and ticks do not effectively transmit Babesia generally between 60 and 70 % (Hmeidan and Dryden, or Anaplasma from deer to cattle (Owen, 1985). 1998; Puttoo and Dryden, 1998). Rumen volatile fatty acid profiles of stags given lucerne, barley, and rhodes GROWTH, AND VENISON grass hays, either alone or supplemented with cereal PRODUCTION AND QUALITY grain-based concentrates are similar to those of other domestic (Puttoo and Dryden, 1998). Javan rusa in Queensland are about 5 kg at birth Rusa weaners selected diets with 73 to 88 % (Woodford and Dunning, 1992), and grow to 90 kg cereal grain-based concentrate (the remainder was low- (hinds) to 140 kg (stags) at maturity. New Caledonian quality sorghum hay) and tolerated this diet with no rusa are slightly smaller − mature males weigh digestive problems (Puttoo et al., 1998). Substitution of

Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72 barley grain for hay is greater at higher levels of Gill, I.J., D.J. Overend, and L.S. Barnes. 1986. Parasitism in supplementation: in the short term, barley grain a rusa deer herd grazing irrigated pasture. Aust. Vet. J. replaces hay with substitution rates of up to 0.51 kg/kg 63: 97-98. (M. Hmeidan, pers. comm.). Substitution increases Grzimek, B. 1972. Ed.-in-chief Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. pp. with the level of concentrate offered, and may not be 169-170. important when the concentrate is less than 20 or 30 % Gumbrel, R.C. 1986. Johne's disease in deer. Surveillance, of the total diet. NZ 13: 15-16. The metabolisable energy requirements of rusa deer Hart, David. 1986. Moluccan rusa. In Deer Farming Into the are similar to those for the sambar, but may be 10 % Nineties, P. Owen Ed, Owen Art and Publishing, less than those of red deer (see Dryden, 1999). The Brisbane. pp. 53-55. requirements for maintenance and growth are 0.504 Hmeidan, M.C., G.McL. Dryden and J.E. McCosker 1999. MJ/kg0.75.d-1 and 32 MJ/kg gain, for housed stags Energy nutrition in growing and mature rusa deer stags. (Hmeidan et al., 1999). Studies of growth (Puttoo et 1999 Res. Conf. Proc., Faculty of NRAVS, Univ. Qld. Hmeidan, M.C. and Dryden, G.McL. 1998. Effect of hay al., 1998) and N kinetics (Tomkins and McMeniman, quality and grain supplementation on feed intake, 1996) indicate that the protein requirement of rusa liveweight and digestibility in young rusa deer. Anim. weaners (6 to 12 months) is approximately 15 % of the Prod. Aust. 22: 383. diet DM. A lower-protein diet (10 v. 17.5 % DM) Jerrett, I.V., Slee, K.J. and Robertson, B.I. 1990. Yersiniosis reduced growth (127 v. 158 g/d, male and female deer; in farmed deer. Aust. Vet. J. 67: 212-214. 91 v. 161 g/d, males), food conversion efficiency (8.2 Kilmaskossu, A. 1990. The possibility of deer farming in v. 5.2 kg DM/kg LWG), and delayed the start of spike Irian Jaya. Irian 18: 87-91. antler growth (Puttoo et al., 1998). From preliminary Le Bel, S., M., Salas, P. Chardonnet and M. Bianchi. 1997. data, rusa deer need 25 g ruminally available N/kg OM Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis russa) farming in New Caledonia: impact of different feed levels on herd apparently digested in the rumen (Schuring and breeding rate and performance of newborn fawns. Aust. Dryden, 1996; M. Hmeidan, pers. comm.). Vet. J. 75: 199-203. Poor growth during winter may be the major Le Bel. S. 1999. Morphologie et anatomie. In S. Le Bel Ed, limitation to the productivity of pasture-fed deer. Elevage et Gestion du Cerf Rusa en Nouvelle Growth may be limited by inadequate pasture growth Caledonie, Noumea, 18-19 Aout, 1999. and protein content, but possibly not by pasture Mackenzie, A.R. 1985. Reproduction of farmed rusa deer digestibility. (Cervus timorensis) in south-east Queensland, Australia. In Biology of Deer Production. Royal Soc. CONCLUSIONS NZ, Wellington. pp. 213-215. Maudet, F. 1999. Le cerf rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) a Rusa deer are reasonably fecund, tolerate heat, and l’Ile Maurice. In Elevage et Gestion du Cerf Rusa en resist many of the diseases prevalent in northern Nouvelle Caledonie, S. Le Bel Ed, Noumea, 18-19 Australia. Management of these animals is not Aout, 1999. difficult, notwithstanding their reputation for difficult Owen, I.L. 1985. Cattle blood parasites and rusa deer (Cervus behaviour. They perform well on subtropical grasses, timorensis). Aust. Vet. J. 62: 428-429. although these will require protein, and possibly Puttoo, M and Dryden, G.McL. (1998). Response of rusa energy, supplements during winter. Rusa venison is deer yearlings to forage and forage/ concentrate diets. well accepted by consumers, and is generally not fat, Anim. Prod. Aust. 22: 336. Puttoo, M., G.McL. Dryden and J.E. McCosker. 1998. especially if the deer are slaughtered before their Performance of weaned rusa (Cervus timorensis) deer second winter. Rusa deer can make a valuable given concentrates of varying protein content with contribution to the diversity and resilience of sorghum hay. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 38: 33-39. Australian livestock production. Presidente, P.J.A. 1984. Parasites of farmed and free-ranging deer in Australia. In Deer Refresher Course. Proc. No. REFERENCES 72. pp. 623-643. Post-Grad. Cmte. Vet Sci., Univ. Syd. Bentley, A. 1978. An Introduction to the Deer of Australia. Schuring, M.P. and G. Dryden. 1996. Validation In Deer of Rev. edn. Koetong Trust, Melbourne. the Purine Derivatives Excretion Method of Estimating Bale-Therick, J.F., J. Nada Kihe and A.R. Bale. Feeding Rumen Microbial Protein Synthesis. Department of behaviour of Timor deer (Cervus timorensis). 1996. Animal Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University. Proc. 8th AAAP Anim. Sci. Congr., Tokyo, Oct., 1996. Sinclair, S.E. 1997a. Deer Farming in Queensland − 1997 Vol. 2, pp. 288-289. Farm Survey Report. Qld. Dept. Primary Indust., Desvals, M., C. Lambert and H. Leroux. 1993. Bilan de Brisbane. quatre annees de surveillance sanitaire des cervides en Sinclair, S.E. 1997b. Deer Slaughter and Venison Production Nouvelle Caledonie. Rev. Sci. Tech. Office Internat. in Queensland: Deer Industry Development Working Epizoot., 12: 169-174. Paper No. 1. Qld. Dept. Primary Indust., Brisbane. Dryden, G.McL. 1997. Venison in the human diet − is Sinclair, S.E. 1999. Nutritional management of Red and Rusa venison a low-fat meat? Proc. Nutr. Soc. Aust. 21: 44- Deer in Queensland: Deer Industry Development 51. Working Paper No. 3. Qld. Dept. Primary Indust., Dryden, G.McL. (1999). Nutrient requirements of rusa deer Brisbane. (Cervus timorensis). In Elevage et Gestion du Cerf Sookhareea, R., D.G. Taylor, K.B. Woodford, W.R Rusa en Nouvelle Caledonie, S. Le Bel Ed, Noumea, Shorthose, G.McL. Dryden and T. Chen. 1993. A study 18-19 Aout, 1999. of carcase characteristics and meat quality of castrate Emerson, B.C. and M.L. Tate. 1993. Genetic analysis of and entire Javan rusa stags. MEAT ’93. Aust. Meat evolutionary relationships among deer (subfamily Indust. Res. Conf., Gold Coast, 11-13 October, 1993. cervinae). J. Hered. 84: 266-273. Session 8B, pp. 1-5.

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Sookhareea, R., D. Taylor, K. Woodford, G. Dryden and W.R. Shorthose. 1995a. The effect of slaughter age and sex type on meat quality of Javan rusa (Cervus timorensis) male deer. MEAT ’95. CSIRO Meat Indust. Res. Conf., Gold Coast, 1995. Session 7B, pp. 17-20. Sookhareea, R., D. Taylor, G.McL. Dryden, R. Shorthose and T. Larsen. 1995b. The effect of sex type and age on fatty acid composition of intramuscular lipid of loin muscle of Javan rusa (Cervus timorensis) deer and its relation to palatability. Proc. 41st Ann. Internat. Congr. Meat Sci. Technol., San Antonio, Texas, 1995, II: 46- 47. Stewart, J.W.F. 1985. Deer and deer development in south- west Papua New Guinea. In Biology of Deer Production. Royal Soc. NZ, Wellington. pp. 381-385. Tomkins, N.W., N.N. Jonsson, M.P. Young, A.N. Gordon and K.A. McColl. 1997. An outbreak of malignant catarrhal fever in young rusa deer (Cervus timorensis). Aust. Vet. J. 75: 722-723. Tomkins, N.W. and N.P. McMeniman 1996. Nitrogen metabolism in rusa deer (Cervus timorensis). Anim. Prod. Aust., 21: 225-257. Van Mourik, S. 1986. Reproductive performance and maternal behaviour in farmed Rusa deer (Cervus (Rusa) timorensis).Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 15: 147-160. Van Mourik, S. and V. Schurig. 1985. Hybridization between sambar (Cervus (Rusa) unicolor) and rusa (Cervus (Rusa) timorensis) deer. Zoologischer Anzeiger 214: 3- 4, 177-184. Woodford. K.B. and A. Dunning. 1992. Production cycles and characteristics of rusa deer in Australia. In The Biology of Deer. R.D. Brown Ed. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 197-202. Email: [email protected]