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Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72

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Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72 Dinnerstein, E. 1983. Deer, plant phenology and succession National Wildlife Refuge. Tall Timbers Research in the lowland forests of Nepal. In Biology and Station Tallahase. Florida. Bulletin 25:13-62.van Management of the Cervidae. C.M Wemmer Ed. Mourik, S and V. Schurig. 1985. Hybridization Smithsonian Institute Press. Washington, D.C 289-298. between sambar (Cervus (rusa) unicolor) and rusa Hsia, L.C., Z.W Sun and C.K. Chang. 1987. A survey of deer (Cervus (rusa) timorensis) deer. Zoolog-isher Anzeiger farmers in Taiwan. Proc. 4th AAAP Anim. Sci. Congr. Jena 214:177-184. Hamilton. p. 432. Simon, E.S. 1943. Breeding season of the Indian sambar Mishra, H.R. 1982. The ecology and behaviour of chital (Axis (Rusa unicolor). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. XLIV: 118- axis) in the Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal (with 119. comparative studies of hog deer (Axis porcinus), Stafford, K.J. 1995. The stomach of the sambar deer (Cervus sambar (Cervus unicolor) and barking deer (Muntiacus unicolor). Anat. Histol. Embryol. 24:241-249. muntjak). PhD Dissertation. University of Edinburgh. Sukmaraga, H. 1982. Beberapa aspek kemungkinan Scotland. pelestarian Cervus unicolor bookei dengan cara Mishra, H.R and C. Wemmer. 1987. The comparative pendayagunaan sebagai hewan ternak. Technical report. breeding ecology of four Cervids in Royal Chitwan Universitas Brawijaya. Malang. 23 pp. National Park. Proceedings of Biology and Whitehead., G.K. 1993. Encylopaedia of Deer. Swann Hill Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Publ. 259- Press. Shrewsbury 271. Zuckerman, S. 1953. The breeding seasons of mammals in Muir, P.D, G. Semiadi, G.W. Asher, T.E. Broad, M.L. Tate captivity. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 122: 827-950. and T.N. Barry. 1997. Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) x red deer (C. elaphus) interspecies hybrids. J. Hered. 88: e-mail: [email protected] 366-372. Mylrea, G.E. 1992. Natural and artificial breeding of farmed chital deer (Axis axis) in Australia. PhD Dissertation. BIOLOGY AND PRODUCTION University of Sydney. Australia. ATTRIBUTES OF THE FARMED RUSA Ngampongsai, C. 1987. Habitat use by the sambar (Cervus unicolor) in Thailand: A Case study for Khao-Tai DEER National Park. In: Biology and Management of the G. McL. Dryden Cervidae C. M Wemmer, Ed. Smithsonian Institute School of Animal Studies, The University of Press. Washington, D.C. 289-298. Queensland, Gatton, Australia, Q4345 Santiapillai, C., M.R Chambers and C. Jayawardene. 1981. Observations on the sambar Cervus unicolor in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Ceylon J. Sci. (Biol. ABSTRACT: Rusa deer were introduced to Queensland in Sci.) 14:193-205. the 1970s and 1980s, and they now are about half of the Semiadi, G. 1997. Oestrous behaviour and oestrous cycle of farmed deer herd. Rusa tolerate the subtropical climatic and sambar deer (Cervus unicolor). Zoo Indonesia 29:10-12 disease environments. Rusa venison has a low fat content and Semiadi, G. and K. Subekti, 1996. Pola kelahiran rusa is acceptable to consumers. Protein and energy requirements Bawean di penangkaran dan perbandingannya dengan are similar to values for other tropical deer. Growth may be kelompok Cervidae lainnya. Berkala Penelitian Hayati limited by the low protein content of tropical grasses during 2:81-86. winter. Rusa deer could contribute to the diversity of the Semiadi, G., T.N Barry and P.D. Muir. 1993. Growth, milk Australian livestock industries. intake and behaviour of artificially reared sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) fawns. DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 121:273-281. BIOLOGY Semiadi, G, P.D Muir, and T.N Barry 1994. General biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) in captivity. NZ J. Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) are an Indonesian Agric. Res. 37:79-85. species, members of the Sunda sambar subgenus, and Semiadi, G., T.N Barry and P.D. Muir. 1995a. Comparison of with eight subspecies (Grzimek, 1972). Although seasonal patterns of growth, voluntary feed intake and present taxonomy locates rusa within the genus Cervus, plasma hormone concentrations in young sambar deer genetic analysis using blood proteins (Emerson and (Cervus unicolor) & red deer (Cervus elaphus). J. Tate, 1993) suggests that the sambar (C. unicolor) and Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 125:109-124. rusa should be grouped together, and separately from Semiadi, G., T.N. Barry, P.D Muir, and J. Hodgson. 1995b. the other cervinae. Hybrid-isation between sambar and Dietary preferences of sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) offered browse, forage rusa gives a viable offspring (Van Mourik and Schurig, legume and grass species. J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 1985). 125:99-107. Javan rusa (C. t. russa or C. t. timorensis) are Semiadi, G, C.W. Holmes, T.N. Barry and P.D. Muir, 1996. widely farmed in the subtropics, with herds of several Effects of cold conditions on heat production by young thousands in Mauritius, Malaysia, New Caledonia, sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus Reunion Island and Taiwan (Maudet, 1999). There are elaphus). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 126:221-226. feral rusa in Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya Semiadi, G., C.W Holmes, T.N. Barry, and P.D. Muir, 1998. (Stewart, 1985; Kilmaskossu 1990). The efficiency of utilization of energy and nitrogen in Javan rusa were introduced into Australia in the young sambar (Cervus unicolor) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 130:193-198Thom, early 1900s (e.g. to Sydney’s Royal National Park in W.S. 1937. The Malayan or Burmese sambar. J. 1907; Bentley, 1978), and came to Queensland via Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 309-319. Victoria in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The smaller Shea, S.M., L.B. Flynn, R.L Marchinton, and J.E. Lewis. Moluccan rusa (C. t. moluccensis) was introduced to 1990. Part II. Social behavior, movement, ecology and the Torres Strait in 1912 (Bentley, 1978) and a nucleus food habits. In: Ecology of sambar deer on St. Vincent herd was brought from there to Queensland in 1980 Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13 Supplement July 2000 C: 62-72 (Hart, 1986). Rusa deer have increased in popularity approximately 102 kg (Le Bel et al., 1997; Le Bel, so that they and the red deer (Cervus elaphus) are now 1999). Target weights (modified from Sinclair, 1999) the two major farmed species in Queensland (Sinclair, for Queensland Javan rusa are 35 and 30 kg (stags, 1997a). Most Queensland rusa are Javan or Javan × hinds) at 5 months, 65 and 60 kg at 13 months, and 140 Moluccan hybrids. There have been preliminary studies and 90 kg at maturity. of the Timor deer (C. t. florensis) as another possible Autumn-born Javan rusa stags grow steadily farmed species (Bale-Therick et al. 1996). throughout their first year (150 to 200 g/d), but more slowly in their second year, especially during winter REPRODUCTION (20 to 45 g/d) (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; R. Rutting (mating) in Javan deer lasts for about 3 Sookhareea, pers. comm.). Weaner stags fed a grain- months (late June to late September). Javan rusa may rich, 17.5 % protein, ration grew at 160 g/d (Puttoo et calve throughout the year but most are born in autumn al., 1998). This may be a practical upper limit to stag (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; Maudet, 1999), after a growth. 249 ± 3.1 (mean ± SE; Van Mourik, 1986) or 253 ± Venison is the major commercial product of rusa 1.0 (Woodford and Dunning, 1992) day gestation, deer. Growth rate and carcase fat content determine which is independent of the calf’s sex. Moluccan rusa the profitability of venison production. Queensland have a second calving peak in spring. Javan rusa hinds processors require animals for slaughter (Sinclair, calve each year, at intervals of 366 ± 6.8 days (Van 1997b) which are in good to prime condition, have 3 to Mourik, 1986), or between 280 and 400 days 8 or 12 mm subcutaneous fat at the 12 rib, and depending on the previous calving date (Woodford and importantly will yield a minimum 35 to 40 kg carcase, Dunning, 1992). Calving rates are over 90 % preferably more than 50 kg. As the dressing percentage (Mackenzie, 1985; Van Mourik, 1986; Woodford and of rusa deer is between 51 and 64 % (Woodford and Dunning, 1992). Reproductive success is greatly Dunning, 1992; Sookhareea et al., 1993; Le Bel, 1999), influenced by hind nutrition during the rut: 95 % this corresponds to liveweights of 70 to 80 kg. calving for hinds on improved pasture v. 57 % for Slaughter before 15 months of age takes advantage of hinds on native grass (Le Bel et al., 1997). However, the steady first-year growth and ensures that stags are overfat hinds may experience dystocia (J. McCosker, sold before the onset of the first rut with its possible pers. comm.). Calves are naturally weaned at 3.5 to 4 behavioural problems. months. Mature hinds wean over 85 % of calves born Attributes of rusa venison were reviewed by (Woodford and Dunning, 1992). Juvenile stags initiate Dryden (1997). In brief, rusa carcases yield more lean antler (pedicle) growth at 5 to 7 months, when they meat than cattle, and typically have little fat (e.g. 5.2 to weigh 30 to 35 kg (Woodford and Dunning, 1992; 9.6 % in carcases of entire rusa stags, Sookhareea et Puttoo et al., 1998). Stags cast their antlers in al., 1995a). Subcutaneous fat in rusa stags varies February/ March, begin to grow velvet antler in seasonally and with age (see Dryden, 1997), and is March/April, and are in hard antler during the rut. undetectable by ultrasound in animals younger than 13 months.
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  • Pan-American Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) Trinaperronei N. Sp

    Pan-American Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) Trinaperronei N. Sp

    Garcia et al. Parasites Vectors (2020) 13:308 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04169-0 Parasites & Vectors RESEARCH Open Access Pan-American Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) trinaperronei n. sp. in the white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann and its deer ked Lipoptena mazamae Rondani, 1878: morphological, developmental and phylogeographical characterisation Herakles A. Garcia1,2* , Pilar A. Blanco2,3,4, Adriana C. Rodrigues1, Carla M. F. Rodrigues1,5, Carmen S. A. Takata1, Marta Campaner1, Erney P. Camargo1,5 and Marta M. G. Teixeira1,5* Abstract Background: The subgenus Megatrypanum Hoare, 1964 of Trypanosoma Gruby, 1843 comprises trypanosomes of cervids and bovids from around the world. Here, the white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann) and its ectoparasite, the deer ked Lipoptena mazamae Rondani, 1878 (hippoboscid fy), were surveyed for trypanosomes in Venezuela. Results: Haemoculturing unveiled 20% infected WTD, while 47% (7/15) of blood samples and 38% (11/29) of ked guts tested positive for the Megatrypanum-specifc TthCATL-PCR. CATL and SSU rRNA sequences uncovered a single species of trypanosome. Phylogeny based on SSU rRNA and gGAPDH sequences tightly cluster WTD trypanosomes from Venezuela and the USA, which were strongly supported as geographical variants of the herein described Trypa- nosoma (Megatrypanum) trinaperronei n. sp. In our analyses, the new species was closest to Trypanosoma sp. D30 from fallow deer (Germany), both nested into TthII alongside other trypanosomes from cervids (North American elk and European fallow, red and sika deer), and bovids (cattle, antelopes and sheep). Insights into the life-cycle of T. trinaper- ronei n. sp. were obtained from early haemocultures of deer blood and co-culture with mammalian and insect cells showing fagellates resembling Megatrypanum trypanosomes previously reported in deer blood, and deer ked guts.