Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences

The Why's and Where's of Bear Attacks Common Knowledge on the Range A Yellowstone Millipede

Volume 4 Number 1 NPS Photo

New Wolves

This page usually gets written last, as wolves have arrived. On Tuesday, Janu­ \Vere on hand to snowshoe half a mile in we are hun·ying to get Yelloivstone Sci­ ary 23, the year's first eleven were deliv­ to watch the placement of the young pair ence to the printer. That means, among ered to acclimation pens at Blacktail Pla­ at the new Blacktail pen. Unlike last other things, that after we have the "News teau (one male, one female), Crystal Creek year's wolves, \Vho were generally quite and Notes" all done, we still have this one (two males, t\vo fernales), and Nez Perce cautious about leaving their shipping con­ last chance to tell you so1nething that we Creek (two males, three females). On tainers, these t\vo rushed from the con­ didn't have time to tell you in the back of January 27, one more female \vas added tainers as soon as they were opened. In the n1agazine. to Nez Perce (part of the same pack, but the photograph above, Wolf Biologist This \vinter, two federal shutdowns captured later), and five more (one male, Doug Smith (left) and Assistant Superin­ and continuing uncertainties about which four females)\vere placed in the Rose tendent Marv Jensen are releasing the parts of the park operation \vould be Creek pen for a total of 17 new wolves. first of these two. funded forced us to wait a little longer All four pens have potential breeding There is more \Volf news to be re­ before completing this issue of Yello1v­ pairs. The largest wolf is the 130-pound ported, but we n1ust save it for the next sto11e Science. But at the sa1ne time, the alpha tnale at Nez Perce, who is larger issue. In the meantime, \Ve can report that \Volves kept making news, so it was hard than any of last year's \Valves. the Yellowstone area now has a total of to know when to stop adding ne\v stories Public and media attention to this year's 38 wolves, \vi th high hopes of more come about then1 and call the ne\vs finished. arrivals 1,vas not as extensive as last year, spnng. The latest big ne\vs is that the ne\V but a busload of media and park staff PS Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences Volume4 Number I Winter 1996 Table of Contents

Bear-Inflicted Human Injuries in Yellowstone, 2 1970-1994 Statistical analysis is beginning to tell us important things not only about who is most at risk, but also where, when, and why. If you're going to hike or camp in the park, don't miss this one. by Kerry Gunther and Hopi Hoekstra

Yellowstone's First Millipede 10 As research on the smaller animals of Yellowstone begins to catch up with research on the glamor animals, important discoveries are made, some of them surprisingly far from the park. by Rowland Shelley

Grazing and Yellowstone 12 Editor Common knowledge, both within and beyond the scientific Paul Schullery community, has long held that the Northern Range is overgrazed. Art Director Herbivory expert Sam McNaughton, familiar with overgrazing Renee Evanoff around the world, is unconvinced, but he's still listening. Associate Editor Interview with Sam McNaughton Sarah Broadbent Editorial Assistants News and Notes 18 Lori Campas Lots of wolf news • Yellowstone experiences federal shutdown • Ursula Weitman :tvlarv Jensen new assistant superintendentt • Grizzly bear recovery Printing plan ruled inadequate • Earthquake swarms along the caldera Artcraft Inc. boundary Bozeman, Montana

Yellowstone Science is published quarterly, and submissions are welcome from all investigators On the cover: Bears have fasci­ conducting formal research in the Yellowstone area. Editorial correspondence should be sent to nated, entertained, and fright­ the Editor, Yellowstone Science, Yellowstone Center for Resources, P.O. Box 168, Yellowstone ened Yellolvstone visitors for National Park, WY 82190. more than a century. The face of The opinions expressed in Yellowstone Science are the authors' and may not reflect either this young visitor, at the Fishing National Park Service policy or the views of the Yellowstone Center for Resources. Bridge Visitor Center in the Copyright© 1996, the Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History & Education. 1960s, capturesmuchofourwon­ Support for Yellowstone Science is provided by the Yellowstone Association for Natural der at the park's n1ost fanzous Science, History & Education, a non-profit educational organization dedicated to serving the and dangerous ani1nals. See the park and its visitors. For more information about the Yellowstone Association, including article on page 2. membership, write to P.O. Box 117, Yellowstone National Park, \VY 82190. Bear-Inflicted Human Injuries in Yellowstone, 1970-1994

A cautionary and instructive guide to who gets hurt and why

by Kerry Gunther and Hopi Hoekstra

Yellowstone's bears have been an i1n­ decline in bear-inflicted human injuries included all incidents that occurred \Vi thin portant tourist attraction for many years, from 1970 through 1994, despite the con­ or immediately adjacent to the road cor­ but both the bears and the tourists have tinuing increase in park visitation (Table ridor. Backcountry is defined as all areas suffered because of this familiarity. From 1). This paper reviews bear injuries dur­ excluding roadsides and developed ar­ 1930 through 1969, an average of 45 ing the past 25 years, and shows what eas. Further information collected in­ people per year were injured by black activities and types of behavior by people cluded the number of people in the party, bears in the park. During the same time are most likely to result in hurnan inju­ gender of the injured person, activity of period, grizzly bears injured an average ries. the party prior to injury, reaction of the of 2 people per year. Most of these inju­ To co1npile this report, \Ve reviewed 25 person to the attacking bear, species of ries occurred along roadsides or in devel­ years of YNP files, including case inci­ bear involved, and sex and age class of oped areas and involved human foods or dent reports, personal statements, and bear, if known. The extent of the injury, garbage as bear attractants. ne\11spaper articles. We included only whether minor (requiring less than a day Due to concerns for hun1an safety and injuries that \Vere verified by park per­ of hospitalization or less than 35 sutures) potential loss of free-ranging wild bears, sonnel; all dubious cases were excluded. or severe (requiring inore than one day of bear management policy \vithin Yellow­ Information obtained from the files in­ hospitalization or 35 or more sutures) stone National Park (YNP) has been pro­ cluded date, approxirnate time, and loca­ was also recorded. gressively intensified over time, espe­ tion (developed area, roadside, or cially since 1970, the year the last park backcountry) of bear-caused human in­ How Many Injnries, and Where? du1np was closed. These improvements jury. Developed area injuries are defined in management actions, along \Vith pub­ as those that occurred in or adjacent to The total number of YNP visitors lic education. may be responsible for the human developments. Roadside injuries steadily increased since 1970 and reached

2 Yello~vstone Science NPS Photo flicted injury rate in the backcountry re­ mained relatively constant. In the 25-year period 1970-1994, 82 Grizzly bear sows 1'Vith people were injured in 77 separate inci­ young ofthe year were sta­ dents in YNP (Table 2). Of these injuries, tistically the most likely to 60 (73%) were considered minor, 19 be involved in backcount1y (23%) were severe, and 3 (4%) resulted bear attacks. in fatalities. Black bears and grizzly bears were involved in 32 (39%) and 42(51 %) of the injuries, respectively. The species of bear involved could not be determined for 8 (10%) of the injuries. Only one person was injured in most (94%) bear attacks, but in each of 5 (6%) cases 2 persons were injured. There were no Table 1. Number ofpark visitors, number of bear-inflicted hutnan injuries, incidents reported in which more than 2 and number of injuries per 1nillion visitors in Yello1'vstone National Park, people were injured. In 4 of the 5 (80%) 1970-1994. incidents in which more than 1 person Year Number of visitors Number of injuries Injuries per million visitors \Vas injured, female bears with cubs-of­ the-year (COY) were involved. Overall, 2,297,290 1970 12 5.2 female bears with young (COY or year­ 1971 2, 120,487 9 4.3 lings) were involved in 29 (35%) of the 1972 2,246,827 8 3.6 injuries. Fifty-nine (72%) of the people injured were male and 22 (27%) were 1973 2,061,537 6 2.9 female; 1 (1 %) report did not list the 1974 1,937,768 7 3.6 gender of the injured person. All injuries 1975 2,246,132 3 1.3 occuned from May through November; 1976 2,525,174 8 3.2 most injuries occurred during August (37%). Injuries occurred in developed 1977 2,487,084 3 1.2 areas (13%), along roadsides (43%), in 1978 2,623.141 2 0.8 backcountry areas ( 41 % ), and during re­ 1979 1,891.927 3 1.6 search or management handling of bears 1980 2,009,581 0.5 (2%). The trend in the location of bear-in­ 1981 2.544,242 4 1.6 flicted injuries has changed dramatically 1982 2,404,862 0 0.0 from 1970-1994. Whereas roadside inju­ 1983 2,405,653 2 0.8 ries predominated (56%) during the pe­ riod 1970-1979, there were no roadside 1984 2,262,969 5 2.2 injuries reported from 1980-1994. From 1985 2,262,455 0 0.0 1980 through 1994, most (80%) bear­ 1986 2,405,063 3 l.3 inflicted injuries occurred in the 1987 2,618,249 0 0.0 backcountry. There was also a change over tin1e in 1988 2,219,128 0 0.0 the species of bear involved in hu1nan 1989 2,680,376 0.4 injuries. During the period from 1970 1990 2,857,096 0 0.0 through 1979, v.1hen most injuries ocN 1991 2,957,856 0 0.0 curred along roadsides, 40 (66%) of all bear-inflicted hun1an injuries \Vere re­ 1992 3, 186, 190 0.3 portedly caused by black bears, 15 (24%) 1993 2,912, 193 0 0.0 by grizzly bears, and 6 ( !0%) by uniden­ 1994 3,046,645 4 1.3 tified species. From 1980 through 1994, \vhen most injuries occurred in the backcountry, 17 (81%) of all bear-in­ an all time high of more than 3 million creased again in the early to mid-I 990s. flicted human injuries \Vere caused by visitors per year in 1992. Backcountry During the same period, however, total grizzly bears, 2 (10%) by black bears, use nights increased through the 1970s, bear-inflicted human injuries have and 2 ( 10%) by unidentified bear species. dropped during the early 1980s, and in- steadily decreased, while the bear-in- Whereas black bear-caused injuries de~ Winter 1996 3 Table 2. Number of visi!ors, backcountry use nights (BUN), and bear-inflicted human injuries by grizzly bears, black bears, and unknown species of bears in Yellowstone National Park, 1970-1994.

Bear-inflicted human injuries Total Developed area Roadside Backcountry Handling Year Visitation BUN Gr Bl Un Gr Bl Un Gr Bl Un Gr Bl Un Gr Bl Un

1970 2,297,290 4 6 2 2 1 1 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1971 2,120,487 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1972 2,246,827 2 5 1 0 0 1 0 5 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1973 2,061,537 36,219 0 5 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1974 1,937,768 41,282 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1975 2,246,132 44,374 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1976 2,525,174 50,580 4 4 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1977 2,487,084 55,331 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1978 2,623,141 52,795 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1979 1,891,927 51,182 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1980 2,009,581 54,874 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1981 2,544,242 55,060 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1982 2,404,862 49,400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1983 2,405,653 43,738 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l 0 0 0 0 0 1984 2,262,969 34,936 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 1985 2,262,455 32,532 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1986 2,405,063 31,414 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1987 2,618,249 32,906 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1988 2,219,128 25,188 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1989 2,680,376 32,747 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1990 2,857,096 37,318 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1991 2,957,856 41,476 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1992 3,186,190 42,124 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1993 2,912,193 45,135 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1994 3,046,645 45,460 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0

creased dramatically v.1ith the decrease in injuries in developed areas occurred in caused by black bears in developed areas roadside panhandling by black bears, in­ (91 % ) or near (9%) roadside camp­ occurred between 5:30 a.m. and 2:30 juries inflicted by grizzly bears in grounds: 4 at Grant Village, 3 at Fishing p.m. Female grizzly bears with COY were backcountry areas remained relatively Bridge, 2atCanyon, and 1 each at Bridge involved in 36% (4) of the iajuries and constant over time. Bay and Madison. Grizzly bears and black single adult bears (I grizzly bear, l black bears were involved in 5 (46%) and 3 bear) in 18% (2). The age class of the bear Injuries in Developed Areas (27%) of the injuries, respectively. The involved could not be determined for species of bear involved could not be 46% (5) of the injuries. Fifty-five percent From 1970 through 1994, 11 bear­ determined for 3 (27%) of the injuries. of the injuries (4 by grizzly bear, 2 by caused injuries occurred in developed Injuries in developed areas occurred dur­ black bear) were considered severe and areas in YNP; 9 (82%) of these injuries ing July (27%), August (55%), and Sep­ 45% (1 by a grizzly bear, 1 by a black occurred prior to 1979. Only 2 (18%) of tember (18%). All injuries caused by bear, and 3 by unknown species) were the injuries in developed areas occurred grizzly bears in developed areas occurred minor. Only one person was injured in during the last 16 ( 1979-1994) years. All between 1:00 and 4:00 a.m. All injuries most (90%) attacks that occurred in de-

4 Yello~vstone Science (54%) of the injuries. Thirty-fourof the injuries that occurred along roadsides were minor; onl)r one roadside injury was considered severe. The severe injury involved a person bit­ ten on the arm by a black bear that was attempting to get food from an occupied vehicle along the roadside. The person sustained a broken arm and lacerations that required more than lOO sutures. In 33 of 34 incidents that occurred along roadsides, only one person was injured. In one incident, a subadult black bear of unknown sex bit two children who ap­ proached to get their picture taken \Vith it. Fifteen (43%) of the people injured reported improper behavior as a cause for injury: 9 (26%) fed bears, 3 (9%) at­ tempted to touch or pet bears, 2 (6%) attempted to have their pictures taken with bears, and l (3%) approached bears Overnight ca1nping in Yello'lvstone's backcountry demands careful attention to for a better vie\v. The remaining 20 sanitation. Visitors staying in park catnpgro.unds should be extreniely careful ivith (57%) reported that they were either view­ food storage. Not only should they follow all regulations, but also they shouldfeel free ing (43%) or photographing (14%) bears to be a little nosy and make sure their neighbors are doing the sanze. when the injury occurred. However, the percentage of people being injured due to velopedareas. The only incident in which infant that was sleeping outside in a play­ improper behavior may be under-reported more than one person was injured in­ pen. Ten (91%) of the people injured in because of the repercussions involved volved an adult female grizzly bear with developed areas were male (4 by grizzly a cub that injured 2 people. bears, 3 by black bears, 3 by unknown Of the 11 people injured by bears in species). Only 1 (9%) of the iajured people developed areas, 4 (45%) were involved was female (by a grizzly bear). in improper behavior: 4 (3 by grizzly bears, 1 by unknown species) involved Injuries Along Roadsides improper food storage and I (by a black bear) occu1Ted in an illegal catnp. Of From 1970 through 1994, there were these 5 injuries, 2 involved people \vho 35 people injured in 34 separate incidents 1,vere sleeping outside "under the stars" in along roadsides; all occu1Ted prior to 1977. sleeping bags next to improperly stored Black bears were involved in 34 (97%) of food, l involved a person who had left the roadside injuries, while the species of food stored next to his tent at night, I bear could not be determined for 1 (3%) injury resulted from a 1nan leaving his of the injuries. No grizzly bear-caused trailer to attempt to chase a female grizzly human injuries along roadsides were re­ bear \Vith cubs away frorn an in1properly ported. Roadside injuries occurred dur­ stored cooler at night, and one incident ing June (11%), July (26%), August involved a person \vho was sleeping out­ (37%), and September (26%). All road­ side in a sleeping bag in an illegal camp. side injuries occurred bet\veen 8:00 a.in. Six attacks \Vere considered unpro­ and 8:00 p.m.; most occurred bet\veen voked: 2 (I by a grizzly bear, and I by a l l:OO a.m. and 3:00 p.m. (59%). Adult black bear) involved people sleeping in and subadult bears of unknown sex were An annual average of 48 people tvere tents, 2 (I by a grizzly bear, I by an involved in 7 (20%) and 4 (11 %) of the injured by bears between 1930and1970, unknown species) involved people sleep­ injuries, respectively. Female bears \vi th 1nost along park roads. The prohibition ing outside "under the stars" in sleeping COY \Vere involved in 2 (6%) injuries, a of roadside feeding of black bears has bags, 1 incident (by an unknown species) female with a yearling in I (3% ), an adult abnost co1npletely elhninated roadside involved a person \Valking through a de­ male in l (3%), and a lone adult female bear-caused hunzan injuries since the veloped area, and I incident involved a bear in I (3%). The sex and age class of 1970s, and has greatly reduced the 1nor­ black bear atternpting to carry off an the bear could not be detennined for 19 tality of black bears as well. Winter 1996 5 NPS Photos with improper behavior (i.e. fear of cita­ Hiking par­ tions, fines, or embarrassment). Of the tiesofthreeor people injured along roadsides, 22 (63%) more ivere were male and 12 (34%) were female; I less likely to (3%) of the reports did not list the gender be attacked by of the injured person. , a bear, prob­ i ably because Injuries in the Backcountry 1 they make more noise as Backcountry injuries have ranged from they travel. zero to four per year from 1970 through 1994. The annual number of injuries in the backcountry has remained relatively constant despite a steady increase in the number of visitors to YNP. A total of 34 killed and partially consumed by the bear. people were injured by bears in 31 sepa­ Two of the people injured while hiking rate incidents in the backcountry. In each off-trail surprised bears on carcasses. of 3 incidents, 2 people were injured; all Only three backcountry injuries (2 by 3 of these incidents involved female bears grizzly bear, I by black bear) involved Grizzly bear claws up close: notice that with COY (2 by grizzly bears, 1 by a people \vho were camping. Two of these one claiv has been broken. black bear). three incidents resulted in fatalities. Both Grizzly bears and black bears were fatalities in backcountry campsites in­ incurred while hiking. Attempting to run involved in 26 (76%) and 4 (12%) of the volved grizzly bears and occurred at night. away fro1n a bear after an encounter pre­ injuries, respectively. The species of bear Another i1nportant factor involved in ceded 4 (13%) and yelling at a bear dur­ involved could not be determined for 4 backcountry injuries is the nu1nber of ing an encounter preceded 4 (l 3 % ). Three (12%) of the injuries. Backcountry inju­ people travelling in the party. The aver­ (I 0%) of the injured people "stood their ries occurred during May (6%), June age number of people hiking into the ground" or had no time to react when (29%), July (18%), August (29%), Sep­ backcountry of YNP with an overnight charged. In one (3%) incident a hiker tember (12%), October (3%), and No­ permit was 3.2 people per party for the sprayed a charging bear with bear spray vember (3% ). Backcountry injuries oc­ period 1987-1992; stock parties averaged before the bear made contact. The hiker curred throughouttheday and night. Most 4.6 persons per party. The average size of received only a minor injury. However, injuries occurred from June through Sep­ parties with at least one person being the injury did occur after the bear \Vas tember (88%) and between 10:00 a.m. injured by bears was 1.8 people per party. sprayed. Only one (3%) of the injured and 7:00 p.m. (91%). Fourteen (45%) of the injuries involved a people reported that "playing dead" was Most (68%) backcountry injuries in­ party sizeof2 people and 13 (42%) of the their initial reaction to a surprise encoun­ volved female bears with cubs (50%) or injured people hiked alone. Only 3 (9%) ter with a bear. In one (3%) incident, the yearlings (18%). These percentages may of the people injured by bears in hiker dropped to the ground when charged, be underestimated because young often backcountry areas reported hiking \Vith 3 but then kicked at the charging bear and run off as the so\.v charges and thus may or more people. \Vas bitten on the foot The initial reaction not be seen. Eighteen (53%) of the bear­ Of the 31 people injured while hiking, of the people injured was not recorded for caused injuries that occurred in the only 4 (13%) reported that they were 2 (6%) separate attacks. backcountry were minor, 13 (38%) were n1aking an effort to 1nake noise as they considered severe and 3 (9%) resulted in hiked. Of these, one \Vas hiking near a Reaction of Hikers After Initial Attack fatalities. Two of the three fatalities oc­ waterfall, which may have muffled the by Bears curred in backcountry campsites. Of the noise she \Vas making, and one \vas wear­ 34 people injured by bears in the ing only a sn1alljingle bell, the noise fron1 Eleven of the 3 l (36%) people injured backcountry, 25 (74%) were men and 9 which probably did not carry far. in the backcountry reported that they (26%) were women. played dead after being attacked by a Thirty-one people were injured while Initial Reaction of Hikers to bear. Of these. 9 (82%) stated that the hiking (24 by grizzly bear, 3 by black Encounters With Bears bear left then1 alone as soon as they bear, and 4 by unknown species): 16 stopped resisting, and 7 of these 9 re­ (52%) were hiking off trail and 15 (48%) The reaction that hikers had to bears ceived only minor injuries. Bears contin­ were hiking on trail. Thirty of these 31 \Vhen first encountered also may have ued to attack (for an unkno\vn time pe­ incidents involved surprise encounters influenced the outcoine of bear-hu1nan riod) 2 of the l l people that played dead with bears, \Vhile 1 is believed to have interactions. Running to or attempting to after the initial attack. Both \Vere severely been caused by a photographer approach­ climb a tree during an encounter \vith a injured. ing a grizzly bear. The photographer \Vas bear preceded 15 (48%) of the injuries Five (16%) people reported that they

6 Yello~vstone Science Left: castingatrackfrom the leg. The rangerreceived small pinch­ ablackbear'sfoot. Black marks that did not penetrate the skin. bears are too often thought of as harmless, but hundreds of people Some Conclusions have been injured by Yel­ [ol-vstone black bears, Prior to 1970, most bear management involved food-conditioned bears that were some quite seriously. extensively influenced by the availability of human foods and garbage in devel­ oped areas and along roadsides. Manage­ ment after 1970 involved bears that were largely uninfluenced by human food and garbage. From 1970 through 1978, bear­ tion of the people after the initial attack inflicted human injuries decreased sig­ started was not known or reported. nificantly from previous levels to an av­ erage of 6 per year. Of these injuries, an Habitats Types Associated With average of 4 per year occurred along Injuries roadsides, 2 per year in backcountry ar­ eas, and 1 per year in developments. Of the backcountry iajuries, 21 of 31 By 1979, most bears with prior knowl­ (68%) incidents occurred in forested ar­ edge of sources of human foods were no eas and 10 (32%) occurred in non-for­ longer in the population. At this time ested areas. Cover classes in which inju­ management emphasis changed from ries occurred were not proportional to correction of a problem (sanitation) to habitat availability. Injuries occurred awareness that a high level of preventive more frequently in non-forested areas management must become a routine part and less frequently in forested areas than of park operations. From 1979 through would be expected based on the avail­ 1994, bear-inflicted human injuries de­ ability of the respective cover classes. clined further from previous levels to an A 1930s scene at Yellowstone Lake: average of2 per year. During this period, black bear cubs on a picnic table. Elevation and Season Associated With bear inflicted human injuries along road­ Injuries sides and in developed areas became rare, while injuries in backcountry areas re­ continued to resist (usually by kicking, Elevations at which injuries occurred mained at about the same level as during punching, or fending off an attacking ranged from 1,711 to 2,892 m (5,614 to the 1970-1978 period. bear) after initially being attacked, and 4 9,488 ft.). The majority (74%) of injuries In addition, injuries inflicted by black of the 5 received severe injuries. In 3 occurred between 2,300 and 2,600 m bears have been reduced significantly (10%) incidents, bears that had injured (7,595 and 8,530 ft.). Bear-inflicted hu­ from 45 per year prior to 1970, to 2 per people were chased off by a second per­ man injuries occurred during the spring, year from 1970 through 1994, and less son. [n one of those 3 incidents, the bear summer and fall. Neither elevation class than I per year from 1979 through 1994. then attacked the second person. In 3 nor season was significantly correlated During the same time period, human in­ (10%) incidents, people reported that the with injuries. juries inflicted by grizzly bears have been attacking bear terminated the attack on its reduced slightly from an average of2 per own and left. In 2 (6%) incidents, people Bear Handling Accidents year from 1931-1969 to an average of l \Vere able to climb trees to escape from per year from 1970-1994. the attacking bear after being injured, and Since 1970, two injuries to humans The large reduction in injuries along in l (3%) incident a person continued occurred during research (I) or 1nanage­ roadsides and in developed areas follow­ running from a bear after being injured ment (1) handling of bears. In 1981, a ing the significant reduction in the and the bear terminated the attack. In 1 researcher received minor lacerations availability of human foods from these (3%) incident, a person that had been \Vhen an imtnobilized grizzly bear awoke areas supports the theory that the high injured by a grizzly bear sprayed the bear unusually quickly from the effects of a incidence of bear-inflicted human inju­ \Vith capsaicin spray. The spray also got tranquilizer during a research trapping ries occurring in the park prior to 1970 into the hiker's eyes and the reaction of operation. In 1983, a park ranger was was due to the combination of food-con­ the bear was not observed. However, the attempting to move an unconscious black ditioned bears and the availability of hu­ bear terminated the attack some time af­ bear (it had been hit by a car) off the road. man foods and garbage in developed ar­ ter being sprayed. For 5 reports, the reac- The bear woke up and bit the ranger on eas and along roadsides. Winter 1996 7 NPS Photo

Bear Inflicted Human Injuries in ing attracted to menstruating \VO men were Backcountry Areas found. Most injuries occurring in Yellowstone During the period l 979-1994, most National Parkpriorto 1980 involved food­ bear-inflicted human injuries occurred in conditioned bears arid human foods or backcountry areas. Most backcountry in­ garbage as attractants and were therefore juries involved surprise encounters be­ probably unrelated to menstruation. Af­ tween hikers, hiking in small groups (less ter l 979, human food attractants had been than 3 people) and female grizzly bears largely eliminated and probably were not with young. Most of the people injured a factor in most bear-inflicted injuries. reacted to surprise encounters with bears More than 38 million people visited Yel­ by running, attempting to climb trees, or lowstone during the 15-year period from resisting an attack. More than half of the l 980 through l 994. These visitors spent people injured by bears were hiking off­ more than 8 million nights camping in trail. The chance of being injured by a developed area ca1npgrounds and more bear while hiking can be reduced by tak­ than 600,000 nights camping in ing steps to avoid surprise encounters, backcountry areas in the park. Although hiking in groups of at least 3 people, and actual statistics are unavailable, many staying on maintained hiking trails. In menstruating women undoubtedly hike most, but not all cases, running, attempt­ and/or camp in the park each year. Dur­ ing to climb a tree, or resisting an attack brochures warn ·women against hiking or ing the period l 980 through 1994, 21 do not appear to be good alternatives camping in bear country during their people were injured by bears in the park. during an encounter with a bear. menstrual periods. Of these 21 injuries, 15 (71 %) were men, Although people who were hiking were A recent study designed to test the and 6 (29%) were women. Most (86%) of injured more often than people in hypothesis that bears are attracted to the these injuries involved sudden, close en­ backcountry campsites, injuries to people odors of menstruation reported that when counters between bears and hikers and in backcountry campsites tended to be presented with a series of different odors were therefore most likely unrelated to more severe. All 3 injuries that occurred (including seal scents, other food scents, menstruation. Of the 3 (14%) incidents in backcountry campsites occurred at nonmenstrual human blood, and used tam­ where people were injured while camp­ night and 2 of the 3 injuries resulted in pons), 4 captive polar bears elicited a ing, 2ofthe injured people were male and fatalities. In both fatalities the people strong behavioral response only to seal I was female. The won1an was not men­ were partially consumed. This suggests scents and menstrual odors (used tam­ struating at the time of the attack. There that being aggressive and resisting at­ pons). This study also reported that free­ was no evidence linking menstruation to tacks n1ay be the tnost appropriate re­ ranging polar bears detected and con­ any of these 21 bear attacks. sponse to attacks that occur at night su1ned food scent samples and used tan1- The question of v.'hether menstruating in backcountry campsites. When pons, but ignored rionmenstrual human women attract bears has not been com­ backcountry can1ping, keeping all food blood and unused tampons. This suggests pletely answered. There is no evidence secured from bears appears to be very that polar bears may be attracted to odors that grizzly or black bears are attracted to important. In2of3 injuries in backcountry associated with menstrual blood. 1nenstrual odors more than any other odor campsites, bears had gotten into food left Another study analyzed the circum­ and there is no statistical evidence that unsecured by the injured person. In the stances of hundreds of grizzly bear at­ kno\vn grizzly or black bear attacks have third incident, the bear obtained the tacks on humans, including the attacks on been related to menstruation. It is ex­ person's can1p food even though it was the 2 women in GNP, and concluded that tremely difficult to accurately compare apparently hung properly. It is not known there \Vas no evidence linking menstrua­ the ratio of males to females that are \Vhether the bear got into the food before tion lo any of the attacks. The responses injured by bears in Yellowstone because or after attacking the backcountry camper. of grizzly bears to menstrual odors has the park does not keep records of visitor not been studied experimentally. use by gender. However, the injury data Bears and Menstruating Won1en A third study recorded the responses of for Yellowstone National Park does not 26 free-ranging black bears to used tan1- suggest that females are more likely to be On the evening of August 13, 1967, pons from 26 \vo1nen and the responses attacked by bears than are males. t\VO women were attacked and killed by of 20 free-ranging black bears to 4 n1en­ The use of internal tampons instead of grizzly bears in separate incidents in Gla­ struating \V01nen at different days of their external pads, as well as the careful treat­ cier National Park (GNP). Following tlov.1• Menstrual odors were essentially ment of used tampons in the sa1ne 1nan­ these incidents, there \Vas speculation ignored by black bears of all sex and age ner as garbage or other potential bear that due to odors associated \vith men­ classes. [n an extensive review of black attractants, is nlost probably sufficient to struation, won1en n1ay be more prone to bear attacks across North America, no reduce any greater risk to menstruating attack by bears than are men. Many safety instances of black bears attacking or be- wo1nen. 8 Yelloivstone Science NPS Photo

While on the trail, a hiker's highest priority in bear safety should be to avoid surprising a bear at close quarters.

Management Implications

The data presented here indicate that have significantly reduced the number of ational activity and the grizzly bear popu­ roadside feeding of black bears was re­ bear-inflicted human injuries occurring lation in YNP both continue to increase. sponsible for the high number of black in campgrounds and developed areas. Public education programs that inform bear-inflicted human injuries that oc­ Public'education programs and infonna­ hikers on hov.1 to avoid surprise encoun­ curred along park roads prior to 1977. tion progran1s designed to prevent bears ters. and hov.1 to react to encounters and Public education efforts and effective from obtaining human foods and garbage attacks once they occur, may be the most enforcernent of regulations has virtually n1ust remain a permanent bear manage­ useful tool in further decreasing the num­ eliminated bear-inflicted injuries along rnent priority within YNP. ber and severity of bear-inflicted human roadsides and must re1nain a permanent Despite the success of the 1970 bear injuries occun·ing in the park. component of future bear management 1nanagement program in reducing the progran1s in the park. nurnber of bear-inflicted injuries, an av­ Kerry Gunther is bear 111anagenzent spe­ The data also strongly suggest that the erage of I bear-inflicted injury per year cialist and Hopi Hoekstra is bear 1nan­ presence of food-conditioned bears, com­ still occurs. These injuries 1nost often age1nent technician.for the National Park bined with the availability of human foods involve surprise encounters between Service in. Yello~vstone National Park. A in park campgrounds, led to most bear­ backcountry hikers and fen1ale grizzly technical version of this paper ivas pre­ inflicted human injuries in developed ar­ bears with young. It will be difficult to sented at the 10th International Confer­ eas. Public education progratns and strict reduce the frequency of this type of in­ ence on Bear Research and A1anage111ent enforcement of sanitation regulations jury, especially if backcountry recre- last sununer in Fairbanks, Alaska. Winter 1996 9 Yellowstone's First Millipede

A small animal illustrates the very large world of Yellowstone research by Rowland Shelley

One hundred and twenty-three years Washington, D.C., the largest centipede isms of Yellowstone's ecosystems, for after it \Vas established, the world's first repository in the Western Hemisphere, example such insects as beetles, ants, national park has recorded its first repre­ nor those of other major repositories in­ mosquitoes, and mayflies. I now an­ sentative of the arthropod class Diplopoda. cluding the American Museum of Natu­ nounce the discovery of Underwoodia The Arthropoda, the largest animal phy­ ral History, New York, or the Museum of tida Chamberlin (it has no common name), lum, includes invertebrates with jointed Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univer­ which was formally published in my ge­ appendages and exoskeletons; the five sity. If the specimen is indeed lost, a neric revision in 1993. Almost surely, no major classes are the Crustacea (shrimp, chilopodologist will eventually have to tourist or casual visitor will ever see this crab, lobsters, and many small freshwa­ collect another male on Mt. Washburn, of cryptic millipede, and rarely will park ter and marine organisms), Insecta (in­ course with permission of the park staff rangers even find it; however, 'it is as sects), Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, and a collecting permit, to establish the funda1nental to its niche in Yellowstone's ticks, mites, etc.), Diplopoda (millipedes), identity of this species. environments as the bison and elk are to and Chilopoda (centipedes). Insecta, Millipedes and centipedes are closely theirs. Four female specimens of U. tida Arachnida, Crustacea, and Diplopoda are related, as their bodies are composed of a were collected at an unknown site in the now known from Yellowstone (the first head and numerous trunk segments; how­ park on August 23, 1957, by Dr. H. S. representative of Diplopoda is described ever, they differ in many features, most Dybas and deposited in the holdings at below), although they are inconspicuous conspicuously the numberoflegs. Adult his institution, the Field Museum of Natu­ in contrast to the large, prominent verte­ millipedes have from 34 to 750 legs ( 17 to ral History, Chicago. In contrast to the brates that are obvious to visitors. 375 pairs, the high number occurring on many large, colorful American millipeds, This leaves the park without a centi­ a California species), with two pairs or U. tida is small and inconspicuous, being pede, and in an effort to close this void, I four legs on most segments; adult centi­ about l/4 inch (6-7 mm) long and a drab ransacked my reprint files searching for a pedes, however, have from30 to 382 legs mottled brown in color; it has approxi­ published record from Yellowstone. I (15 to 191 pairs), with one pair or 2 legs mately 102 legs (51 pairs). finally found Nadabius vaquens per segment. Millipedes feed primarily The habitat in which the Yellowstone Chamberlin and Wang ( 1952), described on decaying plant material, \Vhile centi­ specimens were found is not indicated on froin a single male collected on August pedes are carnivores and prey on smaller the label in the vial, but U. tida has been 13 , 1940, at "Mt. Washburn, Yellow­ organisms, particularly insects. Milli­ encountered elsewhere in moist leaf litter stone Park, Wyoming." l\tlt. Washburn, pedes are harmless and defend them­ near strea1ns, under rocks, and under fir at 10,243 feet, one of the highest points in selves with a variety of noxious chemi­ logs in relatively dry rneadows. Its distri­ the park, is in thenorth-centerofthe park cals secreted by defense glands on most bution extends from the Rocky Moun­ off the north loop road about midway segn1ents. Centipedes, however, inject tains to the Pacific Coast in Canada and between Tower-Roosevelt and Canyon poison into their prey by means of "poi­ southern Alaska, the northernmost sites Village. Yello\Vstone is therefore the type son claws" located beneath the head. Some being in the extreme northwestern corner locality for this stnall centipede species, centipedes in the southwestern American ofBritishColumbia, nearly in the Yukon, and to the best of my knowledge N. deserts grow to 6-8 inches and can deliver and in Jasper National Park, Alberta; the vaquens has not been reported or col­ a painful bite, but N. vaquens and the species ranges southward down the lected again. The location of this speci­ other species that may be anticipated in Rockies into the lower48 states, the south­ men is unknown, and it may be lost. It is and around Yellowstone are too small ern limit being the Wasatch and Oquirrh not listed on the printout of chilopod type and weak to pierce human skin. Mountains near Provo, Utah. specimens at the National Museum of More research in the park in recent Although a substantial millipede fauna Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, years has focused on the smaller organ- exists along the Pacific Coast in the north-

10 Yelloivstone Science Distribution o/Underwoodia in North America. Dots, U. iuloides; squares, U. tida The Yellowstone record is denoted by the arrolv. Map courtesy of Rolvland Shelley, North Carolina State Museum of Natural Sciences.

Suggested Reading

Chamberlin, R. V., and Y. M. Wang. 1952. Miscellaneous new North American centipeds of the order Lithobiida. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 65:55-62. Shelley,R.M. 1993. Themillipedgenus Underwoodia (Chordeumatida: Caseyidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology 71:168-176.

western United States and southwestern Far East, including the area around British Columbia, the fauna! diversity Vladivostok, Sakhalin Island, the Kurile increases dramatically as one moves Islands, and the Kamchatka Peninsula. southward into warmer climates of the This discovery also reveals the diffuse United States and, ultimately, the nature of Yellowsfone-related research. neotropics. Undenvoodia is therefore an My field sampling, sponsored primarily exception to this rule in that it is more by the National Geographic Society, has common in the north and one of the few covered much of the \Vestern United States truly boreal diplopod genera in North and Canada, and most of the distributions America. It occurs in a broad band across of the millipedes that can be anticipated the northern United States and Canada in Yellowstone. As part of this research, from the Atlantic to the Pacific (see map), l surveyed all known collections in both and it exhibits a trans-Beringian distribu­ countries and discovered the Yellowstone tion pattern as it also occurs in the east­ specimens in the Field Museum hold­ ern1nost part of Asia. UnderWoodia ings. Dr. Dybas, an entomologist, col­ iuloides (Harger), the other North Ameri­ lected the millipedes incidentally 38 years can species, extends eastward from the ago \Vhile on a collecting trip, and they Rockies to the Atlantic Coast in Ne\v had resided undiscovered in the Chicago England and the 1naritime provinces of institution until I found them in a small Canada. It is the most abundant native vial that \vas buried in a large jar with millipede in Newfoundland, and its north­ dozens of vials of miscellaneous milli­ ernmost records are from southern coastal pedes. This discovery of a new animal for Labrador and the south shore of Hudson Y ello\vstone was ma~e not in the park, Bay in northern Ontario. The southern­ but in a building hundreds of miles away. rnost locality, surprisingly, is in north­ Fen1ale specinien o/Undel'\\'Oodia tida. eastern Ne\v Mexico, over 1,000 miles Ro1vland Shelley is the curator of inver­ Photo courtesy of D. 1. Lyons, North from the closest kno\Vn site, in North tebrates at the North Carolina State Mu­ Carolina State Museuni Exhibits De­ Dakota. The third species, U. kurtschevae seuni of Natural Sciences in Raleigh, signer. Golovatch, occurs \Videly in the Russian North Carolina.

Winter 1996 11 Yellowstone Science Interview: Sam McNaugf;iton PJ'3'i 5-(i :11 Grazing aad .,,"'~~i Y~ll.owstone , ,1:L , "·r,,

Renee Evanoff

For the past several years, Dr. Saniuel YS: A perennial hot topic here in Yellow­ Yello\vstone' s range overgrazed?" J. McNaughton, a professor of botany at stone is overgrazing. You've now put in SM: And as I recall, my ans\ver went Syracuse University, has been leading several years directing research projects something like this. Based on the ecosys­ studies of various aspects of the ecology on the park's Northern Range, so you've tem standards-that is, by the standards of Yelloivstone's Northern Range. Dr. had time not only to watch this debate, of the processes that are going on, in McNaughton's long experience \Vith the but also to participate in it. A memorable tenns of primary productivity of range­ grazing systenis ofAfrica's Serengeti has part of your participation occurred in lands and the amount that is consu1ned by resulted in niany in1portant publications 1991, at our first scientific conference, the elk and bison-I do not. Because, Oil ungulate-plant interactions there, \Vhen you \Vere a keynote speaker. although people have said that Yellow­ making hini a recognized leader in the One of the questions from the audience stoneis not the North A1nerican Serengeti, ecology of such systems. He ivas inter­ \Vent something like this: "Dr. in terms of the level of consumption it is vieived by Yellowstone Science during McNaughton, based on your research with very similar to the Serengeti. the park's biennial scientific conference large grazingsysterns in Yellowstone and So you actually could say that Serengeti at Ma1n1noth Hot Springs in Septen1ber the Serengeti and Argentina and those is Africa's Y ellovvstone, or, Yello\vstone 1995. other places, do you consider is North America's Serengeti. I think

12 Yello1vstone Science they're very similar. Livestock only move when humans move tent of it. And that is the thing that we YS: Did you decide to do research in them, and humans decide when and where haven't learned yet. Yellowstone because it was similar to the they will move. Wild ungulates have co­ YS: What made you curious about Yel­ Serengeti? evolved with their range, and they follow lowstone? SM: In a way. The reason I came to its productivity in a much more complex SM: Well, of course I heard people talk­ Yellowstone \Vas an idea. It was an idea way. ing about Yellowstone having too many that was born of ten years of research in Here in Yellowstone, the elk follow the elk and bison, and how the range was the Serengeti. In my experience with the productivity of the grasses up the slope. being trashed. But I thought about it, and African grazing systems, I learned that Douglas Frank, who was my first gradu­ said, "Now \vait a minute; I don't see all the large native grazers, by that I mean ate student to work here, described the this brush coming in and invading the the wild large mammals, don't trash out springtime plant productivity as a "growth range in the park." the system that they depend upon. Yetthe pulse," in which plant greenup moves YS: No, in fact Yel1owstoneis experienc­ history of domestic large mammals all uphill, with the ungulates tracking it for ing just the opposite-brushlands are over the world is that they do trash it out. the best forage, all the way up to the high declining, if anything. The fundamental problem in all range­ country, which is their summer range. SM: Right. But that's not how overgraz­ lands is what is elsewhere called "bush YS: Livestock don't generally getto move ing goes. In the classic overgrazing sce­ encroachment," which we in the United that freely. narios, the brush comes in. That's the States call "brush invasion." The best SM: No, ranchers can't work like that. story of overgrazing everywhere. I've example of that in our history was in the They have summer ranges, say on lands seen it in Australia, I've seen it in Africa, southwest-in Arizona, New Mexico, and leased from the B.L.M. or the Forest I've seen it everywhere. If you have over­ western Texas in the late 19th Century. Service, and they do move their stock up grazing, what you have is brush coming Settlers introduced large numbers of live­ there, but two things are different. One is in, and it knocks out the food source of the stock onto what really were pretty lush the level ofstocking, which is much lower ungulates. So I wondered, why isn't that grasslands. Then the bottom fell out cli­ in wild herbivores than it is in livestock. happening in Yellowstone? matically. The herds weren't reduced by Look how dispersed Yellowstone elk are I'm a plant ecologist, but I'm also an the people who managed them; they were in the summertime. The northern herd, ecosystem ecologist. To me, the point is reduced by death, but not before they had which is packed into a relatively small the ecosystem. Is the system functioning, trashed out the entire Southwest. And the low-elevation area in the park and to the or are things breaking down? Is plant record is very clear: livestock grazing north of the park in the winter, spreads productivity deteriorating? Are we get­ turned those decent desert grasslands into out across the whole northern half of the ting an invasion of unpalatable plants, or mesquite bushlands. park, and clear down to Yellowstone Lake. breaking down mineral processes and Now, here's the idea that brought me Their summer range is huge. On the other soils so that the rate of nutrient recycling to Yellowstone. Why hadn't elk, which hand, livestock tend to be more con­ is going to pot? That's what I'm looking people purported \Vere overpopulated in densed on their summer ranges, and one at. And I don't see that in Yellowstone. Yellowstone, and bison, which people of the consequences of that clumping of Therefore, as a grazing system, this is a also purported were overpopulated, aniinals is lots of bad effects: they con­ healthy one. trashed out the park's rangelands? Well, su1ne too much from a given location, YS: But what is happening out on the that is what I came here to try to find out. and they tran1ple too 1nuch. This isn't to Northern Range is very complex. Wil­ YS: The very fact that someone said that take a cheap shot at the livestock indus­ low and aspen have undergone a well­ Yellowstone's rangelands \Veren 't trashed try; \vhat they are doing works for them. advertised decline, if not in abundance at out made quite a few headlines in 199 l; But their use of the range does not mimic least in height. it's still pretty widespread "common the kind of use that the range evolved to SM: Willow and aspen are good examples knowledge" that Yellowstone is over­ handle best. of how we need to examine the context of grazed. And the second difference is the re­ this place if we want to understand what's SM: But the graduate students who have sponsiveness of the animals. These wild going on. What are the contrasts here? worked with me have provided plenty of animals have evolved to track this pro­ What should we look at? What should we evidence that these grasslands are hold­ ductivity in a \vay that is beneficial to examine in order to test for that purported ing their o\vn just fine under all this them. But we as human beings don't do deterioration \ve hear so 1nuch about? grazing pressure. that \Vhen \ve're herding our livestock. Many people say that the elk are dam­ YS: But have they answered your ques­ We kno\v roughly \vhen the sun1mer for­ aging willows along the strean1s, and that tion of why the elk and bison aren't ~oing age \viii be good, but we don't kno\v it as they'reknocking out aspens. Well, maybe, to Yellowstone what the cattle did to the well as the elk do, and we lag behind as n1aybe not. But, just because a willow is Southwest? these \vild ani1nals track the waves of hedged by elk browsing it doesn't neces­ SM: They have provided evidence to vegetation productivity and quality. The sarily mean something is \Vrong \Vith the suggest that the difference between live­ elk are on it just at the right ti1ne to take system. In fact, that willow's grovvth rate stock use of land and wild ungulate use of the best advantage of the volutne of it, and rate of forage production may be land has to do \Vith mobility and timing. and the peak nitrogen and rnineral con- higher than it would be if it \vasn 't hedged.

Winter 1996 13 Sam McNaughton

Serengeti ----

I don't have the answer to that because I fice and I said, what would you like to mals had grazed, and another couple of don't study willows. But I think that know from my research? And he said, fences around where they hadn't grazed. people who make that sort of case ought well I'd like to know what the carrying My first insight: vegetation \Vas regrow­ to examine it in the context of ecosystem capacity of the Serengeti is for big mam­ ing at a tremendous rate where they'd processes. mals. Now keep in mind that until I went grazed, but where they hadn't grazed it's It's just not reasonable to say that be­ to the Serengeti, I'd been a lab guy. I was all senescing out and turning into dead cause a willow is hedged, therefore some­ grinding up plants and that sort of thing, plant tissue and litter. Well, this sort of thing is wrong. The grasslands are hedged, with a white coat on. And all of a sudden changes things. I mean, this is not what too, right? But we call that grazing. We I looked out the window, and thought, I'd expected it to do. So, I went to work on expect it, and the studies I've been in­ whoa, what am I doing in here? So I left this, and asked what's the regrowth po­ volved in here don't indicate that it's the lab behind and got out in the real tential? And it turned out that the re­ causing the grasses to be in poor health. world of the Serengeti. growth potential is pretty substantial. Just the opposite: the evidence indicates But even when I got there, I had this What Ben Tracy, the current graduate that hedging keeps the grass at a growth total disdain for natural history. I thought student, has been working on here in stage that has a higher productivity and a if you couldn't put a number to it, you Yellowstone, 22 years later, is nutrient much higher forage quality, and still sta­ didn't know it. But very quickly the recycling-that is, how the energy in the bilizes soil processes. These heavily Serengeti taught me that though there are grassland system moves from the ground grazed grasses in Yello\vstone are pro­ lots of things here that I can know, I'm to the animals and back to the ground ducing more forage, and better forage, never going to be able to attach a number again. Here's what the mammals do. They than tl1ey would if we knocked all the elk to them. But I hadn't learned that yet, and eat forage that, if they didn't eat it, would out of here and had grass that \Vas waist so my response to the Chief Park Warden turn into dead stuff with low nutritional high. was, no problem, I'll be back to you in a quality, with a slow rate of decomposi­ YS: Except for gardeners and the people year with the answer to that question. I tion that would cause it to accumulate in who work in wildland range ecology, kno\\' it doesn't sound very intelligeb.t, the grasslands. When they eat that forage, there apparently isn't much appreciation but I understood quantification, and I they turn it into nutrients that they recycle for how plants respond to "predation" by figured, okay, it rains a certain amount, through feces and urine, and that sets the grazers, and how many factors there are and the soil has a certain fertility, there­ stage for regrowth. The regrowth may not that influence that process. What studies fore the grass would grow so much and happen right now; it may happen next like yours show us is that plants are active the animals could consume so much. season. And that's what's going on here. players in the process, having evolved From that information we can simply One of the things thatDoug Frank showed literally in the teeth of heavy grazing compute the carrying capacity. This is is that the forage on the Northern Range, pressure. But what they also show us is arithmetic, right? We can just sit down in \Vhich is winter range, regrows much that there are a lot of subtle factors in­ the lounge and work this out with a pencil better if it's been grazed than if it's been volved in keeping the system running. on a napkin. No problem. fenced. SM: When I first went to the Serengeti, Then !did my first experiment. !put up YS: Why is that? I went into the Chief Park Warden's of- a fence around an area that large mam- SM: Well, if it's not been grazed, you get

14 Yello~vstone Science Yellolvstone

all this buildup of dead stuff, right? It there. They're walking, they're laying somehow the right one for Yellowstone, shades out the developing plant tissue, down, they're urinating, they're defecat­ I have to know the context in which they and no nutrients get recycled by the graz­ ing, and everything. define it. ing ungulates. The result is that every­ YS: Their actions are rearranging the I'm really a processes person. An eco­ thing sort of stagnates. There's lots of whole top layer of soil and life. system has both a state and a process. evid~nce that grazing enhances plant SM: Right. It's not like these animals are State is what you see out there on the growth, but a lot of people are unable to just out there chomping down plant mate­ ground at any given time. Process is what accept that lack of grazing in the grass­ rialandsendingitto Philadelphia. They're happens as the ecosystem changes from lands that are adapted to grazing leads to eating it and then recycling it, every day, one state to another. Ifsomebody tells me stagnation of those grasslands. Only two all the time they're on the range. that it "should" look a certain way, then things will prevent that stagnation, and YS: Our friends in commercial range they are going to have to explain to me get the system running again. The grass­ management come to Yellowstone now what the processes are that lead it to that land either goes through ungulates or it and then, look over the Northern Range, state, and why the processes must lead it goes through fire. One of the two. and very confidently announce that "This to that state instead of to some other state. YS: One way or another it's going to get rangeshouldn' t look like this." Then they Otherwise, I have no basis to evaluate its nutrients recycled? point at some intensely managed com­ their judgment on. SM: Right, and I think that I'd rather see mercial range some\vhere else as the ideal YS: So far, much of the conversation it run through a process that turns it into to which we are not measuring up. When between Yellowstone's range ecologists bio1nass of ungulates. you ask thern how they know what it and managers on the one hand and com­ YS: One of the interesting aspects of should look like, they refer you to their mercial range ecologists and managers Doug Frank's description of what ungu­ professional standards, which are based on the other has been pretty dysfunc­ lates do to a range had nothing directly to on a long experience \Vith the best way to tional. Yellowstone people object to hav­ do with what they eat. He pointed out that get the most livestock growth from the ing commercial range standards dictated not only do ungulates run plant matter land. They can tell you in inches or cen­ to the park because they don't think that through their system, or recycle it, as you timeters how tall the various grasses a wildJand range, with a full assortment put it, but also they actively affect the should be. These are bright people, too; of wild ungulates, necessarily \Vill look whole plant environn1ent. The example no one can say they haven't worked hard anything like a carefully managed com­ he used was that elk, sirnply by walking to get their standards. They just can't see mercial range that feeds only livestock. around on the soil, "tiller" the surface why Yellowstone should be different. That isn'tto say there's something inher­ \Vith their hooves. SM: You know, "should" is a very dan­ ently wrong with either approach; only SM: That's right. The problem is that gerous word in resource management. If that they are very different in what they everybody tends to think that grazing you say it should look a certain way, want to achieve. Y ellO\VStone research­ operates like a lawnmower; itjustcuts the you're implying that you have a basis of ers say that native ungulates don't follow tops off the plants and has no other ef­ comparison with some presumably right the same rules as livestock, and don't fects. But that's not how it works at all. appearance for the Northern Range. In treat their range the same as livestock do. The animals are doing all sorts of stuff out order for rne to know if their "should" is But we'veactually had commercial range Winter 1996 15 NPS Photos people respond to that by saying, well winters, the ungulate numbers are going that may be true, but the Northern Range to drop considerably, and it's predictable still shouldn't look like it does. It's as if that the \VOl ves are going to get the blame. the two groups talk such different lan­ SM: You've already seen that. After the guages that they can't even communicate fires of 1988, when something like 40 any more. percent of the northern elk herd died SM: This is like someone looking at the either from hunting or from winterkill, painting "Starry Night," and saying, hold people tended to blame the fires, but the on, starry nights don't look like that to fires had less to do with it than the return me! So, what's happening here? Unless of a real winter. Ungulates count heavily the people who have a particular defini­ on good grazing in order to build up their tion of"should" can tell me ho\v they got reserves. If they don't get that good graz­ to that definition, that the state they prefer ing, they're in trouble, and a lot will die in is the correct state for the range, I can't back, and something is going to happen. the lean season that follows. deal with it. If they can tell me the pro­ We don't know what, but it's going to be YS: That has always been controversial cesses that lead to their "should," and something important. Either wolves are in national parks; people like the idea of why I must believe that it's the right not going to have an impact, which is a wilderness reserve, but they don't want "should," then we're going somewhere. intetesting, or they are going to have an it to be quite so wild that nature takes a Then I can say, okay, maybe Van Gogh in1pact, which is also interesting. So this significant toll in dead animals. had some vision problems or something. is a grand experiment. I mean I can't SM: I don't think there's anything wrong Otherwise, I can't help them. think of another experiment like this in a with animals starving. It's part of the way YS: Another engaging dialogue over national park, where a major predator has the system works. Some people don't like Yellowstone's grazing system revolves been reintroduced. Can you? to see it, but that's the way nature is. around the question of whether or not it's YS: No, not like this. It's the first time a YS: It's also nature's way of responding like the Serengeti. Those who say it isn't large predator has been returned to a to the elk "overpopulation problem" we emphasize the far greater number of graz­ western park. hear so much about. ing species on the Serengeti. Can you SM: Look at the world as a whole. I can't SM: Maybe what the parks should do explain that disagreement? think of anyplace in the world where about this whole controversy about there SM: The Serengeti is tropical l ,500-meter anybody has ever done this, where they've being too many animals is ask the people. elevation system, in an area that there taken a big predator, and said we' re going Well, it's their park, right? It's one ofour weren't all the Pleistocene extinctions to put this back in and see what happens. society's best ideas, a real work of ge­ that affected North America. Sure there YS: Do you care to speculate on how it nius. Maybe we should let the people are more species in the Serengeti, and \Vill go? vote. Tell them what the options are, and those species obviously do different SM: Well, I think they're going to kill a what the consequences of those options things. Yellowstone doesn't have that lot of elk and bison, but I don't think those are as \.vell as \Ve know them. Then hand diversity of grazers. There are no giraffes animals are predator limited. I think you 'II then1 a questio1\naire at the entrance sta­ here in North A1nerica, and no elephants. still have a lot of elk and bison. tions and ask thexn: do you \\1ant to see Maybe it'd be good if you had some YS: But there are already a lot of preda­ more elk, or 1nore wolves? Do you want elephants knocking down so1ne trees once tors here. The coyotes and grizzly bears your biOmass in willow and aspen, or in in awhile, but you don't; theN01th Ameri­ kill a third of the new elk calves every elk and bison? can mammoths are gone. But process­ year. Grizzly bears, black bears, n1oun­ YS: Is that what it co1nes do\vn to? Are wise, in tenns of the productivity of this tain lions, and coyotes all prey on the the choices really that simple? system-a mountain plateau, in the north ungulates. Some of us wonder if there's SM: Not really. I was speaking rhetori­ temperate zone, with a severe cli1nate and already so much "background noise" in cally, to suggest \\'hat the basic elements high levels of consu1nption by herbi­ the predator-prey system, with all these ofthesysternare. I don't think \Ve have to vores-it is exactly the same. Compared predators and all these prey species, that choose absolutely between the ungulates to the Serengeti, it may have lo\ver pro­ it \vill be very difficult to sort out \Vhat and the vegetation. The system will make ductivity and lo\verconsun1ption, but it is difference the wolves really make in the those choices for us if \ve let it. It looks to fundamentally on the same trendline as ungulate populations. me as if the vegetation and the ungulates all the African data that we have. SM: I think that's right. are doing pretty \vell out there. Now, people say there's no predators YS: In fact, the environmental variables YS: Sometimes Yellowstone is presented in Yellowstone like in the Serengeti, but facing any life form in a place like Yel­ to its constituents as if its problems are there are lots of predators. You just have lo\vstone-a large, relatively \vild area­ unique. What about these other big graz­ to go down to Gardjner during hunting are so complex that, as you suggest, even ing systems like the Serengeti; do they season: there are elk predators and there predation might so1netirnes be only a have this debate? are bison predators right outside the bor­ minor factor. If Yello\\1stone ever returns SM: Oh, absolutely! Everyplace I've ders of the park. Now, we've got the wolf to \vhat used to be thought of as nonnal been, there are two diametrically opposed 16 Yelloivstone Science views about national parks or other re­ shooting them. But the wildebeest num­ killed predators, we stocked exotic fish, serves. One view says let the system bers kept declining, and got below the we slaughtered thousands of elk, prong­ operate as independently as possible, and lower end of the acceptable numbers as horn, and bison, or we fed those same the other view calls for total intervention. defined by the management target. So to animals, and each time \Ve eventually The South Africans have done very well correct for it, they decided they'd better learned that in some way our actions were at intervention. They have parks bigger go out and shoot some lions, so that a mistake. Other people think we now than Yellowstone, bigger than Serengeti, predation on the wildebeest would ease know enough to decide to take such ag­ totally fenced. Nothing can get in, noth­ off. But even after that, the wildebeest gressive actions all over again, and insist ing can get out, and they have quotas for continued to decline. Well, eventually that we do. Looking back on all this everything: how many kudu there should what they discovered was that the wilde­ unintentional experimentation, and what be, how many wildebeest there should beest population is anticyclic with the it's brought us, and considering what be, you name it. wet and dry periods. During dry periods, your studies have shown, do you think we YS: There's that word "should" again. the wildebeest increase, and during wet as a society are getting better at this? Will SM: Right. Only their control is so abso­ periods, they decrease. The wildebeest we ever really figure out what we "should" lute that they often can make it work the had their own targets, and we just didn't do in national parks? way they want it to. understand them. It had little to do with SM: Hold on' Don't forget that you're YS: How did they decide what was right? the lions. And that's the thing; there are talking to a professor here. Do you know SM: I have a theory about that. I think always hidden things in nature. what professors do? We profess 1 I have to everybody tends to want -their reserve to The point is that we have to be really believe that we're getting better! be the way it was when they first saw it. confident that we understand what's go- YS: Well then, assuming that we are YS: That certainly was learning, what the prevailing stan­ could we do to dard for most parks in make the process the United States for a by which we decide long time. It was as­ what to do next less sumed that we should painfu)? preserve them in the SM: It would make form they were when a big difference if white people first saw we could take the them. rhetoric out of it. SM: But historical That's the problem. standards don't work It's those people either. You can track who say, "This is down the first photo­ what it should be," graphs of Yellow­ but \Vithout a suffi­ stone, from 1871, and cient basis to justify study them, and say, it. There's the prob­ okay, here's what the len1, and this is \vhat photos show us about education fights. vegetation and wild­ "This is \Vhat it life, so it's our job to should be." "But make it that \Vay. We have to arrest things ing on before \Ve start interfering. If \Ve why9 " "Well, because I say so." in that state. But not only is that against n1ake the decision that the range is de­ The real challenge that park 1nanagers the laws of nature, it doesn't make any graded in northern Yello\vstone, we'd face is that the problen1s involved \vith sense. The world isn'tlike it was in 1871. better be very clear about \vhat the ne\v the elk, hovvever anyone defines those The climate is not the same. Everything targets are. I don't see clear alternatives problems, have to be faced no\v, even has changed. en1erging from these vie,vpoints that say though your information may be inco1n­ Let me tell you about Kruger National there are too many elk. I mean, I see a lot plete. I don't have to face that; I just Park in South Africa, the best-managed of hand grenades coining across the tran­ profess. Your critics don't have to face national park in the \VOrld, or at least the soms of the park's n1anagers, but there's that; they have the luxury of standing most intensively managed. Some years nothing especially constructive there in back and pointing out what you "should" ago, the \vildebeest population got too tern1s of justifying another approach. do with no real risks to then1selves. Like high, at least according to the 1nanage­ YS: Some say that Yellowstone's whole my experience on the Serengeti,there were ment targets, as they call them, and so history can be seen as a big, kind of a whole lot of things I knew about, but I they started killing wildebeest. Eventu­ undirected experi1nent, \Vhere we have to dido' t kno\v \vell enough to put numbers ally, they got the wildebeest back down do a great many things wrong to learn the on them. Whether you have nun1bers or to the defined target, so they stopped right \vaytodo it. We suppressed fire, \Ve not, you have to decide what to do. Winter 1996 17 NEWS notes

Wolf Restoration to Continue if Bud­ a $100,000 fine. As of mid-December, get Negotiations Allow McKittrick had not been sentenced.

As of mid-December, plans were un­ Soda Butte Wolves Kill Hunting Dog, derway to continue wolf restoration in Anger Ranchers both Yellowstone and central Idaho this winter. Because of cuts in federal fund­ On Friday, December 8, the U.S. Fish ing, a combination of private and federal and Wildlife Service received a call that funding will support the capture and trans­ a pet lion dog (a Walker hound) had been port of wolves from Canada to both areas, killed by wolves on private land 15 miles following procedures developed and suc­ southeast of Nye, Montana. On the previ­ cessfully tested last winter. As of early ous Wednesday, December 6, the Soda January, though the second furlough of Butte pack (five adults and one pup) were federal employees had ended, it was not located by airplane in the Absaroka­ clear if funding would be provided to the gists will visit the pens approximately Beartooth Wilderness, in the Stillwater U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for this twice a week to provide road-killed un­ drainage, Custer National Forest, but a project. gulates as food and to check on the ani­ Friday flight was unable to locate them in This year, efforts to capture and radio mals and their pens. Otherwise, observa­ that area. The dog was killed about 20 collar Canadian wolves will be focused tions will be extremely limited, and the miles from the pack's last known loca­ in northeastern British Columbia (last areas immediately around the pens will tion, in an area the pack had not visited year's wolves were brought from Alberta). once again be closed to visitor activity. before. A flight on Saturday, December Then, in January, Canadian and U.S. Fish The wolves will be released in late March 8, established that the wolves were in the and Wildlife Service biologists will cap­ or early April, prior to any denning activ­ area where the dog was killed. ture wolves from the packs previously ity by breeding pairs. Wolves in the Nez Animal Damage Control (a bureau of located in December, radiocollar them, Perce Creek and Blacktail Plateau pens the U.S. Department of Agriculture) in­ and relocate the collared wolves (approxi­ \vould be released on site; both areas vestigated the incident and confirmed mately 30 of them, from several different were historically known to be occupied that wolves were responsible for the dog's packs) following the same release proce­ by wolves, and the Firehole Valley, like death, the third known wolf-caused death dures as last winter. The wolves released the Northern Range, supports resident of a dog since wolf recovery began in in Idaho will again be "hard-released" herds of elk and bison. Montana in about 1982. (without a period of acclimation in a The wolf recovery plan calls for man­ pen), and the Yellowstone wolves will Montana Man Convicted of Killing agement actions if wolves are repeatedly spend up to ten weeks in acclimation pens Wolf#IO involved in problems with domestic live­ prior to release. stock or pets, but, according to Ed Bangs, In late su1nmer and early autu1nn, park On October 25, 1995, a jury deliber­ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service gray wolf staff again prepared theaccli1nation pens. ated less than t\VO hours to find Chad recovery coordinator for Montana, "this Tv.,10 of last year's pens, at Rose Creek McKittrick, of Red Lodge, Montana, is not a depredation situation that would and Crystal Creek, were repaired and left guilty of killing, possessing, and trans­ require control. The wolves did not seek in place, while the Soda Butte pen was porting a wolf. The wolf was #IO, the out a pet nor are they likely to cause n1oved to the Blacktail Plateau, and a male fron1 the Rose Creek pen, \vhose repeated depredations on domestic dogs." fourth pen was constructed near Nez Perce mate, #9, gave birth to eight pups near Ranchers, on the other hand, regarded Creek, a tributary of the Firehole River in Red Lodge shortly after his death. Biolo­ the unannounced arrival of the wolves on central Yello\vstone. Biologists are con­ gists discovered the wolf's death after his private land a breach of trust, because cerned about placing ne\v 1,volf groups in radio collar transn1itted a mortality sig­ they had been assured by federal officials areas already occupied by last year's nal. The collar \\1as later found near a that they would be notified ifthe wolves wolves, \vho generally established hon1e public road, and an infonnant told the approached their lands. The appropriate ranges near their acclin1ation pens. That U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the notifications (to the U.S. Forest Service consideration, and considerations relat­ carcass's 1,vhereabouts and of and Montana Department of Fish, Wild­ ing to the group structures of the new McKittrick's actions. Investigators then life and Parks) had been made of the wolves, will influence which pens. as searched McKittrick's residence, finding pack's location on Dece1nber6, but as the well as how many pens, \\1ill be used this the skull and hide of#lO. \valves have repeatedly demonstrated, winter. fvlcKittrick could be sentenced to as they tnay move long distances in a very Wolf project biologists and their advi­ 1nuch as six months in prison and fined up short tin1e, between surveillance flights. sors consider last year's restoration ef­ to $25,000 for his actions, which violated When the December 8 flight did not lo­ forts to have been very successful and the Endangered Species Act. Maxinu1m cate the Soda Butte pack in its December instructive, and so this year's introduc­ penalty for the transportation count, a 6 location, biologists mistakenly assumed tions will follo\V the sa1ne plan. Biolo- high 1nisden1eanor, is a year in prison and the pack had moved back toward the park.

18 Yello~vstone Science NEW.') no<«

By late December, the Soda Butte pack the federal government shutdown and Marvin Jensen New Assistant had moved back toward the park. In early weather conditions had reduced the num­ Superintendent January, they were spending most of their ber of tracking flights biologists were time east of the park on wilderness lands. making. On January 11, a flight con­ On December 1, Yellowstone Superin­ firmed that Wolf #3, a yearling male from tendent Mike Finley announced the se­ Rose Creek Wolf Pup Killed by the Crystal Creek group, was in the area. lection of Marvin 0. Jensen as the ne\v Vehicle On Sunday, January 14, predator control assistant superintendent. Jensen replaces agents of the Animal Damage Control Joseph Alston, who left more than a year At about 7:00 p.m. on December 19, agency, working with Yellowstone bi­ ago to become superintendent of Glen Wolf #22 was hit by a delivery vehicle ologists, captured the wolf by netting it Canyon National Recreation Area. near the Buffalo Ranch in Lamar Valley. from a helicopter, then tranquilized it and The nearly eight-month-old black pup moved it to the Rose Creek acclimation NPS Photo was one of eight siblings born to the Rose pen. Ed Bangs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Creek alpha female (#9) in late April near Service wolf recovery project leader, said Red Lodge, Montana. Shortly after the that #3 might have been attracted to the birth, the female and the pups were relo­ Emigrant area by a large colony of cap­ cated back to the Rose Creek acclimation tive wolves kept on private property in pen. Her mate (#10), was illegally killed that area. shortly before the birth, and it was judged Under the rules of the reintroduction necessary to relocate the family away plan, a wolf killing livestock will be given from the developed area, so that biolo­ a second chance; if it kills livestock again, gists could help her with the initial months it will be removed from the population. of rearing the pups. The mother and pups As of January 17, #3 was still being held. were released from the pen on October Among the options being considered for 11, and were often sighted in the Lamar him were relocation to a remote part of Valley and near the Buffalo Ranch. the park, perhaps in the southern portion, ''This is a very unfortunate incident and pairing him with a new female from because the loss of any animal from this this year's Canadian trapping program, tiny population is a great loss to the resto­ which was underway at the same time. ration program," Superintendent Mike The ranchers, whose loss of sheep was Finley said. "The young male, which finally determined to be at least two and weighed 65 pounds at death, was in ex­ perhaps as many as four, were assured cellent condition. Number22 would have that they \Vould be compensated for their been a great asset to the recovery pro­ losses. Defenders of Wildlife maintains cess." He urged visitors to be extremely a fund for this purpose. cautious while driving in the park at night. In late December and early January, Necropsy studies will be conducted, biologists reported that the dispersal of for the scientific and educational value in young wolves from the established packs terms of genetics and parasites. No action appeared to be underway. This dispersal Jensen is 55 years old, and received his was anticipated against the driver of the is an anticipated event; usually at this B.S. in range management from Utah vehicle. time of year, son1e of the yearlings leave State University in 1963. He began his the pack and begin to wander more on 32-year federal career with the Bureau of Wolf #3 Kills Sheep their own. Wolf #12, a member of the Land Managen1ent that year, as a range Soda Butte group, has also been reported conservationist at Kanab, Utah. His first Yellowstone-area livestock herds suf­ making long-distance trips, including one position with the National Park Service fered their first losses to predation by the to public lands southeast of Yellowstone was as unit manager at Grand Canyon new wolves the second week in January. National Park. National Park. He has also been a man­ A ranch on the Dry Creek Road, south­ Unlike the recent incident in which agement assistant at Sequoia and Kings west of Emigrant, Montana, reported a members of the Soda Butte group killed a Canyon National Parks (1981-1987), su­ sheep killed and another injured in Mon­ dog near Nye, Montana, there \vere ap­ perintendent of Kenai Fjords National day, January 8, and another sheep was parently no co1nplaints about the quick­ Park ( 1987), superintendent of Glacier found dead on Friday, January 12. The ness of agency reaction to the situation; Bay National Park and Preserve (1988- latter sheep was the only one confirmed the \volf \Vas caught very quickly after the 1994 ), and superintendent of the Mojave to have been killed by a wolf. incident. Ho\vever, Montana Governor National Preserve ( 1995). Jensen and his A \volf was not sighted in the area until Marc Racicot has stated his objection to wife, Mary Lynn, have two grown chil­ Thursday, January 11, but could have the continuation of the Yello\vstone wolf dren. He began work in Yello\vstone in been in the area for several days because recovery program. late December.

Winter 1996 19 NEH{) notes

Courtesy University of Utah, Depar//nent ofGeology and Geophysics Yellowstone Seismicity January 1 - Oece•ber 14. 1995

10' 0

Earthquake Swarms Along Caldera Above: Epicenter map oj-1600 earthquakes (circles) located from January I through December 14. 1995, Boundary in the Yellowstone National Park (YNP)region. The open triangles and diamonds represent the locations of YNP regional seismograph network stations operated by Ilie University of Utah. Opposiie: Time histograntofearthquake activity in the Yellowstone National Park region for the same time period. A s1var11t On July 4, 1995, Dr. Robert Smith, Uni­ of several hundred earthquakes occurred in early J11ly, just west of Madison Junction. versity of Utah researcher who has stud­ ied Yellowstone's geology for 1nany an April-May swarm. Smith described cated in the epicentral area .... We do not years, alerted park that the west side of the July swarm as in line with a 1985 kno\v the source of the earthquakes, but Yellowstone, near the boundary of the S\varm, and part of a persistent trend of they could be related to such plausible Yello\vstone caldera, was experiencing a earthquakes that occur along a line ex­ mechanisms as: 1) down-dip tectonic very intense earthquake swarm. The un­ tending from the Pitchstone Plateau in earthquakes on the eastward projection usual activity began on June 30, and the southern Yello\vstone, northwest past Old of the Red Mountain fault, 2) earthquakes earthquakes were clustered near Mount Faithful. occurring in response to fault motions Haynes (just south of the Madison River). A smaller S\varn1 with more felt earth­ associated \Vitht the interaction of the The swarm started out with about 700 quakes occurred starting on September caldera boundary fault with the Red events per day, with magnitudes up to 2.5 28 and continuing into early October. Mountain fault, 3) earthquakes that may on the Richter Scale. Activity subsided in Smith sun11narized the swarm as occur­ be related to a zone of weakness that may frequency until July 4, when it increased ring on the northeast side of Mt. Sheridan be associated with the fault and the volanic to about three or four events per minute. (the southeast side of the Yellowstone vent, 4) earthquakes associated with the None of the earthquakes were felt, and caldera), "very near the point \Vhere the Heart Lake geyser system (which is very Yellowstone Research Geologist Rick projection of the north-trending Red close to the epicenters). The earthquakes Hutchinson observed no unusual change·s Mountain fault intersects the mapped could also be related to hydrothermal in geyser or hot spring activity. caldera boundary. U.S.G.S. [U.S. Geo­ fluid migration and hence rnay have af­ This most recent swarm ofearthquakes logical Survey] geologists have mapped fected the temporal and volume discharges occurred only a mile or two northeast of a post-caldera collapse rhyolite vent lo- of this geyser system." 20 Yelloivstone Science NEW) notes ing visitor facilities in the parks is tem­ pered with profound regret at the damage Yellowstone Seismicity done to our employees and our neigh­ January 1 - Dece•ber 1~. 1995 bors." 200.,..~~~-'-'~~L-'...L--'--L~.L-'--'--'-'~--'--'-'~-'--''-'~~~~'--'-~~ Though the funding measure that was 190 approved for the parks does allow for all 180 170 park facilities to remain open through 160 September 30 (the end of the NPS fiscal 150 year), the funding status of many parts of l I.LI 110 lated to visitor services have been ap­ ~ 100 proved so far. Many Yellowstone pro­ ffi 90 grams, including those related to resource m BO management and research support, are ~z 70 60 apparently not covered by the funding. 50 •o Court Rules on Grizzly Bear Recovery 30 Plan Lawsuit 20 10 o-/'..,..,"-'11'1"111,.,...\K+Ji.'l~...,..++'ol-' On September29, a U.S. District Court APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Judge ruled on a lawsuit filed concerning 1 JAN 95. O 0 TIME the 1993 Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan is­ sued by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser­ vice. The court held in part for the plain­ The largest earthquake in this swarn1 ber 17 and ended on January 6, and had tiffs, the Fund for Animals et al., and in was a 4.3 on the Richter Scale; Grant much more severe effects on the park part for the defendants, Secretary of the Village staff reported feeling about half a and its neighbors. At the beginning of the Interior Bruce Babbitt et al. The plaintiffs dozen of the quakes. Smith said that "this closure, visitors at the Old Faithful Snow had argued that the plan was inadequate in year's rates of earthquake occurrence are Lodge \Vere asked to leave, and the Mam­ a number of ways. The court held that it well above the annual average." The last moth Hot Springs Hotel was not permit­ was not immediately necessary for the year in which this rate of earthquake ted to open. The timing of the closure, government to designate critical habitat occurrence was achieved was 1985. over the winter's major holiday period, or linkage zones for grizzly bears, and that was reported to have major effects on the plan \vas sufficient in addressing site­ Yellowstone Experiences Shutdowns rnany businesses in the park and in nearby specific rnanagement actions for grizzly communities. Estimates of total losses bear recovery, such as road density stan­ As a result of various stages of this were not available in tin1e for this report. dards, in the several recovery areas in the winter's budget impasse, Yellowstone OnJanuary6, all park and concessioner lower 48 states. National Park was significantly affected facilities reopened to visitor use. "Park Hovvever, the court found that insuffi­ by the two "shutdowns" of the federal staff are pleased to be back at work and cient information \Vas provided by the government. The first shutdo\VO, which are anxious to get back to serving the government to justify as "objective, mea­ ran from Tuesday, Nove1nber 14 until the public,'" said Superintendent Mike Finley. surable criteria., the methods outlined in following Monday morning, had rela­ "This closure has been difficult not only the plan for 1nonitoring populations, and tively little i1nact on park operations be­ on our staff, but our many concessioner to explain ho\v the planned conservation cause the park was largely shut do\Vn and community friends. However, we strategy (now being produced) \Voulddem­ anyway. The roads had been closed for have found a silver lining in this dark onstrate the existence of adequate regula­ the winter, and \Vere not scheduled to cloud through the overwhel!ning sup­ tory 1nechanisn1s to protect bears and their reopen for winter ( oversno\v) traffic until port \ve've received from the communi­ habitat if the species were to be delisted December. The road across northern Yel­ ties, concessioners, our local and state fron1 protection under the Endangered lowstone \Vas kept open for public access governments, and our O\Vn federal em­ Species Act. to the communities of Silver Gate and ployees. Banks have offered low interest The court also questioned the Cooke City, Montana, near the Northeast loans to einployees, and creditors have government's decision not to list theCabi­ Entrance. The Albright Visitor Center been willing to work with park employ­ net-Yaak grizzly bear population as en­ and the Mammoth Hot Springs Camp­ ees during this time of uncertainty." In a dangered rather than threatened. The court ground were closed, and the park \Vas January 6 state1nent about the national gave the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service closed to all recreational activities. park system, NPS Director Roger 90 days to reconsider those portions of the The second closure began on Decem- Kennedy said that "Ourjubilation at open- recovery plan found to be insufficient. Winter 1996 21