VOL. XVIII No. 2 MARCH-APRIL 2002

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CONTENTS

Female Coaches – why are there so few at the top level? Australian Sports Commission State Coaching & Officiating (Ursula Carlile)...... 1 Contacts...... 66 Forbes & Ursula Carlile Articles...... 3 Australian Paralympic Preparation Program 2002 The Principles of Training ...... 3 (Brendan Keogh)...... 67 Signs & Symptoms of Strain...... 4 Letters to the Editor...... 67 Training Applications of the Stress Concept...... 6 WSCA Newsletter...... 68 The General Adaptation Syndrome...... 8 The Backstroke (John M. Hogg & Rein Halijand)...... 68 The Stress Concept ...... 8 Coaching Fluency in the Water (Terry Laughlin) ...... 72 The General Adaptation Syndrome...... 9 Competitive Swimmers Shoulder Injury (Larry Weisenthal)74 The General Adaptation Syndrome...... 10 Rethinking Sprint Breaststroke (Wayne McCauley) ...... 78 Scientific Terms in Training the Sportsman...... 10 Greatness through Adversity (P.H. Mullen)...... 81 The Scope of Sports Medicine ...... 11 Health Waves (Rick Curl & Edmund Burke) ...... 84 The Role of Applied Physiology...... 11 Australian Swimming Calendar ...... 90 Work at the Cotton Memorial Laboratory...... 12 Heart Rate & Blood Pressure Tests...... 13 Who should Test? ...... 14 SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA is published six times annually. Need for Research...... 14 Copy Deadline Sports Science as applied to Swimming (Buddy Portier)15 January-February 15th January March-April 15th March Glycogen Replacement Rate and its use in Program Design th (Dr Bob Treffene)...... 18 May-June 15 May July-August 15th July Developing the Talent (Bill Nelson)...... 23 th September-October 15 September Butterfly Stroke (Otto Sonnleitner)...... 24 November-December 15th November Coaching in a Training Camp Environment (Bill Sweetenham) ...... 27 ADVERTISING RATES Survival from the FITTEST (Dr Louise Burke) ...... 29 1 Issue 3 Issues 6 Issues Non- Non- Non- Member Member Member Analysis of 6.4km Freestyle Training Set (David Pyne) 31 Member Member Member Learn to Swim...... 33 $ $ $ $ $ $ Teaching Butterfly Stroke (Terry Gulliver) ...... 33 F/Page 600 700 1,300 1,600 1,850 2,100 Learn-to-Swim with Ron Coleman ...... 35 ¾ Page500 575 1,100 1,350 1,500 1,850 Why teach Infant Toddler Swim Survival Safety (Jackie ½ Page 300 350 750 900 1,200 1,500 ¼ Page200 250 500 600 900 1,200 Young)...... 36

The Terrible Twos – Transition Class (Pat Taylor) ...... 38 NOTICE TO ADVERTISERS Learn-to-Swim Aids (Ron Coleman...... 39 All copy is subject to acceptance by the publisher. All FINA News ...... 41 advertisers must ensure that their advertisements comply Peak Blood Lactate & Accumulated Oxygen Deficit as strictly with the requirements of all Federal Legislation. The Indices of Freestyle Swimming Performance in Trained publisher reserves the right to reject copy without giving Adult Female Swimmers (Robert F. Zoeller, Elizabeth F. any reason or explanation. Nagle, Robert J. Robertson, Scott M. Lephart, Fredric L. COPYRIGHT ISSUE FROM THE PUBLISHER Goss, Niall M. Moyna) ...... 42 As more and more articles with invaluable technical and Northern Territory Croc’s invade Queensland (Mark research data have and will be published through our Davies) ...... 48 Magazine for our Members to read and use, it is timely to mention Copyright infringements. What can be learnt from the Swim Turn Performances at The ASCTA Magazine (SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA) the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games (Bruce Mason & Jodi Publisher strongly advises all concerned that any attempts Cossor) ...... 50 to reprint articles or excerpts from contents is prohibited Swimming Psychology (Craig Townsend)...... 52 without the written permission of the publisher and author. THE SPORT EDUCATOR...... 59 Any infringements of copyright will be dealt with Preventing the sexual abuse of young people in Australian accordingly. sport (Trisha Leahy)...... 59 Views expressed in articles are those of the authors Coaching Athletes with Disabilities (CAD) course experiences and do not necessarily reflect those of the Editor or the (Warwick Povey)...... 62 Board of ASCTA. Sex Discrimination in Sport (Jackie Solakovski) ...... 64

SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002

…that they just have no time left for coaching top Female Coaches – why swimmers. As a rule, the part of the swimming program in women’s hands is the part, which makes are there so few at the money. Top level coaching costs money. Most swimming schools, and most Australian swimming top level? coaching, works on the Swimming School basis – consist of females who run all the lower levels – with By Ursula Carlile a male senior coach who looks after a small number Assistant Coach – Olympic Games, Munich 1972 of elite swimmers, travelling around Australia and Coach – Commonwealth Games, Christchurch 1974 around the world with them, which he couldn’t afford

to do unless he had a solid Swim School behind him. With the emergence of Elka Graham as the world’s top female 200m Freestyle swimmer, and her Only at the Sports Institutes, AIS and the State coach Narelle Simpson, the question of female Institutes can the financial coaches at the top level situation be a little different. comes up again. Over the However, Institutes pick years it has been apparent in their coaches from the top Australia, and overseas, that (based on the performance at the upper level (Olympic of their swimmers) coaches and National Teams) there around, who, at present, are have been very few women men. Are the Institutes the appointed to the coaching places, which should be staffs of those teams. stepping outside the circle

and promoting female Why? coaches? If they did, a very

different pattern might What … if anything … emerge – but the first step should we do about it? in a new direction is a very

difficult one to take! So, financially, women are I believe the reasons can be summed up in a few needed at the bottom of the pyramid to support the words … opportunity and affinity. soaring tip – with a male coach flitting around the

world with his top few swimmers. Women do not Opportunity is closely allied with good luck. have the opportunity to try themselves out at the top. Olympic coaches are selected from people with swimmers on the team – usually in the top eight in Realistically, a huge amount of good luck is the world. You need to have been quite lucky to have involved in having a great swimmer come into your had such a talented swimmer walk in the door. Most program. To become great, a child needs all the women simply never have the opportunity to become things we all know… elite coaches, although there are clearly those who have the academic qualifications and the knowledge of swimming and could easily be Olympic coaches if F Year-round warm water they had the good luck to have just one highly F Good teaching talented swimmer and the opportunity to be solely in F Good motivation charge of a program attracting potential Olympic F A streamlined shape swimmers. F To start early F Suitable economic situation In swimming, women have been so successful in F Keen parents in a stable marriage other areas… F Dedication F Good health, etc. F Learn-to-Swim F Junior Coaching …but as well he/she needs natural ability ... F Baby and Toddler Teaching TALENT at swimming. And this is where LUCK F Teaching at all the lower levels comes in. F And in administration, selling, managing, etc.,

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The good coach (and good parents) can have both Australia and the United States – have a everything else right, but without TALENT it’s going perception that men don’t want them up in the top to be almost impossible to get into the Olympic coaching positions and would ostracise them in a Team. Twenty or thirty years ago this may not have team situation. They think there is back-room talk to been the case, but today – with many more children keep them out. I spoke to John Leonard, the swimming and with all those other factors available Executive Director of the American Swimming in more places – only with TALENT as well will the Coaches Association, who is in those back rooms swimmer be good enough to put his coach up with and he says male coaches do not feel that way at all, the elite. We can all look back to coaches who and I believe the same is true of Australian male became great – only because they were lucky enough coaches. to have a great, talented swimmer join their group. What everybody should want is the The second issue … keeping women from being best coach for the job. top coaches … after opportunity is affinity. Do women want to be Olympic Coaches? Or do they Another issue is the media, whose job it is to be have more affinity with other levels of the coaching controversial and make stories. People would just pyramid? accept the female coaches who are up there if the

media did not treat it as peculiar in some way. The hours needed to be an elite coach make the job totally incompatible with woman’s natural role of The reporters will ask the female coach, “Isn’t it being a mother and rearing a family. It is hard enough hard in the male-dominated world of elite coaching? to avoid divorce when the man is a swimming coach The men must hate you being successful.” Actually, keeping extraordinary hours and never having a swimming people don’t worry about the gender of weekend off (what’s a weekend off?), let alone if the the coach – they are only concerned with the mother and homemaker has these hours! swimmer’s results.

For the smooth running of the home, the mother Because the female’s affinity may not be to be needs to be there at breakfast time… seen as tough, ruthless, commanding – as we

perceive some of our top male coaches to be – an • To get the children up option some female coaches have adopted is to make • Fed … breakfast, the most important meal of themselves available for managerial positions on elite the day teams. This is a good move as it uses the female’s • Their lunches prepared talents of administration and mothering to best • To get them off to school advantage and it gives contact with all that happens • She needs to be there with a supporting shoulder on a team. A team is very well served when this when they come home happens as swimmers have a great deal of respect for • Or to take them to after-school activities coaches. • She needs to prepare dinner at a reasonable hour • Set up the routine of homework and determine With equal opportunity and anti-discrimination – bed time things will change – there will be more female elite coaches – but it will only happen slowly. In the From time immemorial women have done the meantime, I consider gender is immaterial. What we home-making duties. Are we going totally against need is good, committed coaches – financially secure nature in trying to break this pattern? Is that going to by whatever means. There should be no make happy households? Are women themselves discrimination by males, but equally, no ridiculous going to feel guilty? Feel they have done the wrong over-zealous determination by females to get women thing? Is it so bad not having elite female coaches if up there. we have happy households? Women have great affinity with the swimming profession (because it is so concerned with children), but their role is not We need the best for the job … necessarily to be Olympic coaches. be they male or female!

Some female coaches – and there are about 50% males, 50% females coaching at the lower levels in

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The following articles were published in the Australian Swim Coach, July/August 1996

These few selected articles will show you how ahead of their time these two great pioneers were — and are — in their thinking.

THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING by the Australian Education Association. University Both coach and athlete should have knowledge of of Melbourne, December 1955. the general principles of training the human Psychological factors are very important in organism. Here follow the important principles, training because emotional condition affects bodily which the writer considers are being employed in the function and can be a powerful stressing agent. best training methods: 4. Too much stress for the individual causes 1. The training load must be severe and must be strain and strain lowers performance level. The signs applied frequently enough, and with sufficient and symptoms of strain are many and varied. Some intensity to cause the body to adapt maximally to a can be felt and thus appreciated by the athlete others particular activity. (It is, at the same time, true that can be accurately identified with relatively simple sustained all-out efforts in training, or in races should laboratory techniques. The writer, in an article be made only sparingly.) “Athlete in the Laboratory”, deals SPORT 2. Individuals react differently to the same MAGAZINE, March 1958 some of these methods training load. Always the most important with. consideration must be how the individual is 5. Recuperation periods are essential both during responding to training, whether the athlete is carrying a single training session, and throughout the year. the physical load of training without strain or whether Rest, with consequent physical and mental relaxation, his body is slowly losing its capacity to adjust itself. must be carefully blended with doses of exercise. A Therefore, training will always be an individual rhythmical cycle of exercise and recuperation should problem. be established both within individual training items No fixed training schedule should be followed and week by week. rigidly. Blindly following any written schedule is 6. Training is specific. Although there is a certain unwise. Training must be tailored to suit the amount of carry-over, as a rule the best training for a individual for best results. Of course, the best particular sport is not of much use for another. Thus, arrangement is for any sportsman to be under the swimming training will not help the high jumper, nor constant supervision of a good, experienced coach. will Fencing help the long distance runner. Carrying There can be no fixed training plan suitable for this concept further, we find that in a particular sport, everybody. There are many factors, which should be training is specific. For instance, the best training for taken into account in drawing up a detailed schedule. a sprint swimmer or runner will not suit even the Some of these factors are: the age of the athlete, time 400-metre performer. Every event requires special spent at everyday work and studies, the athlete’s preparation. physical make-up, the time available for sleep and 7. Strengthening and flexibility exercises are very rest, the training facilities available, and so on. beneficial. These two types of training carried out 3. Exercise involved in training is only one of a mainly in the off-season should be carefully designed number of stresses acting on the athlete. All stresses and directed at specific groups of muscles and joints. must be considered when appraising the effect of Looseness and a high degree of flexibility means training. For example, the body must overcome the free-flowing movement. wear and tear stress of daily travelling and manual It is clearly established that great strength, brought labour. about by resistance exercise … e.g. weight training The writer has discussed in detail the question of … improves performance in many fields. stress and physical response to training. This appears Scientifically designed weight training, with in three articles … “The Athlete and Adaptation to appropriate stretching exercises, does not slow down Stress” in the Physical Education Journal, published the sportsman or cause a ‘muscle-bound’ condition.

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8. Interval training is the most important animals place considerable faith in the use of this individual training item in the modern training sign as a guide. When visiting the Payne Whitney schedule. This consists fundamentally of Gymnasium at Yale University the author saw the rhythmically carrying out an activity from 30 seconds 1952 American swimming team candidates under to one minute, at fairly strenuous effort (but not all- Coach, R. Kiphuth carefully recording their stripped out). Each exercise is followed by 10 seconds to two weights on a chart. This was a daily practice. minutes of slow recuperative activity. Joint pains have, for some time, been recognised 9. Efforts at the athlete’s race distance play an as common symptoms of various disease states. Such important part in a training program. By repeatedly symptoms in the athlete, in terms of the G.A.S. would covering the race distance with relatively short be interpreted as representing a highly stressed state. recuperation periods between, the body is grooved to The author had some personal experience in this performing at that specific distance. The individual, regard. Months after training had commenced and a by studying intermediate times, learns how to judge fairly good specific adaptation to running long an even pace, which is essential for best performance. distances was demonstrated by improving time-trial These efforts are for the most part at between 80 and performances, joint and muscle pains became a 90% of the all-out speed. All-out performances with regular occurrence. When those general pains maximum effort at the full race distance are seldom (combined with other symptoms, such as extreme made more than once weekly. irritability) were disregarded, and the training load 10. Nutrition plays a major role in physical maintained there was a culmination in breakdown performance. The first requirement in diet a good after a Marathon race. The chief sign of the variety of foods with many as nearly as possible in physiological breakdown was acute renal failure. their natural state. In addition, certain food Swollen lymph glands, both the tonsils and in the substances … e.g. Vitamin E … even when groin area and urticarial rashes (hives) have been supplemented to many times normal requirements noticed many times by the author, both in himself improve physical performance. and in other individuals in hard training. Almost immediate relief has always followed when stresses, SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF STRAIN including muscular exercise, have been removed. When the sum total of stresses acting on an Sleeplessness and nervous irritability are classical individual are such that the body is driven to show symptoms of the condition widely known as reaction to the stage of exhaustion, a few responses staleness. It is the author’s belief that staleness may have been reported for humans. The author’s best be understood in terms of the G.A.S.: that the observations on athletes in severe training for a individual has approached the stage of exhaustion. variety of sports have confirmed Seyle’s hypothesis The similar conditions characterised by lowered that whether a person is ill from disease or stressed performance covered by the phrase burnt out may by other means such as exercise, he begins to show involve exhaustion reactions of the G.A.S., but it common reactions. A short list of the more usual seems possible that organic structure has brought signs and symptoms of failing adaptation includes the about by maturation and other causes are of following… importance because whereas rest will restore 1. Chronic loss of body weight completely most individuals the so called burnt out 2. Joint and muscle pain not attributable to a athlete never reaches his previous performance level. particular local injury It appears to the author to be a sweeping over- 3. Chronically occurring intestinal upsets simplification to say that staleness is only a state of 4. Swollen lymph glands (tonsils and inguinal mind although no doubt nervous factors are glands) involved. 5. Blocked nose and one-day cold (rhinitis) It may be reasonable to suggest that other signs of 6. Skin rashes such as hives (urticaria) an advanced G.A.S. will be observed and reported in 7. Psychic unrest, irritability, insomnia, general the future, not only in experimental animals but also fatigue often referred to as staleness in humans. In humans who are training strenuously, 8. General muscular tenseness their G.A.S. signs will usually be uncomplicated by Loss of weight in the training athlete, whether the specific effects of disease. This makes the study accompanied or not by poor appetite, may be of the athlete of general scientific interest. Signs and considered as representing the general increased symptoms acting as signposts that adaptation is metabolism (destructive processes) body tissues, running out may be applied to all kinds of stressed which Seyle says, is characteristic of an advanced states, not necessarily peculiar to the athlete. It is G.A.S. response. Some coaches and trainers of important to detect the less obvious physiological

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signs, such as small changes in the blood. These signs may be an insidious movement towards exhaustion; may warn us to take appropriate actions, which and secondly, whenever an alarm reaction is caused, invariably involves rest. there occurs during countershock the feeling of Just as a lifting of the stress load relieves the general wellbeing, which may commence in the exhausted experimental animal, so rest has been athlete an hour or less after a race or training session. found to restore the jaded stale athlete. But how The author learned this lesson by bitter experience much rest the over-trained athlete needs or whether when steadily driving himself towards exhaustion for there should be a complete rest from training is a the 26-mile race. Training runs usually alleviated matter of judgement – decisions which will remain in feeling of chronic fatigue and joint pains. Finally the category of coaching art until we have gained there occurred acute adrenal failure. Since this time more insight resulting from integration of scientific (1950) Hans Seyle frequently has reported renal observation and experiment question in a more direct failure as occurring when his chronically stressed way, to find reliable predictive tests of how long with animals reached exhaustion stage of G.A.S. the athlete. As has been suggested above, most athletes in The challenge for the physiologist is the training may be considered as being in a relatively determination and measurement of the amount of early stage of resistance. Physiologically, little or no general and specific adaptation, or how the individual difference to the normal untrained individual can be would be expected to resist a given stress. Practically found. As the athlete moves along in the resistance nothing has been done in this field of research. stage, for a time increasing his specific adaptation The author has observed what he regards as straws and potential maximum performance, gradually the in the wind for instance, in several athletes including risk of training increases as his general adaptation himself (who appeared to be in good general health), and finally his specific adaptation commence to be a condition, which would generally be regarded as lost at a rapidly increasing rate. There is often a very staleness occurred. Hemoglobinuria was often found thin line between training and straining. Vigilance immediately after training. Two of such athletes, and careful handling of the athlete are essential if members of the 1952 Australian Olympic Team, good performance is not to be obtained as from a acting on advice, took heed of this sign, eased off lucky dip. Championship class performance is no their training and went on to register personal records guarantee that an athlete has reached his full and reach Olympic Finals. The hemoglobinuria did potential. The athlete even though he is winning and not occur later when these runners who were fairly even breaking records, may still have a greater well rested again trained strenuously. In other potential awaiting full development. athletes the author has observed considerable changes Training of an athlete is a great responsibility from the nodal count of blood eosinophils, when they because two of his very important- personal attributes were obviously in a state of chronic fatigue. The are being used – the athlete’s time and his powers of blood eosinophil cell count showed very high peaks, adaptation to life’s stresses. Training him (or her, of extending over a period of a week or more. No course) may be likened to bending a green twig. The allergy or other illness could be detected. It looked body may eventually mould itself to the force of very much like a stress effect. continuously imposed physical exercise, but a little There might well be expected to be many changes too much and the body, like the twig, may show signs in addition to those already observed which will act of strain. More stress, and the breaking point may be as indicators of the stress effect and whisper their reached. warning whilst adaptation and potential performance Rhythm has been named a characteristic of life. level remains good. There is a time for strenuous activity and a time for Even in our present state of knowledge the astute resting. The rigidity of a too definite program of can often observe and act on the warnings and before training may easily drive the athlete to exhaustion, he drives the athlete to exhaustion. Some of the the coach whose mind is obsessed by the idea that changes mentioned above occur relatively early and distance covered is all-important may, for a while, prompt action by the coach in assessing the total can seem to get successful results with the use of his often save the situation. More than performance is at whip. But some of his pupils will invariably fall by stake. The athlete’s health may be in jeopardy. the wayside as they reach the limit of their adaptation Other Practical Considerations credit. The coach may be compared to the violinist The disarming state of affairs in an individual who feeling for the right note; he must proceed directly being slowly drained of his adaptation energy is, and definitely, at the same time listening carefully to firstly, that changes are very small and are sometimes the note he is producing; if his string has slackened masked by the specific needs of a stress, so that there slightly he must adjust his technique to meet the

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contingencies of the moment. The sensitive trainer mated when considering their effects on the with a background of scientific knowledge, and with organism, he has stated to be his most important ideal experience must feel his way carefully. He will not gained from his many observations on stress be too rigid a taskmaster. research. There were two holders of World Swimming It has stated that an important result of chronic Records. Both were in the final period of their exposure of the organism to a particular stress is to training for the Helsinki Olympic Games in 1952. increase the resistance to other stresses. The Both had been training consistently and hard up to 6 implication of this for the athlete becomes apparent. miles a day, and recording close to their best. Then The highly trained may withstand a relatively great their times started to fall off. One swimmer believed load of a particular exercise for which he has been he should train harder for, as he said, “did not slower trained, but more easily succumbs to other stressing speed show the need for more training?” The other agents such as chills and bacterial infection than the swimmer eased off and swam slowly when he normal healthy person. This is not an uncommon trained. He spent most of his time in bed. The observation. wrongly advised energetic one failed by a long way Any stress, muscular exercise or otherwise, to come up to his previous standard, but the lazy one, whether major or minor, according to Seyle, draws who had developed a sound basic philosophy on the on the bank of adaptation energy but the stresses for subject of training, won his Olympic race in record which the individual is less well adapted will draw time. Their story well illustrates an application of the the greatest debit and be most likely to hasten General Adaptation Syndrome. exhaustionary action. Conclusions There are two important practical questions … Coaching athletes will become more scientific as firstly, what are the main stresses which may make a our knowledge becomes greater and better organised, demand on an athlete’s adaptation, and secondly, but the knowledge will continue to lie in recognising what signs and symptoms are indicative of a failing individual idiosyncrasies and blending the training store of adaptation energy? Here is a list of stresses, exercise with enough rest to give the optimum which, in the author’s experience, are common to amounts of specific adaptation and adaptation energy. many athletes… The coach can make contributions to training (i) Muscular exercise science by observing the athlete carefully; by noting (ii) Dietary inadequacy those changes, which may prove useful objective (iii) Climatic conditions, heat and cold measure of the state of stress, the coach can hope to (iv) Bacterial infections and disease make possible a fairly close prediction of adaptation (v) Emotional conflict and unrest potential of the organism. (vi) Insufficient rest and sleep No matter what modifications and extensions (vii) Miscellaneous stress and the everyday wear are eventually made to the Hans Seyle concept, the and tear of living author suggests that the General Adaptation There is space only to comment briefly on this list Syndrome theory in its present form is of great value and mention some implications. to the coach who is seeking a solid scientific basis Even when everything seems ideal for an athlete’s about which to organise his observations. training, it is fairly common knowledge that it is As Seyle has said, “our facts must be correct; our possible to overload the athlete with too much or too theories need not be if they help us to discover intense training. It is proposed to go into training important new facts.” schedules bare, but the general practice should always be to increase gradually the training load, TRAINING APPLICATIONS OF THE STRESS giving the body time to make its changes of CONCEPT adaptation. Starting into a too severe training The particular aim of training is to stimulate program, with more enthusiasm than wisdom, is a specific adaptation of the body by continuously common cause of failure. Training should be repeating physical exercise of a specialised nature. increased gradually, not only in the one season but Harmful effects of exercise stress becomes a more also from year to year. likely condition nowadays that rewards for sporting Here is an important lesson of the G.A.S. (the success are many, and high training mileage has General Adaptation Syndrome). Exercise causes an become almost an obsession with many athletes and alarm reaction with an emphasis on the counter-shock coaches. stage, and during this stage the individual may be Seyle’s concept that the body has a finite quantity misled by his feelings of well-being even his general of adaptation energy and that stresses should be sum-

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powers of adaptation will be low and he may be fast hormone responses. Most psychosomatic research travelling on the road to the exhaustion stage. workers consider that this may, at most, be only one In order to have developed a high specific of a number of biological mechanisms involved. adaptation for exercise it may be presumed a normal There is, however, nearly complete agreement that occurrence for the athlete to be at least in the early the sick person must have as many bodily stresses as stage of resistance. Should he have passed too far possible reduced to a minimum for his speediest into this stage, specific and general adaptation will be recovery. The athlete, in order to produce his top nearing their limits. A not particularly severe stress, performance, similarly is found to require much rest such race or time trial may then represent the last and should keep warm and eat mainly easy-to-digest straw of his load. foods. Paradoxically, the athlete and the sick person The diet, which may be completely satisfactory require much the same type of treatment. Both for the normal, relatively inactive person, may not require saving their adaptation energy. contain the necessary quantity of nutrients, Only a psychologically well-adjusted and happy particularly vitamins for very strenuous training. person will have a minimum of psychic unrest. There seems fairly good evidence (1 and 2) that Mental stress probably causes some body effects Vitamin C and some of the Vitamin B complex series which, acting through the nerve centres of the fall in this group. Moreover, it is conceivable that hypothalamus in some way, (as yet uncertain), there exists personal idiosyncrasies, some individuals influence the anterior pituitary gland. The anterior needing considerably more of some chemicals than pituitary in turn secretes the hormone, A.C.T.E., others for optimum function of their living processes. which, transported throughout the blood stream, It is interesting that Seyle’s rats made greater stimulates glandular activity in the adrenal cortex. adaptation when on a high protein diet. Another The fact that the emotional upset can affect the body point, which may be overlooked by athletes, is that and is associated with many types of physiological food, which may be easily handled by the digestive malfunction and disease certainly suggests strongly system of a normal person, may constitute a stress to that the emotionally well-balanced athlete with a the athlete. A fat-rich or too bulky diet may be good temperament, and who has the personality considered as falling into this category. factors generally associated with a good sport, has an High temperature and high humidity often important advantage over the unhappy, restless represent important stresses for nearly all athletes individual who is kept busy dealing with battles not except the swimmer. When the body is generating only in his competition but within himself. heat at a high rate during exercise, to lose heat Insufficient rest and sleep may be another stress becomes a problem and increased body temperature decreasing adaptation energy and hindering can become a severe stress. To the long distance maximum specific adaptation for muscular exercise. runner or rower who may train on cold nights, and An athlete may be habitually getting insufficient rest also the swimmer practising in outdoor pools, cold and blame poor performance on everything except can take a severe toll on the athlete. this fundamental restorative need. The athlete Bacterial infection and disease may be thought of requires more rest than the non-athlete but as far as as calling on a great deal of adaptation energy the author is aware, scientific information concerning precipitating the G.A.S. Added to the physical the optimum sleep requirement during strenuous exertion of training, disease might be expected to training does not exist. precipitate early exhaustion. Such is found to be the Under the heading of Miscellaneous Stresses, case, in practice. It is an ill-advised athlete who trains many various factors could be discussed. For or races when ill. instance, smoking and drinking to excess may be Of interest is Seyle’s controversial theory of the stresses fairly well carried by the otherwise relatively diseases of adaptation. Many diseases, he says, (those non-stressed person, but to the athlete such which are not caused by any known pathogen) are indulgences will probably be at an adaptation cost he caused more or less directly by stress. Such diseases cannot afford. The everyday wear and tear of living as rheumatoid conditions, chronic high blood involving the athlete’s occupation, his travelling to pressure and gastric ulcers he calls the stress diseases. work, his hobbies, studies and not least his social It is certainly a well-established fact that many obligations, are all performed at the cost of some conditions, including psychotic and neurotic mental energy adaptation. Serious consideration of these states, in fact most illnesses, may be precipitated by activities must be given to all concerned in preparing stressful conditions. Seyle believes that the an athlete. These everyday stresses, outside training mechanism involved in his so-called Diseases of itself, are of utmost importance and should be first Adaptation is mainly a derailment of the body’s

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considered when planning a schedule and observing a worthy goal for some of its members, there is good reactions to training. reason for the scientists being curious about the basic principles governing strenuous physical References performances. There will have to be observation and 1. Bicknell F., and Prescott F. (2945), The experiment with the whole athlete directly in his vitamins in medicine, London Heinemann particular specialised sphere of physical performance, 2. The Nutrition of Athletes, Symposium, The if there is going to be real progress in solving the Brit. J. Nut. 2.3.1938 problem of how to train an athlete to perform his best. THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME While he should be aware of our general lack of The training of athletes for strenuous physical insight into training mechanisms, he will make a poor activity today is much an art and less a science. We coach who has no basic philosophy to guide his lack too many basic facts about the effects of teaching. The purpose of this paper is to propose the muscular exercise on the human organism even for acceptance of the General Adaptation Syndrome the most modern training regimes to be called theory of Hans Seyle as a scientific basic philosophy scientific. Personal judgement, opinion, authority and to guide his teaching. Whether he believes that the sheer enthusiasm continue to play nearly as important more training the athlete does the better the eventual a part in producing the champion as in the earliest performance will be, or that it is not so much a days of modern competitive running when Walter question of how much, but how the training is done, George of England as far back as 1886, ran the mile the present author suspects that the Seyle stress in 4 minutes 12.75 seconds. concept will provide the framework of a sound theory The modern textbook on coaching methods tells for future scientific observation and research in next to nothing of a scientific nature of how to train training. the body – functions for speed and endurance. Those The author suggests that a more general solid facts are there to enable us to do little more than understanding of the stress and Adaptation energy guess why one athlete makes his record time whilst concept will prevent the waste of much athletic talent another, working to exactly the same training and hence add in some measure to the sum total of program, may fail to perform even near his best. As human happiness. Professor A.V. Hill says (1) in his article in the The Seyle hypothesis of the General Adaptation Encyclopaedia Britannica, “There is very little Syndrome has important implications in the field of physiological knowledge about the changes which Medicine, but it would appear to the present author come over the body in physical training”. that a knowledge of the G.A.S. and its implications The guiding lights for many coaches have been will result in the gain of considerable insight to the the methods used by the reigning champions and the coach who stresses his charges with physical most successful trainers. Occasionally, with exercise. imitation, real progress seems to have been made. For instance, it is now generally accepted that for THE STRESS CONCEPT maximum possible performance, an athlete must train It has been accepted for some time that internal for hours rather than minutes a day and the fast-slow and external bodily stresses play an important part in training principle first used by the Swedish runners in determining the health of man. Long before Hans the 1930’s is now widely and successfully practised Seyle commenced to document with sound in many sports. But whether the improvement in experimental evidence, it was widely realised that standards is due to new methods or greater assaults by physical violence, microbes and disease, worldwide interest and participation, one can do little climactic conditions and nervous tension constitute more than guess. Methods of training have not yet the common human stresses. As Stewart Wolf (2) a been evaluated scientifically. famous New York psychiatrist has pointed out It is not difficult to find the reason for the lack of nervous strain represented by threats and conflicts, knowledge about training, for the human body is a real or imaginary conscious or unconscious, complex organism with what seems countless known constitute a large portion of the stress of which man physiological, psychological and social factors acting is continually exposed. and interacting. It is difficult and time-consuming to There is now a considerable body of evidence make well-controlled experiments, holding enough showing the close relationship between bodily stress variable factors constant, in order to come to many and disease, and general malfunction of the bodily definite conclusions. Since modern civilised society processes. Many biological mechanisms are involved holds the opinion that to strive for athletic honours is in the stress response.

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Many workers have contributed to this stress to stimuli to which the organism is neither concept, particularly in regard to the effect of the quantitatively or qualitatively not adapted. emotions on bodily disease, but Hans Seyle (3) For example: an animal may be in a state of experimenting mainly with rats, rabbits and guinea training for muscular exercise. Running on a pigs, has been able to throw considerable light on treadmill for five minutes may cause a very mild definite reproducible effects of a wide variety of G.A.S., whilst the untrained littler-mate may show a stresses on the animal organism. His research has marked response on stopping. But provided the stress taught us something of the mechanisms of physical is severe enough even if trained to withstand it, the and mental stress by which bodily changes are animal will show some alarm reaction changes. brought about. The changes of shock include diminished blood Seyle spotlighted the anterior pituitary and adrenal pressure, loss of muscle tone, a sustained very high endocrine glands as playing parts in what he called heart rate and gastro-intestinal ulceration if the stress the General Adaptation Syndrome. He emphasised is very severe. However, with mild stresses (and the role of the hormones, but many of Seyle’s critics exercise usually only acts as mild stress) the main believe that he over-emphasises the differential effect signs are merely transient high heart rate and some of hormones in the stress response. In his present chemical and cellular changes in the constitution of paper we shall concern ourselves with Seyle’s the blood. proposition about which there is very little argument As Seyle pointed out, muscular exercise as a – the General Adaptation Syndrome. stress gives, a minimum of shock and a maximum of counter-shock. Exercise causing very little tissue THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME damage precipitated an almost pure G.A.S. response. Hans Seyle has shown that such stressing agents In the stage of counter-shock the physiological as infections, poisons, trauma from burns or changes of shock become generally reversed … e.g. mechanical damage, heat, cold, starvation and blood pressure rises above normal … and soon it muscular fatigue as well as having their own quite seems that the adaptive mechanisms in the body are definite specific actions on parts of the organism, proceeding at a greater rate than the destructive have invariably generalised and stereotyped non- processes. Adaptation may be defined as being a state specific effects on the body, superimposed upon all of the organism characterised by an increased the specific effects. resistance to stress through previous exposure to The outstanding effects of prolonged stress that stress. Seyle reported (5, 6 and 7) are… During the increased rate of adaptive processes of 1. Enlargement of the adrenal cortex and cellular counter-shock the organism becomes active, shows changes there indicate or increased glandular evidence of increased psychic stimulation and there activity. are noticed activities indicating a sense of wellbeing. 2. General atrophy of the lymph glands with Physiological changes including lymph gland atrophy concomitant changes in the blood cell count, and a lowered eosinophil cell blood count occur. particularly in resect of eosinophils and Resistance to all stress, including the stress, which lymphocytes. precipitates an almost pure G.A.S. response. 3. Erosions and ulcers in the gastro-intestinal In the state of counter-shock the physiological tract. changes of shock become generally reversed … e.g. These changes and others are characteristic of blood pressure rises above normal … and soon it what Seyle names the General Adaptation Syndrome seems that the adaptive mechanisms in the body are (the G.A.S). proceeding at a greater rate than the destructive Under the influence of various stressing agents, processes. Adaptation may be defined as being a state including muscular exertion, which can be an of the organism characterised by an increased important stressor, the body changes in such a way as resistance to stress through previous exposure to to adapt itself. According to Seyle, this adaptation stress. can be differentiated into three states… In the stage of resistance the organism will 1. The Alarm Reaction continue resist the original stressing agent but the 2. The State of Resistance animal becomes more vulnerable to other stresses, 3. The State of Exhaustion which in addition to the original stress if severe The Alarm Reaction is sub-divided into two enough, may each be capable of producing Alarm stages … shock and counter-shock. Shock represents Reaction superimposed physiologically on the the organism’s initial response to a sudden exposure Resistance reaction. The final stage of the G.A.S. is the Stage of Exhaustion, which represents the non-

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specific reactions resulting from prolonged over- THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME exposure to which adaptation has been developed but Whatever may be the reason for this – whether it can no longer be maintained. During the Exhaustion is because of hereditary constitutional differences in Stage resistance to all stressing agents is lowered and the store of adaptation energy – the fact remains that any stress will precipitate a violent reaction of only the naive coach would dispense a rigid system prolonged shock and death. of written training instructions. Bitter experience has The passage of the animal from one stage into shown many times that what is one athlete’s training another is usually a gradual one and it is not always meat might well be another’s poison. An individual’s easy when specific effects of a particular stressing adaptation energy must be one of the first agent are evident, to recognise the stage. There seems considerations. little doubt, both experimentally and in practice that References: resistance to all stresses decreases gradually as the 1. Hill A.V. Muscles and Muscular Exercise, Exhaustion stage is approached. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition. Seyle pointed out many times in his papers that 2. Wolf S. (1950) Res. Publ. Ass. Nerv. Ment we know practically nothing about the physiological Disease, Vol 29, p1090 changes occurring as the animal progresses from a 3. Seyle H. (1950) Stress, Acta Inc. Medical state of resistance towards exhaustion. We know Publishers, Montreal, Canada even less about human responses. 4. Loeb R. F., Premont-Smith F. (1950) Res. By way of general illustration of the G.A.S. Publ. Ass. Nerv. Kent. Disease. Vol 29 pp1088- response to cold as a stressing agent, it may be of 1089 interest to re-tell Seyle’s story (7) of what happened 5. Seyle H. (1936) The Alarm Reaction, Canada to mice when taken from mild room temperature and M.A.J. 34:706 placed in a freezing chamber. When taken from the 6. Seyle H. (1937) Studies of Adaptation, room at about 700°F and placed in an environment at Endocrinology 21:169 close to freezing point the mice at first became 7. Seyle H. The Story of Stress, Acta Inc. Medical prostrated with shock. They then started to run about Publishers, Montreal, Canada and carry on their normal activities and at first appeared over-active (the counter-shock phase) and SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN TRAINING THE then apparently passing into the State of Resistance, SPORTSMAN when it was difficult to tell the difference be between If we accept as the definition of science that it is them and mice living under normal conditions. systematised and formulated knowledge then even After some hours one by one the mice began to the casual observer of modern training methods will succumb, becoming sluggish in their activity and soon come to the conclusion that science has played finally dying in shock. an important part in bringing about the amazing Those who have observed athletes during training improvements in sport made since World War II. will by now be able to discern that the Seyle cap fits Coaching in many sports, particularly swimming in many places. The present author suggests that the in Australia is no haphazard pastime but an activity, athlete when trained hard also invariably shows many which has drawn full-time professional teachers who responses of the G.A.S. certainly have systematised, and formulated their Seyle postulated that the animal organism methods and their knowledge. They are scientific. (including man) has finite, limited adaptation energy. In turn, the advanced pupils of the coaches in a But as Seyle points out, this concept is an abstraction number of sports, but again particularly in Australian insofar as we do not yet how the exact nature of swimming, have become scientific in that for more Adaptation Energy. All we can say at present is that than 10 years they have been keeping log books. In the body responds as though it has such a limited most cases these are painstakingly entered up daily. supply. The facts advanced by Hans Seyle, and the With this organisation, there is provided a good author’s own observations on himself and other opportunity from the data to formulate theories, athletes who have been in severe training, support the linking cause and effect. concept that stress effects are summated to draw on The modern coach draws on many Sciences, the limited adaptation energy. physics, body mechanics, nutrition, psychology, When everything seems to be nearly equal, some anatomy and physiology are some that are individuals can always be observed to be able to continually applied in coaching. stand distinctly more training than others and continue to show improvement.

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THE SCOPE OF SPORTS MEDICINE Specialist sport coaches are kept in close liaison Sports Medicine is a field of interest first with research workers in three research Institutes of conceived in Europe in 1925. In a wide sense, the Physical Education. At the beginning of 1957 the study embraces the whole field of the science of sport Soviet expanded its work in the aspect of sports and involves not only physicians but also physical medicine concerned with the physiology of the educationalists and exponents of a number of athlete. A staff of 13 at the Central Research Institute sciences. in Moscow has increased to 36 and fully equipped Physiologists are concerned with such problems laboratories were opened at the new Lenin Stadium. as the effect of fatigue, factors contributing to the Here I saw research teams at work and discussed with condition known as staleness the cause of muscular scientific workers both their investigations and mine. stiffness, factors contributing to the ability to I found that the Russians were attacking the maintain muscular relaxation and so on. There are problem of the scientific control of the amount of problems of applied anatomy such as muscle leverage training given to sportsmen. They were investigating and the most efficient angles of pull in various what tests may be used to estimate the sportsman’s activities. ability to withstand repeated intense efforts as Sports medicine also deals with questions of the occasioned by modern interval training. Blood relative physical capacities of males and females at pressure and heart rate responses to the standard dose various ages whilst another branch deals with the of exercise are used extensively and unfavourable effect of sport on personality and character. There are responses recognised. A few coaches had been the purely medical aspects such as the prevention and trained in administering these tests but members of treatment of sports injuries and the determination of the sports medicine group carried out most testing. fitness to compete or to train strenuously. The electro-cardiograph record was claimed to be The scope of sports medicine is vast and useful in determining strain during training and continuing research in the laboratory and careful athletes with poor records were not permitted to observation in the sports field and swimming pool compete. Brachial pulse wave tracings were used in can only make progress. detecting the over-trained sportsman. Research workers were studying minute electrical THE ROLE OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY potentials from muscles as an indication of the degree Because it deals with the science of the of muscle relaxation. Also, they have found that the functioning of the healthy human body, it is clear that well co-ordinated muscles of the trained sportsman human physiology is of importance in its practical when making standard movements give a different application in preparing the body for competitive electrical pattern from that of the non-trained person. sport. The muscles of a successful athlete were found to The purpose of this paper is primarily to indicate work more efficiently with less electrical disturbance the extent of and to illustrate the present day role of than the average person’s when making standard applied physiology in swimming and sport generally. movements. During the last two years I have visited the The bicycle ergometer was used as a means of world’s leading swimming countries. My attendance giving a measured quantity of exercise to a subject, at the Empire Games in Cardiff and subsequent tour whilst a battery of recording instruments recorded in Europe and Japan was due to the generosity of physiological changes as they took place. It was Jantzen (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., who made a grant as a noteworthy that, at the international swimming events contribution to Australian swimming probably I attended in Moscow, there were usually present at because of the particular interest in Australian each session five or six observers from the Sports swimming methods. Since our 1956 successes in Medicine Group. They were accorded every Melbourne, scientific workers have freely given me assistance by swimming officials and had access to their time showing me their laboratories and all parts of the swimming stadium to carry out their explaining their researches. work. U.S.S.R. Hungary In Russia, the nation-wide participation and Moscow sets the pattern for sports medicine in the interest in sport is staggering. Sport is, of course, like communist countries. The Director of Physical most other things … State-organised. More than Education in Hungary, Mr. Hepp, told me that in his 100,000 well-trained physical education teachers country they were adopting the Soviet approach but carry the gospel of mass sport to the 15 republics of were still a long way behind. the U.S.S.R.

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Communist China and the swimmers. We were told that during the early In Communist China, talks with sporting directors 1930s, when there was a greater revolution in in physical culture institutes in Shanghai and Peking Japanese swimming, there was more applied science. made it clear that the results and recommendations of After talking with the members of their Swimming Soviet research were being adopted. Practically no Technical Committee, which incidentally counts original scientific research into human performance amongst its members a number of former Olympic was being undertaken. winners, it was clear that in Japan now there is a France preoccupation with stroking techniques. Scarcely a In France the post-war burst of enthusiasm, question was asked on the subject of training or on when Alex Jany was world record holder, for aspects of making peak performance. scientific research in swimming seems to have U.S.A. subsided although their scientific director in physical In June 1958, I spent some time at Los Angeles, education told me that more activity was planned for Illinois, Michigan and at the Yale University at New France in the way of research. Haven. Denmark, Holland and Finland My general impressions were that although the Christiansen in Denmark is world-famous for his custom is now for physical education graduates to fill work on the physiology of muscular exercise coaching positions at the Universities there is although little work has been done on the special practically no applied laboratory science similar to problems of training. I found the picture was similar the Soviet Union. The pioneer work of Professor in Holland, although I was impressed with the Thomas Cureton at the University of Illinois is the biological research centres in Utrecht and Lieden exception. where the emphasis is placed on the physical My wife and I stayed at Cureton’s home and I performance of men. lectured his students in the doctorate school as well Holland, with roughly the same population as as having a number of discussions with the energetic Australia and with an appreciably lower standard of 58-year-old professor. The scope of Cureton’ s work living, is doing more towards carrying out this type on the physiology of the athlete is set out in his book of research than Australia. In Finland there is a “Fitness of the Champion Athlete”, University of similar situation. At the World Congress of Sport Illinois Press, Illinois 1951. Medicine in 1952 it was clear that a number of first Cureton’s approach has been, so to speak, a cross class research workers were applying themselves to sectional one. Many outstanding sportsmen including research in the physiology of the sports man. M. the late John Marshall, Herb McKenley, Bob Karvonen has done some interesting research on Richards, Alan Ford, etc., were tested extensively at changes in red and white blood cells with physical the Illinois laboratories. Tables of standard scores exercise. There is a clinic attached to the Association have been drawn up which serve to differentiate the of Sports Medicine in Finland where research on the champion from the average untrained man. To a functioning of the athlete is carried out. certain extent the question what makes the Canada SUPERIOR athlete is being answered by this Canadian physiologists were present at the Empire approach. Games in Cardiff and in an improvised laboratory in Professor Cureton’s interests are divided between a gymnasium a research team conducted fitness tests testing and improving the athlete and demonstrating and measurements, such as a Step-Test on a number the relationship between regular exercise and fitness of competitors. This was an indication of a growing and well being in the middle aged. interest in Canada of scientific control in sport. Cureton, with his research and academic England obligations cannot keep in continuous close contact In England, Geoffrey Dyson for Track & Field with the athlete in training. and Mak Madders and Bert Kinnear for swimming, are prominent in contributing to the scientific WORK AT THE “COTTON MEMORIAL research side of their sports. Kinnear and Madders LABORATORY” are university lecturers in physical education. Dyson In Sydney, we are making an attempt to is the editor of the Athletic Association’s Coaching scientifically control the training of swimmers and Newsletter, which regularly carries scientific articles. other athletes with the aid of laboratory test. We are Japan employing what may be called the longitudinal Although Sport Medicine has advanced in Japan approach to the guidance of the sportsman. We are since World War II, from my observations I would not confining our work to superior athletes but to all say there is a close liaison between scientific workers who have the enthusiasm to attempt to improve them

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with training. My wife (who incidentally graduated in Suspected abnormalities are referred to the physical education from the University of Adelaide) physicians. Cureton, in America, has made some and I, are now testing and correlating data from over interesting observations on the results of fatigue and 100 sportsmen each week. We have named our centre on what characterises a superior E.C.G. in the athlete, the Professor Frank Cotton Memorial Laboratory, whilst the researches of Mr Jim Steele of the School in honour of the brilliant pioneer work of a man, who of Veterinary Science of the University of Sydney, on in many aspects, led the world in his study of the thoroughbred horses and our own preliminary data athlete. The Drummoyne Municipal Council made suggest a very useful field by relating electro- the rooms at the pool available as a scientific cardiograms to the performance of sportsmen. laboratory after representations to Aldermen by The Psychogalvanometer Professor Cotton. At Drummoyne we have made some preliminary Briefly the aims of the testing and measuring at experiments with the psychogalvanometer, an Drummoyne are… instrument that measures electrical changes in the 1. To estimate potential skin resistance. Changes are marked in highly-strung 2. To pinpoint physical weakness and suggest nervous individuals and may be significantly greater remedies during periods of strain. We hope to gain useful 3. To provide incentive and demonstrate information about the nervous system by taking these physiological improvement with training measurements under standard conditions. 4. To provide a scientific aid to the dosing of the Ergometry training load Ergometry, the measurement of physical work, is Whilst continually mindful of the research side of carried out at Drummoyne with a bicycle ergometer our work the primary object of our testing must be to using the accurate method of Professor Cotton, with provide useful and immediate information and the differential friction band. The most useful guidance to our subjects. We must in general restrict measurement I have found, and one independent of testing to what appear the most fruitful approaches, bicycling experience is that of work output in a 30- and take the minimum of our subjects’ time from the second burst. The work done in turning the pedals extensive training, which is necessary nowadays. against a heavy resistance load is an excellent Another problem is one of finance ... unlike measure of explosive power. We have found a. very university workers … we pay our own expenses ... close relationship between a high score on the bicycle most of our apparatus we have had to purchase. ergometer and calibre of sporting performance. On However, the bicycle ergometer we use is on loan the basis of many thousands of rides by schoolboys from the Physiology Department of the University of we have drawn up tables relating ergometer scores to Sydney and we are indebted to Mr Ted Both of Both age. Ergometry has a good predictive value. Young Medical Equipment for making available an electro- people with a high score for their age will usually cardiograph. perform very well at sport. One instrument, the Cameron Heartograph, recently cost me more than £350 to land in Australia. HEART RATE & BLOOD PRESSURE TESTS Here, briefly, is an account of some of the regular Two relatively simple physiological testing items being carried out at Drummoyne. measurements to make are heart rate and blood Height, Weight, etc pressure. In the scientific literature there are many Height, weight, index of build and other bodily fitness tests involving the heart rate and blood measurements are made in order to assess growth pressure responses to standard exercise. Some of from time to time. Comparisons are made with data these tests, for instance the step test, have their uses from outstanding swimmers and the average person. in the laboratory. An excellent Russian test involving Vital Capacity the examination of the blood pressure changes after Vital capacity, an indication of lung capacity is exercise differentiates between states of good measured before and after a standard exercise. physical adjustment, over-training, and a pathological Training improves this value but over-training in condition of the circulatory system marked by high accord with the findings of the Soviet Sports blood pressure. Medicine Research Group, decreases the vital Carlile – Scientific Trends capacity. Following observations made on members of the The Electrocardiograph Australian Swimming Squad in Townsville in 1956 The Electrocardiograph, an instrument, which we have developed a heart rate response test, which amplifies and records electrical variations during the relates for the individual the physiological effort and heart cycle, has lately been introduced in our testing. the time of the performance. This test that we educate

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the swimmer to carry out for himself is useful for both controlling the expenditure of effort in training and in predicting maximum performance. Without the necessity of frequent all-out performances it is possible to assess the day-to-day form of the Opportunity! individual from a training effort of moderate intensity.

WHO SHOULD TEST? I have given examples of some practical uses of applied physiology in the guidance of sportsmen. Any reasonably intelligent swimming coach could easily administer some of the tests but there are several factors making this type of work difficult to carry out. Firstly there is the question of the time – both the sportsman and the coach’s. Weekly testing should be streamlined and only the most useful tests made, so that there is not unnecessary loss of training Australia's longest established swimming organisation is time. Usually the coach cannot do very much actual about to expand once again, with the opening of its new, testing himself. His place is at the track or side of the state-of-the-art aquatic education facility at Baulkham swimming pool. Ideally he should have assistants Hills, which is located in the heart of Sydney's fastest trained in laboratory work. In order to enable a growing residential area. saving of time and for best co-ordination of activities, The purpose-built, indoor, heated facility contains two pools with custom teaching ledges, ultra-fine filtration, I believe that it is almost essential that the laboratory an air dehumidification and a UV water disinfection be situated close to where the sportsmen train. system, separate baby change facility, parents' viewing room and on site parking for over 40 cars. NEED FOR RESEARCH We are seeking interested individuals or couples, with Before scientific laboratory control of sport can be previous experience in the swimming industry, who are carried out on a wide scale I believe that the general willing to accept the challenge of initiating, implementing and managing the world-renowned problem of sport must be studied in the universities. Carlile teaching system at our new location. In Australia there is very little research being made in In addition to a generous remuneration and bonus this field. Research and provision for trained package, the successful applicants will have the observers, facilities and scientific instruments for opportunity for equity shareholding in the business, testing cost more. However, I believe that improving which will, in turn, provide the potential for future the fitness of sportsmen is a far cry from improving growth within Carlile Swimming. the fitness of the community. The sporting field Successful applicants will be required to take up the position in June 2002, in preparation for the swim becomes the testing ground for ideas, which are then school’s September opening date. applied to the average man and woman. Sport has a Please send written applications, including CVs and two similar relation to living much as automobile racing written references by Monday, April 22nd to: has in helping finally to produce the best family car. Richard Cahalan With its high standard of living, good climate and Field Manager, Carlile Swimming vigorous people, Australia has done well in 4 Robert St International sport. However, I believe that in the Harbord long run, the nations that apply the results of research NSW 2096 Australia in human physiology will give their sportsmen Email to: [email protected] advantages, which will make International success in sport even harder in the future. I believe that in showing their willingness to cooperate with the universities and schools of physical education coaches will speed the day for more applied science and more research in the field of human performance. www.carlile.com.au

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Reproduced from Coaches Guide Volume 1 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TESTS

Sports Science … as applied 1. Relevance

to Swimming In order to obtain valid results it is important for By Buddy Portier athletes to respond positively to fitness tests. Their immediate recognition of the relevance of the AGE GROUPERS particular test to their sport is therefore critical. SPORT SCIENCE TESTING REASONS FOR TESTING The test should be selected in accordance with the known energy requirements of the sport. For example 1. Identifying Weaknesses … a pursuit cyclist is involved in a maximal effort for about five minutes. Maximal explosive and The main purpose of testing is to establish where sustained power using both aerobic and anaerobic an individual’s strengths and weaknesses lie. Firstly, energy pathways should be measured. In addition, this involves identifying the major component of some assessment of the efficiency of cycling would fitness in the sport and then conducting tests that be appropriate. By the same token, a field hockey measure those components. A training program can player requires both speed and endurance with energy then be prescribed that is geared towards the supplied in both an intermittent and continuous development of the individual. manner. Hence a short sprint (20-40 metres), a series of interval sprints (6-10 repeats of 20-40 metres) and 2. Monitoring Progress a longer run (5-15 minutes) would provide a useful guide to components of fitness for field hockey. An By repeating appropriate tests at regular intervals Australian football player or basketball player has the coach can obtain a guide as to the effectiveness of somewhat similar energy requirements but vertical the prescribed training program. A one-shot testing jumping ability is far more important than it is in experience provides very little benefit either for the hockey. athlete or the coach and is strongly discouraged. 2. Specificity 3. Providing Incentives Fitness tests should address the performance A specific test score, knowing that the test will be capabilities of the muscle groups and muscle fibre repeated at a later date, often provides the incentive types actually involved in the sport. For example, for an athlete to improve in a particular area. The distance runs or treadmill tests should be used for opportunity for members of a training squad to measuring endurance in running sports and cycle, periodically compare their performance on objective kayak, swimming and rowing ergometers for and relevant tests is a useful motivational tool in assessing explosive and sustained power in the encouraging them to strive for improvements. specific sports for which they were designed. Field tests on the road, on the river and in the pool are 4. Predicting Performance Potential ultimately the most specific if the athlete is able to move freely, unhindered by testing apparatus and Over a wide range of sports, prediction of equipment. performance on the basis of fitness test results has not been very successful. It seems particularly hazardous Strength testing should not only relate to the to attempt prediction of adult performance based on specific muscle groups involved in the activity but fitness scores obtained on young children before their also to the patterns and speeds of movement growth has terminated. There are wide variations in followed. Non-specific cardio-vascular fitness test the maturation rates of different individuals and the (e.g. the Astrand cycle ergometer test for swimmers) constant success of the late maturing athlete in many may be useful in revealing symptoms of over-training sports is worth noting. The development of an or general changes in endurance fitness, but is efficient talent identification system based on a generally not sensitive enough to assess the combination of fitness, skill and psychological tests effectiveness of the specific regimen aimed at is a fertile area for future sports science research. improving the endurance capabilities of specific muscle groups.

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3. Quality Control heavily on anaerobic sources of energy or does not allow sufficient time for the aerobic pathways to have It is important for the coach and athlete to be a major contribution to the work done and therefore aware that test results are greatly affected by the lacks sufficient content validity to be called an conditions under which they were obtained. In this aerobic fitness test. The high correlation that has been way, evaluations can be made which are free of the established between performance on the 15-minute many variables, which may occur on competition day run test and maximal aerobic power as measured in to affect performance. On each test occasion the the laboratory, ensures that the 15-minute run is an tester should allow the same warm-up, the same order acceptable measure of aerobic running power. That of tests, the same recovery period between tests and is, the validity of the 15-minutes run as a measure of as far as possible ensure that the environmental running endurance fitness has been established. conditions of heat, humidity and air movement are It should be possible to obtain the same result on similar. The athlete should be tested at approximately the test on two separate trials or occasions. That is, the same time of day and be in a similar fluid and the test should be reliable. Reliability is dependent on nutritional state. It is also important for the athlete to a number of factors remaining constant both within have an adequate rest and not be suffering from the subject and within the testing situation. It is injury and illness on either test occasion. It is the impossible to obtain a consistent result on a fitness responsibility of athletes to present themselves for test if the athlete is in a different psychological state fitness testing in such a way that they are capable of or frame of mind on each occasion. giving a performance that reflects their peak Trained and competent testers are also essential. physiological status at the time. Otherwise changes in For example, the timing of a performance accurately fitness test scores may be attributable to a host of with a stopwatch contributes greatly to test reliability. factors that have nothing to do with the prescribed Skilled use of callipers is a pre-requisite for training method. consistency in the measurement of skinfold thickness. While quality control is a basic practice in clinical Often, the procedures look easy but are only chemistry, it has not been as rigorously pursued in perfected after considerable training and experience. the exercise sciences. Testing programs such as the It should be clearly understood that if there is no Australian Health and Fitness Survey and those certainty of achieving the same result on two forming part of nation wide talented athlete different test trials there can be no assurance that the development schemes have reinforced the need for score represents a valid measure of a selected obtaining consistent results, within an acceptable component of fitness. range of biological variability, at different testing centres. 5. Interpretable Results Such quality control procedures should involve control of instruments; involving calibration of Each test should be described fully to the athlete ergometers, analysers, recorders; control of subjects before it is conducted. There is a much greater before, during and following a test and control of the chance of a maximum effort being given if the athlete knowledge of both the scientist and the technician via understands the reason for the test, its relevance to continuing education programs. It should be performance and the physical commitment required. mandatory to implement quality control procedures. When they become available, the test results should then be interpreted in a meaningful way. This is part 4. Validity and Reliability of the educational process of a good testing program. In reporting results it is useful to have the An appropriate fitness test should firstly measure individual’s score on each test, the group average and what it claims to measure. That is, the test should be the rank of the individual in the group. A comment valid. The degree of validity can be gauged either on the exposed strengths and weaknesses can then from close inspection of its content or from its provide the coach with useful guidelines for an relationship with an accepted test of the particular appropriate training prescription. fitness component in question. For example, if a test is measuring aerobic fitness it should be of sufficient MONITORING THE SWIMMING PROGRAM duration to test the capacity of this energy system. A INTRODUCTION test lasting longer than five minutes places sufficient emphasis on the aerobic energy pathways for it to be Performance in swimming is a multi-dimensional called an aerobic fitness test. However, a test lasting product of the athlete’s capacities and his interaction only 60 seconds, or even two minutes, either relies with the competitive situation. Being multi-

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dimensional suggests that a variety of factors are involved in successful performance. A given 2. Glide from push off (m) performance only reflects the total interaction of Measure and graduate a distance of approximately these factors. 18m on the side of the pool. Have the swimmer push It might appear simplistic to say that the time off from the wall and execute a glide as long as he taken to swim a given distance is equal to the sum of can. His body will decelerate to a stop. Observe the the time spent starting, the time spent stroking and distance travelled to the nearest 10cm ... best of three the time spent turning. However, few coaches bother trials. measuring some of these factors even though many hours are spent training for these factors. A quality 3. Turn, time – 5m + 5m (sec) control is necessary. It is not enough to assume that Measure the time it takes to execute a turn. Start because, for example, many hours were spent trying stopwatch when swimmer is -5m from the wall and to improve the flip turn, improvements are a logical stop the watch when he reaches that same point after outcome. Simple precise measurements can be made the turn (+5m) ... best of three trials. to indicate progress. Some items have been identified that can be 4. Turn, hand touch to foot plant (sec) accurately measured without sophisticated equipment This test can be used for Backstroke, Butterfly, and serve as a quality control for your program. and Breaststroke turns. Measure time between first These tests can be administered as a whole or in part, hand contact and foot contact ... best of three trials. at any time during the season. They are particularly important for… 5. & 6. Optimal stroke length and frequency Measure the time it takes a swimmer to go (a) Monitoring a swimmer’s progress as a result of between two marks on the side of the pool, which are specific training program … e.g. at the set 10m apart. At the same time another person beginning and end of a microcycle measures the time it takes the swimmer to complete (b) Establishing their level on a given quality five strokes during approximately the same time that before going into the next phase of training velocity is being measured. In counting strokes, the (c) Ascertaining a swimmer’s preparedness for count starts with zero, not 1. These two times are competition used to calculate the stroke rate (S), the velocity (V) and the distance moved through the water with each The field tests that we suggest have been shown to complete stroke cycle (d/S). be reproducible and valid for what they purport to Repeated swims from very slow to maximal speed measure. They fit six main categories… are made (we recommend five swims). At very high speeds it is not necessary for the subject to swim the 1. Skills whole 25 metres. Once you have obtained the S and 2. Propulsive force V for each swim, plot the data. (For complete 3. Anaerobic capacity reference on this test see … Use of Stroke rate, 4. Aerobic capacity Distance per Stroke and Velocity relationships during 5. Pure speed and training for competitive swimming, In: J. Theraud 6. Resting adaptive responses and E.W. Bedingfield, Swimming Ill, Baltimore, University Part Press, 1979, pp 265-274). You may choose to use the total battery of tests and measurements, or only some of them, according 7. Propulsive force to the level of ability of your group, or the time By using a piece of surgical tubing 4.5cm long available. However the benefits in the motivational (13mm O.D.) one end tied to the swimmer’s waist, sphere from the young swimmers seeing their the other end attached to the wall, measure the progress are well worth the effort. maximum distance he can go against the restraining force. If one calibrates the tubing by hanging known INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELF-MOTIVATION weights and recording the stretch and plotting the FIELD TEST BATTERY results on a graph, one obtains a length-tension curve for surgical tubing. One could thus express the results 1. Start to 10m (sec) of this test in force units … i.e. kilograms (kg) or Simply record the time it takes for the swimmers Newton (N). from the start (go) signal to reach a point 15m from the wall ... best of three trials.

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8. Anaerobic capacity: 75m swim from push Reproduced from Coaches Guide Volume 1 off GLYCOGEN REPLACEMENT Measuring the time taken to swim 75 metres, with a push off from the wall, can assess anaerobic RATE … capacity. This test has been shown to correlate highly and its use in Program Design with the 100m performance (r=0.92). (Ref: Platonov By Dr Bob Treffene V.N. Specific physical training of elite swimmers. Editions: Health, Kiev. 1974 p.39). Glycogen has a limited holding space in the muscles. When used in training programs the total 9. Aerobic capacity: 6x50m with 30-sec rest quantity available will be dissipated at different rates Measuring the time it takes to swim 6x50 metres dependent on the speed used by the swimmer. The with 30-sec rest in between should assess aerobic replacement rate depends on many factors including capacity. Record the cumulative swimming time. (1) the type of muscles (white or red fast twitch or (Don’t include rest times in the results). Again, this slow twitch) used at the selected speed and also (2) test has been shown to correlate highly with 500m the type of exercise immediately following the fast performance (r=0.79) and VO2 max (r=0.82). The set and what has been done in the previous session advantage is that it’s easy and quick to administer. and what is done in the following sessions. Replacement of the glycogen to the muscles takes 10. Post-exercise heart rate after 400m swim at from 12 hours to 3 days. This paper connects the 85% of maximal speed glycogen recovery time to the set up of fast and slow Alternatively, the coach could get an indirect work within a weekly program. This enables race estimate of a swimmer’s aerobic conditioning by pace work in a program throughout the training measuring the heart rate for 10 sec immediately after season. a submaximal 400m swim … e.g. 85% of max speed The following replacement times are slower if (best time). One, however, should realise that this there is any muscle damage. I & IIA glycogen test, to be valid, must be repeated in the same replacement time is based on the total stores lasting conditions … e.g. same speed, same time of day (AM for 40 minutes at Vcr (or 100% VO2max). IIB or PM), approx. same water temperature and glycogen time based on stores of 8 minutes at 200% preferably on a day following a relatively light VO2max. It is assumed that energy required for training session. swimming propulsion is proportional to velocity cubed and at 100m pace energy used is 140% 11. Pure speed: 20m from push off VO2max. The cube root of 200/140 is 1.125 so … if a Swimming speed can be assessed by the time swimmer can swim 100m in 50s, their 200% 50m taken to swim 20 metres from a start in the water to time = 22.2 sec … if a swimmer can swim 100m in eliminate the effect of the dive ... best of three trials. 54s, their 200% 50m time = 24 sec. The glycogen utilisation is assumed to drop to low 12. Basal heart rate levels close to anaerobic threshold (AT) as below this One of the first adaptive responses to training is a level the synthesis of glycogen seems capable of decrease in resting heart rate. To eliminate equalling the removal rate in the type I fibres. extraneous effects it is best to measure heart rate in Note that a set of 12x300m or more swum at a the basal state … i.e. preferably, lying in bed shortly speed between 75% to 85% VO2max in a session after awakening in the morning. Count the pulse for within 12-24 hours before a high intensity set will 15 sec and multiply the result by four to obtain score give a possibility of the IIB fibres being depleted for in beats/mm. In counting the heartbeats, the count the second session as well as large depletion of the starts with zero, not one. other two fibre groups. This means that care needs to be taken that the slow speed work is slow enough. 13. Weight (kg) By suitable positioning of fat metabolism The weight should always be measured on the swimming (70% of the total program) then high same scale for a given individual and preferably intensity sets swum near maximum heart rate (heart before breakfast. rate sets) and race pace sprint sets can be programmed each week. HEART RATE SETS The essentials of this type of set are…

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1. The oxygen uptake and therefore the heart rate twice as fast at anaerobic threshold speed then must be kept near maximum without reaching suitable sets can be constructed. maximum until near the end of the set. E D 2. The set should last for no less than 15 minutes actual swimming with 30 minutes being optimal. Blood Lactate 20 TP Plateau Tangent 3. The rest period should be short but long enough T to enable the set to be done with as much as 16 possible race speed in the set. C 12 4. The set design should structure as much race BLOOD pace as possible but with sufficient critical speed LACTATE B (mM) work as is necessary to keep the heart rate below 8 maximum and therefore the lactic acid levels 4 A under control. Figure 1 illustrates the different speeds. 0

5. Generally if the heart rate exceeds 10bpm from 10 20 30 40 maximum in the first part of the set then the swimmer’s speed should be decreased below TIME (min) critical speed or the rest time increased. Figure 2 6. The last half of the set should be swum within Blood lactate changes as time increases from commencement of 10bpm of maximum but only reach maximum in the swim for several constant speed swims A Swimming at speeds just above anaerobic threshold the last 200m of the set. B Swimming at speeds still utilising energy below the 200m 400m 100m maximum oxygen uptake Pace Pace Pace C Swimming at speeds measured by critical speed, critical Vcr power, or maximal oxygen uptake D Swimming at 200m speed Anaerobic E Swimming at 100m speed Threshold Endurance

Anaerobic By heart rate monitoring it is possible to modify Threshold HEART Sprinter the set to keep the lactate under full control. If RATE maximum heart rate is not reached after 500m, the speed and rest ratio must be fairly appropriate and if the heart rate does get too close to maximum during the set then a slowing of the speed or an increase of the rest time can be suggested to the swimmer.

75% 95% 100% 103% 112% Typical examples of heart rate sets used by VELOCITY (% of Vcr) Olympic medallists are listed in the tables below.

Figure 1 Sets for a Freestyler (400m in 3.45), Butterflyer Relationship between heart rate, anaerobic threshold and 400m, (200m in 2.09) and Breaststroker (100m in 1.09) are 200m, 100m, competition speeds as % Vcr as follows… The change in blood lactate with constant speed swimming below critical speed (the speed at which Table 2 maximal oxygen uptake is first obtained) is illustrated Freestyler in Figure 2 (A, B & C). Vcr 58.9, V10 59.8, Maximum Heart Rate 181 24x100m on 1.40 This peaking of the lactate at 8-10 minutes and No Time Heart Rate No Time Heart Rate decrease to a lower plateau has to be considered 1 58.3 147 15 59.1 168 when designing sets. 2 58.5 158 16 58.9 170 For sprinters it is particularly important, as their 3 58.4 164 17 59.4 169 4 57.9 163 18 59.2 170 peak lactate might be so high at critical speed that 5 58.3 164 19 60.0 168 some of their fast twitch fibres will cease to operate 6 58.5 164 20 60.0 168 and continued swimming at the critical speed can 7 58.0 166 21 59.9 169 8 58.4 164 22 60.1 166 lead to small muscle tears and subsequent soreness 9 58.1 169 23 59.8 168 the following days. 10 58.9 166 24 57.8 178 By keeping in mind the full range of blood lactate 11 59.1 166 25 12 58.6 164 26 changes that occur below and above critical speed as 13 58.6 169 27 illustrated in Figure 2 (A to E) and also that lactate 14 58.3 173 28 will reduce by .5 mM/litre every rest minute and

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Table 3 1. At a very slow swimming speed only the red Butterflyer slow twitch fibres will be used (mainly fat Vcr 64.8, V10 68.8, Maximum Heart Rate 205 32x50m on 60, 60, 60, 90 metabolism). The set consists of 8x4 50m with each set starting with a 2. Near the anaerobic threshold (AT) the heart rate dive and the other 3x50m push No Time Heart Rate No Time Heart Rate will be 40-60bpm lower than maximum and red 1 31.4 17 30.6 ST fibres will utilise carbohydrate (glycogen) as 2 32.5 18 31.8 188 well as fat. 3 32.4 19 31.8 4 31.9 172 20 31.9 190 3. At speeds near but below the critical speed (given 5 31.0 21 30.6 as a time for 100m [Tcr]) the FT red fibres 6 32.2 179 22 31.6 190 increase their utilisation with the production of 7 32.3 23 31.7 8 32.0 183 24 31.4 188 lactic acid, which will stabilise (maybe with a 9 30.3 25 30.7 slow rise with time) at a large value for sprinters 10 31.4 182 26 31.8 193 and lower values for distance swimmers. 11 32.2 27 31.9 4. For speeds above Tcr, which are 400m and below 12 31.9 184 28 31.5 196 13 30.4 29 30.6 swimming racing speeds the white FT fibres are 14 31.9 186 30 31.2 196 coupled into the force production in increasing 15 32.3 31 31.7 numbers or firing rates. 16 31.9 186 32 31.6 196 Note that the time for each 200m set is faster than the References swimmer’s expected 200m time but the heart rate is kept in 1. Ahlquist L.E., Basserf D.R., Sufit R., Nagle F.J., check throughout the set. and Paul Thomas D. The effect of pedalling Table 4 frequency on glycogen rates in type I and type II Breaststroker quadriceps muscle fibres during submaximal Vcr 78.9, V10 81.8, both long course, Maximum Heart Rate 211 cycling exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 65 (1992) 15x100m on 2.0 min. Short Course No Time Heart Rate No Time Heart Rate 360-364 1 1.20.9 - 15 1.15.5 205 2. Andersen J.L., Klitgaard H., and Saltin B. Myosin 2 1.20.6 181 16 heavy chain isoforms in single fibres from vastus 3 1.19.5 185 17 lateralis of sprinters: influence of training. Acta 4 1.19.2 186 18 Physiol. Scand., 151 (1994) 135-142 5 1.19.0 187 19 6 1.18.4 190 20 3. Andersen P., and Sjogaard G. Selective glycogen 7 1.17.9 191 21 depletion in the subgroups of type II muscle fibres 8 1.17.6 192 22 during intense submaximal exercise in man. Acta 9 1.18.2 195 23 Physiol. Scand., 96 (1976) 2CA 10 1.17.7 195 24 4. Bangsbo J., Gollnick P.D., Graham T.E., and Saltin 11 1.17.7 197 25 B. Substrates for muscle glycogen synthesis in 12 1.17.3 198 26 13 1.17.2 199 27 recovery from intense exercise in man. J. Physiol., 14 1.17.2 200 28 434 (1991) 423-440 Note that one second per 100m is allowed for short 5. Brechue W.F., Ameredes B.T., Barclay J.K., and course but the heart rate monitoring keeps a check on the Stainsby W.N. Blood flow and pressure pace required. relationships which determine VO2 max, Med. Sci. Based on AT being 75% and 85% VO2 max for Sports Exerc., 27 (1) (1995) 37-42 sprinters and distance swimmers respectively the 6. Cain S.P.I. Mechanisms which control VO2 near following table could be developed. Tcr is the time VO=2max: an overview. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., for 100m swum at critical speed and TAT is the time 27 (1) (1995) 60-64 for 100m swum at the anaerobic threshold. 7. Choi D., Cole K.J., Goodpaster B.H., Fink W.J. and Table 5 Costill D.L. Effect of passive and active recovery SPRINTERS DISTANCE on the resynthesis of muscle glycogen. Med. Sci. Tcr TAT Tcr TAT Sports Exerc., 26 (8) (1994) 992-996 60 sec 66 sec 60 sec 63 sec 8. Donoran C.H., and Brooks G.A. Endurance training 65 sec 72 sec 65 sec 69 sec affects lactate clearance not lactate production. Amer. J. Physiol., 244 (1983) E8392 Figure 3 Fibre utilisation as a function of swimming speed 9. Doyle J.A., Sherman W.P.I., and Strauss R.L. Red slow & White* and red fast twitch & red Effects of eccentric and concentric exercise on fast twitch slow twitch muscle glycogen replenishment. J. Appl. Physiol., Type of Red slow twitch fibre 74 (4) (1993) 1848-1855 used 50-60bpm 100% 200m 100m 10. Ebringer L. Interaction of drugs with extranuclear below Vcr max pace pace maximum (or Tcr) genetic elements and its consequences. Terato Swimming Speed Control Genesis.tarcinoq-Mutaqen., 10 (6) 1990 477-501

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11. Esbjornsson N., Hellsten Y., Balsom P.D., Sjodin 25. McLellan T.M., and Jacobs I. Muscle glycogen B., and Jansson E. Muscle fibre type changes with utilisation and the expression of relative exercise sprint training: effect of training pattern. Acta intensity. Int J. Sports Med., 12 (1) (1991) 21-26 Physiol. Scand., 149 (1993) 245-246 26. Medbo J.I. Glycogen breakdown and lactate 12. Essen B., and Haggmark T. Lactate concentration accumulation during high intensity cycling. Acta. in type I and II muscle fibres during muscle Physiol. Scand., 149 (1993) 85-89 contraction in man. Acta Physiol. Scand., 95 (1975) 27. Ming Z. Studies of the critical velocity in highly 344-346 competitive swimmers. In: P. Quinlan (Ed.) Swim 13. Essen B., Pernow B., Gollnick P.O., and Saltin B. 86 Year Book, Australian Swimming Inc., Brisbane Muscle glycogen content and lactate uptake in 1986, pp59-64 exercising muscles. In H. Howald and J.R. 28. Nordheim K., and Vollestad N.K. Glycogen and Poortmans (Eds.). Netabolic Adaptations to lactate metabolism during low-intensity exercise in Prolonged Physical Exercise, Basel: Birkhauser man. Acta. Physiol. Scand., (1990) 475-484 (1975) 29. Orok C.J., Hughson R.L., Green H.J., and Thomson 14. Friden J., Seger J., and Ekblom B. Topographical J.A. Blood lactate responses in incremental exercise localisation of muscle glycogen: an as predictors of constant load performance. Eur. J. ultrahistochemical study in the human vastus Appl. Physiol., 59 (1989) 262-267 lateralis. Acta Physiol. Scand., 135 (1989) 381-391 30. Pagliassotti N.J., and Donavan C.N. Role of cell 15. Hellsten Y. Xanthine Dehydrogenase and Purine type in net lactate removal by skeletal muscle. Am. Metabolism in man. Acta Physiol. Scand., 151 J. Physiol., 258 (1990) E635-642 (1994) 31. Piehl K. Glycogen storage and depletion in human 16. Hermansen L. and Vaage O. Lactate disappearance skeletal muscle fibres. Acta. Physiol. Scand., Suppl. and glycogen synthesis in human muscle after 402 (1974) 1-23 maximal exercise. Amer. I. Physiol., 223 (1977) 32. Price T.B., Taylor R., Mason G.F., Rothman D.L., E422-429 Shulman G.I., and Shulman R.G. Turnover of 17. Hood DA., Kelton R., and Nishio M.L. human muscle glycogen with low-intensity Mitochondrial adaptations to chronic muscle use: exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 26 (8) (1994) effect of iron deficiency. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 983-991 101A (3) (1992) 597-605 33. Neuter P.D., Costill D.L., Fielding R.A., Flynn 18. Ivy J.L., Katz A.L., Cutler C.L., Sherman W.M., M.G., and Kirwan, J.P. Changes during reduced and Coyle F.F. Muscle glycogen synthesis after training. Med. and Sci. in Sports and Exercise, 19 exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J. (1987) 486-490 Appl. Physiol., 64 (4) (1988) 1480-1485 34. Reeves J.T., Eugene M.D., Wolfel E., Howard 19. Kirkwood S.P., Packer L., and Brooks G.A. Effects M.D., Green, J., Miazzeo R.S., Young J., Sutton of endurance training on a mitochondrial reticulum J.R., and Brooks G.A. Oxygen transport during in limb skeletal muscle. Arch. Biochem. Biophy., exercise at altitude and the lactate paradox: lessons 255 (1) (1987) 80-88 from operation Everest II and Pikes Peak. Exer. 20. Kirwan J.P., Costill D.L., Mitchell J.B., Houmard Sports Sc. Rev., 20 (1992) 275-295 J.A., Flynn M.G., and Belts J.D. Carbohydrate 35. Robergs R.A. Nutrition and exercise determinants balance in competitive runners during successive of post-exercise glycogen synthesis, Int. J. Sport days of intense training. J. Appl. Physiol., 65 (6) Nut., 1 (1991) 307-337 (1988) 2601-2606 36. Sharp R.L. Prescribing and evaluating interval 21. MacRae H.S., Dennis S.C., Bosch A.N., and training sets in swimming: a proposed model. J. Noakes T.D. Effects of training on lactate Swim. Res., 9 (1993) 36-40 production and removal during progressive exercise 37. Smith B.W., McMurray R.G., and Symanski J.D. A in humans. J. Appl. Physiol., 72 (5) (1992) 1649- comparison of the anaerobic threshold of sprint and 1656 endurance trained swimmers. J. Sports Med., 24 22. Maglischo E.W. Swimming faster. Mayfield, (1984) 94-99 Chico. (1982) 472 p. 38. Stanley W.C., Gertz E.W., Wisneski J.A., Neese 23. Maglischo E.W., Maglischo C.W., Zier D.J., and R.A., Morris D.L., and Brooks G.A. Lactate Santos T.R. The effect of sprint-assisted and sprint- extraction during net lactate release in legs of resisted swimming on stroke mechanics. J. Swim. humans during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol.. 60 (4) Res., 1 (2) (1985) 27-33 (1986) 1116-1120 24. McKenna M.J., Schmidt T.A., Hargreaves M., 39. Thomson J.A., Green H.J., and Houston M.E. Cameron L., Skinner S.L., and Kjeldsen K. Sprint Muscle glycogen depletion patterns in fast twitch training increases human skeletal muscle Na*- K*- fibre subgroups of man during submaximal and ATPase concentration and improves K* regulation. supramaximal exercise. Pflugers Arch., 379 (1979) J. Appl. Physiol., 75 (1) (1993) 173-180 105-108 40. Treffene R.J. A technique for predicting and controlling optimal performance capability of

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competitive swimmers based on heart rate 44. Vollestad N.K., Vaage O., and Hermansen L. measurements. Ph.D. thesis. University of London Muscle glycogen depletion patterns in type I and (1982) 251 p. subgroups of type II fibres during prolonged severe 41. Treffene R.J. The heart rate-lactate connection. exercise in man. Acts. Physiol. Scand., 122 (1984) Proceedings XIth Annual Australian Swimming 433-441 Coaches and Teachers Conference (1991) 45. Wenger H.A., and Bell G.N. The interactions of 42. Treffene R.J., Dickson R., Craven C., Osborne C., intensity, frequency and duration of exercise Woodhead K., and Hobbs K. Lactic acid training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports accumulation during constant speed swimming at Medicine, 3 (1986) 344-356 controlled relative intensities. J. Sports Med. Phys. 46. Wilson D.F. Energy metabolism in muscle Fitness, 20 (1980) 244-254 approaching maximal rates of oxygen utilisation. 43. Vollestad N.K., Blom P.C.S., and Gronnerod O. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 27 (l) (1995) 54-59 Resynthesis of glycogen in different muscle fibre types after prolonged exhaustive exercise in man. Acta. Physiol. Scand., 137 (1989) 15-21

Table 1 Workload % Dominant Dominant Glycogen Event Replace time References VO2max fuel fibre time 10-30 Channel Fat I NA NA 28,32 30-50 Magnetic Fat I NA NA 28,32 50-70 Long distance Fat-gly I 2 hours 24 hours 12, 13, 25, 29, 44 70-85 1500m (sprint) Gly I-IIA <80 minutes 24 hours – 12 hours 2, 3, 12, 20, 25, 28, 44 85-100 1500m (distance) Gly IIA-I <80 minutes 12 hours – 24 hours As above 100 800m Gly IIA-I 40 minutes 12 hours – 24 hours 2, 31 110 400m Gly IIA-I-IIB 30 minutes 12 hours – 24 hours – 3 days 2, 11, 43 120 200m Gly IIA-I-IIB 20 minutes 12 hours – 24 hours – 3 days 11, 12, 30, 39 140 100m Gly IIA-IIB 15 minutes 12 hours – 3 days 1, 30, 39 >140 50m-25m CP-gly IIB 8 minutes 20 seconds 1, 14

Table 6 The energy processes at different swimming speeds relative to critical speed expressed as a time for 100m (Tcr) Fat Anaerobic Glycolytic ATP-PC Metabolism Glycogen (CHO) <75% Sprinters % Tcr 75-90% 90% 95-100% 100-120% 100-120% <85% Distance Fibres used Red ST Red ST Red ST & FT Red ST & FT * White & Red * White & Red Normally Measure 90-100% 60-80 bpm 40-60 bpm 30-40 bpm 10-20 bpm 100-110% below Max. of 100m pace of 100m pace 15 minutes at Quantity of 100m pace Many hours 1.5-2 hours 60-80 minutes 40-60 minutes 8 minutes fuel 20 minutes at 200m pace Glycogen Time for 12 hours FT 12 hours FT 3 days ?? for <24 hours <24 hours 3 days ?? PC recovery of fuel 24 hours ST 24 hours ST White FT 10-20 seconds Any time short Typical time of Up to 1 hour 30 seconds to 30 seconds to 10 seconds to Up to 1 hour to get maximum units in Set continuous 15 minutes 4 minutes 40 seconds overload on PC 4 to 8 20, 30, 10-20 x 12.5m 6x400m or 3x100m or Anything slow Anything slow 40m on 60 with or even 30x50 – 3x800m or @ 1.40 or Types of Sets (Technique, (Technique, 200m to 400m at i.e. 3 times slow ups and 20x50 bkn 200m slow drills) slow drills) 50bp or 20x50 on overload downs at race pace 1.30-2 minutes compared to 10 Technique. Technique. Lactate removal Lactate transfer Increase of Speeding of Slight stress Red FT & removal PC-ATP, strength Main use Technique adaptation. lactate Race speed White, Red PT of fibres & lactate Speeding of removal. distance Race pace transfer white FT fibre repair. (Red FT) swimmers 100m-400m * Predominant Fibre Typical 90% of 100m paces 50-55 60-66.6 55-61.0 65-72

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Reproduced from ASCTA Coaches Guide Volume 1 The rate at which a swimmer develops can and DEVELOPING THE TALENT will be influenced by a number of areas including…

By Bill Nelson • The quality of the training plan both short term

and long term September 23 1993 Juan Antonia Samaranch announces to the world that Sydney will host the year • The amount of competition and training 2000 Olympics, this single announcement suddenly • The amount of increase in the training load multiplies the interest of sport in this country, all of a • The quality of the infrastructure that sudden people want to be associated with competitive accompanies the training program sport, they want to be part of the build up to the big • The knowledge and commitment of the people event. associated with the training program For our young swimmers, for their coaches the dream of competing for Australia at the Olympics has All of this will depend on the coach to develop a taken on a whole new perspective. The facts are, if fully integrated program that encompasses the right you are good enough you will not only represent your mixture of training hard, recovery, dryland country at an Olympic Games but you will do it on program, nutrition, flexibility and range of motion, home soil. The swimmers’ goals, dreams and psychology of swimming, stroke and skill ambitions are to be part of that team that will swim in development and maintenance. All of this will lend the Homebush Olympic Pool representing this itself to the coach producing an athlete who has country in the year 2000. developed and refined skills in all areas of It is a huge bonus for our sport and for the swimming. We cannot just rely on training hard to swimmers to have this added enthusiasm and get our desired results at such a high level. dedication, for at the moment the motivation to We must repeatedly look at areas that can and will commit themselves to the training plan is a little have an influence on the training program. It is our easier. But, as coaches, the question that we must ask responsibility to be on top of all areas of the ourselves is in which direction are we going with our swimmer’s development, we do not necessarily have training plan? The good part for us is we know where to be personally involved in every situation that the we are at now, our starting point, we sure know swimmer becomes associated with but we should where we want to be in the year 2000, the hard part certainly have some knowledge of what they are is, what do we do in the next five years so that these doing so as we can then calculate its effect on the dedicated and committed young swimmers get the outcomes of the training process. opportunity that every sportsperson dreams of. Although there will be many areas that will have If you take the time to ask a few swimmers and an impact on the training process over the span of the coaches the magic question, “How are you going to swimmers’ career, the three main areas of influence swim faster” or “How are you going to get them to will be… swim faster”, the most common response that you get Living Habits: daily schedule, sufficient sleep, will be “We are going to train harder”. optimum diet, social life, personal hygiene, recovery Well what is training harder? Is it 80,000 metres time, and leisure activities. per week consisting of heart rate sets, over distance Environmental Influences: family life, friends sets, high quality short rest sets or is it 50,000 metres and colleagues, relationship with coach and per week consisting of a combination of low intensity teammates, job/school satisfaction, time management aerobic sets mixed in with some high quality short skills, commuting distances. sprint sets. Both methods come under the category of Training Program: long-term training plan, training hard, both methods have been used seasonal training plan, training facilities, training successfully at the all levels of competitive equipment, medical support, sports science support, swimming by a variety of coaches. But in isolation is competition program. just training harder going to restrict the improvement There are many other areas that could be that is needed to achieve the goals of any swimmer. incorporated into the headings Influences on the We must all remember that with age group swimmers progression of swimmer talent. Is it not our they are probably going to improve each year responsibility to try and coordinate these in a regardless of the type of work that we give them, carefully planned and structured manner so as to let simply because of their change in size and strength, the individual develop as a person as well as a we must do all we can to fully utilise all of our swimmer? We must understand that swimming is a resources so as to optimise the improvement curve. major part of their lives, but it is not the only thing –

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we must put it all into perspective when designing Reproduced from ASCTA Coaches Guide Volume 1 and implementing these programs. How and where do we get this much needed BUTTERFLY STROKE knowledge so we can put all these areas together to By Otto Sonnleitner get our star pupil on the blocks in Sydney 2000? Well there are many ways of getting this necessary There is no doubt that the secret to successful information and are probably only limited by our swimming is efficiency in the water. In Butterfly I own resourcefulness, but here are a few… believe that efficiency is paramount as the stroke has

an inherent inefficient period during the recovery of • Attend regional, state and national coaching the arms. At that time with most flyers the body sinks clinics. fairly rapidly. When we talk about efficiency there • Read books and papers on specific issues that are a number of aspects that come into play: relate to your program. Body position: the great Butterflyers of our time • Talk to as many coaches in as many different from Mary T. Meagher to men like Morales, Sieben, aspects of sport as possible. Stewart up to the current World Record holders have • Spend time with a senior coach in their all maintained body positions which keep them as program. close as possible to zero degrees to the water. In other • Visit the national event camps. words their frontal and eddy or drag resistances are • Take every opportunity to spend time with the minimised. senior coaches at coaching conference (take Kick: Importantly assisting the body to stay at them out for a meal) close to zero degrees must be an efficient kick which • Use the resources available through ASCA. keeps the body as streamlined as possible. When we • Contact the library at the AIS for their monthly have a look at underwater shots of the great mail out on swimming papers, Butterflyers there are two things which we see very • Talk to prominent business people about how quickly – in the Butterfly kick the legs do bend and they developed a business plan, put paid to instructions which I’ve heard from some • Use the resources of your regional or state coaches which are … ‘keep your legs straight’. The academy of sport. legs do bend at the knees and the lower legs and feet kick in a backward rather than the misconception of All of these will give you the information that will just a downward direction. The hyperextension of the help you and your program. The difficult part is to plantar flexed ankles is paramount to a backward put all of this into some cohesive plan to get the drive in the kick. The timing of the kick is as vital as desired result. Well this is where you will have to go any part of the stroke. If the second kick takes place with some of your own decision making processes too early in the stroke, which is what we see from because there is no one who knows your program, most Butterflyers, then it loses its effect by the legs your direction and your goals like you do, you have being in a downward position while the arms are still to be the one that puts it altogether. Yes, there is a recovering. The backward drive of the kick should chance that you may get it wrong, but if you have take place at the back end of the pull or push phase. done all of the necessary research and legwork there This means that as the arms are recovering the is an even bigger chance you will get it right. forward propulsion from the legs is at its most Once you have your plans in place use the same effective. This assists the body to stay at close to the resources that gave you the information to check over desired zero degrees. The hands will enter the water your plans and to give you their thoughts on the just as the legs complete the kick and as the legs are program and maybe a few added hints. Most coaches at their lowest. As the head has already dropped this are prepared to give you this help but only after they will have the immediate effect of bringing the legs up see you have shown some initiative of your own, and into place for the first kick, which takes place as Even with all of this new found information and the hands spread at the beginning of the pull. with the best laid plans not all of our swimmers will Timing: as discussed during the kick timing is make it to the 2000 Olympics but at least we will also important. In simpler terms that may create a have the satisfaction of knowing that we gave them clearer picture for you while you view videos of great every opportunity that we possibly could so that they Butterflyers, this is the sequence of the timing of the can be the best that they can be not only as a leg kick in relationship to the arm pull: swimmer but as young Australians. 1. Picture the body in its best streamlined position with the head down between the arms as the

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hands have entered the water, and the legs have Underwater Kick on the Start: While on the just risen after completing the second kick. subject of Pankratov, it should be noted that he kicks 2. As the hands begin their outward downward and underwater for about 30 metres at the start in the 100 backward pull the legs begin the first kick. and for 25 metres in the 200. This technique was first 3. As the hands begin to sweep inward and introduced by Peter Freney with Angie Kennedy. backward the legs complete the first kick and Angie to my knowledge has been doing this since immediately in a rebound action begin to rise in 1991 and of course is the Short Course World Record preparation for the second kick. holder over the 50 Butterfly. There is no doubt that 4. As the hands are in the power phase of the kicking underwater for 25m is an advantage. For backward and outward push the legs stay example … not too many girls in the 15-16 age group streamlined and high in a prepared state for the can break 13 seconds for the first 25 of a 100 second kick. Butterfly, yet at the State Championships in Brisbane 5. As the hands are about to leave the water for the a 12-year-old Japanese girl, using the underwater recovery the legs then kick backward to keep the start, went 12.4 for the first 25 metres. I believe that body in a high streamlined position, at zero this underwater start is well worth pursuing in degrees!!! particular with those kids who are great Butterfly Breathing: the movement to enable the mouth to kickers, and those who are not too good at kicking clear the water for breathing is the one most likely to had better work at improving their kick. Obviously affect the body position adversely. If the head is getting kids to work at breath holding and slow lifted too high then the body will drop. If the breath is exhalation toward the end of the underwater phase is taken too late in the stroke and the head is up when going to take some time and persistence, and will the hands are about to enter the water this too will need to be done in stages but I believe it is well worth cause the body to drop – keep in mind that at this the hard work. I have found that kids resist being stage the legs have just completed their second kick asked to stay underwater for any more than about five and are at their lowest position. Therefore it is kicks – yes it is difficult, however if we are to be in important that the lifting of the head is done at the the hunt with Butterfly in 2000 and maybe even in right time. The chin should begin to move forward 1996, then our swimmers will have to work at it. The and up as the hands begin the inward and backward Butterfly start in Atlanta will be well worth looking sweep of the pull. Importantly this should be done at at. I for one believe that whoever wins the 100 will the same speed and in synchronisation with the kick underwater for at least 20 metres. hands. By the time the hands are in the final phase of Butterfly Pull: Better authors than I am have the backward and outward push the mouth should be written a great deal on the Butterfly pull and most of clear of the water and that is when the breath is taken. what has been written has had somewhat of sameness At that time the body will be in its highest position about it, however at the risk of being repetitive the and all that should be required is a flexion of the neck following is what should happen during the fly pull in a forward and upward movement. Once the breath and recovery… has been taken the arms will have begun the recovery and as the hands are about to pass the shoulders the 1. The arms should be recovered over the water head is allowed to drop back into the water in a the initial movement generated from the position in line with the arms and the body. shoulders. As the hands leave the water with Side Breathing: during the 90s, Butterfly the little finger leading, the position of the swimming had two world record holders who have hands remains that way throughout the been side breathers, firstly Melvin Stewart from recovery – i.e. little finger up thumbs down. Tennessee the great 200 Butterflyer and the Russian 2. The hands should enter the water at shoulder Pankratov who has broken the World Records for width with the thumbs down and the hands at both the 100 and 200 using side breathing. In an angle of about 30 to 45 degrees. discussions with Forbes Carlile who saw him break 3. From that entry position the hands sweep one of those records, Forbes indicated that Pankratov outward downward and backward. During this was exceptionally flat or at zero degrees in the water. movement of the initial pull the elbows should In addition Ursula Carlile observed that at times be kept up a term that many of us use is ‘over Pankratov breathed every three, yes three strokes the barrel’. during the 200 Butterfly!!! The Russians obviously 4. From there the hands pull inward and place a great deal of value in being at zero degrees. backward until the hands meet under the body. This obviously requires a great deal of time and This happens anywhere from the mid chest patience in training. area to about the

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5. From there the hands push outward backward lot of our Butterfly kick on the side and also on and upward to a position outside the thighs the back with the hands in a streamlined position. where the little finger leads into the recovery. Occasionally to increase the difficulty of the Butterfly kick we get the swimmers to hold their Those of you who read our journal would have head up and clasp the hands in front. If you are seen some controversy existing about whether the doing a Butterfly kick set a combination of all of pull should be a lift or drag orientated. My thoughts the above makes life interesting. are simply this … any Butterfly pull that I have viewed underwater on video or film or just with a Coaches must become inventive in their use of pair of goggles in the pool, has shown me drills, as the basics are pretty similar. Using conclusively that the pull is a combination of lift and combinations of the above drills can make your drag forces. What percentage of lift and drag is training sessions on aerobic Butterfly quite entirely a personal and talent orientated thing. I have interesting. yet to see any swimmer who does either one or the other exclusively. I have at my disposal a video, For example … we use a combination called the courtesy of Jim Fowlie, which was taken at the last Butterfly drill swim pyramid… Butterfly camp, of many of the best Butterfly swimmers in Australia, and to my mind there is no 4 strokes on each arm single arm doubt that the Butterfly pull is a combination of both 4 strokes normal Butterfly forces drag and lift. As Coaches we have an 4 strokes on each arm single arm obligation to teach our swimmers the basic principles 8 strokes normal Butterfly of the correct pull while allowing natural talent to 4 strokes on each arm single arm 12 strokes normal Butterfly develop. Come back down again Drills: to quote Bill Sweetenham … A drill done 99% right is 100% wrong – a drill done 100% right is Doing this for 200 metres makes it a really strong right. aerobic exercise.

1. The most common drill that we use is Single You can do a set of Butterfly 50s going… Arm Butterfly. Generally we combine single arm with normal Butterfly … e.g. 4 right arm – 4 Single arm Butterfly for 25 left arm – 4 normal Butterfly. Using single arm Swim 25 Butterfly gives the young swimmer a respite Alternate 50s are underwater pull drill for 25 from the effort of normal Butterfly and allows Swim for 25 them to think about any single aspect of his/her stroke. We either have the whole group With a relatively short rest of about 10 seconds concentrating on one particular aspect of the this becomes a good moderate intensity aerobic drill. stroke or we have each individual focus on his or her worst weakness. The swimmers should do Importantly you should look at your individual this drill breathing anywhere from every 2 to swimmer and work on each individual’s worst fault. every 4 strokes. Then equally as important you should give your 2. Underwater Pull Drill: this drill is simply the swimmers constant feedback on how they are complete Butterfly pull without the over-the- progressing with improving their problem areas. water recovery. I like this drill as it allows the swimmer to just focus on the propulsive phase of Just swimming Butterfly, doing interval training the stroke. Once again the swimmer should on whole Butterfly while consolidating faults is not breathe every 2 to 4 strokes. going to improve your swimmer. I don’t see any 3. Butterfly Catch Up Drill: this drill allows the problem with Butterflyers who have serious swimmer to focus on one arm at a time while at weaknesses work on their Butterfly doing drills while the same time providing an opportunity for the better Butterflyers do the whole Butterfly stroke. working on the double kick. 4. Kicking Drills: Kick should not just be the Good Luck with your Butterflyers!!! mundane kick work on a board. With Butterfly kick there are a number of variations that are valuable to improving the Butterfly kick. We do the normal Butterfly kick on a board then we do a

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Reproduced from ASCTA Coaches Guide Volume 1 7.5m from the turns and every 5m along its COACHING IN A TRAINING length (if possible). • Check to see that you have a working CAMP ENVIRONMENT stopwatch with you … do you have an extra By Bill Sweetenham watch or two at the pool?

• Check that you have three different training PRIOR TO THE TRAINING SESSION plans ready (written out and ready to use), just

in case you need to organise the swimmers • Introduce yourself to the swimmers in your yourself. group. • If there will be more than one coach per lane, • Check with each swimmer to see if anyone is establish some basic protocols about what each carrying an injury or if they’re on any specific coach will do (i.e. times, heart rates, stroke medications or need medical treatment. counts, etc). • Inquire about the quantity and quality of last • Don’t all coach from the same end or position train? (Note: Include both pool and gym work.) of the pool. • Explain the objectives of the Camp program • Check to see that swimmers from the same and the goals for the upcoming training Club are not all in the same lane. (Note: This session. defeats the purpose of a training camp.) • Find out if your swimmers have remembered • If possible, try to obtain information about the to bring camp essentials such as an alarm swimmers prior to the camp such as birthdays, clock, training logbook (with pen or pencil), recent achievements, etc. Use that information earplugs, pillow, eyeshades, vitamins, etc. to develop a rapport with the swimmers. • Find out if your swimmers have specific stretching and/or warm-up routines. DURING THE WORKOUT • If you’re at an outdoor venue … have the swimmers applied sun cream? • Check and record maximum heart rate for each • Has every swimmer remembered to bring a swimmer. Does the swimmer know this water bottle? (Note: Is it filled with water or information already? some sports drink?) • Check to see that swimmers are replacing lost • Has each swimmer remembered to bring a fluid by using their drink bottle during the snack in their gear bag (i.e. for consumption session. immediately after the session – a high • Check to see that swimmers are monitoring carbohydrate source)? their heart rate during the session. • Ask each swimmer for their best time in their • Check to see that swimmers have used an best event and get basic information on what appropriate warm-up. Sometimes swimmers strokes they perform in training sets. who are keen to impress will swim too hard • Check to see if any swimmers have written during warm-up … are they using best information to pass on to you as the Camp technique all the time? Coach (i.e. this may be from their Home • Check to see that swimmers are using correct Coach, doctor, physio, parents, etc). racing start technique to commence each new • Check to see that every swimmer has his/her training set. specialised training equipment (i.e. kickboard, • Check to see that swimmers are pushing off to pull-buoy, rubber band, paddles, fins, logbook, start intervals on the correct send-off time. Are etc). they streamlining and driving off the wall? • Check to see which swimmers took their early • Check to see that swimmers are turning morning (i.e. resting) heart rate … was it correctly. Are they accelerating into each turn recorded? and streamlining/driving off the wall? • Check to see that pool conditions are right – • Check to see that swimmers are finishing each lane markers properly adjusted, Backstroke repeat swim by accelerating into the wall and flags in place, pace clocks working (and touching correctly synchronised?), white-board in place (with markers for recording results), pool markers at

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• Do not allow sloppy training behaviours; such … i.e. odd number repeats to the right, even as pushing off the bottom, puffing on lane number repeats to the left, for example. markers, etc. • Arrange for swimmers to experience both • Provide quality positive feedback to all clockwise and anticlockwise lane patterns … swimmers during the workout. i.e. teaching them to handle all types of • Make regular eye-to-eye contact with situations. swimmers. • Encourage swimmers to control their breathing • Rotate the leadership within training lanes … a patterns in the same way they wish to race. good idea is to have the slowest swimmer lead • Suggest that swimmers stretch between warm-up and/or swim-down. training sets to improve recovery. • Continually observe and comment to • Encourage swimmers to aim for the same swimmers on the finer points of their stroke rate during pulling and paddle sets, as technique … such as streamlining, they would use during swimming sets. acceleration, breathing in/out of turns, etc. • Adjust the workout if you are running out of • In addition to recording standard measures of time … don’t just end the session when your training … i.e. times, heart rates, and stroke time is up. rates/counts … try to note some other points; • Whenever possible have swimmers use the such as length of time and distance off turns, centre of the lane and not circle … i.e. reduced hand touch to feet leave on Butterfly and turbulence or drafting from the adjacent lanes. Breaststroke turns, number of dolphin kicks on • Monitor swim-down … try to work until a Backstroke turn, etc. steady state of 60bpm below maximum heart • Pay close attention to distance per stroke, rate is maintained. distance per kick (on Breaststroke and • Keep an eye on swimmers training too hard or Butterfly kicking drills), stroke count, stroke who fail to recover sufficiently between sets; rate, changes in lap speed, etc. you may need to switch them to another group. • Offer encouragement to swimmers for their • Try to give each swimmer individual feedback strengths … offer possible changes to any before, during, and after the session. weaknesses. Suggest that the swimmer talks to his/her Home Coach about the areas of • Remember that Training Camp situations improvement. Remember that analysis and should be a little more demanding or constructive criticism should be directed at the challenging than regular home training fault … not the swimmer. sessions …even if you just make them think more about what they’re doing. • Praise swimmers for seeking out their training

information from you … encourage them to write information into their logbook and AFTER THE TRAINING SESSION discuss it with their Home Coach. • Encourage swimmers to support the program • Encourage stretching, and self-massage of sore sponsor by wearing the appropriate team or muscles after a session. squad gear. • Seek feedback from the swimmers and offer • Enforce legal turning technique in all strokes the group your evaluation of the performance and on Individual Medley turns … swimmers of the workout. perform in competition what they have • Offer support to the Coaches who worked in practiced in training (swimmers who train your lane, and on the Camp staff. using illegal technique have not trained what • Stress the importance to swimmers of they must use!). replenishing fluid and carbohydrate stores • Remind swimmers to alternate the first pulling following a training session. arm on Freestyle and Backstroke repeats … • Transfer any information you have recorded this results in changing the stroke sequence during the session … i.e. if it’s on a going into the turn. whiteboard, etc. … into your coach’s logbook. • Remind Breaststroke and Butterfly swimmers • Evaluate the training session. Did it achieve to alternate turning to ward the left and right the desired objectives? Make a note in your coach’s logbook.

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• Note the attendance (i.e. who was in your group) in your coach’s logbook. • Take 5-10 minutes before or after each training Survival session to talk with a different swimmer from the group. By the end of the camp you should have covered all swimmers … providing a from the little extra attention to each.

GENERAL TIPS FITTEST By Dr Louise Burke Reproduced from The Swimmer, Jan-Feb 2002 • Leave your mobile phone turned off and out of sight (so you’re not tempted to use it) when The updated version of the best selling cookbook you’re on pool deck and during team/squad from the AIS, “Survival for the Fittest”, has been meeting. launched. Volume 2 is called “Survival FROM the • Avoid coaching in a fatigued state. To Fittest” in honour of the contributions made by a communicate properly you need to be mentally number of AIS or Australian athletes. Our first book sharp. was a great success – adding pizzazz to our cooking • Expect the unexpected … try to prepare for classes at the AIS and inspiring our athletes to push nearly every situation you may encounter. their performances in the kitchen as well as in the • Get on a first name basis with pool staff. competition arena. It did not take long before the campaign started for another book. Some athletes • Relax for a few minutes prior to each workout; wanted to contribute their own favourite recipe. mentally rehearse the workout. Others wanted us to take their favourite meal idea or • Try to wear appropriate clothing (with cooking style and remodel it into a lean and sponsor’s logo), which is neat and clean during streamlined recipe. So it made sense to join forces to each session. share our ideas for eating for success. And with the • Present yourself in a professional manner by support of the AIS partnership with Nestle, we were maintaining appropriate personal appearance able to turn it into an even better looking sequel. and decorum while on pool deck. Of course, surviving in the kitchen is not just a • Vary your workout presentation (i.e. what end matter of having a couple of good recipes, or being of the pool you work from, etc) … try to find handy with a Wok. Athletes are challenged by lack of ways of saying the same old things in a time to get the shopping and cooking done properly, different way. being too tired to cook, and having to eat on the run • Make eye contact with everyone in the or while travelling, “Survival from the Fittest” program … swimmers, coaches, parents, and recognises the challenges of getting the domestic other staff. routine organised, and offers a goldmine of key strategies and tips. Remain positive and enthusiastic at all times! • Negative people never achieve maximum WHERE POSSIBLE, USE TEAMWORK results. • If you share a house, call a team meeting to • Do not accept mediocrity from swimmers, organise that tasks are shared. When time or staff, or yourself; establish a consistent money is scarce, it helps to pool resources. standard of excellence (even when the training • Don’t worry if conflicting timetables mean you session is low-key). only meet up a few times a week. Use your • Challenge yourself, as a Coach, to be time together to plan and roster the tasks of innovative. shopping or cooking. Use lists to communicate what is needed. • Use your rest day to do shopping and cooking tasks that help other housemates. You will be pleased to enjoy the same assistance on your busy days.

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ACQUIRE NEW SKILLS ingredients for a stir fry) as this will speed up • Gradually master new cooking skills. Use the cooking process when you get home. recipes in this book to learn a style of cooking • Plan snacks that can be eaten on the run or (e.g. risotto or a stir fry) then branch out on taken with you on your busy day – for your own by changing a few ingredients. example, single serve cereals, cartons of Practice makes perfect! yoghurt, cereal bars, fruit and even some • Look out for tips from other athletes or good leftovers will travel. cooks. Take information from a variety of • Make up a loaf of sandwiches when you have sources, and adapt it to your own needs. roast meat or deli meats on hand. Meat or PLAN AHEAD & MANAGE YOUR TIME cheese sandwiches freeze well, and can have WELL salad added when thawed. • Start with a well-organised and clean kitchen. Of course, surviving in the kitchen is not just a This makes cooking quick and easy. matter of having a couple of good recipes, or being • Make a list of useful items for the freezer, handy with a Wok. fridge and pantry and keep these in good stock. LIST FOR THE FREEZER Note when stocks are running low and need Skinless chicken, lean mince, lean beef, lamb or replacing and take advantage of supermarket pork fillets, frozen vegetables, frozen vegetable specials to grab multiples of these items. medleys and stir fry mixes, breads, pizza bases, • Plan your meals for the week ahead and note muffins, crumpets, fib pastry, grated reduced fat the required ingredients. Make a shopping list cheese. from this and add your general food stock LIST FOR THE FRIDGE needs. Fresh fruit and vegetables, juices, hokkien and • Avoid supermarkets in peak hours. Shop late other noodles, fresh lasagne sheets, fresh pasta, or early so that you save time. reduced fat cheese, low fat yoghurt-custard-fruche- • Avoid shopping when you are hungry or tired - creamed rice, milk, eggs, margarine, sauces (chilli, the shopping list is likely to go out the plum, chutney tomato paste), minced herbs (garlic, window. ginger, curry paste) and condiments (mustard, low oil • Only buy goods that you can use within their dressings and mayonnaise). use-by date. Choose good quality products that LIST FOR THE PANTRY have been appropriately stored. Pasta, rice, couscous, polenta, oats, breakfast cereal, tortilla-burrito breads, canned spaghetti, • Plan your meals to take advantage of leftovers canned legumes (kidney beans, baked beans, or batch cooking. For example, if you are chickpeas), tomato soup, canned fruit in natural juice, having rice as an accompaniment one night, creamed rice, tuna, salmon, long life milk, light cook extra to make into fried rice on the evaporated milk, bottled pasta sauces, soy sauce, fish following evening. Pasta sauces can be served sauce, vinegar, rice cakes, cereal bars, muesli bars, on the next night as a potato filling. dried herbs and spices, baking goods (sugar, flour, • Use your rest day to cook ahead for the week. cornflour, custard powder, essences, cocoa), pancake Cook up one or two dishes that can be mix, spray on oil. refrigerated or frozen. It’s great when you USE CREATIVE SHORTCUTS come home late and tired from training to find • Invest in a few good cooking tools or household that the hard work has been done. items that save time and produce quality • Even if you are cooking a meal for just one or outcomes. A good wok, large non-stick frying two people, cook the whole recipe to ensure pan, microwave, sharp knives, lasagne dish and there are leftovers. (Cook double quantities if pizza trays (and cutter) are all good purchases. A you are feeding a few). This may save you rice cooker may also be useful. from cooking again the next night, but you can • Make use of nutritious time saver products also freeze leftovers in single size portions. available in supermarkets. There are many that These will thaw or reheat quickly so you can can make a good meal, or form a base for quickly have a meal in a few minutes. Invest in a good cooking a meal (see list). set of clear plastic containers that you can label and stack in the freezer. • It sometimes helps to buy meat already trimmed or diced for a stir-fry, or frozen and fresh • Prepare as much of the meal as you can before vegetable stir-fry mixes. They can cost a little training (e.g. Make the pasta sauce or chop the extra, but often the time you save in meal preparation is worth this expense.

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• Soften vegetables such as potato, pumpkin and carrots that need to be chopped for a recipe by ANALYSIS of 6.4km placing them for 1-2 minutes in the microwave to make them easier to cut. FREESTYLE TRAINING SET • Leftover rice and pasta can be frozen. To reheat, By David Pyne PhD microwave or pour boiling water over it and drain. Sports Physiologist, Australian Institute of Sport If you haven’t time to cook rice or pasta with • Reproduced from The Swimmer, Jan/Feb 2002 meat, use couscous. It can be prepared in minutes. • Fresh pasta cooks more quickly than dried The following set written by Coach Jim Fowlie of varieties. Gnocchi cooks in a minute, while fresh the Australian Institute of Sport is a solid early lasagne sheets cut the baking time in half. season aerobic Freestyle-oriented session of 6.4km. • If you are not adventurous with flavouring dishes, This session combines aerobic conditioning, make use of prepared pasta and stir-fry sauces and technique, and breathing control training. even fresh soups. These can be used as the flavouring base of a dish to which you add your The main set involves a series of 6x200m own choice of meat and vegetables. Freestyle efforts in the low to moderate intensity • Jars of minced herbs provide authentic flavour aerobic training zone. These sets are swum in a and save you having to chop or grate items such descending manner, emphasising both technique as garlic or ginger and waste the unused portions. (with target stroke counts) and pace control (25-sec Some fresh herbs, for example parsley or descend from slowest to fastest effort – i.e. about 5- coriander, are worth buying and you can also sec descend). freeze them in small portions for later use. • Be versatile. Know which ingredients are vital for Individual Medley swimming involving all four a recipe and which can easily be replaced. swimming strokes is used for the warm-up and for Exchange recipe items with what you have in your recovery during the main set. There is an emphasis fridge or pantry or according to which foods are in on breathing control, starting in the warm-up and season or on special in the supermarket. continuing in the main set. Breathing control training • Choose recipes that are complete meals for single- is an important skill to practice and refine in regular portion freezing. If the dish is self-contained with training. The session is completed with a 1200m kick meat, vegetables and a carbohydrate choice, you set, again with a descend to focus the swimmer’s will need no meal preparation other than reheating attention on pace control. or you may even be able to eat it straight from the container. The session is… NUTRITIOUS TIMESAVING PRODUCTS • Tomato based paste sauces 1. 200m IM drill/swim minimum breathing first • Some stir-fry and casserole sauces (check the 50 label for the fat content) 2. 800m pull alt 50m Freestyle breathing x 7 (SC • Fresh or frozen pizza bases (30) with 50 Backstroke • Fresh pasta and noodles 3. 6x200m Freestyle on 2:45 with paddles HR • Frozen vegetables and stir-fry mixes 120-150 D1-6 (SC (30) • Most fresh or canned soups (check fat content) 4. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 • Canned beans, chickpeas and other legumes 5. 6x200m Freestyle on 2:55 with paddles HR • Canned tomatoes, corn 120-150 D1-6 (SC (30) 6. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 • Pizza and tomato paste 7. 12x100m alternating 100 Freestyle on 1:40 • Minced herbs breathing x 5 (SC (30) with 100m Butterfly on

• Long life milk 1:40 breathing x 3 (SC (20) • Custards and rice puddings in cartons 8. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 • Pancake and muffin mixes 9. 2x(5x100m kick on 2:00 D1-5, 100 Backstroke • Bread mixes on 2:00) • Spray-on oils for cooking • LEAN CUISINE and WHOLEMEAL frozen Total 6.4km meals

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DESCRIPTION of TRAINING ACTIVITIES descending sets (hence the D1-6 terminology for descend one to six). A typical descending sequence Warm-Up (lines 1-2) for the 6x200m for a senior male swimmer would be … 2:40, 2:35, 2:30, 2:25, 2:20, and 2:15. This 1. 200m IM drill/swim minimum breathing first correlates with the heart rates, which follow the same 50 sequence. As each effort gets a little faster, the heart 2. 800m pull alt 50 Freestyle breathing x 7 (SC rate increases in a corresponding manner. An initial (30) with 50 Backstroke) effort of 2:40 could elicit a heart rate, for example, of 120bpm, followed by the descending swims, This is a 1000m warm-up. The first part of this is finishing with a 2:15 eliciting a heart rate of 160bpm. a simple 200m Individual Medley done as 50m drill, 50m swim, 50m drill, 50m swim. The 50m drill Throughout the set, the swimmer should hold the efforts are with minimum breathing which prepares same stroke count established in the warm-up. This is the swimmers for the main set that also focuses on an excellent way to teach a swimmer to hold stroke breathing control. The 800m effort involves while increasing the speed of each subsequent effort. alternating 50m swims of Freestyle and Backstroke. How does a swimmer manage this? Quite simply, by The Freestyle efforts are completed breathing x 7, increasing the stroke rate or stroke frequency of each which refers to breathing control training where the effort. Of course, swim velocity stroke rate x stroke swimmers only breathe on every seventh stroke. length (or distance per stroke), so increasing the stroke rate while holding the same stroke length Breathing control is typically specified as an odd (stroke count) is the goal. number that requires the swimmer to employ bilateral breathing (alternately breathing to the left and then The third 1200m set is done as 12x100m the right and so on). These efforts also require the Freestyle/Butterfly instead of 6x200m Freestyle. The swimmers to hold good stroke length by using less first 50m in each 100m effort is swum Freestyle, than 30 strokes for each 50. Senior male swimmers breathing every fifth stroke, and holding the stroke would aim for less than 30 strokes. The number of count under the required number (in our example, the strokes will vary with older swimmers and males target stroke count for Freestyle = 30). The second usually taking less strokes than younger swimmers 50m in each 100m is swum Butterfly, breathing every and/or females (this depends partly on the size or third Butterfly stroke. Again the aim is to hold good height of the swimmer). technique in the Butterfly by holding the stroke count under a specified number (in our example, the target Main Set (lines 3-8) stroke count for Butterfly = 20). Unlike the first two parts of this set, there is no descending of times in 3. 6x200m Freestyle on 2:45 with paddles HR this part. 120-150 Dl-6 (SC (30) 4. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 After completion of each of the 1200m Freestyle 5. 6x200m Freestyle on 2:55 with paddles HR sets the swimmers should start the recovery 200m IM 120-150 D1-6 (SC (30) effort. This is swum alternating each 50m segment 6. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 drill/swim on 3:20. Younger swimmers would do this 7. 12x100m on 1:35 as 50m Freestyle breathing x on a 4:00 cycle. 5 (SC (30)/50m Butterfly breathing x 3 (SC (20) Finishing Set (line 9) 8. 200m IM drill/swim on 3:20 9. 2x(5x100m kick on 2:00 D1-5, 100m The main set consists of 3x1200m Freestyle sets Backstroke on 2:00) with 200m IM recoveries after each giving a total set distance of 4.2km. The first two 1200m sets are The final part of the session is a kick set of swam as 6x200m Freestyle. The third 1200m set is 1200m. The set involves two series of 5x100m kick swum as 12x100m Freestyle. efforts on 2:00, followed by a 100m Backstroke also on 2:00. The 100m kick swims are descending with a In each of the first two sets, the 200m Freestyle typical descend of about two seconds per effort. For efforts are swum using hand paddles on a 2:45 cycle. example, a senior swimmer would start with about This is for senior swimmers … younger swimmers 1:40 and finish with a 1:30. Younger swimmers could do these on a 3:00 or 3:15 cycle. These are would need to adjust their goal times accordingly.

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movements well below the depth of the body underwater. As the skill is learned and forward progress results the movement can be refined until eventually the feet just rise slightly above water level before starting the kick downwards.

THE KICKING MOVEMENT IS INITIATED AND CONTROLLED BY THE HIP TEACHING BUTTERFLY STROKE MOVEMENT By Terry Gulliver Hips must rise to start the movement, which results in the downward action of the feet. Just as Butterfly Stroke is easy to teach and, for younger importantly, the hips must drop to start the rising pupils particularly, easy to accomplish. Children as movement of the feet. young as five years of age can be taught to swim The Knees are encouraged to bend and straighten Butterfly Stroke. It is helped by the fact that younger in symphony, with the natural undulating movement pupils seem eager to learn and invariably enjoy of the body. performing the various aspects of the stroke and the The Ankles and Feet and even the Toes should stroke in general. be loose and work like flippers, with pupils encouraged to keep them reasonably together … and, BREAKDOWN OF THE SKILLS as they get better, turn the toes inwards — pigeon- toed. When teaching Butterfly Stroke, it is pertinent to Good Butterfly Kicks produce a satisfying break the stroke down into its main components… “Whoosh Whoosh” rhythmical sound. The sounds produced should be equi-distant apart and in definite • The Kick rhythm. • The Arms As proficiency improves, the chin can be pushed • Combining the Arms and Legs forward and just out of the water every now and • Coordinating the Breathing again to enable breathing movements to the swimmer • Making it Flow can cover some distance without stopping. Eventually, swimmers will breathe at the time of It’s an easy stroke ... Teachers should make it easy every fourth kick just as they will do later in the more for pupils by keeping it in simplest terms. advanced stages of the stroke. When not breathing, the face should stay underwater but looking more or THE KICK less in a forward direction – for reasons mentioned “Good kickers make good swimmers” earlier. This is particularly so in Butterfly Stroke where As reasonable proficiency is achieved, kicking is swimmers are faced with bringing both arms over the performed on the board … initially with the face in water simultaneously and, at this point, relying (because it is easier and a similar position to that in heavily on help from the legs to make it easier. Pupils which the kick was initially mastered, except the learn the initial movements by lying face down, arms are in front) and eventually, with the face hands loosely by the side, and eyes looking forward looking forward and kept out of the water. (the latter is the secret to stopping the body The Arms … for teaching purposes, the arm hydroplaning to the bottom when practising the stroke starts at shoulder width apart at full extension following kick drills). in front of the body and pulls through in more or less HOLDING THE BREATH AND LOOKING parallel fashion to the thighs. No effort is made to FORWARD … BEGIN UNDULATING teach an S pull or anything fancy at this level. Arms MOVEMENTS OF THE HIPS are kept fairly straight in the recovery but relaxed Bounce the bottom and flap the feet with thumbs to the front as they sweep around just The kicking movement starts at the hips and above the water from the thighs to the frontal works down through the thighs, knees and ankles and position. feet in the same way you shake one end of a piece of WHATEVER WORKS … WORKS rope vertically and watch the undulation work its way With reference to the above, teachers may enjoy to the other end. Exaggerated movements with legs more success teaching a recovery with the knuckles are better than small or no movements at all. Pupils down and little finger leading. Experimentation and should make a splash down on the water with both experience over a period of time will help teachers feet at the same time (and, hopefully) continue the decide the best way for them.

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Pupils will learn the arm movement best by COORDINATING THE BREATHING … AND standing up and bending over in shallow water and SOFT ARMS practising the pull and recovery actions with the face Breathing movements have been practised in the water mirroring the teacher’s movements. incidental to earlier skills. Assuming pupils have Teachers should remember to keep instructions achieved fair proficiency at all earlier skills, we are simple… ready to coordinate the breathing. Starting with hands in front and face down, pupils Stretch out the arms in front, shoulder width apart. make the first kick and start the pull simultaneously Pull the hands back under the body past the hips and reaching the completion of the arm pull in recover with straight arms. synchronisation with the second kick. Still with the face down, the arms recover to the Once the standing arms movements are mastered, front where the third kick is performed as the hands pupils should progress to trying the movement with a start to pull back. As the hands pull under the chin, small sized pool buoy (large ones will unbalance the the chin starts the push forward in preparation for the pupils and make the task more difficult than it needs breathing movement, which is performed at the time to be). Several arm movements should be performed of the fourth kick and the hands completing the push in succession without breathing. Initially, movements back. should be done slowly – but eventually done with This particular phase of the stroke is the crucial more speed and rhythm. key to performing the stroke successfully. Pupils are Stroking faster generally makes it easier. When encouraged to breathe every two strokes ... therefore, faster strokes can be performed proficiently, pupils every fourth kick. During this phase of teaching the should grab a breath about every second or third stroke, encourage pupils to concentrate more on the stroke by pushing their chin forward to clear the legs than the arms. Get pupils to pull with soft arms water as the arms pull back. and merely bring the arms under the water without Teachers should not get too complicated with any real pressure on the water. A teacher their instructions. demonstration will go a long way to helping pupils understand the concept. COMBINING THE ARMS & LEGS … AND BUTTERFLY MUST FLOW THE STOP KICK DRILL Good Butterflyers (and this includes good beginner Butterflyers) will make the stroke flow with Pupils are told … There are two kicks in Butterfly everything in symmetry. There must be no stopping Stroke — one as the hands start the stroke in front — of the movements, although, having said this, there is and one as they finish the stroke at the back. a definite slowing down of the arm movements in

mid-pull as the hands tend to change direction and Most pupils tend to overlook the second kick. So, gather for an accelerated push back. At the lower in teaching, we start with that one first. level of the teaching scale, we tend not to teach this Lying face down (looking forward), pupils but let it develop naturally as pupils develop their produce the first kick and recover arms around the own feel for the stroke in conjunction with teachers’ side over the water to the shoulder width apart demonstrations, which may feature this anyway. position AND STOP. PRACTICE … PRACTICE … PRACTICE – From here, they produce another kick and pull THE KEY TO LEARNING THE “FLY” back to the thighs AND STOP. Once the above skills are mastered, “fly” will Then another kick and recovery AND STOP in improve with constant practice and refinement. All front. practices should be done over a short distance – e.g. The STOP KICK DRILL is designed to make 12.5 metres. pupils aware of the need for THE TWO KICKS and Allow plenty of rest between the short swims so their timing. pupils are swimming fresh (and not tired) for the full As proficiency improves, THE STOPS ARE distance. If pupils cannot make the distance with ELIMINATED and the movement becomes free reasonable proficiency, shorten the distance of the flowing. swims. Initially, the stroke will look cumbersome and All the above drill is done WITHOUT awkward but as the pupil perseveres, so will the BREATHING so as to allow full concentration on the proficiency in the stroke improve. The strength timing of the kicks. necessary to accomplish the stroke will grow with

practice and the movements will refine themselves …

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resulting in the swimmer rising in the water to flow children of less than a year have managed to crawl up like a butterfly. to a pool and fall in ... and adults too, have drowned. In Butterfly, it is not the distance you swim but Many of them were in boating or fishing accidents how you swim the distance that makes the difference. where they fell into the water fully clothed. I coached my son, Damien, to win a National Primary SWIMMING OR SURVIVING Schools Butterfly Title and I cannot ever remember When does a person know how to swim? Ask him swimming more than 25 metres at a time in around many swimming schools and you’ll hear as training. many answers as there are teachers. Is it when they’re IT ALL DEPENDS ON THE TEACHER able to cross a pool without drowning? Or when they When pupils feel Butterfly is hard to do, or can take part in a medley relay? impossible to learn, it is usually a reflection on the At the Ron Coleman Swim School it’s different. teacher … or the teaching practice. My pupils have “In setting up the Living Swimming program it was always loved Butterfly because I have always loved it necessary to establish a base level of skills built (although I never raced it) and have loved teaching it around the natural development of the child, rather and have transmitted this feeling to my pupils. My than adult ideas of what a child ought to be able to method of teaching it has been based on the premise achieve,” Ron Coleman said. that… “These should be the skills that allow the student “SIMPLE IS BEST” AND KEEPING IT SIMPLE to continue on into any form of water sport … be it ENABLES PUPILS, PARTICULARLY THREE water polo, octopush, competitive swimming, AND FOUR YEAR OLDS, TO UNDERSTAND synchronised swimming, scuba … or something else. … and this helps them learn it. But because there are differences in age groups — If there was any secret to my success with a toddler can’t handle some of things a school-age teaching butterfly over the 35 years I have been child can — there are different achievement levels. coaching it, is in a series of slow motion For example, to achieve the infant certificate a child demonstrations I perform each and every time I teach must be able to roll from the side of the pool fully it. clothed and return, swim one metre and back float. A Every time I do them my pupils improve quite pre-schooler, however, needs to swim 25 metres, dramatically. Too often teachers try to teach the tread water for two minutes, and retrieve objects Butterfly without demonstrating it. from under the surface … among other skills.” In developing the program, Ron Coleman studied TEACHERS SHOULD REMEMBER TWO THINGS children and talked to teachers and the program he … “A PICTURE PAINTS A THOUSAND WORDS” developed complements a child’s phases of natural and “THERE ARE NO DUMB KIDS – JUST DUMB development. For example, as a child comes up to TEACHERS” crawling age, it begins to develop a series of kicks – starting to use leg movements that are natural in swimming. LEARN-TO-SWIM WITH RON COLEMAN “This is something totally natural and untaught, and when it happens you’re watching the beginning PREPARING FOR THE WORST of mobility,” Mr Coleman said. “You can then start When was the last time you went swimming with to introduce mobility in the water. your clothes on? Jumping into the water fully clothed “While every child reaches such stages at a is not something you plan on doing very much, yet different time, there is very little variation in the it’s a vital aspect of training at the Ron Coleman stages they reach. Swim School. Even the infant classes, the youngest “But it’s most unwise to introduce new demands class in the program, include a course on entering the before the child’s development is ready for them. You water fully clothed and reaching the side safely. don’t channel pre-school children into highly Why? Ron can explain quite simply. “Eighty per structured tasks because they are not ready for them. cent of people who drown do so with their clothes “It could cause frustration and often a sense of on,” he said. So he considers it wise for people to be failure. In the same way you don’t make a blanket familiar with the water when they’re fully dressed. statement that all children should be able to learn to Treading water and floating is also instructed. “Many swim in a certain set period. Some are fast learners – swim instructors don’t even consider teaching people while others have access to a private pool and can to tread water,” he said. practise a lot. Such kids can be well ahead of any set Statistics show that the most vulnerable age to schedule and so the swim school is only holding them drowning is from 12 months to five years. Yet even up and taking their money.”

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PARENTS PLAY A VITAL ROLE harm if let go. It learns buoyancy. It also learns Reputable swimming schools welcome respect for the water. There is no such person as the involvement of parents in their children’s swim drown-proof person,” he said. “Even after a child classes. In a Ron Coleman class it can be very has passed through classes, a common sense attitude important. Before any parent enrols a child in a swim must be taken. But after graduation, and often well class, the class should be observed in action, before, a Ron Coleman student will be able to survive according to Ron Coleman. in situations that would be fatal to an unprepared “Reputable instructors will welcome a parent’s person. And as a bonus the student will be introduced interest.” He said that without parental follow-up it is to a whole new range of activities that aid in physical more difficult to teach a child to swim. “It’s like and intellectual growth.” asking a child to learn to walk with just two half-hour Although Mr Coleman likes to see students at an practice sessions a week,” Mr Coleman said. early age, he accepts people of all ages – right up to “Classes should be followed up by parental adults. participation. We like children to have fun in the water with their parents and family, taking advantage of the work done in class to build the child’s WHY TEACH INFANT TODDLER confidence and experience. The child comes to SWIM SURVIVAL SAFETY associate the water as a happy family experience and By Jackie Young it is left up to the teacher to introduce the new Founder/Director – SWIMBABES, USA demands.”

The Ron Coleman Swim School has even drawn Over 30 years the mantle of this question and this up a guide for parents, making comments and training bequeathed by our late Aunt Gay Lee, suggestions to help the child along. It encourages pioneer in this field, has fallen on our now four visits to the water as often as possible, and contains generations of families. It has been asked many times advice such as … “Criticism, belittling or physical and in just as many ways. In the beginning I thought punishment has no place in the learning situation. the answer was simple ... now I know the answer is Praise loudly, sincerely and often for any little more complex depending on who is doing the asking success or improvement, or even a good try.” and why. IT’S BEST TO START EARLY The question most often comes from a concerned (Ron believes the ideal age to enter the water is grandparent or parent. Some people ask the question three months.) with another agenda in mind such as Sensationalism “At that age a child is beginning to expand or Controversy or some competitive angle. outwards and notice the world around it,” he said. Depending on whose doing the asking, the answer “This is the ideal time to introduce it to a new requires the wisdom of a serpent and the gentleness environment and start its adaptation to that of a dove. environment. Development in the water should be THE PURIST DEFINITION FOR INFANT/TODDLER treated the same to land-based development. SWIM SURVIVAL SAFETY IS EXACTLY WHAT IT “A child may not start to crawl until around six SAYS. months, however it is developing the crawling How can Infant/Toddlers learn to swim and movement well before this age. It’s the same in the survive Safely? water — it’s just a matter of recognising the If I am not there and my child (or now my developmental signs and synchronising the child’s grandchild) falls in the water, out of a boat or off of a own natural learning process. dock, or wades beyond his depth … can he swim and “The skill of the instructor lies in putting the child survive? Can he get to a side of a riverbank? Can he in a position to learn.” reach the dock that is three feet over his head? What He said that a child’s introduction to the water if he falls in with his clothes on? needed to be careful and slow, giving it time to Simple questions ... what is the answer? But I hear become comfortable in the water and learn to enjoy the critics … they say, “what responsible parent it. Only then could new things be introduced, such as would allow his child to be near water without rolling the child on its back or showing it what it was supervision or without a life jacket?” Sometimes I like to go underwater. The involvement of a parent in bristle at this response as my job is to comfort this process was vital with toddlers, Mr Coleman encourage and help people, some who have had near said. drowning experiences with their children, some who “You are showing the child that water has have lost a child to a drowning accident. different properties. It learns that it won’t come to

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As an example I cite the two parents, both Training them to roll over relax and float will registered nurses, whose child climbed out of his bed allow them maximise time to get air. This is exactly at naptime, quietly found his way to the backyard what a good life jacket is supposed to accomplish. I pool, climbed over the fence and fell in. He fell in told her not only did the child start out with a skill where the corner of the pool cover had been pulled but also people were so amazed to watch the babies back far enough for dad’s pool cleaning equipment to who had accomplished the skill that everyone was be dropped in. Dad found his lifeless body about an watching them. Her comment was her concern that hour after his accidental fall, fully clothed, at the the respect first and the training that she had observed bottom of the pool. always seemed to be equated with crying! Parents who lose a child in a drowning accident No one who loves children wants to see them cry, are often made to feel that they are to blame because not mothers, not fathers, and especially grandparents, they didn’t provide adequate supervision or and I should know because now I am one. We are the protection for the child around the water. To ones that fix it so they won’t cry. maximise these parents’ guilt, a neighbour had That conversation was the beginning of a mentioned our program to them before the accident springboard of introspection on how we could change and that’s how they found us afterwards. These very the image of swim survival training with out committed parents had their surviving 2-year-old girl compromising the training. When I had trained with signed up in our training program within six weeks of my aunt in 1968, she believed that it would be too their loss. difficult to get the child to bond with us as instructors Believe me, they were not looking for adaptation if we had to compete with their parents for their classes at that time. I do not feel it is my place to be a attention in the water. part of the group of people who put a burden of The biggest problem we had, that I could see, was blame on these parents. All of us could have a similar that at first the child didn’t want a stranger to handle and unexpected tragedy happen to us. In their grief them. I began to wonder what would happen if we they should not have to bear an even greater burden put the parents in the water like the adaptation classes of blame. My job is to help them recover. As part of but went on to train the babies? This posed a serious their grief work these parents felt compelled to go on consideration about the increased liability with the the News with our program to warn and encourage additional untrained parents in the water. In addition I other parents to get their children in training. also knew that the parents couldn’t accomplish what What is my answer after now after 30 years in this we trainers are able to accomplish without intensive business? My answer is what I told a weeping dad training. poolside at one of my classes whose two girls, aged Kelley, my daughter and Associate Director of 15 months and 3 years old, were in a boating accident SWIMBABES™ since 1982, brainstormed with me in the Columbia River. on finding a solution to this question. We decided to “Yes, you should have put their life jackets on” bring the parents in the water to team with us. We and “Yes, you should have put the plug in the bottom figured we could try it, if it worked we would perfect of the Jet Boat, but you didn’t do everything wrong, it, if not we could continue on as we had before. For you provided them with this training and that’s what us it was a giant leap of faith but one that has proved its all about!” They only survived because of their to make the biggest difference in our program. training in Swim Survival Safety. My answer again is What we found out is that we brought our what I told an associate in our organisation at one of program in alignment with the new era of parents our first conferences on Infant Swim when she asked who want hands on involvement in their child’s me what is the difference? I answered her with this education. In the past dads were not allowed in the question, “when do you feel your new students are at delivery rooms and parents left everything up to the greatest risk around the water?” professionals. That day is dead and gone. Educated She said, “that usually is when they are feeling people now want to partner in their children’s pretty good about jumping in, going under and progress. This new era even encourages us to take having a great time in the water. That’s when we responsibility even in our own health management. have to watch them like a hawk.” Dr. Brazleton, the paediatrician famous for the I said … “are they able to get breaths on their first research on infants and mothers discovered what own at that point?” She said “no”. My answer was we all really know that there is no true learning that what we do as specialists in this field is train the without frustration. child in a life-saving skill that bridges the gap until In the past 10 years we have had many frustration they are taking breaths on their own. curves with the changing needs of our business. A lot of the frustration curves we have been through in this

~~ 37 ~~ SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002 learning process ourselves have been worth it. With The Terrible Twos our changes and personal growth we have also observed the growth in our parents in their parenting Transition Class skills. We also found that a lot of the frustration By Pat Taylor between parent and child and teacher and parent was minimised in the team effort committed to the child’s This is a difficult time in all facets of a baby’s life. success. We now feel that we have the best of both The most definite NO! is expressed with great worlds. We now have a program that can grow not authority. This is a time when, if the child has had only in training children life saving skills but in previous water babies experience, they can advance encouraging parenting skills as well. with no difficulty to the new transition class with the When I watch our videos, both our under water carer or they may simply not want to go into the video and our shows, I often weep with joy at the joy water at all because of the change in routine, or they I see between the parents and their children and insist that the carer goes in with them. We are aiming especially their participation in their children’s for the parent/carer to sit at the side of the pool (in success! Just today in my morning classes a Mother swimmers) and then eventually not be required in the hugged her child with tears streaming down her face water at all. at her daughter’s achievement of her first blue ribbon All of the above – and perhaps more – can be for her turn and float. expected at this time! Each child is an individual – When our parents return from vacations beaming some perform better without the carer in sight … with pride at the crowds they drew to watch their some will not. baby swim we receive our greatest rewards! Our Know the child and it’s own little needs. What babies are our best business cards. will work one day may not work the next. It is a very This kind of success has made addicts out of us difficult time – both for the new child to the and developed a Team of Crusaders called swimming school – or the experienced water baby. It SWIMBABES, The World’s Youngest Swim Team is time for change … be they 2 or 62 … no one really For 20 years now they have been featured on the likes change. The first timer at this age is usually news, magazine shows and featured in our own totally lost in the new environment and can become Productions. Their purpose is to demonstrate to the very clingy. World the incredible skills that they can achieve and Sometimes it can take a few lessons before the entertain in benefit for Infant/Toddlers Safety and child settles down and accepts the new situation and Health. Little did I know when I first formed the team this new person directing procedures. Development in 1980 to help us take our message to the World, of trust and a safe, happy atmosphere is essential. that instead of leading them they would truly be However, they will progress at their own pace. leading me. A new class, routine and teacher is often a fear of When I speak out now, I speak on behalf of a the unknown. It is a very rare child that does not team of parent professionals who stand behind settle down eventually – it simply takes SWIMBABES Infant/Toddler Swim Survival Safety. understanding, patience and perseverance by both the They are the many parents Celebrities and volunteers teacher and the parent. who have donated time goods and services. They also Always adopt the attitude that the pool is a fun have donated many thousands of dollars in place to learn and play. If a child is playing, either contributions and endorsements over a period of aided or unaided, it is learning and accepting the twenty years for SWIMBABES community benefits. environment and if the child is happy, swimming will They are the ones who have helped get this Life also be a fun/happy thing to do … therefore, the child saving message especially to families who have little will learn every day and will experiment and become ones at greatest risk around the water. more adventurous. On behalf of the SWIMBABES™ team, Kelley Always be agreeable and try to direct the child and I would like to thank NSSA and our International towards activities they enjoy. Allow the child to associates for their support. We thank you for choose the next activity, if appropriate, or to choose contributions to a national effort for research in infant what they would like to do during the free time. swim safety and for giving us a national platform of The transition class should retain some songs and recognition. We are proud to be able to have games from the previous baby class but should be reciprocal LINKS to you. more structured towards the basic learn to swim SWIMBABES™ World’s Youngest Swim Team. program. Carers should be advised that they might You can find us at www.swimbabes.com. need their swimmers at any time, even if their

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particular child is really doing well. At any time, the fun and they will teach themselves the water skills so 2-3 year old can have a bad day and refuse to go in. desperately required in this society and country. As the child develops mentally and physically, the body becomes more efficient … the limbs grow stronger and longer and the child starts to talk … so Learn-To-Swim Aids make good use of newly acquired motor skills and By Ron Coleman use simple verbal directions. Combine these abilities in songs and activities. Ask someone if they use learn to swim aids and Allow the child to assert itself. Use familiar games, you may well get an answer the equivalent of … etc., but also vary activities/songs each lesson so the “Wash your mouth out” lessons are not too predictable or boring. Use lots of At seminars and demonstrations I have heard coloured toys and aids – e.g. mats and noodles – to people stating with emotion their opposition to the keep the child busy. Allow the child independence use of aids. The main objection stated seems to be the and admire its competence. Always clap and say belief that children can become reliant upon the aids, “well done”. This makes for a happy situation and an and even put at risk by having a false sense of enjoyable class. security. Children in this age group are usually very verbal Having stuck my neck out before, I felt it might (even if not apparent in the class situation), so allow be a worthwhile exercise to examine the use of aids them to express themselves in shallow water with and try to ascertain whether they are useful … or are toys, etc. they something that should be avoided? Adopt an attitude that the pool is a fun place to The first thing I had to do was to identify what is a learn. Keep the child busy and having fun and always swimming aids. The dictionary says … “the act of lavish the child with praise. Keep the child’s interest helping, something (as a device) by which assistance and avoid confrontations. Children at around 20 is given, an assisting person”. months become assertive. Know your children and The use of the term in our industry is generally their traits. considered to mean an artificial aid. While many If you have a difficult child, it may be better not to have a restricted view of what they consider a learn have toys for that lesson, or perhaps give each child a to swim aid, I felt that the term, within the definition, toy for both hands, or postpone the toys until the end could and should apply to quite a range of items that of the lesson. Also explain that if a child does not like teachers use to assist with learn to swim. a particular activity – e.g. back floating – do not force Following is a list of items that have been, or are the child, just move away from the main class and let being used, and qualify as aids within the dictionary’s the child do its own thing … in particular an activity definition. that it most enjoys. 1. Shepherds crook or pole (with or without a rope loop) Or, if a child is upset on a particular day, advise 2. Flotation vests that some children like to play with dolls/toys by 3. Arm Bands 4. Shallow pools themselves, perhaps because they can assert their 5. Hand rails at side of pool wishes and the object is not negative and does not 6. Shallow ledge or steps resist their intensions. 7. Kick boards If this is the case, allow some free time for the 8. Bar bells youngster to play alone in shallow water. Explain to 9. Flippers the parent/carer that the little one is still learning and 10. Back floats developing an independent affinity with the water It would appear that very few people do not use an and, as development progresses, so too will the water aid of some type. So, it is not a case of whether the skills. use of aids is acceptable, but that operators find some At approximately 30 months, the ability to acceptable and some not. It would be easy to dismiss intentionally pull through the water becomes stronger some of the items listed as commonly used pieces of and also the fine motor coordination has improved so equipment that need not be discussed. at this time the dog paddle and back sculling can be However, I have been known to challenge the lengthened and directed towards a more recognisable accepted norm before, and I feel this need now. I ‘big arms’ or freestyle and backstroke. They will don’t believe that some of the most commonly used begin to balance on the noodle in a horse like ride. aids are as good as some people believe and some of The key I find in handling two-year-olds is to care the more maligned are not devices of evil they are and nurture trust. Be versatile and inventive. Keep it made out to be. In many cases, we are going to find that the value of the aid will depend on how it is

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used. When looking at each aid, I have tried to find While I prefer to use a parent, it is a good way to what the teacher was trying to achieve ... how the aid give them free-play that is not only enjoyable but might help … was it effective or was it detrimental? allows them to explore and experiment … one of the THE SHEPHERD’S CROOK (and the like) most natural ways the child learns. Having them on I haven’t seen this used in years but the principle too long, however, tends to restrict development – was that a child was in deep water – perhaps a metre particularly the coordination between arms and legs. out from the wall – and the instructor walked along I have also seen them used in conjunction with the side. He or she would use the instrument little flippers and back floats but felt this was primarily to give assistance if the child got into unnecessary and a restriction to natural development. difficulty, but could be used to give the kid a prod If one wants to use armbands, they are more than here and there – or to get attention. While this adequate on their own. equipment can’t be dismissed as having no value, While I don’t use this equipment as a general rule, there has to be better ways to teach … especially in a I always have a pair in my box of tricks, as there are professional swim school. occasions when I find them useful. A kid who refuses FLOTATION VESTS to be held – the type who thinks he can jump out of a These are touted by manufacturers as teaching plane without a parachute – can be given freedom aids. Many come with removable floats to reduce without mum holding him. Just put them on and turn support, as the child becomes more competent. I the little maniac loose. I just take them off when I don’t know of any swim schools that use these but want to work with him. that is not to say they won’t get a result. Also, they can be useful on a handicapped child. A child introduced to deep water with a good My experience has been that a whole range of quality vest will get a degree of independence and possibilities opens up. Way before a child can be will have the opportunity to explore such things as independently competent, they can be given the general mobility, kicking, balance, changing opportunity to experience a sense of independence direction, etc., and may even experiment with putting they possibly have never felt before. The value of face in the water. being able to give a handicapped child the As child becomes more confident, reducing opportunity to be independent, albeit with an aid, buoyancy by removing flotation segments shifts should not be under-estimated. responsibility progressively over to the child. One should never have a closed mind. I believe Children can and do become aquatically competent you do what does the job the best, and if it means using these devices, but the problem I see with them being a bit radical … so be it. An example of the is that they are usually used without an experienced value of this was how I was faced with a situation tutor which leaves a lot to chance. where a 60-year-old lady and her 80+-year-old Does the device give the child enough freedom to mother from the Lake District in northern England, experiment naturally? When does the parent take out wanted to learn to swim. We only had about three a segment? And how many segments? While the weeks. principle is OK, monitoring and guiding the process Now, to enjoy the water one needs a range of to get good results needs experience and skill. Leave basic aquatic skills and must be reasonably the floats in too long would encourage total competent and confident in deep water. (If you can’t dependence. Dropping them out too quickly can swim in deep water … you can’t swim.) As most create insecurity and may even put the child at risk. adults think they will be sucked down the plughole if While there are better systems for the they go into deep water, it is not an easy task to get professional, they are better than nothing for the them relaxed enough in the deep to develop the basic parent who cannot or will not put their child into skills of competence. lessons. I introduced adult-size armbands in standing depth BLOW UP ARMBANDS water and experimented with getting the feet off the The principle behind these is similar to vests, bottom. They moved confidently to deep water in a except more suited to 1-2 year olds (maybe a little very short period of time. Given the opportunity to either side). I have seen them used professionally enjoy the deep water with a feeling of safety, they and, in most, they seem to be used as a parking spot. soon developed basic skills without any real thought They allowed a young child to scoot around with for what they were doing. some independence, while teacher was working with Reducing the support was relatively easy as they another child, and were taken off when the instructor took over more of the responsibility. I could not have was ready to work with them. achieved this in the time I had without the assistance of the humble armband.

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stars gave the first indications of their good moment of shape … the Australian Geoff Huegill touched the wall in the 100m Butterfly in 51.04 (WCR), while the Chinese Xuejuan Luo won the 50m Breaststroke in 30.71. Martina Moravcova, the versatile Slovak swimmer, also made her Reproduced from Vol. XXVIII No.14 th astonishing debut in the competition with five victories out 25 December 2001 of the six events in which she participated. Very discretely, BEST WISHES FOR 2002 the Chinese Hua Chen was untouchable in the 400m and In a period of some trouble in which a growing anxiety 800m Freestyle, preparing the ground for her consecration is spreading its political consequences in many places of in her home country. the world, it is the duty of the sportspeople to remember New York (USA) made its entry in the circuit of the that through mutual understanding and communication it is World Cup in a very convincing way. One swimmer in possible to gather the goodwill men for the prosecution of particular will stay in the history books of this premiere. common objectives. The top-level sport is the best Natalie Coughlin, 19 years old, American, university example of what the international cooperation can achieve. student, confirmed her victory in the 100m Backstroke of For FINA, the year 2001 was highlighted by the success of th the last World Championships in Fukuoka and proved with the 9 edition of our World Championships, in which all her performances that she is also the most fearsome Short our disciplines were enhanced. In a friendly and healthy Course Backstroker of the moment … World Records in atmosphere, our swimmers, divers and water polo players the 100m (57.08 – an extraordinary time) and in the 200m showed their happiness in competing together (2:03.62(, plus a World Cup Record in 50m (27.09). “I did harmoniously despite all their different origins. not expect all this,” declared a surprised Coughlin after the On behalf of FINA, it is our pleasure to send our most two memorable days. Martina Moravcova (SVK) – five sincere wishes for 2002, a year which we hope all the more wins! – and Xuejuan Luo (CHN) respectively countries in the world can live in peace … thus developing bettered the World Cup Records in the 200m Freestyle and progressing themselves economically, socially and (1:55.41) and in the 100m Breaststroke (1:05.78). culturally. We are also sure that the sportspeople and in In Shanghai (CHN), the local swimmers had good particular the FINA Members, Officials, Coaches and reasons to celebrate. The first day, Hua Chen established a Athletes can give their precious contribution for a better new World Record in the 800m Freestyle (8:15.15) and world. erased from the lists the time of 8:15.34, made by the East We wish everyone a very Happy New Year for 2002. German Astrid Strauss in the year 1987! Chen was still Mustapha Larfaoui, President Bartolo Consolo, Honorary Secretary capable of beating the World Cup Record in the 400m Dr Julio Maglione, Honorary Treasurer Freestyle – finishing in 4:02.80. Memorable performances FINA Swimming World Cup 2001/2002 followed by the one of Hui Li in the 50m Backstroke … A promising edition! WR in 26.83. The day after, the unthinkable happened … Pedro Adrega, FINA Communications Department in the women’s 50m Breaststroke, Xuejuan Luo and Wei The FINA Swimming World Cup 2001/2002 started Li touched the wall exactly in the same hundredth of under the best auspices. After the first five Meets (Zone 1 second … 30.56 … a new World Record. An and 2), seven World Records (WR) and 12 World Cup unprecedented situation, as it is the first time in history Records (WCR) have already been broken! A significant that a victory is shared in a World Record time! The only step forward if we compare to the 10 Meets of the foreign intruder to the Chinese supremacy was Roman 2000/2001 edition where only five WR and 10 WCR were Sloudnov (RUS) and his two WCR in the 50m and 100m set. These performances prove the success of the new Breaststroke. formula established by FINA to order the final Melbourne (AUS) brought to a close the Zone 2 of the classification – the use of a Points Table that rewards the World Cup on December 7-9. After a quite timid first day time achieved instead of the position in each race. (Ian Thorpe was the most regretted absent of the Meet), Moreover, these records show that the major rendezvous the weekend started with the 50m Butterfly World Record of the season in 25m is being carefully prepared by all the of 22.84 achieved by Geoff Huegill – the Australian th bettered the old record of Mark Foster (GBR) in January athletes … the 6 FINA Swimming World Championships ths to be held in Moscow from April 3-7, 2002. this year by 3/100 of a second. A fair reward for Huegill, The kick-off of the World Cup was given in Rio who broke the WCR of the 100m in 50.71 on the following Janeiro (BRA), with the participation of 212 swimmers day. The American, Ed Moses, was also in evidence by from 17 countries. The Russian Roman Sloudnov establishing a new World Cup Record in the 200m established there the first of his three WCR … in the 100m Breaststroke (2:07.59). Breaststroke he finished in 58.76 – a time that he improved After the first five Meets (out of nine), the later in Shanghai (58.57). Several South American and classification of the current edition of the Swimming Brazilian records were also set in Rio. A special mention World Cup is led by Geoff Huegill (AUS) in the Men’s should be given to the extensive media coverage of this competition (1021 points corresponding to his 50m Meet … the TV Channel O Globo provided the signal of Butterfly WR in 22.84) and by Xuejuan Luo (CHN) in the the finals for more than 20 countries. Five international Women’s competition (1010 points for her 50m press agencies, eight TV broadcasters, more than 10 Breaststroke WR in 30.56). The final four meetings of the newspapers and a Website reported this competition. 2001/2002 Swimming World Cup will take place in Edmonton (CAN) then hosted for the last time an event Imperia (ITA), Paris (FRA), Stockholm (SWE) and Berlin of the Swimming World Cup. On November 23-24, two (GER).

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Peak Blood Lactate & In contrast, the current available methods to measure the anaerobic contribution to exercise have either Accumulated Oxygen Deficit as proved unsatisfactory or have yet to be validated. Indices of Freestyle Swimming Blood lactate has been used as an index of anaerobic metabolism in exercising muscle. More

Performance in Trained Adult specifically, peak post-exercise blood lactate (LApeak) Female Swimmers has been proposed as an accurate and reliable By… quantitative measure of anaerobic glycolysis during Robert F. Zoeller … School of Human Performance and the preceding exercise bout (6, 11, 17). The use of Recreation, Box 5142, University of Southern Mississippi, blood lactate levels to quantify glycolytic metabolism Hattiesburg MS 39406-5142 – Phone: (601) 266-6629 – in skeletal muscle presumes that the net accumulation Fax: (601) 26604445 – Email: [email protected] of lactate in the blood is quantitatively related to the Elizabeth F. Nagle; Robert J. Robertson; Scott M. production of lactate and, therefore, anaerobic Lephart; Fredric L. Goss … University of Pittsburgh, glycolysis within the muscle. This theory, however, Pittsburgh PA has been criticised on the grounds that it makes Niall M. Moyna … Nuclear Cardiology, Hartford unsubstantiated assumptions about lactate diffusion Hospital, Hartford CT (Reproduced from The Journal of Swimming Research, Vol. 14 – and distribution kinetics (18). Despite these Fall 2000) controversial assumptions, significant correlations ABSTRACT (p<0.05) between LApeak and performance times in The purpose of this study was to evaluate measures of peak post- events largely dependent on anaerobic metabolism exercise blood lactate (LApeak) and accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) as indices of Freestyle swimming performance in trained have been demonstrated in activities such as 400 and adult female swimmers. These measures have been proposed to 800 metre track running (11, 16, 17). Further be valid indices of anaerobic energy production during exercise evidence in support of LApeak as an index of anaerobic and competitive swimming has been reported to rely heavily on anaerobic metabolism. Specifically, this investigation examined the power is further supported by two additional lines of relation between: (1) LApeak and Freestyle swimming performance, evidence … (1) sprint and power trained athletes (2) LApeak determined in a swimming flume and at poolside, (3) generate greater LApeak values measured after LApeak and AOD and (4) AOD and Freestyle swimming performance. Twelve well-trained female swimmers (24.9 + 7.1 sprint/high intensity exercise bouts when compared years old) participated as subjects. A total of five tests were to endurance trained athletes or untrained individuals conducted – (1) a discontinuous multi-stage submaximal flume (10, 13, 16), (2) high-intensity training has been swim test to determine VO2 swimming speed relation, (2) a multi- stage continuous swim test to measure maximal oxygen shown to concomitantly improve sprint performance consumption, (3) a single stage supramaximal swim test, and (4 & and increase LApeak (5, 8, 20). 5) two performance swims (50 and 500 yards) in a 50-yard pool. More recently, the measure of accumulated Results indicated that LApeak measured after a 50-yard performance swim (LApeak50) and after a supramaximal swim test oxygen deficit (AOD) during supramaximal exercise (LApeakflume) correlated significantly with 50-yard performance time has been proposed as a measure of anaerobic capacity (r = -0.53 and –0.51 respectively). AOD was also significantly correlated with 50-yard performance time (r = -0.68). These data (14). The assessment of AOD relies on the estimation suggest that LApeak and AOD are valid indices of anaerobic power of supramaximal oxygen demand from extrapolation during short term/sprint Freestyle swimming events. None of the of the VO2 – power output relation determined from measures of LApeak nor AOD correlated with 500-yard performance time. As such, LApeak and AOD do not appear to be sufficiently numerous submaximal exercise bouts (14). sensitive indices of middle-distance swimming performance. The Accumulated oxygen deficit is then defined as the measures of LApeak and AOD showed no inter-relation. Further research in this area should continue to focus on the underlying difference between the predicted supramaximal VO2 mechanisms associated with these two indices of anaerobic demand and the actual VO2 measured during a bout power. Finally, while LApeak and AOD demonstrated significant of supramaximal exercise (14). This difference is correlations with 50-yard competitive swim performance, the relative weakness of these correlations does not warrant their use assumed to be the anaerobic contribution to the for predicting swim performance. exercise bout. The determination of AOD has also INTRODUCTION been criticised for underlying assumptions (i.e. High intensity competitive swimming requires linearity) regarding the extrapolation of submaximal energy from both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic VO2 – power output relation to determine pathways. Quantification of the contribution of these supramaximal energy demand (3). As with LApeak energy systems would improve understanding of the significant correlations between AOD and underlying metabolic determinants of high intensity performances dependent on anaerobic metabolism swimming performance. Such knowledge would have been demonstrated in running (17, 22) and assist in designing and evaluating training programs cycling (4). Similarly, higher AOD values have been for swimmers. The aerobic contribution to the energy reported in sprint/power athletes during sprint/high demands of dynamic exercise is now routinely intensity exercise when compared to endurance measured using assessments of oxygen uptake (VO2). trained or sedentary individuals (13, 15, 19).

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However, the relation between AOD and Freestyle test to determine the swimming speed-VO2relation swimming performance has yet to be established. for the prediction of supramaximal oxygen demand,

In summary, LApeak and AOD have been proposed (2) a multi-stage continuous swim test to measure as valid indices of anaerobic/glycolytic metabolic VO2maxswim, (3) a single stage supramaximal swim activity and exercise performance. Implicit with this test to measure LApeak and AOD, and (4 & (5) two all- hypothesis is the expectation that these measures out swims in the pool (50 and 500 yards) to measure would not only be correlated with Freestyle performance time and post competition LApeak. The swimming performance but with each other as well. first three tests were conducted in a swimming flume Therefore, this study used trained adult female (SwimEx Systems Inc., Warren RI, Model #SX600T) swimmers to evaluate the relation between … (1) and the performance swims were conducted in the

LApeak and Freestyle swimming performance, (2) University of Pittsburgh swimming pool. The order AOD and Freestyle swimming performance, (3) of testing was randomised except for the

LApeak determined experimentally in a swimming supramaximal test. This was because the speed of the flume and LApeak measured after performance swims supramaximal test was determined from data in a 25-yard pool and (4) the measures of LApeak and generated by the submaximal and VO2maxswim, tests. AOD. The individual tests were separated by at least one METHODOLOGY week. Subjects were instructed to maintain their Subjects normal training regime during this time. With the 12 well-trained female swimmers volunteered to exception of one individual, none of the subjects participate in this investigation. Subject were training for competition. Most (10) of the characteristics are presented in Tables 1 and 2. subjects had competed at the high school or college Subjects were recruited from a pool of individuals level but now trained largely for fitness. As such, capable of swimming (Freestyle) 50 yards in 30 there was little variation in training routine from seconds or less and/or 500 yards in 7 minutes or less. week to week. Subjects completed swim and medical history Orientation Trial questionnaires and gave their written consent prior to Upon arrival at the swimming flume, weight, their participation in the study. All experimental height, percent body fat, were determined for each procedures were approved by the University of subject. For descriptive purposes, percent body fat Pittsburgh’s Institutional Review Board for Human was determined using skinfold and gluteal Subjects Experimentation. circumference measures (9). Following completion of Table 1. Subject Characteristics the anthropometric measurements, subjects practiced Variables Mean + SD N 12 swimming in the flume. In order to become familiar Age (yrs) 24.92 + 7.14 with the unique aspects of swimming in the flume, Height (cm) 169.20 + 5.70 subjects swam in the flume without Weight (kg) 63.26 + 6.55 % Body Fat 21.53 + 4.33 respiratory/metabolic equipment during the initial Years of swim training 15.33 + 6.15 orientation trial. After a brief rest, subjects then Yards trained per week 10,416 + 10,112 swam at four submaximal speeds using respiratory/metabolic instrumentation. This served Table 2. Subjects’ self-reported swim training history and personal records (PR) two purposes … (1) to allow the subject to become Yards PR for PR for Years of familiar with swimming in the flume while wearing a Subject Trained 50yds 500yds Training mouthpiece/face mask and heart rate monitor, and (2) per Week (sec) (min:sec) EC 16,000 15 28.0 5:52 to allow the investigators to assess the subjects’ CI 12,000 16 - - responses to swimming in the flume at various U 5,000 10 29.0 - CK 5,000 16 27.0 7:05 speeds. A specially designed mouthpiece/face mask ML 40,000 5 28.7 4:36 worn by the subjects was connected to an open- AM 6,000 14 26.7 6:15 circuit spirometry system (SensorMedics, MMC LP 12,000 27 28.8 6:13 3? 6,000 14 25.7 6:21 Horizon) so that respiratory/metabolic data could be RR 3,000 15 29.5 6:32 collected. Heart rates were measured every minute CR 7,000 25 24.2 5:08 with a Polar heart rate monitor. This MS 9,000 18 27.9 5:35 CS 3,000 9 28.0 - respiratory/metabolic instrumentation was used Experimental Design during all tests conducted in the flume with the All subjects underwent an orientation trial prior to exception of the supramaximal swim test. the experimental trials. Subsequent to the orientation Submaximal Swim Test trial, each participant performed a total of 5 tests … The submaximal test consisted of six swims of (1) a discontinuous multi-stage submaximal swim three minutes duration performed in a stationary

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position against progressive speeds of water current estimated supramaximal oxygen demand and the accumulated generated by the flume. Each swim was separated by oxygen uptake (¯ ¯ ¯ ¯). Graphs represent data from subject LP. Subjects performed a 10-minute warm-up swim five minutes rest. The initial speed, as determined beginning at approximately 40% of their age- from the orientation trial, was such that it elicited a predicted maximal heart rate (APMHR) and heart rate of 120 to 130 beats per minute and/or a progressing to approximately 85% of their APMHR. VO of not more than 25ml kg-1 min-1. Swimming 2 Subjects then rested until their heart rate was less speed was then increased an average of 0.10 metre than 100bpm. The first exercise stage began at the sec-1 each stage. VO was reported in 20 second 2 speed corresponding to approximately 85 per cent of averaging intervals. Steady state VO for each stage 2 the subjects’ age APMHR. The first exercise stage was defined as a difference of 2ml kg-1 min-1 or less was two minutes in duration. Thereafter, swimming between the last three 20 second averaging intervals. speed was increased 0.10m sec every 30 seconds Steady state VO for each stage was recorded as the 2 until exhaustion. average of the last three 20 second averaging Supramaximal Swim Test intervals. Steady state V) was then plotted as a 2 The supramaximal swim test consisted of a single function of swimming speed and a regression line stage exhaustive swim performed in the flume at a drawn for the purpose of predicting supramaximal speed corresponding to 124 + 7.6% of the subjects’ VO2 demand (Figure 1). VO max for the measurement of AOD and LApeak. VO max Test 2 swim 2 swim This intensity was determined from pilot work and The VO max test employed a continuous 2 swim allowed subjects to swim for at least two minutes … graded exercise test (GXT) to exhaustion. The an important criteria for the determination of AOD protocol for the GXT was adapted from that (14). The speed for this test was then calculated from employed by Wakayoshi et al (21). an extrapolation of the VO -swimming speed relation 2 determined from the submaximal swim test (Figure 1). During the test, respiratory gases were collected in 150-litre Douglas bags. Immediately upon termination of the test the gases were taken to the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Department of Preventive Cardiology. There, the gases were analysed for O2, CO2, and N2 concentration with a mass spectrometer. Gas volume was measured with a Kofranyi-Michaelis gasometer. Accumulated oxygen deficit was calculated as the difference between the estimated oxygen demand for the supramaximal

-1 swimming bout and the accumulated oxygen uptake Swimming Speed (m sec ) measured during the test. AOD was expressed in Litres (STPD). Immediately after the test, subjects were asked to rest quietly, seated on the edge of the flume. A 3ml blood sample was taken five minutes after the conclusion of the swimming bout for the

determination of LApeak flume. Blood was analysed for lactate concentration with a YSI 2700 biochemical -1 analyser. LApeak was expressed as mmol L . Competitive Swimming Performance Tests Two competitive swimming performance tests, 50 and 500 yards, were performed on separate days in the Trees Hall pool at the University of Pittsburgh. The order of testing was randomised. Each test began Time (min) with a 500-yard warm-up swim followed by five Figure 1 – Steps in the determination of accumulated oxygen minutes rest or until the subjects heart rate was below deficit: (1) determination of speed – VO2 relation (—) from submaximal swim test, (2) measurement of VO2maxswim (------), (3) 100bpm. At the end of the rest period, the subject determination of supramaximal VO2 demand (·-·-) and swimming performed either a 50 or 500-yard Freestyle swim speed (¨¨¨¨), (4) measurement of accumulated oxygen uptake (area under curve) and (5) calculation of AOD: difference between the with instructions to perform the swim with a maximal

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effort, as in competition. All performance swims p=0.044, SEE=1.23, respectively). Figure 2 presents were from a push start. All swims were hand timed a scatter plot of the relation between LApeak50 and 50 and performance times were recorded to the nearest yard competitive performance swim time. The power tenth of a second. Immediately after each to predict 50-yard performance time was almost performance swim the subject was instructed to rest identical for LApeak50 and LApeakflume. Performance quietly, seated on the edge of the pool. After five time predicted from LApeak50 (performance time = minutes of rest, a 3ml blood sample was taken by -0.295 (LApeak50) + 32.1) and LApeakflume venipuncture for determination of LApeak50 (after the (performance time = -0.283 (LApeakflume) + 33.775)

50-yard swim) and LApeak500 (after the 500-yard were within 0.89 + 0.64 and 1.01 + 0.51 seconds of swim). The blood samples were analysed for lactate actual performance time, respectively. These two concentration with a YSI 2700 biochemical analyser. measures of LApeak not only correlated significantly Statistical Analysis with 50-yard performance time but with each other as Correlation analysis was used to determine the well (r=0.709, p=0.005, SEE=1.81). No significant relation between … (1) peak post-exercise blood correlations were found between LApeakflume or lactate (LApeakflume, LApeak50, and LApeak500) and LApeak500 and performance time in the 500 yd Freestyle swimming performance (50 and 500 yards) Freestyle performance swim (r=0.178, p=0.290 and in trained adult female swimmers, (2) AOD and r=0.152, p=0.318, respectively). Although

Freestyle swimming performance (50 and 500 yards) LApeakflume and LApeak500 were significantly in trained adult female swimmers, (3) peak post- correlated with each other (r=0.721, p=0.004, exercise blood lactate determined experimentally in a SEE=1.66), neither was predictive of 500-yard swimming flume (LApeakflume) and LApeak measured performance time. following performance swims of 50 yards (LApeak50) and 500 yards (LApeak500), and (4) the measures of

LApeak and AOD. Statistical significance was accepted at the p<0.05 level of confidence. SPSS for WindowsR statistical software was used to perform the statistical analysis.

FINDINGS

The results of the laboratory/flume tests and performance swims are presented in Table 3. To validate the all-out nature of the competitive performance swims, post-swim heart rates were Peak Blood Lactate (LA 50, mmol L) compared with those obtained at VO2maxswim. Heart peak Figure 2. Relation between peak blood lactate and 50 yard rates were 181.9 + 12.3, 175.5 + 22.9, and 177.7 + competitive swim time. Solid line represents line of best fit 16.8 for VO2maxswim, 50 yard and 500-yard determined by linear regression. competitive swims, respectively. Paired-samples T- tests revealed no significant difference between the Accumulated oxygen deficit was significantly heart rates for VO2maxswim and either 50 yard correlated with time in the 50 yard Freestyle (p=0.404) or 500 yard (p=0.542) competitive performance swim (r=-0.676, p=0.016, SEE=1.12). performance swims. Figure 3 presents a scatter plot of the relation between AOD and 50 yard competitive performance Table 3. Test Results swim time. Performance time predicted from AOD Tests Results (Mean + SD) -1 -1 (performance time = -0.877 (AOD) + 32.923) was VO2maxswim 46.19 + 7.31 ml kg min 50 yard Freestyle 30.37 + 1.36 sec within 0.80 + 0.67 seconds of actual performance 500 yard Freestyle 6:31 + 00:27 min:sec time. However, AOD did not correlate with LApeak50 5.88 + 2.44 mmol/L performance time in the 500 yard Freestyle swim LApeak500 7.76 + 2.29 mmol/L LApeakflume 12.04 + 2.48 mmol/L (r=-0.379, p=0.14) or any of the measures of blood AOD 2.72 + 1.11L lactate (r=0.118, p=0.373, r=-0.489, p=0.076, and

r=0.086, p=0.407 for LApeak50, LApeak500 and LApeak Significant correlations were found between both flume, respectively. measures of LApeak (LApeak50 and LApeakflume) and time in the 50-yard Freestyle competitive performance swim (r=-0.528, p=0.039, SEE=1.21 and r=-0.514,

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significantly correlated with 500-yard performance time (r=-0.528, p=0.039 and r=-0.621, p=0.016, respectively). In addition, an examination of the present investigation’s subject training logs revealed that only two of 12 subjects were engaging in any type of anaerobic training. It is possible that performance in the 500 yard Freestyle, in this subject cohort, may have been even less dependent on anaerobic metabolism than previously reported. Finally, it is important to note that the measures of

LApeak accounted for only approximately 27% of the variation in performance times in the 50 yard Accumulated Oxygen Deficit (Litres) Freestyle swim, which is almost exclusively Figure 3. Relation between accumulated oxygen deficit and 50- yard competitive swim time. Solid line represents line of best fit dependent on anaerobically derived energy. A determined by linear regression. possible confounding variable in the measurement of Discussion peak lactate was the timing of the blood draw. While The purpose of this study was to determine it is generally agreed that blood lactate levels whether LApeak Freestyle swimming performance in generally peak between 3 and 7 minutes post- trained adult female and AOD are valid indices of exercise, there is considerable inter-individual

Freestyle swimming performance in trained adult variation. As such, it is possible that LApeak was not a female swimmers. Previously, both of these measures sufficiently sensitive index to measure inter-subject have been demonstrated to be correlated with differences in the anaerobic contribution to 500 yard performance in sprint and middle distance running Freestyle swimming performance in this particular events (11, 17, 22). To our knowledge, however, this cohort. was the first attempt to evaluate these measures as The present findings indicate that AOD measured correlates of exercise performance using a swimming in a swimming flume may be a valid index of high- model. The results indicate that LApeak measured after intensity Freestyle swimming performance in trained an exhaustive/all-out swim of three minutes or less in adult female swimmers. The results indicate that duration is modestly predictive of 50-yard sprint AOD measured in a swimming flume, using the performance in trained adult female swimmers. The protocol described above, is modestly predictive of energy required for a 50-yard performance swim is 50-yard sprint performance in trained adult female supplied primarily by the anaerobic metabolic swimmers. However, as with the measures of LApeak, systems (12). As such, these results suggest that AOD was not correlated with performance time in LApeak may be a valid index of swimming the 500-yard Freestyle swim. Green et al (7) performance relying heavily on anaerobic glycolytic previously observed that “... performances on tasks energy production. Further, it appears that this partially determined by anaerobic capacity (or measurement is equally valid in a poolside or underlying mechanisms) are not always associated laboratory setting. with a larger AOD”. The previous discussion In contrast, neither of the two independent regarding the lack of a relation between the measures measures of peak post-exercise blood lactate of LApeak and middle-distance swimming performance (LApeak500 and LApeakflume) were predictive of 500 would seem to apply here as well. The lack of yard Freestyle swimming performance. Based on its correlation between the measures of LApeak and AOD correlation with 50 yard Freestyle swimming in the present study has been observed previously (2). performance, LApeak may be a valid index of anaerobic These authors suggested the absence of a correlation power during high intensity swimming. Because was due to the presumption that measures of LApeak middle-distance swimming relies at least in part on are partially determined by non-anaerobic energy derived from anaerobic glycolysis, it would metabolism, specifically lactate removal. Regardless, be expected that LApeak would be predictive of 500 it is beyond the scope of the present investigation to yard Freestyle swimming performance. It has been speculate as to the reason for the lack of correlation postulated that only half of the total energy demands between these two indices of anaerobic power. Future of the 500-yard Freestyle are provided by anaerobic research should continue to investigate the metabolism (12). However, this is unsupported by underlying mechanisms associated with each of these controlled scientific studies. In the present study, measures. measures of aerobic power, specifically VO2max and In conclusion, these data suggest that measures of

VO2 at blood lactate concentration of 4mmol/L, were LApeak and AOD may be valid indices of anaerobic

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capacity and performance during short term/sprint 7. Green, S. and B. Dawson. Measurement of anaerobic Freestyle swimming events. Further, it appears that capacities in humans: definitions, limitations, and unsolved problems. Sports Med. 15:312-327, 1993. the predictive power of LApeak measured poolside is equal to that measured in a laboratory setting. The 8. Houston, M.E. and J.A. Thomson. The response of endurance-adapted adults to anaerobic training. Eur. J. measures of LApeak and AOD were not predictive of Appl. Physiol. 36:207-213, 1977. middle-distance swimming performance in this 9. Jackson A.S., M.L. Pollock, and A. Ward A. subject cohort, possibly due to a lack of sensitivity. Generalized equations for predicting the body density The measures of concentration of LApeak and AOD of women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 12:175-18 1, 1980. showed no inter-relation. As such, further research in 10. Komi, P.V., H. Rusko, V. Vos, and V. Vihko. this area should continue to focus on the underlying Anaerobic performance capacity in athletes. Acta. mechanisms associated with these two measures of Physiol. Scand. 100:107-114, 1977. anaerobic power. 11. Lacour, J.R., E. Bouvat, and J.C. Barthelemy. Post- Application competition blood lactate concentrations as indicators of anaerobic expenditure during 400m and 800m races. The measures of LApeak and AOD demonstrated small but significant correlations with 50-yard Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:172-176, 1990. 12. Maglischo, E.W. Swimming Even Faster, 1st Ed. competitive swim performance. However, the Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1995, pp3- relation between these measures and swimming 22. performance also demonstrated significant inter- 13. Medbo, J.I., and O.M., Sejersted. Acid-base and subject variability. In addition, the lack of correlation electrolyte balance after exhausting exercise in between the measures of LApeak and AOD leave some endurance-trained and sprint-trained athletes. Acta. doubt as to the validity of these measures as indices Physiol. Scand. 125:97-109, 1985. of anaerobic power. Therefore, based on these data, it 14. Medbo, J.I., A.C. Mohn, I. Tabata, R. Bahr, O. Vaage, and O.M. Sejersted. Anaerobic capacity determined by cannot be recommended that measures of LApeak or AOD be used as predictors of freestyle swimming maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J. Appl. Physiol. performance. 64:50-60, 1988. 15. Medbo, J.I., and S. Burgers. Effects of training on the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS anaerobic capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22:501- The authors gratefully acknowledge the students 507, 1990. of the Department of Health, Physical, and 16. Ohkuwa, T., Y. Kats, K. Katsumata, T. Nakao, and M. Recreation Education at the University of Pittsburgh Miyamura. Blood lactate and glycerol after 400m and that assisted in the data collection for this 3000m runs in sprint and long distance runners. Eur. J. investigation. Without their time and devotion, this Appl. Physiol. 53:213-218, 1984. project could never have come to fruition. 17. Ramsbottom, R., A.M. Nevill, M.E. Nevill, S. References Newport, and C. Williams. Accumulated oxygen 1. Bangsbo, J., P.D. Gollnick T.E. Graham, C. Juel, B. deficit and short distance running performance. J. Kiens, M. Mizuno, and B. Saltin. Anaerobic energy Sports Sci. 12:447-453, 1994. production and O2 deficit-debt relationship during 18. Saltin B. Biochemistry of Exercise VII, International exercise in humans. J. Physiol. 422:539-559, 1990. Series on Sports Sciences. Champaign, IL.: Human 2. Bangsbo J., L. Michalsik, and A. Petersen. Kinetics, 1990, pp387-412. Accumulated O2 deficit during intense exercise and 19. Scott, C.B., F.B. Roby, T.G. Lohman, and J.C. Bunt, muscle characteristics of elite athletes. Int. J. Sports J.C. The maximally accumulated oxygen deficit as an Med. 14:207-213, 1993. indicator of anaerobic capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 3. Bangsbo, J. Oxygen deficit: a measure of the anaerobic 23:618-624, 1991. energy production during intense exercise? Can. J. 20. Sharp, R.L., D.L. Costill, W.J. Fink, and D.S. King Appl. Physiol. 21:350-363, 1996. D.S. Effects of eight weeks of bicycle ergometer sprint 4. Craig, N.P., K.I. Norton, P.C. Bourdon, S.M. training on human muscle buffer capacity. Int. J. Sports Woolford, T. Stanef, B. Squires, T.S. Olds, R.A. Med. 7:13-17, 1986. Conyers, and C.B. Walsh. Aerobic and anaerobic 21. Wakayoshi, K., T. Yoshida, Y. Ikuta, Y. Mutoh, and indices contributing to track endurance performance. M. Miyashita. Adaptations to six months of aerobic Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 67:150-158, 1993. swim training. Int. J. Sports Med. 14:368-372, 1993. 5. Cunningham, D.A., and J.A. Faulkner, J.A. (1969). The 22. Weygand, P.G., K.J. Cureton, D.S. Conley, M.A. effect of training on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Sloniger, and Y.l. Liu, Y.L. Peak oxygen deficit Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1:65-69, 1969. predicts sprint and middle distance track performance. 6. Fujitsuka, N.T., T. Yamamoto, T. Ohkuha, M. Saito, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26:1174-1180, 1984. and M. Miyamura. Peak blood lactate after short periods of treadmill running. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 48:289-296, 1982.

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well-planned trip, we headed off … only to run out of Northern Territory Croc’s petrol half way to Chandler. We made a mad dash to a petrol station, which thank goodness was just off invade Queensland the Freeway, and we were again on the road to By Mark Davies Chandler to kick some Queensland butts. Head Coach – Casuarina Swim Club Now I am from Queensland and Chandler was no Last January, it was time to let the Croc’s loose at surprise to me, but to the Casuarina kids from the the Queensland State Titles. The kids did a great job, Northern Territory, Chandler was both impressive taking home some medals and plenty of Finals and intimidating. However, like true professionals, appearances. With our Swimming with the Crocs they took to it like ducks to water or, should I say Training Sessions behind us, we were well prepared Crocodiles … sorry about the pun. We had a long for the Banana-benders at the Chandler Pool in warm-up to give everyone a chance to settle in and Brisbane. then went looking for some seating in the stands. I forgot how challenging and dangerous this could be. After finally selecting the team of Croc’s from the Clubs guard their territory in the stands like wolves to Casuarina Club from the Top End of Oz, we set out their Den. Therefore, when the kids threw away some on a swimming journey to conquer the best from the towels lying on the seats – because they thought they east and learn for the best. We settled in Surfers were just left behind – I was ready for a blast from Paradise and trained at the Miami pool next to Dennis those crazy parents who patrol their areas like prison Cottrell and his chargers such as Grant Hackett, officers. As the kids settled in I ran off to avoid Michael Klim, Giaan Rooney and Daniel Kowalski. confrontation – like all good coaches – and let the This was a great buzz for the kids to get up so close kids settle it. They did … with a – “this is our area and train next to these guys. We got some photos so go somewhere else” attitude that seemed to work with the swimmers, except for poor old Beth whose well … from my position on the pool deck many legs collapsed every time Grant got near enough for a miles away. photo. Thanks to Dennis and his squad, for helping out and letting us train at their pool and we look We settled in for the first of many days at the forward to visiting them again next time. To who Chandler Complex. The first day went well with two ever Daniel was in the Miami squad, “Hi” from the Croc’s making the Finals. Michael made the 100 Croc girls as they kept a close eye on his training and Backstroke Final and Beth made it into the fun event everything else. of the 200 Butterfly. That night we saw a very gutsy swim by the young MacBeth who came from far Surfers was great fun but it was tough keeping the behind to snatch the Bronze Medal. Poor Beth, who guys and girls out of the shopping centres, beaches is as blind as a bat, had no idea where she came so and chasing the local boys and girls, which isn’t a we gladly gave her the news as she squinted her way great way to lead up to a big competition. However, over to the coach’s area. This gave the squad a great staying in four-star accommodation in Surfers was lift and I believe set up the week for some great hard to take. We tested our cooking skills within the swims by the Croc’s. squad as we were on a mission to cook our own meals and keep to a budget of $10 per head, which This was the pattern for the rest of the week. We we achieved. Thank you very much Mrs. Harbison had regular Final appearances, with another Bronze and Mrs. Bower who had doubts at the start of the Medal from Hayley McKinnon in the 200 IM. Hayley trip. I actually had doubts myself but we made it, also had many Final appearances that week and has with $9 to spare … not bad for 10 kids who could eat an exciting future, as does Lucy Moon who their way out of gaol. Breaststroke’d her way into a couple of Finals also. The whole squad of Kenny, Beth, Hayley, Sarah, We spent our last day at Surfers at the shopping Megan, Jeremy, Lucy, Tamara, Kieren and Michael centre, watching a movie and window-shopping for should be proud of themselves as they performed those things you cannot afford on coach’s wages. I well in tough competition and conditions. Tamara surprised my family by inviting my squad to their especially enjoyed the balcony with Luke … must house for a carbo-loading dinner and catching up have been the view. with old friends. We crashed early so we could begin the assault on Queensland the next morning. We rose It was great to catch up with some coaches from early to pack the bus, collect the gang and, with this the past, who have not changed, except for the

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waistline being a little larger. The numbers for the We arrived at our third home of the trip at the surf Queensland State was still pretty high and I believe club … thanks Annie Bell for helping set it up. The maybe the younger ones should not be there, as it first place to visit was the beach of course. The surf should be aimed at 13-and-older swimmers. This was not great but it did not matter, as any wave is gives the kids something to aim for. There were kids better than the Darwin wave, which only appears who were 12 years old and at their third or fourth during a cyclone. The first night was supposed to be a State Championships. We look at taking kids at the recovery session with a good night’s sleep. How ages of 13 or even 14 to such events … it helps to wrong we were. About 2.30am an alarm went off, make these events more attractive and challenging if which sounded like a car alarm. I stuck my head they have to wait longer to attend them. Also, how under the pillow – like most of us – except for about making the fines for not achieving the Hayley who abused the alarm and demanded it be qualifying times $50 instead of $10? This should stop turned off … by whom I was not sure. Soon another people fudging times and teaching kids it’s OK to lie alarm went off, which shook the building to its to enter an event. Some parents and coaches need a foundations and removed most of us out of our lovely good kick up the butt sometimes. beds. It was apparently the fire alarm so we looked for a fire but thankfully couldn’t find one. We could By the end of the week we were all up to our smell something, which could have been last night’s necks in swimming so we decided not to attend the dinner, but we vacated the premises just in case. Relays, which we probably would have won anyway. We took the kids ice-skating … what a night! With We waited for the Fire Brigade to arrive but no, Megan’s great navigational skills it took only an hour they were still in bed. We called them and the Police. to find Acacia Ridge Ice Rink. We took to the ice as Soon we had the Fire Brigade, Police and half the we did to the melted variety. It was lovely to see the holidaymakers from the neighbouring caravan park kids helping each other around the rink, especially on our doorstep. Megan got all this on video and Beth and Kenny who even held hands to stop each should prove interesting viewing on how not to react other falling over. (I think that’s why they were during a fire alarm. After several searches, telephone holding hands.) I have to admit my skating skills took calls to Managers and Presidents to turn off the alarm some time to develop, but soon I was the King on … sorry to those guys … must have regretted letting Ice, with a lot of people staring at me with my unique us stay there ... we finally got back to bed after the skating style. Jeremy struggled on the ice, spending girls had a good chat to the men in uniform. more time sitting on it. Megan and Kieren ruled the ice while Beth stuck to edges … when she was not The rest of the holiday on the Sunshine Coast was holding Kenny’s hand that is. Even Slowly (Sarah) less stressful and we all had a great time. The surf showed some good speed on the ice. was fantastic, but Megan had a habit of head-butting the board. The guys did well with the surfboards. I Sunday morning … we were up early to visit have to say the girls struggled in the surf but we all Dream World on the Gold Coast. Everyone had a enjoyed the sun and sand … just ask Lucy and great day jumping on the rides, including the giant Kieren. The Caloundra surf people were great and the drop and the tower of terror where my stomach weather was perfect ... not too much to complain remains. The lion cubs were a big favourite and with about on this trip all round. A special thanks to Dean the crowds being surprisingly low, we all got a lot out Laskazeski for all her help in looking after the kids of the rides. After a fun day at the park we packed the and the meals, which were sensational. My burnt bus, collected the Croc’s and headed off to the sausages did not go over too well. In addition, thanks Sunshine Coast for a well-earned rest for a few days. to David McKewin for keeping the boys in line, and A special thanks to the Caloundra Surf Club for their not to forget Reg who managed to haul our luggage hospitality and kindness. The dorms at the surf club around for us. The trip was a great success from the were great, and the kids had a lot of fun keeping each camp at Miami, the Queensland State Swimming and other awake. The boys couldn’t sleep, mainly due to the fun and games on the Sunshine Coast. We are the snoring of David and Reg. Oh, thanks Reg for hoping to make this happen every season, so look out your help in transporting our luggage. We had a … the Croc’s will be back bigger, meaner and faster slight planning problem when we organised a bus … next season to take back a few more medals north. we forgot we had luggage as well so we recruited Till then, to my friends from the swimming world, Reg to carry our gear around. Slight strategic goodbye and good luck. problem, but we survived. The Casuarina Croc’s Adventure continues…

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determining a turn were not used in the analysis by WHAT CAN BE LEARNT FROM THE SWIM Chow et al (1984) and Chu et al (1999). This meant TURN PERFORMANCES AT THE SYDNEY that the information collected at an international level 2000 OLYMPIC GAMES swimming competition was not able to show By Bruce R. Mason and Jodi M. Cossor comparisons between swimmers. The present study Australian Institute of Sport Biomechanics aimed to examine the characteristics of turning Department, Canberra, Australia technique for elite swimmers and determine important characteristics that could be used to The AIS Biomechanics Department analysed the improve turn performance. The turns of finalists and swim turn performances of the top 16 finalists at the semi-finalists in all strokes and distances for both Sydney Olympics to identify the better characteristics genders at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games in of elite performance. Cameras located above the pool swimming competition were analysed to provide this were used to obtain timing, distance and velocity information. characteristics of the push off and underwater phases METHOD of turns. Information provided from the race analysis A research group headed by the Australian data allowed information on the time for the in phase Institute of Sport Biomechanics Department was and out phase of turns to be added to the turning awarded the right to perform the analysis at the 2000 characteristics. Results showed that the most Olympic Games. Stroke length, stroke frequency and significant phase of the turn was the underwater interval velocity for each free swimming phase of the phase. Those swimmers travelling further under the race as well as start, turn, and finish phase times, 25m water, and for a longer time period in the underwater split times and 50m split times were computed using phase in Butterfly, Backstroke and Breaststroke the swimming competition analysis program events, gained a greater advantage from quicker turns developed at the AIS. The turns of swimmers in the than swimmers with lesser underwater distances. finals and semi-finals were analysed where the in Results showed that average turn time for the fastest phase of the turn was the period from the 7.5m mark 16 swimmers in each event ranged from 7.17s in the out from the wall until wall touch and the out phase Men’s 100m Freestyle to 11.21s for the Breaststroke of the turn was the period from wall touch back out to turn in the Women’s 400m IM. the 7.5m mark. Total turn time was a combination of INTRODUCTION these two times and percentages of the in swim as a Swim turn performance has been studied part of the total turn were also calculated. After the extensively over the last 20 years to evaluate competition, the turns were further subdivided into technique and its relationship to performance. phases using the AIS Biomechanics start and turn Research by Thayer and Hay (1984) noted that turns analysis computer program to provide the time and comprised up to 33% of total race time in short distance as the swimmer pushed off the wall and re- course competitions and therefore were an important surfaced. The swimmer’s time, distance and velocity consideration when examining race performance at for each of the push-off, under water and above water the elite level. sub phases of the out turn were computed. The pre- Research by Lyttle and Mason, (1997) and Lyttle turn free swim phase was the period that the et al (1999) in a training environment used swimmer travelled from the 25m mark to the start of underwater video and force measurements to collect the turn and the post-turn free swim period extended data during a turn. This enabled the researchers to from the end of the turn until the swimmer again accurately identify the forces exerted during the reached the 25m mark. swimmer’s turning motion. Research was also The underwater time and distance parameters conducted by Chow et al (1984) during the 1982 included the time spent on the wall as well as the British Commonwealth Games in Brisbane where time spent under the water after leaving the wall. cameras were set up to examine the time, distance However, the underwater average velocity was and velocity parameters for both the in and out calculated from a location soon after the swimmer’s phases of the turn. The distance in was calculated in feet left the wall until the swimmer’s head re- the Freestyle events only and was defined as the surfaced. distance between the head and the wall at the time that the swimmer’s hand entered the water on the last RESULTS AND DISCUSSION stroke into the wall. The distance between the vertex Statistical analyses using Pearson Product of the head and the wall at the instant that the Moment Correlations helped to determine the swimmer had completed a full stroke cycle after the relationship of the turning sub phase parameters with turn was defined as the distance out. Set distances total turn time.

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Men’s Events spent in the underwater phase after pushing off the No relationship was found between the pre turn wall in these two strokes. It was noted that there were swim velocity and turn velocity that would imply that significant correlations for all variables in the 400m free swim performance does not necessarily reflect a IM Butterfly to Backstroke turn. similar ability in turns. Results examining the in turn Table 1 Average Turn Time for the Finalists in Each versus the out turn phases in the Men’s 100m Freestyle Event Butterfly and 100m Breaststroke suggested that the 100 200 400 800 1500 Free Free Free Free Free swimmers who were the fastest in leaving the wall Men 7.17 7.75 7.95 8.38 were the slowest in the approach to the wall and vice Women 7.99 8.63 8.93 8.99 versa. Time and distance for the underwater phase The average turn time for the 16 finalists and was negatively correlated with total turn time in the semi-finalists in the Freestyle sprint events and 8 100m Butterfly, 100m Backstroke and 200m finalists in the distance events is outlined in Table 1. Breaststroke events. This implied the only turns that This data was calculated from the information demonstrated significant correlations in the Men’s collected at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. The Individual Medley were the turns that included turn times were faster for the males than the females Butterfly. The in turn and the out turn times were in all events, which was to be expected. The women significantly related to total turn time in most events demonstrated a relatively even increase in the turn for both males and females. time as the race distance increased whereas the men Women’s Events had a significant increase in turn time between the A similar pattern emerged in the Women’s events 100m and 200m events. Similar information is with correlations between the in turn time versus out presented in Table 2 with average turn time being turn time for the 100m Butterfly and 200m calculated for the fastest 16 swimmers in each of the Breaststroke events. Some significant correlations form events. were found in the Women’s events when comparing Table 2 Average Turn Time for the Finalists in Each Form the underwater velocity with total turn time and this Event was not seen in the Men’s events. These results 100 200 100 200 100 200 Fly Fly Back Back Breast Breast suggested that the faster the swimmers were Men 7.83 8.60 7.67 8.37 8.79 9.54 travelling after they pushed off the wall, the faster the Women 8.84 9.56 8.76 9.42 10.18 10.67 total turn time. This was combined with greater The average turn times for the finalists in the underwater distances over longer time periods during Individual Medley events are outlined in Table 3. The the underwater phase of the turn that were seen in the fastest turn in the 200m IM was the Butterfly to Butterfly and Backstroke events. For both genders Backstroke turn and the slowest turn was the the out phase of the turn was more related to total Breaststroke to Freestyle turn for both males and turn performance than the in turn phase. This would females. The Butterfly and Backstroke turns were suggest that swimmers with a more forceful push off faster than the changeover turns on either side of the wall and faster times to the 7.5m mark after the them. This was not the case with Breaststroke, which turn would be more successful in the overall turn was slower than both the Backstroke to Breaststroke performance than swimmers with a stronger approach and Breaststroke to Freestyle turns. As expected, the to the wall. Freestyle turn was the fastest of the turns in the In the Women’s Individual Medley events, the 400IM for both males and females. turn parameters associated with Backstroke and Breaststroke, were most related to turn time. This may have been as a result of the time that swimmers

Table 3 Average Turn Time in the Individual Medley Events 200 IM 200 IM 200 IM 400 IM 400 IM 400 IM 400 IM 400 IM 400 IM 400 IM (FB) (BB) (BF) (Fly) (FB) (Back) (BB) (Bre) (BF) (Free) Men 8.58 9.12 9.58 8.90 9.13 9.07 9.78 9.87 9.76 8.45 Women 9.39 10.36 10.56 9.46 9.82 9.75 10.76 11.21 10.85 9.12

CONCLUSION swimmers were not necessarily the fastest turners. The biomechanical analysis of turns provided by The other significant finding was that the most the Australian Institute of Sport Biomechanics significant aspect of the turn performance was the Department at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games underwater phase, including the action of pushing off swimming competition identified that the fastest free the wall. Both underwater distance and time were

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significantly correlated with the total turn time in the form strokes for both sexes. This implied that for Swimming Psychology elite calibre swimmers the further the distance and By Craig Townsend longer the time spent in the underwater phase of the turn, the faster the total turn performance tended to Craig Townsend is Director of “It’s Mind be. Based on this information, coaches of elite over Matter” in Sydney, Australia, and has international level swimmers should try to utilise the worked in the in the area of mental training for swimming, sport and personal underwater phase of their swimmer’s turns for as development for over a decade. He long and as far as the rules permit. It is important to believes in empowering people and remember that a good underwater phase begins by teaching cutting-edge skills to extract the pushing off the wall effectively, then maintaining utmost from their talent. good streamlining during the glide and initiating an effective underwater kick to gain the most advantage Tip No.41 from the turn at the appropriate time. Future studies NERVOUSNESS IS ENERGY could examine the depth of the swimmer during the execution of the underwater phase of the turn in Ian Thorpe, Inge DeBruijn and Lenny relation to performance. Krayzelburg all won gold medals at the 2000 Sydney Olympics – which, in some respects, is not surprising References as they were considered the swimmers to beat in • Chow J.W-C., Hay J.G., Wilson B.D., & Imel their particular events. C. (1984). Turning techniques of elite However, as experienced as these swimmers are, swimmers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 2, 241- they all admitted battling with severe bouts of 255. nervousness – even with THEIR levels of inner- • Chu D.P.K., Luk T.C., & Hong, Y. (1999). belief! Turning technique of elite swimmers in Ian Thorpe said afterwards that he hadn’t Butterfly and Breaststroke. In R.H. Sanders & expected to feel any nervousness at all – but when he B. J. Gibson (eds.) Scientific Proceedings: came out form the Marshalling Area and the huge ISBS ’99: XVII Int. Symp. on Biomech in crowd began cheering for him, he felt the emotion Sports. Hamilton Hill, Pk Print. 349-352. rise up from inside of him, which is exactly the • Lyttle A.D., Blanksby B.A., Elliott B.C., & feeling many competitors experience in times of great Lloyd D.G. (1999). Investigating kinetics in stress or nervousness. Despite this, he won the 400m the Freestyle flip turn push-off. Journal of Freestyle in world record time, and backed up an Applied Biomechanics, 15, 242-252. hour later to claim another world record in the • Lyttle A.D., & Mason B. (1997). A kinematic 4x100m Relay. and kinetic analysis of the Freestyle and Inge DeBruijn revealed that she used to battle Butterfly turns. Journal of Swimming severe bouts of nervousness to compete at the highest Research, 12, 7-11. level, but said (a day before her race) that she was • Thayer A.L., & Hay J.C. (1984). Motivating confident and ready to go. As a gold medal at the start and turn improvement. Swimming Olympics was her main goal, plus the fact that she Technique, Feb/Apr, 17-20. had never swum at an Olympics before, you can almost be sure that when she walked out to the blocks Acknowledgement for her first ever Olympic Final, she would have This research project would not have been experienced the same sort of nerves Ian Thorpe did in the 400m Freestyle. Yet she won the 100m Butterfly possible without the support of the Pfizer Company th and the International Olympic Committee Medical in world record time … her 9 World Record for the Commission in Sports Science for the research grant year. that was provided to perform swimming competition Lenny Krayzelburg is probably the closest thing analysis at the Olympics. The researchers also wish we can imagine to a machine when it comes to to acknowledge the financial support provided by the performing in the pool, his confidence and AOC and Australian Swimming Incorporated through consistency are legendary – yet even he said that he the Special Initiatives Fund that was used for the set felt extremely nervous before the final race. Despite a up and purchase of much of the equipment used in close tussle with Josh Watson, he came out on top as this study. usual – that is what true champions do. When you feel nervous next time you’re about to swim a race, remember these two important things.

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First of all, everyone else is feeling exactly the same Hackett’s mental strength not to fall for the ploy. I’m way. It’s much more comforting to know that you are fairly certain that Susie O’Neill used the same ploy in not the only one going through this! If even these her winning event. great champions can feel the nerves of us mere Lenny Krayzelburg did not wear a cap for the mortals, then it means that everyone must go through Semi-final of the Backstroke, yet he emerged it – it’s our RESPONSE to the nervousness which is wearing a cap for the Final, which also made his important. appearance look quite formidable. You see (and this is the second thing to Even Cathy Freeman, the Australian athlete who remember) nervousness is simply energy – nervous won the 400m Sprint, did the same and ran for the energy – which can be used and channelled into your first time wearing a special sprint suit for the Final. performance! That’s what the champions do, they use These are a little more subtle than a long-distance it to their advantage, whereas most others stress out swimmer I heard about, who wore a different colour about being nervous and allow it to destroy them. nail polish on each of her fingers and toes … just to So actually, if a swimmer is NOT nervous at all, attract attention and simply be an eyesore to her they may not have the power and energy available to competitors! them that a nervous swimmer possesses! Being a Gary Hall Jnr used the power of body language little nervous is an advantage, not a disadvantage. to convey to his competitors that he was going to This is what nervousness is for – to give you energy. be tough to beat … flexing his muscles and playing Remember this in your next big race – channel the up to the crowd. Another example is the fastest man nerves into your swim, and feel your body unleash on earth, the great runner Maurice Greene, who also the incredible power it has been storing up for the uses amazing body language to demonstrate how race. Your mind will always provide what your body confident he is, strutting around like a winner even needs – and one of these things is nervous energy. before races begin. Some, such as Ian Thorpe, Inge DeBruijn and Tip No.42 Pieter van den Hoogenband do not seem to use any MIND GAMES particular ploys, though of course their body language always conveys a very powerful and It was interesting to notice many high-profile and formidable message to other swimmers. These little successful swimmers, who are well-known for their psychological tricks can often work to a swimmer’s mental strength, using subtle, legal and clever mind advantage by occasionally striking fear into the games to unsettle their competitors at the 2000 minds of their competitors, but these can only work Sydney Olympics. as long as the tricks do not become a hindrance to the These psychological ploys can be simply labelled actual swimmer. For instance, it would not be clever as everyday psychological warfare in swimming. to suddenly swim without a cap in a Final if you’ve As we all know, in a sport such as swimming (where never swum without one before! every hundredth of a second counts) even a slight Powerful, confident body language should advantage can make a big difference to the result. I probably be regarded as one MINIMUM am not saying that these ideas will necessarily work REQUIREMENT these days for swimmers to for you, or that you should even necessarily consider compete at the elite level, as not only can it affect using them, but part of my job is to point out what is your competitors, but it can provide a physical and going on at the psychological level of swimming, and mental boost to your own performance. Remember, these are some of the things I noticed this week: however, that if you decide to try using some mind BODY LANGUAGE and swimwear changes games, make sure you have rehearsed them for Finals races were designed to provoke thought thoroughly in training before you consider using in the minds of their competitors – negative them in competition, so you’re not trying them for thought! These thoughts can also distract their the first time in competition. Also, ensure they do not competitors’ minds temporarily from the job they are take your focus off your OWN swimming, or they meant to be focusing upon – swimming. can actually backfire and end up working to your For instance, Kieren Perkins wore only the bottom competitor’s advantage! half of his Fastskin swimsuit in the Heat for the 1500 metres (in which he broke the 15-minute barrier for the first time in four years), yet he emerged in the full-body version for the Final. This was designed to say, “you thought I was good in the Heats, I’m going to be even tougher now!” It was testimony to Grant

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Tip No.43 Make success a habit – a daily habit. This way HOW TO ACHIEVE CONSISTENCY you can’t miss at the Meets, your success will be assured! Are your results always strong and consistent, or do you experience extreme highs and lows, up Tip No.44 and down like a yo-yo? YOU MUST CONQUER THE DOUBTS It seems that some swimmers would do almost anything for more consistency in their results, which To be truly successful in swimming, it’s not can sometimes range from brilliant to terrible all on always the case of trying to achieve a goal, but being the very same day. able to break through your OWN RESISTANCE So where can you buy some consistency? There’s to it. only one place you can get it, but there’s no need to What is this resistance? The doubts you have in hurry, because it will always be right there waiting your own ability. But why would anyone have for you ... in your mind. This is where consistency resistance to success? Surely everyone wants to be lives. Let me show you how you can get hold of it. successful in their swimming? Consistency from your body originates from Yes, this is true, on the surface everyone wants consistency in your mind. Listen to this again – if success, but down at the deepest level, the fact is that you want consistency from YOUR BODY, you many people are actually scared of succeeding! To must have consistency in YOUR MIND. This explain this more clearly, it means they don’t feel means that if you put in a consistent daily effort in they DESERVE or are WORTHY of success, and your training, you will achieve consistent, solid this what can stop them from achieving their dreams. results in your meets. Every race is a battle between your belief and This is not always easy. There will always be your resistance, and a win or a great time is a triumph occasional training days when you will feel less of belief over doubt. Don’t worry, every single inspired, less strong or less energised than you swimmer you compete against also has their own normally would – but the key is to put in the same wall of resistance they must scale before they can amount of mental and physical anyway, regardless truly make the big time. of how you feel. It was said at the end of the Sydney So all we need to do to succeed is break 2000 Olympics that this was the true secret behind through our own resistance to success! Once we’ve Susie O’Neill’s success – it came from mental and done this, what can possibly stop us? The answer is – physical consistency in her daily training. nothing. Nothing can stop you once you conquer the Of course, this is not to say that you should try to fear of failure, and the fear of success. do this if you’re feeling ill, but assuming that you are But be prepared, before every big race there will feel physically OK, always try to put in a similar always be whispering doubts trying to derail your consistent effort each day, physically and also dreams, which can only be overcome through mentally. KNOWING that you are worthy of success. This is This ROUTINES your mind into EXPECTING why the mirror tip from a few weeks ago is so consistency in your results, and this will begin to powerful, because it challenges your own resistance be reflected in your results at the Meets as well. and increases your belief. Basically what I am saying is to make consistency Don’t think that the doubts will ever a daily habit, not just something you hope will completely disappear – because these are a happen on the day of a big Meet. If you make necessary part of the test on your journey to success. consistency a way of life, then you will know what to Belief is the only weapon capable of smashing expect when you go out to a Meet, instead of through your own wall of resistance, and you must wondering what results your body is going to bring use this belief every time you are on the block. you that day! So right now, I want you to close your eyes and They say success lies in our daily habits, and imagine for a moment that you have ALREADY this is so true – your training is the key to your achieved your ultimate goal – that your goal has success, so use it wisely. Your attitude each day is arrived, you’ve finally done it, and it’s yours. My going to reflect your results in the Meets, so how is question is – does this picture feel REAL? Do you your attitude today? Are you ready to put in a strong, truly and honestly feel worthy and deserving of this consistent effort? If this is what you want in the goal, or does it just feel like a nice little make-believe Meets, this is what you have to do. fantasy? Because this is the most crucial ingredient when you visualise your goal – you have to OWN it and really enjoy basking in its glory. Live it, feel it,

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BE it – until this image simply becomes an whole experience is going to be. When you do this, inseparable part of you. That is true belief, and this is the fear will slowly but surely evaporate and what achieves goals. disappear. This belief must travel with you everywhere If the whole Meet is an ORDEAL to one you go, because it’s the only weapon to battle your swimmer, and great FUN to another – you tell me, own doubts and resistance. But always keep your who’s going to swim better? It’s a no-brainer. The eyes on the grand payoff – once you’ve overcome the swimmer who’s relaxed and enjoying the Meet – doubt, there’s nothing left to stop you. No-one will including ALL of its conditions, such as the pool and get in your way. The goal will be yours. your competitors. So when you next visualise your goal, make sure Imagine every Meet being a fun, positive you believe it so much you can taste it. This is what experience, and don’t waste your precious energy brings dreams into reality. hating the conditions – we ALL know who wins the race between swimmers with a positive and a Tip No.45 negative attitude. BEAT FEAR AND SUCCEED Fear saps your energy, whereas happiness or love energises you – always remember that and use it to Fear is one of the greatest hurdles for a swimmer your advantage. to overcome in their quest for greatness. Just to make your quest a little tougher, fear Tip No.46 arrives in many different masks so that you never THE SECRET TO IMPROVING YOUR quite know where it will be lurking, or when to TECHNIQUE expect it. However, today I will show you one of the most Are you trying to master a new technique? You potent ways of overcoming it – and at first, you’re can do this much faster and much easier than you going to think I have gone a little crazy! (But you think. will also see that I am right!) A swimmer wrote to me during the week asking First of all, do you really love your swimming? I how to best overcome a technique problem such as hope so, because the sure way to beat fear is through over-using his arms and not utilising his legs enough. love. OK, OK, let me explain. I don’t generally get involved in the technical side of Anyone who really hates competing at a swimming (I much prefer to leave this to the coaches, particular pool is actually feeling fear when they and remain within my own area of expertise) swim there – and swimming with fear means they however this is an area where your mind (as well as will almost always bomb out there. Right? Whereas your coach) can be of great assistance. the Club swimmers from that particular pool (who By using your mind (as well as your body), you think it’s the greatest pool in the world!) will always can be master a new technique 3-4 times quicker do well there. Why? Because they love it. than swimmers who only work on the physical side! Another example – a swimmer hates competing This is because your body gets all its instructions against a particular competitor. Why? Because deep directly from your subconscious mind – the control down they fear this competitor – and while they fear centre of all movement. So to master a new them, they will never beat them. technique, all you have to do is program it into your Yet other swimmers who get on fine with this subconscious, and continue to practice the technique competitor will never have any problem beating in the pool until have it perfected – and the results them, because they will not be wasting their may arrive much quicker and easier than you ever precious energy worrying about them! imagined! My point is that FEAR saps your energy, whereas The easiest way to do this is using regular LOVE energises you. In short, love beats fear every visualisation. This allows you to tape a completely time. Let me show you how to use this principle new program over the old one, just like using better. software for your computer – automatically erasing it Whenever you dislike any of the conditions at a and leaving the new one in its place. You do this by Meet – the pool, the warm-up pool, the competitors, quietening your mind, closing your eyes and mentally coaches, etc., you must visualise in your mind the imagining yourself already using the new technique exact opposite. The only way to succeed over you desire (as if this was the way you have always conditions you dislike is by regularly imagining that swum). However, this must be done regularly if you you really love the conditions – the pool, enjoying the competitors, just feeling how much FUN the

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wish to replace the old program already running in visualise. The thing is, everyone visualises your subconscious. differently. It’s important NOT to visualise the old technique at all, as this reinforces the current program and The main secret (if you’re having problems) is not makes it more difficult to change to a new one. (If to be too worried about seeing pictures in your mind. you accidentally do this, simply put a mental cross Pictures are just a bonus, but you can get by without through the image, and start over again). them. I’ve had some swimmers who were actually Do this particular visualisation at least five stressing out because they couldn’t see the swim in minutes a day whilst continuing your normal daily their minds – and this kills the whole point of the training – until you feel the technique click into exercise! place, and you’ll know you have mastered it. Every swimmer being different, there are different paths to The number one thing with visualisation is it must success as well. Some will experience immediate and be relaxing and realistic – so forcing yourself to very rapid improvement, whereas others will visualise a swim will not work. The whole experience slow improvement, but later followed by visualisation experience has to flow, and it can often a very sudden (and unexpected) mega-successful be fun, relaxing and exciting all at the same time! training session. The more fun you have with it, the better you are My advice to the swimmer who asked about doing it – so don’t sweat it, enjoy it. utilising more leg action was this … he should visualise his arms, legs and entire body co- Just as they say you have to become one with the ordinated perfectly as he swam, as if this was water when you are swimming, you must also do this completely natural to him. If possible, he should also in your visualisation – if the images are not flowing, mentally experience feeling the sensation of the swim go with feelings instead. Feelings are just as potent as well, but if he found this difficult, seeing it would (if not more so) than images when using this be just fine. The feeling may come later. technique – because the goal is to fool your powerful Needless to say, he could not expect results unless subconscious mind into BELIEVING that you are he continued his daily physical training as well – swimming a great race. visualising alone will not bring results! Success comes through using both your mental AND physical Remember, you subconscious mind is like a capabilities. The main reason why this visualisation computer – it CANNOT tell the difference between technique works is because: reality and something which is vividly imagined. It We cannot achieve ANYTHING that we cannot cannot tell the difference, so all you need is some first IMAGINE. realism in your images, and you will have This Law of the mind doesn’t just apply to programmed your subconscious for a great swim. swimming, but also to life as well. Visualise what you WANT (not what you don’t) – and this will So don’t stress out about visualisation, enjoy it – implant a new blueprint into your subconscious for and make it as real as a great movie can be. Feel the your body to follow. This is how it works – some call emotions, even if you can’t see the images. Or if it accelerated learning, or cause and effect, but you’re working on technique – feel the stroke whatever you call it, it’s light-years ahead of the movements instead. standard ways of learning! Use it and enjoy it. Another problem some swimmers go through is Tip No.47 whether they should visualise the swim from inside OVERCOMING VISUALISATION their body or up from above (looking down at PROBLEMS themselves). Either way is fine, or even a little of both. If you have trouble seeing the images in your What do you do when you find you can’t mind, then the option of being in your own body visualise? and just feeling the swim would probably work better for you. A few swimmers have written to me since the last Swim Tip (on using visualisation to improve It doesn’t matter how you visualise – as long as technique) with the common problem of not being you DO it. It’s as vital as breathing if you want to be able to visualise the new technique. There are also successful, and the bonus is – it’s FUN! Enjoy it, and many people who say that they simply cannot make it a part of your everyday life, and watch your visualise at all – but this is untrue, EVERYONE can performances transform magnificently.

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you run the good technique program and the right Tip No.48 pacing program during training, the better results YOUR MIND IS A COMPUTER – SO RUN you’ll see in the race program. For this reason, he THE RIGHT PROGRAM! says practising good technique, positive attitudes and good pacing in PRACTICE are crucial to your Your mind is far more powerful than any success in Meets. computer will ever be – but, just like a computer, it You must consciously run these programs during can run several different programs at the same time. practice in order to ensure that your race program This is not always good, however. So says John runs to perfection when you need it. Then, (and these Fletcher, Head Coach of Jersey Storm Swimming, are my own thoughts) you simply swim your races on who sent this gem into me during the week. auto-pilot (which is the easiest way to get into the He believes that for the best results, you should zone) and allow your mind and body to take care of only run the specific mental program you need, but the details. you must also close down the other programs – or it John likens the computer/mind analogy to playing will affect your speed and power. Running just one a friend in a computer game. For instance, imagine program at its fastest, instead of running five you’re both using joysticks to move your players programs at medium speed, gives you the best through the game. Your friend has used this results. John went on to explain further that when particular joystick every day for the last two months, you’re in a race, you want to run your race program but you’ve only used it once or twice. This means to get your best result. However, if you’re running that your friend moves his player easily, scoring other programs at the same time, such as your good heaps of points, while you’re struggling with the technique program, your right pacing program and joystick trying to get your player out of some hole your I’m worried about the competitor next to me that you accidentally fell into! The problem for you is program, your brain’s ability to run your race that you are running both the race program and the program slows down considerably. technique program at the same time, while your This is because instead of running your race friend is probably running just his or her race program quickly, you’re running four programs at the program. same time! Just like any computer, this slows your If you tell your friend later “I’d have played race program down to a crawl and gives you an better if I’d had as much practice with the joystick as average result. your have!”, then it makes sense that you would also By closing down these other programs, your brain race faster if you practice your technique in training. would only run the race program, and your results John also mentions other important programs to should improve. For instance, during a race you may practice (but not during races) include the… begin using your race program, but then you may fall • Eating healthy program behind and begin giving extra energy to your good • Getting proper rest program technique program to try and work out how to • Keeping up with schoolwork program increase speed. Then, a competitor may swim up next • Stretched out and loosened up program to you, and so you begin to give more focus to your • I’m excited about swimming program worried about the competitor next to me program. • I’m swimming for myself program By the time you finish the race, you realise you never • Mental training program really got to run your race program properly at all! It • Positive attitude program was too busy dealing with all these other aspects of To wrap it up, always remember your mind can the race at the same time. So how do you learn to just think of many things at the same time, but it’s far run the race program (especially when it’s also more powerful (especially in races) to focus on just essential to possess these other installed programs one at a time. such as your good technique program)? John says the main key is to master the others during your daily Tip No.49 training and even warm-up, so that they can learn to TRAINING GREAT, BUT TERRIBLE IN function on auto-pilot. This allows you to simply run THE MEETS? your race program during swims at Meets.

You see, for your race program to run at it’s Often I hear about swimmers who train the house fastest, it requires these other programs to run at down for months, only to swim terribly in the Meet absolute perfection as well. This is because your race they had been gearing up for all that time. program is dependent on the current (and past) performance of all the other programs! The better

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Kevin Weldon, Head Swim Coach of the Dayton are not thinking hard enough – because EVERYONE Raiders in Dayton, Ohio emailed me about this has positive attributes. And so the answer nothing is recently. He also asked about swimmers who had not only banned from this list, but worthy of a firm been training brilliantly, but suddenly seemed to kick in the butt). become scared when it came to competing against Last of all, two more important things. It’s older swimmers, getting negative and down on important to regularly visualise yourself winning the themselves. These problems can create a downward races and swimming fabulous times, imagining a spiral that can be difficult to get out of, and so I brilliant Meet where you have nothing to lose, thought I would create an Action Plan for swimmers everything to gain, and that you’re the dark horse who may be experiencing this widespread problem. who comes from nowhere and shows them all who’s It’s important to know first of all that this boss! common problem has absolutely nothing to do with The other thing is to talk positively to yourself, the physical or technique side of swimming. It’s using positive affirmations and upbeat thoughts (no, purely the mind’s reaction to the pressure of the meet not aloud – in your mind!) – become your own inner – and also the month-long build-up to the Meet, cheer squad who constantly tells yourself how great which then impacts upon their technique during the you are. This can transform your results more than races. So by simply making some mental changes, you could ever possibly imagine. your results can change, too – but of course, it does So to overcome the Great Training/Bad Meet take some discipline to make these mental changes. blues – here’s the action plan. Put the Meet in its true The answer to stopping this situation occurring (or perspective, then look at the races from your getting out of this situation if you are already in it) competitor’s viewpoint, build yourself up mentally, lies in your attitude and mental approach – and so and then visualise and affirming to yourself how here is your 5-Part Action Plan. great the whole experience is going to be. Firstly, look at Meets and Races in their true So if you find yourself stuck in a negative pattern, perspective. For instance, how many millions of change it. You can create your life into anything you people will know about the results of this Meet? WANT it to be. You’ve got the action plan, now the (Often) none! Will the results be broadcast all over rest is up to you! the country or around the world? No. Is this Race life or death? No. Will you continue to live after this Tip No.50 Meet? Yes. USE MIND POWER IN YOUR TRAINING OK, so we’ve just discovered that this Meet is not as important as we first thought! In fact, compared to Every day you train at the pool determines the many other things going on in the world right now, it results you will receive in the future. could pretty safely be considered UN-important! So This is because each day you are conditioning really there’s no need to stress out about it at all. your mind and body to perform with a specific There’ll be plenty more Meets after this one, so you attitude or approach, which eventually becomes might as well just relax, enjoy yourself and go for it. your automatic attitude in the meets. Sure, there are The more fun you have, the better you’ll perform, occasional freaks who train badly but bring out the anyway. goods when it counts, but for every one of these, Secondly, look at the races from your there’s another million who don’t. competitors’ viewpoint – look what THEY have to So number one is to WORK AT YOUR deal with in their race – YOU! ATTITUDE TO TRAINING each and every day, You certainly wouldn’t want to be in their shoes, which includes trying to develop a powerful attitude would you?! They might be the favoured swimmer to training sets which you know will bring pain. to win, which means ALL the pressure is on them, The key is not to hesitate or think about the not you, and they see this young whipper-snapper negative side of training (not even for a split second) looming at them (you), trying to derail their dreams! but to always focus on the grand payoff – the prize So always remember, THEY may be scared of YOU. you get in the end for all your work. If you allow Next, it’s important to build yourself up mentally. your mind to focus on the negatives (such as the pain, Reinforce the positives about yourself – going over the cold, etc.) for even a second, you have allowed all of your own positive attributes. Literally ask your mind to betray you. You must create a daily yourself “what’s great about me?” and begin to attitude within your mind that believes “This is great, think of (and write down) all the things you’ve done and I’ll do whatever it takes, and meet each in the past, which made you feel great about yourself. challenge with fearlessness and courage”. This (If you cannot think of anything, it simply means you conditions your mind and body to relentlessly

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plough through difficulties and adversity until you ultimately reach your goal, instead of finding excuses to perform badly, which it loves to do! Focus 100% on the payoff from your training, not the negatives – that’s number one. Secondly, you must develop a characteristic The following articles have been reproduced from which I call MENTAL STAMINA. If your body Vol.13 No.1 2001 can swim 400m each day easily but your mind cannot, then you are in big trouble – and this is PREVENTING THE SEXUAL ABUSE OF actually very common. You must develop mental YOUNG PEOPLE IN AUSTRALIA SPORT endurance so that you do not get beaten-down by the constant relentlessness of daily training. One way to do this is to constantly re-affirm to yourself how easily you are handling each day’s By Trisha Leahy, Senior training (even if this requires some major bending of Psychologist, Australian Institute of Sport your reality to do this). Remind yourself constantly (almost like an affirmation or mantra) that you are on cruise control and flowing through training easily and When traumatic events are of human design, those effortlessly, and eventually this will become your who bear witness are caught in the conflict between automatic (or default) mindset. Once this happens, the victim and the perpetrator. It is morally very little will seem difficult to you, as your mind impossible to remain neutral in this conflict. The will be prepared to overcome virtually anything that bystander is forced to take sides. It is very tempting gets in your way, and drive your body to the heights to take the side of the perpetrator … all the required to achieve what you desire. This, needless to perpetrator asks is that the bystander does nothing. say, creates mental stamina or endurance. Once you The perpetrator appeals to the human desire to see, possess this, you may actually feel mentally (and hear and speak no evil. The victim, on the contrary, physically) fresh even when the others are falling asks the bystander to share the burden or pain. The down around you. victim demands action, engagement and Another great practice for your daily training remembering (Herman 1992, p7) is to EXTRACT THE POSITIVE out of every This article presents a brief report of a study I single training session. On the way home from recently conducted assessing a range of factors training, ask yourself each day what you did related to the occurrence and long-term traumatic especially well during that session, and then replay impact of sexual abuse in athletes’ lives. I will that part of your training through your mind all over discuss two key results from the study, which again. This gets you into the habit of focusing highlight systemic risk factors specific to the sporting positively, instead of looking for reasons to mentally environment that may facilitate, rather than inhibit, beat yourself up! the sexual abuse of young people in sport. This So basically, you’re saying to yourself (in your information is necessary if we are to effectively mind) after each session “what was great about me establish a safe sporting environment for all athletes today?” This may sound conceited or being – one that minimises the risk of such abuse. overconfident, but it’s not – it’s mental training! Plus, DEFINING SEXUAL ABUSE just as an added bonus, it also will improve your self- First, let’s be clear what we are talking about image – which will help you in EVERY area of your when the words sexual abuse are used. In the context life, as well as your swimming. of the study, sexual abuse is considered to be any Your daily habits create your success. So make sexual activity with a child or an adult where your daily training sessions positive, powerful and informed consent is NOT or CANNOT be given. purposeful, and these will create mental stamina, Sexual abuse may include non-contact – e.g. more energy and better performances. exhibitionism – contact (sexual touching), and penetrative sexual acts. These acts legally constitute a criminal offence (Model Criminal Code Officers ‘The Mind controls the body, Committee of the Standing Committee of Attorneys- General, 1996). For adults, behaviour that includes, and the mind is unlimited.’ for example, sexually suggestive conversation, jokes, innuendo and similar acts may not constitute a breach

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of criminal law but may fall under federal sex obligation in the victim. These aspects of the discrimination legislation in Australia (Australian perpetrator’s modus operandi targeted the Sports Commission 1998). Depending on the context, individual’s emotional life as a method of such behaviour is more generally considered to keeping that person in a state of emotional constitute sexual harassment. This sort of experience, confusion, fear and entrapment. specifically relating to adults, is not included in the 2. The prevalence of the bystander effect data I refer to in this article. compounded long-term psychological harm for DOES SEXUAL ABUSE OCCUR IN SPORT IN sexually abused athletes. The bystander effect AUSTRALIA? refers to the situation where the victim perceived In a group of 370 elite and club male and female that others who knew about (or suspected) the athletes, 31% of female athletes and 21.3% of male sexual abuse did not do anything about it. athletes reported that they had experienced sexual IMPLICATIONS FOR SPORT: IDENTIFYING abuse at some point in their lives. It was also found SYSTEMIC RISK FACTORS that almost half (46.4%) of the Elite Group reporting It was particularly evident from the data that sexual abuse had been sexually abused by sports certain aspects of the culture of competitive sport personnel. For the Club Group, this figure 25.6%. provide an environment, which facilitates, rather than These data indicate that for athletes who report challenges, the sexually abusive strategies used by being sexually abused, and who are involved in people in positions of authority and trust. Perpetrators competitive sport at the elite level, the odds are in sport appear to be able to successfully operate for almost even that someone associated with that many years, abusing many children and adolescents. environment will have abused them. And there is a As poignantly reported by one athlete… one-in-four chance that a club level athlete reporting He was very well known … and people would sexual abuse will have been abused by someone say, ‘Oh, and all those teams he coaches, and associated with that environment. he gave a lot of time to junior sport … And The sport-related abuse was primarily perpetrated (pause), and people say, ‘Oh, was any of it, by those in positions of authority or trust with the was any of it genuine or was it all abuse?’ And athletes. These included primarily coaches and, less I don’t know what the answer is, but … (long frequently, support staff, and other athletes. For the pause), at least with up to a dozen people that sake of grammatical clarity, I use the pronoun ‘he’ I’m aware of (that he abused). when referring to the perpetrators in this study, as EMOTIONAL ABUSE males constituted almost all (>96%) of these. The culture of competitive sport is imbued with a ready-made intensely volatile emotional ethos. Media Figure 1 – Percentage of sexually abused elite and club athletes who reported being sexually abused by sports personnel reports provide frequent accounts of coach, player and spectator behaviour, which gives cause for concern. Despite the excellent Aussie Sport Codes of Behaviour published by the Australian Sports Commission, emotionally abusive coaching behaviour often goes unremarked as it becomes normalised or accepted, as part of the winning performance formula. Reynolds and Johnson (1998), in an earlier study of elite Australian athletes, also highlighted the normalisation and acceptance of abusive practices due to parental and societal expectations of success. In the study I conducted, parents were sometimes at a loss as to how to interpret abusive coaching TWO KEY RESULTS behaviour. For example, one athlete reported… 1. The most harmful and far-reaching effects of (My parents) were very involved in my sport sexual abuse were related to perpetrator strategies (pause) … They’d go to competitions and see involving emotional manipulation and emotional the way he treated me. He’d put me down abuse. These strategies consisted of the creation before a competition, like he’d really put me of an arbitrary emotional reward-punishment down and they knew that, and they were like, cycle, a highly volatile emotional environment, ‘That’s not right, there’s something wrong and gift giving of, for example, special privileges with you. He’s emotionally doing something and emotional attention to create a sense of

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wrong.’ And I’d say, ‘No he’s not’ (long mean? They, they just (long pause) they saw pause), so it became (pause), that made a things that were wrong, and they didn’t do conflict. anything about it so (long pause), yeah (long The lack of alternative support or reference points pause). But one of the things, you know, I want for the parents in this example directly relates to the to talk to you ‘cause this is very bad, is not apparent inadequacy of systemic accountability of only the fact that I fell out of a sport that emotionally abusive coaching behaviour, and the should have protected me, um … I lost so pervasive acceptance of such behaviour in much (long pause) … I could have saved a few competitive sport. In the above example, no member years of my life. of staff had challenged or even remarked on the WHAT CAN WE DO? coach’s behaviour, leaving the parents with little This study demonstrates that organised, option but to believe their child that this was normal competitive sport in Australia is not free from sexual coaching practice, despite their misgivings. The abuse. The results indicate that we urgently need to perpetrator was therefore able to effectively position confront a number of structural and sociocultural himself between the young athlete and the parents, vulnerabilities for sexual abuse, which currently exist isolating the athlete from their support. at all levels from club through to elite. These The acceptance of emotionally abusive practices, primarily relate to the pervasive acceptance of it is suggested, is one of the singularly most emotionally abusive coaching behaviour and the lack dangerous of the systemic risk factors in organised of education of all sports participants about the competitive sport. It not only effectively masks, but reality of sexual abuse. also actively facilitates, perpetrator modus operandi. Z One of the more urgent implications arising THE BYSTANDER EFFECT from this study is the need to eliminate The apparent lack of systemically sanctioned apparently accepted coaching styles, which accountability in relation to the power of the coach- replicate patterns of emotional maltreatment. perpetrator appeared to influence other adults in the Emotional abuse was clearly and uniquely competitive sport environment. These included implicated in long-term negative psychological coaching and other support staff or volunteers who outcome in the group of athletes who were not as senior in the competitive sport hierarchy participated in this study, even where no as the perpetrator. This was especially notable in the sexual abuse had occurred. It also effectively elite sport context (‘cause we were so elite and no masks sexual offender behaviour, which relies one ever questioned what we were doing’). Non- on emotional abuse or manipulation as the intervention by other adults in a young person’s primary modus operandi. environment is likely to be interpreted as meaning The experiences of the athletes in this study that those adults are also powerless in relation to the highlight the fact that while codes of conduct perpetrator. This was clearly and repeatedly and policy guidelines are necessary, they are expressed by athletes who were sexually abused in clearly insufficient to protect athletes from the sport environment. In some cases it directly abuse. A more fundamental intervention might resulted in the prolonging of the abuse… be that which addresses the way power is They didn’t want to interfere with him. Yeah, constructed within the sociocultural milieu of I’m a bit angry about that you know, ‘cause, competitive sport. The Sport Education when people now say, you know, ‘We knew, division of the ASC promotes ethical, you know, that he was stepping over the line.’ emotionally safe, power sharing coaching And I’m just like, ‘Well, why didn’t you styles. interfere?’ But they probably would have lost However, such coaching practices still offer a their jobs. considerable challenge to existing systems and A young athlete sexually abused for many years practices in some sectors of organised by a coach poignantly illustrates this, and indicates competitive sport in Australia. Autocratic that one of the main reasons for agreeing to be leadership styles, unaccountable power, and interviewed was to prevent both the abuse and the hierarchical sporting organisational structures bystander effect happing to others… are still evident and they compound the risk of It’s (pause) it’s just awful to think that exploitation of athletes at all levels, and the happened, and the people who could have inability of others to act in support. stopped it, and not just for me … um, I can’t Z Comprehensive and ongoing sexual abuse believe that they couldn’t, you know what I awareness education is imperative for all those involved in organised sport in Australia,

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including athletes, parents and all associated to take responsibility for adopting the Harassment- support personnel. All adults involved in sport Free Sport Strategy. must be able to recognise and respond References appropriately and consistently to suspected Australian Sports Commission (1998) Harassment- sexual abuse or actual disclosure of sexual free sport: Guidelines for sport and recreation abuse. organisations. Canberra: ASC Z In Australia, legal and regulatory processes Australian Sports Commission (2000) Harassment- relating to sexual abuse prevention, which free sport: protecting children from abuse in sport. operate in other public sectors such as health Canberra: ASC and education, are conspicuously absent in the Australian Sports Commission (2001) What’s new? sport and recreation sector. For example, only Harassment-Free Sport Newsletter 2 (Apr): 1. in the state of New South Wales, does legally Herman J.L. (1992) Trauma and recovery: from mandated reporting of suspected child abuse domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic apply to the sports sector (Australian Sports Books Commission 2000). Similarly, only in New Model Criminal Code Officers Committee of the South Wales (and only since June 2000) does a Standing Committee of Attorneys-General (1996) legal obligation to perform criminal Model Criminal Code: Chapter 5. Sexual offences background checks on volunteer and paid against the person. Discussion paper Canberra: workers who have direct contact with children, Attorney General’s Department extend to the sports sector (Australian Sports Reynolds M. & Johnson K. (1998) An investigation Commission 2000). As an organisation we of female experiences in selected sports. Paper need to push for regulatory processes to be presented at the annual Australian Council for Health legislated for the sports sector in relation to and Physical Recreation, Adelaide child protection. This will not solve the problem but might act as a deterrent to some perpetrators. COACHING ATHLETES WITH DISABILITIES WHERE DO WE START? (CAD) COURSE EXPERIENCES The ASC has recently developed and published a comprehensive series of national guidelines and policy blueprint documents. The documents are part By Warwick Povey, Sport Education of a national multi-level Harassment-free Sport Consultant, Australian Sports Strategy, the development of which is driven by the Commission Community Development and Ethics division of the ASC. The Harassment-free Sport Strategy is a risk In April 2001 I did a CAD tennis course. I had management tool to assist sporting organisations to done a couple of weekend courses already and while protect themselves and their members. It aims to the prospect of doing a tennis-specific CAD course create a safer, more tolerant sport environment by appealed, I was not looking forward to losing another developing a system to prevent and deal effectively weekend. However, by the end of the weekend I felt and appropriately with harassment and abuse in sport. the experiences, new skills gained and other benefits It provides educational resources, seminars, training, to my coaching generally made the course rewarding consultancy advice and research information and very worthwhile for me and the other 13 (Australian Sports Commission 2001). participants. The primary challenge in the Harassment-free COURSE DETAILS & PROGRAM Sport Strategy is just beginning. This involves The course was held on 7-8 April at the Kambah ensuring that all sporting organisations – from the Tennis Club, ACT. Dusty Macgraw (ACT CAD club level up to and including the elite level – Coordinator) organised the course and together with actively promote and implement the guidelines. The Darren Cunningham, Trent Keary, Nicholas Bailey extent of this challenge should not be underestimated. and Greg Gilbert, presented all sessions. The Aussie Sport Codes of Behaviour has been Saturday’s program set the scene as we covered published and widely distributed by the ASC for a the core CAD modules. The presenters gave much number of years, but sexual abuse of athletes is still useful knowledge on topics such as… occurring. If we truly believe in giving everyone a Z Terminology fair go in sport, then every national sporting Z Ability versus disability organisation, every club and every individual needs Z Various disability groups

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One assumption I agree with was that for these … and then focused on aspects of inclusion of athletes and activities to be successful, a 60-70% athletes with a disability into tennis, including… success rate needs to be achieved. Lower than 60% Z Strategies and techniques and the activity is too tough … higher than 70% and Z Safety and medical considerations the activity is not challenging enough. I questioned Z Coaching implications the presenters about this during the course, thinking Z The role of the Coach that success related to the activity working well or Z Benefits of inclusion being completed. While I haven’t quite thrown this Saturday’s program concluded with a practical success formula away, I realised while observing an activity of playing ‘tennis cricket’ with all players adult player with an intellectual disability that playing with a simulated disability. We had a couple success (judging by the smile factor) for that person of coaches playing with vision impairment glasses, was simply being on the court, swinging a racquet quite a few using wheelchairs, some with various and making contact. I realised that rallying with other simulated amputations and others with combinations players was not necessarily the minimum of the above … all striving for a high score. Lots of requirement for success – the rallying that took place fun and keen competition were combined with a great was a bonus for this player because in his eyes he learning experience. was already successful. We should be challenging Sunday morning’s program was filled with our definitions of success for all our clients and not sessions on coaching players with physical, sensory necessarily imposing our own definitions of success and intellectual disabilities. Practical sessions were on them. interspersed throughout the day, offering plenty of I guess if I had to sum up the weekend in one opportunity to experience sport both as a CAD coach word it would be flexibility. On a general level, the and as an athlete. course helped participants to be flexible, creative and Sunday afternoon had participants working innovative in programs and activities, and including through the assessable sections of the course… all types of players, whether able bodied or players 1. Designing a CAD Coaching Session with a disability. More specifically, the CAD course 2. Immediately testing the session plan by using it constantly challenges coaches to look for and find as the basis of a practical coaching session with new ways to facilitate learning. All coaches at the athletes from three different disability groups … course quickly learned that some things done children with an intellectual disability – players successfully for years simply did not work with in wheelchairs – and adults with an intellectual players with a disability. We all had to find and use disability other ways to facilitate learning while incorporating The course was relaxed and friendly, providing fun. The fantastic, easygoing attitude of athletes with plenty of general and specific information and skills disabilities allows this to happen – gently pushing on coaching athletes with disabilities. coaches to open their minds and explore other DIRECT & INDIRECT BENEFITS FOR learning options and techniques (take the blinkers COACHES off) – an attitude I believe is of immense value for all While there were direct benefits for those coaches. coaching athletes with disabilities, just as important Whether coaches are interested in moving into the for me were the add-ons the course provided through area of coaching athletes with disabilities or looking opportunities to refect on, evaluate and improve my for other options for development, I recommend the coaching generally. CAD course as an opportunity not to be missed. One underlying concept apparent throughout the course was for coaches to focus on people’s abilities CAD COORDINATORS – rather than disabilities. A change of mindset is South Australia Claire Wittwer-Smith often required because many coaches are trained to SPARC Disability Foundation look at what is wrong and fix it. Any coaches with 88 Walkerville Terrace, Walkerville SA 5081 this mindset were very quickly challenged when Phone: 08 8342 0900 Fax: 08 8342 0988 presenter Darren Cunningham, a wheelchair tennis Email: [email protected] player who has brittle bones, announced … “You can Victoria Kathy Tessier do what you like, but I’ll never be getting out of this Active Approach chair”. The main implication of this is that coaches 483 Buckley Street, Essendon VIC 3040 should strive to relate positively to all their clients – Phone: 03 9337 0402 Fax: 03 9337 0408 focus on what they can do rather than on what they Mobile: 0418 995 986 can’t do … and add to those skills. Email: [email protected]

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Queensland Royal Victorian Bowls Association Inc and Kelli Chilton/Debbie Toman Sporting Wheelies & Disabled Association provides some comments on the implications the 60 Edmonstone Road, Bowel Hills QLD 4006 decision has for sport. Phone: 07 3253 3333 In that case, VCAT held that the exception to Fax: 07 3253 3322 Email: [email protected] discrimination on the basis that the strength, stamina New South Wales or physique of competitors is relevant, was not Lynn Phillips/Ryan Sherry Sydney Academy of Sport satisfied and accordingly that the complaint of PO Box 57, Narrabeen NSW 2101 discrimination was proven. Phone: 02 9454 0109 Similar cases in the future must be assessed on Fax: 02 0454 0133 Email: [email protected] their own facts but the decision will be persuasive – ACT particularly in Victoria. Dusty Macgraw FACTS ACT Bureau of Sport & Recreation PO Box 1156, Tuggeranong ACT 2901 Emily South (‘South’) is a lawn bowler and has Phone: 02 6207 2356 been a member of the St Kilda Bowling Club (‘the Fax: 02 6207 2071 Email: [email protected] Club’) for about seven years. Tasmania The Royal Victorian Bowls Association Inc Leah Page (RVBA) conducts a Men’s Metropolitan Pennant TASRAD 55 Oakden Road, Prospect TAS 7250 Bowls Competition on Saturday afternoons. South PO Box 324, Prospect TAS 7250 wanted to play in the Saturday afternoon competition Phone: 03 6336 2012 because she was unable to play in the Women’s Fax: 03 6336 2014 Mobile: 0417 362 014 Pennant Competition played during the week as a Email: [email protected] result of her school and university commitments. Western Australia Richard Lockwood However, in order to play in the Metropolitan Dept Human Movement & Exercise Science Pennant Bowls Competition on Saturday afternoons, University of Western Australia, Nedlands WA 6907 the Club must be affiliated with the RVBA and the Phone: 08 9380 2366 Fax: 08 9380 1039 individual must be an affiliated member of the Club. Email: [email protected] The Club secretary wrote to the RVBA requesting Northern Territory that South be registered as an affiliated member of Cathy White NT Institute of Sport the Club. The RVBA did not accept the affiliation GPO Box 40844, Casuarina NT 0811 request, on the basis that its constitution provides that Phone: 08 8922 6809 Fax: 08 8922 6800 ‘an affiliated member is a male member of any Club’. Email: [email protected] South lodged a complaint with the Equal Opportunity Commission, which then referred the SEX DISCRIMINATION IN SPORT matter to VCAT. ISSUES South alleged that the decision of the RVBA By Jackie Solakovski Associate with Rigby Cooke constituted discrimination on the basis of sex, in Lawyers, Melbourne, practises contravention of Section 65 of the Equal full-time in sports law Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) (‘the Act’). South alleged that because she is female, the RVBA refused to allow her to play in the Saturday afternoon

Pennant Competition. Who decides when it is appropriate for males and Section 65 of the Act provides… females to participate in the same sporting competition? And on what grounds should such a ’65. Discrimination in Sport decision be made? A person must not discriminate against another While most sports provide guidelines for person – by refusing or failing to select the decisions of this nature, in many circumstances, other person in a sporting team – by excluding particularly at grassroots level, it is the coach who is the other person from participating in a faced with the dilemma of whether or not to promote sporting activity.’ participation by different sexes in their particular The RVBA argued that their actions did not sporting activity. breach Section 65 of the Act, because of the This article summarises the decision handed down exception, which applies under Section 66(1) of the by the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal Act. (VCAT) on 23rd January 2001 in Emily South vs Section 66(1) of the Act provides…

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’66. Exception – Competitive Sporting In summary, VCAT held that if both sexes Activities competed against each other, the competition would 1. A person may exclude people of one sex not be uneven because of the disparity between the or with a gender identity from strength, stamina or physique of men and women participating in a competitive sporting competitors. Accordingly, the exception under activity in which the strength, stamina or Section 66(1) of the Act did not apply and South’s physique of the competitors is relevant. complaint of discrimination was proven. 2. A person may restrict participation in a VCAT ordered that the RVBA amend its competitive sporting activity: definition of ‘affiliated members’ in its constitution (a) to people who can effectively by deleting the requirement that only males can be compete; affiliated members. (b) to people of a specified age or age LEGISLATION IN OTHER JURISDICTIONS group; AND OTHER CASES (c) to people with a general or Similar cases involving sex discrimination in the particular impairment. future must be decided on the facts. However, the The RVBA argued that the competition from VCAT decision will be binding in Victoria and which South was excluded was a competitive persuasive in other States and Territories where sporting activity in which the strength, stamina or similar legislation applies. physique of the competitors is relevant and Each State and Territory in Australia has different accordingly, that the RVBA was permitted to exclude anti-discrimination legislation. Accordingly, females from the competition. depending on where the alleged discrimination The issue considered by VCAT was whether the occurs, the relevant State or Territory legislation RVBA’s discrimination against South fell within the must be considered to determine whether there has exception under Section 66 of the Act. The RVBA been discrimination under the legislation and whether was required to satisfy VCAT that if both sexes any exceptions to the discrimination apply. competed against each other, the competition would Most other State and Territory anti-discrimination be uneven because of the disparity between the legislation also includes an exception to sex strength, stamina or physique of men and women discrimination in ‘competitive sporting activities’ or competitors. ‘sporting activities’ where the ‘strength, stamina and THE VCAT DECISION physique of the competitors is relevant’ (see for In assessing whether the competition would be example, Section 38 of the Anti-Discrimination Act uneven because of the disparity between the strength, 1977 (NSW), Section 48 of the Equal Opportunity stamina or physique of men and women competitors, Act 1984 (SA), Section 41 of the Discrimination Act VCAT considered the following… 1991 (ACT), Section 111 of the Anti-Discrimination Z Evidence led by the RVBA focusing on the Act 1991 (Qld) and Section 56 of the Anti- difference in strength between men and women Discrimination Act 1996 (NT). and what impact that had on the production of The Western Australian sex discrimination the drive shot. One of the studies concluded exception was considered by the Western Australian th that … males perform the drive shot at Equal Opportunity Tribunal on 26 October 1998 in significantly higher velocities, giving them the case of Jernakoff vs WA Softball Association Inc greater potential to break the head. The other (WASA). In that case the WASA Board ruled that study showed males overall to be more Lisa Jernakoff (a 12-year-old female player) was accurate than females and concluded that ineligible to play in the junior boys under 16 muscular strength had a significant effect on competition. The Tribunal in that case held that the the accuracy of the lawn bowl delivery and that WASA did not act unlawfully to exclude Lisa from on average men have a greater grip strength participation in the junior competition. The Tribunal and velocity than women. held that the exception under the Act did apply in that Z South led evidence from a number of the strength, stamina and physique of the competitors witnesses. In summary, their views were that was relevant. The Western Australian case is an lawn bowls is not a sport where strength, example of the sex discrimination exception being stamina or physique is relevant to effectively applied successfully in the sporting context. competing and that women who play with men IMPLICATIONS FOR SPORT are neither advantaged nor disadvantaged by A view has been expressed by some in the sports being female. industry that the RVBA case is a landmark case for sport. Does this now mean that single sex

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competitions are a thing of the past and that sports Queensland must now completely overhaul their competition Mr Michael Keelan structures? The answer is … probably not. QLD Coaching & Officiating Centre Office of Sport and Recreation Although the RVBA discrimination case sends a GPO Box 187, Brisbane QLD 4001 strong message to the sports industry that it is not Phone: 07 3237 9835 Fax: 07 3224 7042 immune from the laws of discrimination, the decision Email: [email protected] does not have the effect of making all single sex South Australia competitions unlawful. Each case must be considered Ms Michelle Johnson on its facts. The question to be considered is whether Coach & official Education Coordinator … if both sexes competed against each other, the Community Participation Branch Office for Recreation and Sport competition would be uneven because of the disparity 27 Valetta Road, Kidman Park SA 5025 between the strength, stamina or physique of men and Phone: 08 8416 6625 women competitors. If this question is answered in Fax: 08 8416 6753 Email: [email protected] the affirmative – then it is likely that the exception Tasmania under the discrimination legislation will apply – and Leigh Hill the discrimination between the sexes will not be Education & Training Officer unlawful. Tasmanian Coaching Centre Tasmanian Sport & Recreation Skills Centre The RVBA decision also highlights the PO Box 1154, Glenorchy TAS 7010 importance of ensuring your conduct is not unlawful Phone: 03 6230 8256 and that procedures are implemented to ensure any Fax: 03 6230 8265 Email: [email protected] complaints are dealt with adequately and efficiently. Deborah Wilson Coaches who proactively manage the risks facing Northern Coordinator their sport will minimise their exposure to unlawful Tasmanian Sport & Recreation Skills Centre PO Box 109, Prospect TAS 7250 conduct and provide a safe and healthy sporting Phone: 03 6336 2207 environment to all. Fax: 03 6336 2014 Email: [email protected] Victoria Mrs Janet Pyke Victorian Coaching Centre Victorian Institute of Sport PO Box 828, South Melbourne VIC 3205 Australian Sports Commission Phone: 03 9292 8356 STATE COACHING & OFFICIATING Fax: 03 9686 2352 Email: [email protected] or CONTACTS [email protected] As of 3rd July 2001 Mr Les Bee Victorian Officiating Program Victorian Institute of Sport Australian Capital Territory PO Box 828, South Melbourne VIC 3205 Ms Rebecca Sutherland Phone: 03 9290 8352 ACT Coaching & Officiating Centre Fax: 03 9686 2352 Bruce CIT Email: [email protected] or PO Box 90, Belconnen ACT 2616 [email protected] Phone: 02 6207 4389 Western Australia Fax: 02 6207 4042 Email: [email protected] Mr Damian Condon Consultant – Coaching New South Wales Sport & Recreation WA Ms Rebecca Neale PO Box 66, Wembley WA 6014 Coaching Coordinator Phone: 08 9387 9779 NSW Coaching Centre Fax: 08 9387 9726 Sydney Academy of Sport Email: [email protected] PO Box 57, Narrabeen NSW 2101 Ms Pam Glossop Phone: 02 9454 0200 Officiating Consultant Fax: 02 9454 0207 Sport & Recreation WA Email: [email protected] PO Box 66, Wembley WA 6014 Northern Territory Phone: 08 9387 9787 Sean Cooke Fax: 08 9383 7368 State Coaching Centre Coordinator Email: [email protected] NT Coaching Centre For information on coaching or officiating NT Institute of Sport GPO Box 40844, Casuarina NT 0811 courses, contact your State Coaching/Officiating Phone: 08 8922 6809 Centre or look up the Web Sites … Fax: 08 8922 6800 www.coachingaus.org or www.officiatingaus.org Email: [email protected]

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athletes were identified and invited to attend. At this camp they trained alongside elite swimmers and AUSTRALIAN PARALYMPIC tested using the APC Test Protocol. For both the coaches and swimmers this proved to be a very COMMITTEE valuable and positive experience. As we move closer to the Telstra Open Paralympic Preparation Nationals, the Queensland Swimming Association Program 2002 must be congratulated for including two Swimmers with Disabilities on their State Team for this Meet. It By Brendan Keogh is certainly a huge step forward in the right direction PPP Head Coach – Swimming and sets a standard that, hopefully, will be followed

by other State Swimming Associations in the future. Currently, swimmers with disabilities throughout For any questions regarding disability swimming Australia are involved in preparations for the 2002 please contact… IPC World Championships to be held in Argentina Brendan Keogh (07) 3351 1338 or 0400 236 160 later this year. The Australian Paralympic Committee Email: [email protected] (APC), through the Paralympic Preparation Program Adam Luscombe 0408 726 118 (PPP), is in the process of redefining the structure of Email: [email protected] the PPP swim team. Initially this has involved three Ross Tait 0402 039 881 main steps. Email: [email protected] The FIRST STEP was to divide the country into Frank Hohmann 0412 585 710 four regions and appoint a network coach for each of Email: [email protected] those regions. These coaches are… Adam Luscombe – North (QLD, NT) Ross Tait – East (NSW, ACT) Frank Hohmann – South (VIC, TAS) …and we are still to confirm the appointment in the West (SA, WA). These coaches will be responsible for monitoring athletes, communicating with athletes and coaches and the organisation of regional camps. The aim of this operation model is to open the lines of communication within the PPP to current and future PPP swimmers and their coaches. January 22, 2002 The NEXT STEP was to select the PPP squads. Mr Frank Zdrilich Two PPP swimming squads were created. One was ASCTA Insurance the PPP Performance squad (top three in the world) PO Box 130 … the other was PPP the Target squad (top eight in St Kilda Vic 3182 the world). Twenty-four swimmers in total were selected. Dear Mr Zdrilich These swimmers attended a swim camp at I am writing to convey my thanks to you and Runaway Bay in October. Five of these swimmers ASCTA Insurance for providing the ASCTA recently travelled to Argentina to swim in a pre Insurance Award for my Region in the field of World Championships Meet. This was a very swimming of which I was the recipient chosen by the successful Meet with Ben Austin breaking the world Queensland Swimming Association. record for the 200 IM (SM8). The community’s interest in my development and Thirdly, Dr Brendan Burkett was appointed to career as a swimmer, as evidenced through awards the position of Sports Science Coordinator. The first such as this, continues to be a great motivating force initiative undertaken was to put in place a national in my training and I look forward to a competitive testing protocol for swimmers with disabilities. This year ahead. is based on the ASI Test Protocols, but some changes Once again, thanks to ASCTA Insurance for their have been made in order to better suit swimmers with generous support. disabilities. Regards, In the area of development, a list of emerging Michael Wooldridge athletes from all over Australia was released. At the 8 Ware Street recent camp in Western Australia, seven emerging Raymonds Hill Qld 4305

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if the athlete feels physically and technically WSCA NEWSLETTER prepared, the mind will respond with positive WORLD SWIMMING COACHES ASSOCIATION anxiety, confidence, concentration and motivational states to ensure satisfactory performance levels. The process should also work the other way, especially if the athlete has taken his or her mental and emotional preparations seriously. Just as there are technical, physical and tactical skills to learn and apply, equally the foundational mental skills must be taught and practiced to ensure controlled, composed and consistent performance. The systematic presentation

1st Floor, 461 Olive Street, Albury NSW 2640 of mental skills for competitive swimmers has been Phone: (02) 6041 6077 – Fax: (02) 6041 4282 outlined in detail. E-mail: [email protected] If the first phase of learning focuses on understanding important determinants of performance – e.g. competitive anxiety, self-efficacy (The following articles appeared in American Swimming and confidence, concentration and motivation – and Magazine Vol.2001 Issue 3) their positive and negative effects on the technical, physical and tactical elements of swimming, then the second phase of learning associated with the ability The Backstroke to monitor, evaluate and refine progress is most likely Cognitive Awareness in Monitoring, to take the performance to a higher level. These Evaluating and Refining of the Competitive processes also involve practical skills and the Swimming Strokes effective use of tools with the prime purpose of encouraging the athlete to greater states of cognitive By John M. Hogg, PhD awareness of his or her performance. The purpose of University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada this article is to help coaches and swimmers evaluate Rein Halijand, PhD individual performance more accurately in order to Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia seek out a new kind of productivity and self- February 2000 sufficiency that will motivate them to continued The meaningful integration of four performance learning and improvement. The main focus then is to components into the overall training and competitive present some insights into these three skills as they program is critical if both process and outcome are to relate to technical performance and to demonstrate advance and encourage the athlete to higher levels of their connectedness and importance in helping accomplishment. The role of the coach is to ensure swimmers reach their maximum potential. the right emphasis and balance between… Performance monitoring, evaluation and refinement tend to go hand in hand. Monitoring is a The technical factors The improvement of swimming skills skill that allows the athlete to see exactly what is The physical The progressive conditioning of energy happening in pre-performance, during and post- sources The tactical The improvement of race plans and performance settings. It is essentially a cognitive strategies activity whereby athletes become aware of any The mental The improvement of understanding inconsistencies between what they intend to do (goal underlying psychological constructs and their effective application. states) and what they are actually doing. Initially this uses select tools like check listing and self-reflective These skills need to be conceptualised and exercises. However, monitoring performance at the explained – effectively taught – and integrated or conscious level can provide the athlete with mental applied in the sport setting. Further, their effects control problems by increasing the accessibility of require to be monitored, evaluated and refined. Such thoughts and feelings that should be followed or an approach needs to be systematic and interactive. ignored. In turn this may trigger decisional problems. For the athlete to reach his or her true potential a It puts demands on the athlete’s attentional processes, mind-body connection needs to occur whereby the which may be more or less limited. In time and with physical factors (development of general and specific practice, monitoring can become fairly effortless, strength, endurance and flexibility, etc.) are in especially if the athlete achieves a high degree of harmony with the mental factors (development of automaticity in performance execution, and can mental control for consistent performance). Usually, effectively transfer processing to the subconscious

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level, especially under conditions where there is no quality and intensity of their performance either by one, limited cognitive overload. An issue of themselves (self-reflection) and/or with the help of importance is whether the monitoring of pain in significant others (coaches, teammates, support staff). performance is an advantage for the athlete and Debriefing is an opportunity for both subjective and which strategies or techniques are best – associative objective information processing and sharing to (attending to the pain as it occurs) or dissociative ensure continued progress to the next level of (distracting from it). Some research was conducted performance. It is strongly recommended at the with marathon runners into the monitoring of pain, international level where progress might be minimal. which suggested that elite runners preferred In competitive swimming, the problem can be associated strategies when the pain was persistent or somewhat compound as the swimmers move from chronic. Dissociative techniques, on the other hand, one performance to the next – depending on the work best when the pain is acute. Cognitive- number of events they are committed to across a behavioural strategies for monitoring and controlling session or a Meet. The swimmer may never be truly pain in competitive swimming have also been evaluated for a real or imagined fear that the researched. assessment may be detrimental to the upcoming The skill of accurate performance evaluation is performance, which might only be moments away. vital if an athlete is to progressively proceed to the There are so many technical aspects of swimming next level of successful involvement. The process of that it is virtually impossible for coaches to single- evaluation needs to be meaningful and purposeful in handedly provide an accurate appraisal of each swim, so far as it is an opportunity for the sharing of especially when they have a large team and a great information … it needs to be systematically number of performances to evaluate and refine. There constructive to ensure the athlete receives positive is need for a greater cognitive awareness on the part rather than just negative feedback … and it needs to of each swimmer if the skill of debriefing is to be be objective and subjective involving both the effective and meet its purposes of exactly analysing considered assessment of the coach and that of the existing performance states while determining what athlete. In competitive swimming most evaluation precisely needs to be done to ensure future tends to be done in the past-performance setting. performance satisfaction, enjoyment, success and Unlike some team sports, the swim coach is fulfilment. Following any debriefing session, athletes prevented from providing meaningful feedback to the should know how they are doing and where they swimmer while he or she is actually racing. A stand relative to their performance goals. A simple systematised approach to debriefing the athlete along question might be whether or not performance with a suggested model has been presented to swim outcome actually reflects what was done in training. coaches. It should be noted that the post performance If the swimmer can evaluate what was right or debriefing process has tended to be a haphazard wrong, then they have a better chance of determining affair. In team sports the post game debrief can vary what to do next. They may wish to now create a new anywhere from 2-3 minutes in the event of a victory vision or mission statement, which motivates them to and between 30-50 minutes in the event of a loss. the next level of commitment. Most coaches openly admit to the difficulty of Objective evaluation – a top down approach – communicating calmly and rationally and recognise is provided by coach feedback, sport science their tendencies to take a top down approach. This observational data, statistics, video analysis, stance of providing the athlete with the bulk of performance criteria, etc. It is expected to be evaluative comment with more or less emotionality misinterpretation if coaches focus on the wrong reflective of the coach’s perceptions would perspective, are biased and self-serving, or overly seemingly endorse the fact that coaches know best, preoccupied with negative outcomes. Self or can be protective of their own decisions and makes subjective-evaluation – a bottom up approach – is for easier control over the athlete. The process of necessary counterbalance that encourages athletes to debriefing can be defined very simply as a form of provide their own insights, understanding and meaningful discussion that occurs some time feelings about their performance outcomes. This following the performance. The idea is to share the opportunity for self-expression, for verbalising the racing experience in a responsible and accountable performance experience, and to provide subjective manner. It has been suggested that following the input is often overlooked. Possibly athletes do not performance the athletes are led through a session in have either the necessary degree of self-awareness or which they relive all or parts of their race experience the occasion to debrief themselves to the proper in a knowledgeable and supportive environment. extent. The skills required are those of mental recall, They are then able to draw conclusions about the self-reflection, check listing against goal states, and

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the ability to openly and non-judgementally to plateau or even experience decrements in communicate with the self. New challenges always performance. demand new talents, notably self-discipline and There is a need in competitive swimming for both performance accountability. But self-evaluation is an a conceptual understanding of what is involved in opportunity to exercise resilience, initiative, monitoring, evaluating, refining and a need for a tool optimism and adaptability to change. It should be or measuring device that will allow both the coach noted that some swimmers prefer to avoid any forms and the athlete to correctly apply the art and science of self-evaluation opting only for the coach’s input of precise monitoring, evaluating, and refining of rather than their own opinion, but this may be a performance. Cognitive awareness is a practical maturational limitation that diminishes in time and ability to know and understand what should be done with experience. as a first step to gain control of the situation. Seasoned athletes often regard themselves beyond Metacognition is a skill that permits athletes to change. Change can play havoc with the emotions. recognise any mistakes, whether technical or There is a need to accept constructive criticism otherwise, and to be able to deal with them in order whether from self or others rather than being to improve to a new level of intense learning and defensive or hostile to performance feedback. inner growth. It is reflected in the ability to Naturally, subjective evaluation is exposed to conceptualise what needs to be done to improve misperceptions as much on the part of the athlete performance as well as in the ability to competently hindered by an inflamed ego as with the athlete who and successfully execute the identified task indulges only in self-blame. Some athletes have requirements. This is not solely an intellectual difficulty asking themselves the really hard questions activity but primarily one that involves being following performance and become too self- emotionally intelligent and practically smarter in protective, adopting a closed off attitude to the determining what must be done. With added insights process. Equally, they are likely to possess limited from the debriefing process, athletes can reduce and self-regulation skills and so are less likely to give the restructure any feelings of incompetence or process the due attention it deserves. apprehension and begin to concentrate on the Ideally then, it is a combination of both subjective pertinent skills. Metacognition is at the very core of and objective information processing in the post- self-regulation and very simply encourages performance evaluative setting that provides both the appropriate performance adjustments. Cognitive athlete and the coach with a line of future direction advantage manifests itself in the speed and that can be built out of trust and respect. Suppressing automaticity with which the performer can recognise negative memories of mistakes in performance – e.g. and process these adjustments. The processing of misjudging a turn, failing to reach a race split time, subjective and objective performance observations choking under pressure, etc. – can only encourage following a swim race may be done in an emotionally negative emotional responses by magnifying anxious charged environment. If mistakes are in evidence states, by entertaining feelings of diminished self- then these may lead the athlete to favour a wide range confidence and attentional control. of negative mood responses threatening to self- Such cognitive activity can only result in an image, competency and confidence. Such mood irrational perspective of performance valuation. disturbances are difficult to control and will Refining performance is possible as a result of an definitely influence perspective. accurate debriefing process. With new information If the performance is a success then the athletes’ shared, performance perceptions can be changed so sources of self-efficacy and self-confidence will be that they are more constructive and beneficial. Now enhanced and their goalstates reinforced. However, athletes can better grasp the meaning and application there may be more to learn from a negative of the performance factors and employ self- evaluation provided the information generated is regulatory techniques to ensure improved efforts in processed positively and constructively. This will training and competition. require an emotionally stable environment – one that Further, they can now bring all resources into play assumes that the athlete has waved through any and focus on those task requirements that are in their negative emotions (frustration, anger, confusion, control. Refining involves changing perspectives, disappointment, etc.). And has subsided to a state of resetting goals, taking charge of actions in a emotional equilibrium. responsible and accountable manner. On the other Informational processing of performance data hand, debriefing done poorly or incompletely will pinpoints the good and the not so good and tend to be maladaptive, possibly causing the athlete determines what must be done right now to rectify any faults or weaknesses. The athlete is willing and

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ready to reset goals, focus on technical and because the athlete is totally aware of what he or she conditioning adjustments in training, and to must do and is actually executing while performing. optimistically and responsibly take control of those The athlete is required to focus on those few aspects that are actually in his or her control. items, which in this particular upcoming performance Halijand, following extensive performance data need to be controlled. In the performance setting collection and analysis at world class competitions monitoring these select items may be all that is involving elite swimmers, has provided the coach required. with objective performance parameters for the start, In the post-performance setting the athlete and turn, finish and full stroke against which to accurately coach should freely communicate and assess whether measure improvement, or lack of it, in each of the this focus was successfully maintained or not. If so, a stroke disciplines. decision on what needs to be further refined is all that He has developed an intricate video protocol that is necessary, and if not, any adjustments that should closely examines and analyses the swimmer’s stroke, be made can be integrated into future training start, turn and finish techniques using a variety of sessions. different viewing points and angles. Initial filming is The check listing procedure is laid out generally conducted during the preparatory phase of training, and in specific detail. This saves the athlete can be repeated in season and in post-performance considerable time and effort in the informational setting. The video data is digitally analysed and the processing that is required on an ongoing basis for key parameters calculated. accurate performance evaluation. It should not result Constructive and objective feedback on technique in cognitive overload. can be provided immediately. Such monitoring has Most importantly, the feedback that is received as also been put in place in the competitive setting. With a result of both the subjective (self) and objective this competitive data information, serious-minded (parameter) measures can be indexed and athletes are able to compare their performances comparisons as to improvements made from race to accurately and objectively against those of the race can be discussed and celebrated. The index may world’s best in each of the strokes and thereby also be an indicant of the athlete’s current determine where improvements need to be made. performance status. Greater cognitive awareness and Subjectively they should also be able to assess closer examination of all the technical items will their feelings about their performance efforts and to highlight what still needs to be done in order to recognise what needs to be worked at more progress to the next level of performance. assiduously if an improved level of performance is to A comparative examination of the athlete’s own be attained. The idea would be to produce an performance parameters as against those of the best effective tool that serves all three purposes of in the world will indicate the existing status of the monitoring, evaluating, refining and one that physical and tactical focus. It may motivate athletes heightens cognitive awareness. to persist in the pursuit of their goals and encourage Use of this instrument facilitates an interactive them should they be close to the performance of approach between coach and athlete, particularly in world-class swimmers in one or more of the different the post-performance setting, as well as one that parameters. They will certainly be more aware of encourages both subjective and objective assessment. which of their competitors are exhibiting strengths or Meaningful communication is all-important in the weaknesses along these objective performance post-performance dialogue. parameters since this technical information is readily A close examination of the tool reveals a very provided by the sport scientists who collect and precise checklist procedure related to key points or publish data at major international swim meets. items to remind the athlete of his or her technical Finally, managing the thoughts and emotions focus in pre-performance, during and post- associated with performance evaluation through performance states. In the pre-performance setting greater cognitive awareness and control, especially in those items which do not require immediate cognitive times of mental overload, will trigger the correct awareness should be placed in automatic mode, strategies and techniques associated with effective whereas those that do should be consciously self-regulation. controlled before and even while swimming if Coaches are encouraged to experiment with this deemed helpful. procedure to ascertain whether it makes a difference The greater the automaticity, and swimming does in helping an athlete consistently reach the next involve repetitive movements, the more chance the expected level of performance. performer will race in a state of flow, without error or over-thinking. Confidence should be enhanced

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COACHING FLUENCY IN THE WATER as much yardage as Popov could do COACHING FLUENCY IN THE WATER fluently (AGE GROUP) o Great athletes are always more fluid than By Terry Laughlin – from the World Clinic 99 lesser athletes Notes by Laura Matuszak o Water penalises rough and rushed movements and rewards smooth, unhurried TALENT IS TEACHABLE and fluent movement • How to coach rather than train the athlete o World-class athletes practice smooth, • Prevailing versus emerging paradigm unhurried and fluent movement and avoid • Teach technique first, then train the systems rough and rushed movement • Want swimmers to look talented on a habitual • Coaches believe that swimming is supposed to basis be hard ... when swimmers are fishlike, they • Make swimmers look talented – leisurely appear to be using little effort strokes with no bubbles like Tracy Caulkins • Rule of 2% says that team will improve if and Ian Thorpe taught fluency RATIONALE AND PRINCIPLES o 98% of humans swim uncomfortably, • As Bill Sweetenham pointed out, awkwardly, inefficiently championship swimmers characterise their o If you tell people to “do what comes extraordinary performances as having no naturally” they will swim with typical struggle, being relaxed and calm human struggling skills in an alien • Need to coach swimmers so they feel this way environment habitually ... help them slow down sometimes o Must coach fluency o Training hard without fluency makes • “Dolphins do not create resistance and they struggling skills permanent use elasticity to generate speed.” – Touretski o We falsely believe that stroke mechanics • Teach the art of fishlike swimming before are rocket science training the sport of swimming FISHLIKE SWIMMING – ART NOT SCIENCE • Teach grace, flow, and economy at any speed • Concepts universal to all movement excellence ... this helps swimmers go faster o Balance, support, and freedom of • When teaching the art, it just feels good! movement Swimmers are motivated to swim because o o Head and spine in alignment it feels good and it is a pleasurable o Long bodyline experience o Use body as a unit in a coordinated o At the Goodwill Games, the best swimmers movement warmed down for a longer period of time ... • It is a myth that feel for the water is a talent because they loved the art of swimming and that this talent is given to few • Using underwater windows, compare fish • Teach swimming as an art – like music versus humans, elite versus novice swimmers o In music we teach notes, then scales, then o Fish don’t look like they are trying when chords, then simple songs they are swimming fast, no turbulence o In swimming, we should teach drills, then visible forms, then super slow swimming, and then o Humans create lots of turbulence when fast swimming they swim fast ... they move as if in an • Teach swimming like a martial art alien environment Harmony in the water, experience the water o World-class swimmers are world class o Simple positions and movements first compensators o o Use patient, thoughtful repetition • Key Concepts o Keep stroke length and flow a habit as go o World-class swimmers are most fishlike further and faster … stroke length and fluency, not aerobic or o Teach stroke so that swimmers only know muscular power, make them faster than how to relate to the water in one way anyone else • Teach the right skills first ƒ Slow swimmers down until they move Balance (effortlessly horizontal) and core with fluency o body ƒ Touretski only built volume and speed as Popov became more fluid ... only did

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ƒ Long axis strokes involve constant remember that hydroplaning doesn’t balancing take effect until you are going 33 miles ƒ Short axis strokes involve constant per hour rebalancing o Stroke length created by how far body o Rhythmic rotation of core body travels, not by how far you reach or how ƒ Long axis strokes involve long axis hard you push rotation o There can be movement of the body ƒ Short axis strokes involve undulation between cycles (during recovery) because o Slippery body positions of clean lines in the body ƒ Long axis strokes are slippery on the o Short axis strokes … get to streamline side underwater ƒ Short axis strokes are slippery when ƒ In Breaststroke … thread the needle underwater ƒ Hands cut the hole and the body follows o Learn to propel the hands • Tools for teaching fluency – Drills! ƒ Anchor hands in front, don’t pull back o Muscle amnesia o When teaching, start by teaching the o Heightened kinaesthetic awareness commonalties of all strokes o Logically how it feels sequenced mini- LONG AXIS DRILLS skills • Drill 1 – Balance on stomach; hide head o A drill done 99% right is 100% wrong kicking with hands at sides o Super slow and silent swimming for whole • Drill 2 – Balance on front and back, hide head stroke work kicking with hands at sides o Fist gloves and stroke counting • Drill 3 – Kick on side, hands on sides ƒ Uses fist gloves for vast majority of o Find sweet spot or balance point work at camps o Hide the head in the water for better ƒ Stroke counting effects stroke changes balance in interval range through continuous o Be comfortable on your side awareness o Feel good and have fun • Begin with the end in mind o Freedom of movement o Stroke length and slow swimming to be the o Top arm dry or out of the water while best that they can be resting on side o Any coach can teach this way o This position is critical to all long axis drill o Any swimmer can learn to do this swimming o Fun and Joy in swimming o See bliss on face when head is above and OPENING IDEAS under the water • 98% of all humans are not naturally fluent in • Drill 4 – Kick on side, hands on sides, switch the water sides • Richard Quick gave an excellent talk about • Drill 5 – switch sides with head and breathing butterfly technique control • Jenny Thompson has been working with her o Move the head and the body separately coach and changing her stroke technique for o Roll like a log seven years, even as a World Champion • Drill 6 – 360 degree switch kick with a pause • Excellence in movement can be used for all before each point ages • Drill 7 – Kick on side with hands on sides, o Side kicking with shoulder out of the water sneak hand up the side and chin to the shoulder o Hide the head o Look at the shapes of dolphins, fish, and o Show the arm submarines in the water • Drill 8 – Shark Fin … Kick on side with hands o Head position – neutral, in line with the on sides, sneak hand up the side and pause spine o Test the balance o Find equilibrium in the water ... swim o Look for relaxation downhill • Drill 9 – Switch Kick … Kick on side, archer ƒ Some of us were taught to be on top of position to recover the water with our heads high ... o Pause for balance

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o Link the propulsion of the arm with the o Practice good hand speed kinetic chain (core body roll) o Work on continuous forward motion • Drill 10 – Three strokes then glide o Head integration with a neutral head • Drill 11 – One arm only with the other arm on position side, start and pause in sweet spot o Fast hands with Breaststroke kick o For Backstroke, all of the same drills with • Drill 9 – Two heads, up pulls, one pulse down rotation on back rather than on stomach • Drill 10 – One up, one down … Breaststroke • Drill 12 – Switch kick for Backstroke with thought ... long underwater glide • Drill 13 – Long Axis Combination … 4 • Drill 11 – Underwater Whole Strokes … legs Backstroke 3 Freestyle strokes travel inside the body cavity • Drill 14 – Single arm Backstroke into single • Drill 12 – Two kicks down, one kick up arm Freestyle with the same arm o Use a logistical sequence of drills SHORT AXIS DRILLS o Easy Breaststroke with a small pull and • Drill 1 – Head drill with Butterfly kick (body constant body rhythm dolphins) • Drill 13 – Body Dolphin Combo … alternate o Hands at sides Butterfly, Breaststroke, and body pulse cycles o Head leads the body ... reinforce what’s common between the two o Drive the crown of the head to the other • Drill 14 – Whole stroke combo wall, not to the bottom QUESTIONS o Add the breathing with a sneaky breath • How does Mr. Laughlin teach breathing? looking down o Teach balance first, then breathing ... o When breathing, stay in alignment and encourage equilibrium, alignment and breathe infrequently if possible connection that relates to relaxed breathing o Move the head through the action when breathing • Drill 2 – Hand lead dolphins, pulse to drive (The following article appeared in American fingers to the wall Swimming Magazine, 2001/Issue 2) • Drill 3 – Slide hands to the corners and anchor SHOULDER INJURY IN hands COMPETITIVE SWIMMERS • Drill 4 – Stone Skipper … 2 pulses with hands By Larry Waisenthal lead, stroke with no recovery, 2 pulses with Huntington Beach, CA head lead, sneak arms under body on 2nd pulse Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine o Breathe early in the stroke University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Medical Director o Keep the hand in line with the body movement and the spine The following is an Email from a Swim Coach in Australia. • Drill 5 – 2 hand lead pulses, 1 full stroke, 2 His question and my answer may be of interest to coaches hand lead pulses working with talented teenage swimmers with shoulder o Lengthen the bodyline pain. At present I have a 14-year-old girl who is starting o When whole stroke is done, only do it until to develop shoulder pain. Unfortunately she is, stroke is not efficient or flowing, then to perhaps, the most talented of all my swimmers. I freestyle or dolphin kicks think she has the potential to be quite a good o When you do dolphin kicks, hands do not distance swimmer. Her Freestyle pull is near textbook have to be streamlined (to accommodate perfect. She maintains the highest elbow at catch and people with less shoulder flexibility). pull through of any swimmer I have seen (this may • Drill 7 – Head up, eyes down breast pulling actually be exacerbating the problem). I may be with Butterfly kick panicking too early, however, having gone through o Fast forward hand motion – explode my own shoulder problems as well as sharing the heartache and frustration another swimmer felt o Violent action then a break through her injury/recovery – I want to be sure Jenna o Common errors – arms too wide, hands is looked after early. The pain has come and gone slow under chin ... hard to make these before. There does seem to be some correlation with errors in this drill yardage increases and pain. The last few weeks we • Drill 8 – Body Dolphin Breaststroke ... 2 have been covering a little more Butterfly as well, pulses, 1 Breaststroke anchoring hands and which in the past has led to her shoulder pain flaring exploding forward with core up.

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Below is a summary of when and where she feels can migrate upwards, smashing the superior pain… rotator cuff (supraspinatus) tendon against the • Right shoulder only (she does breathe to both roof of the shoulder (acromion and sides, however she definitely favours the left coracoacromial ligament). This is worse during side) the stroke … usually worst right at the very • Freestyle – pain at catch and at end of pull start of catch and pull through. This is because through when downward/rearward pressure is applied, • Butterfly – pain during recovery the head of the humerus is forced upward. • Backstroke – not too bad, however sometimes pain at end of recovery and start of pull • Breaststroke – pain at start of pull through (not Oftentimes, swimmers have both problem #1 and too bad though) problem #2. • Sometimes upon picking a heavy object up or by pushing herself up off the ground, she feels TESTS FOR #1 TYPE IMPINGEMENT like she is ‘pulling Freestyle’ – i.e. the pain? (IN ADDITION TO MRI TO DEFINE ANATOMY) The pain is a dull ache and lasts all day. It is not sore to touch. Physios suggested to her that there was weakness in stabilisers of scapula. She does Neer Test have quite hunched over posture. She is a slender girl. Basically, just from looking at her, I get the Raise arm overhead, pointing straight up. Rotate feeling she is a prime candidate for shoulder probs. hand so palm is outward. Dr/Coach then presses Her mother is a local MD. She is keen to read some against palm, forcing hand over the type of the head. literature on this. Does this hurt? If so, it is a positive test. Note that Any advice or help would be greatly appreciated. this is a position commonly advocated for swimmers. Swimmer on the side, hand reached straightforward, My answer … short version of the shoulder story palm down. Is there any wonder that swimming (I will go into more detail later on). causes shoulder problems when some swimmers are taught to swim by performing a Neer test on 90% of these problems are from impingement. themselves with each stroke? The symptoms you describe are consistent with this. This can be reduced by some simple stroke Hawkins Test modifications. Arms at side. Lift elbow up to the side so that TWO CAUSES (BESIDES TECHNIQUE) (upper) arm is at shoulder level, parallel to ground, fingertips pointing straight down. Now, rotate thumb 1. Bad bone anatomy. Big or down-sloping or backwards, while securing wrist to keep fingers spurred acromion (bone you feel when you pointing straight down, while examiner forcefully clap yourself on the shoulder) or else thickened pushes shoulder forward. Pain? Positive test. Note coracoacromial ligament (runs from the lateral that this position can be achieved also during the tip of the acromion to a little bony knob in the swimming stroke, with certain types of high elbow front of the scapula to which the short head recoveries. Or think a Butterfly recovery, with biceps tendon attaches). Diagnose this with an elbows slightly bent and thumbs down and slightly MRI (14-year-old girls can have poorly more easy to clear the water this way. But about 35% ossified acromial head which can be difficult of elite Butterflyers do recover palms down, thumb to see on a plain x-ray). leading, so it is not incompatible with fast Butterfly swimming. 2. Lax/hypermobile joint. Humerus held up against scapula by ligaments called the joint While your swimmer is actually having pain (not capsule. Most good swimmers are very flexible just trying to prevent pain), she might even tilt her (because their joint capsules are loose). Have thumbs slightly upward during recovery, to her hold her arm straight ahead while standing completely avoid internal rotation. Internal rotation up … elbow down, palm up. Look at the angle being bad because it rotates the vulnerable between (upper) arm and forearm. Is it 180 supraspinatus tendon right underneath the narrowest degrees? Then she is probably not part of the acromion and coracoacromial ligament hypermobile. If it is >180 degrees, then she (where there is the least space and where the tendon very well may be hypermobile. Problem with gets squeezed the most). hypermobility is that the head of the humerus

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IN BRIEF … WHAT ELSE TO DO? 3. Stroke modification. Rule No.1 ... avoid/minimise internal rotation of Oh, one more thing. Rule out that the pain is being the hand/forearm/(upper) arm complex. Internal caused by epiphysitis. Have the child’s mother tell rotation is counter-clockwise on right and you about something called Osgood-schlatter’s clockwise on left. syndrome. This is a very common problem in 14- Rule No.2 ... see #1. year-old land athletes (soccer, basketball, running). Rule No.3 ... don’t apply downward/backward forces at the catch until the forearm has The lower patellar tendon attaches to the top of descended well into the high elbow position. The the tibia right over a growth plate (epiphysis). problem with paddles is that there is a tendency Traction of the tendon against the growth plate can to begin the pull much too early, as it takes hurt like heck. Cure is aging enough so that the longer for the hand to drop to the catch position growth plate closes. Same thing can happen in the while wearing a paddle. The problem with a too- shoulder, where the acromial epiphysis can become early pull is that the head of the humerus is inflamed from repetitive motion. forced upward. Rule No.4 … don’t have a big, strong push back This is very easy to diagnose. Put two fingers on to finish the stroke. This produces a wring-out the top of the acromion, right near the (drop off) end effect, crimping off the small arteriole that of the top of the shoulder bone (where you would supplied blood to the supraspinatus tendon. Don’t clap your mate on the shoulder in a pub watching worry – your great Aussie-coaching colleague, your favourite footballers, say, “The Bulldogs”, Carew, teaches an early exit. Perkins doesn’t while exclaiming “How about them doggies!” finish the stroke but swims with an early exit. So immediately after a goal). does Franzi Van Almsick, WR holder in the 200 Freestyle. Anyway, just press firmly on the top of the bone with two fingers and see if you can force her to the HOW TO AVOID INTERNAL ROTATION ground, not with pressure, but by eliciting pain. IF this doesn’t happen – i.e. you can’t force her down with pain – then you have ruled out epiphysitis as a 1. Something I call the Birmingham feather (after cause. a brilliant young Aussie coach who taught it to my daughter). Think rowing. After the end of the If you can force her down, write back and we will stroke, what does a competitive rower do? He talk about what to do about it. feathers the oar so that the flat blade is parallel to the surface of the water. This is what Coach PRESUMING THE PROBLEM IS GARDEN- Birmingham taught my daughter to do. She still VARIETY IMPINGEMENT SYNDROME … does it, so does my other daughter – so do I. As HERE’S WHAT TO DO long as we remember to do this, none of us have any shoulder pain at all. In the article by Yanai and Hay at the University of Iowa published last 1. Kicking lane until she is having no more pain. year, they found that the number one cause of My daughter’s team had a 15-year-old girl with a impingement was delayed external rotation nearly identical problem who kicked for about 12 (Birmingham feathering) during recovery. weeks straight last winter but, 10 weeks after resuming full stroke swimming, swam a 4:47 400 2. Don’t swim with a locked elbow forward reach IM LCM. Will it take four or eight or 12 weeks? unless you are Ian Thorpe and have a great kick. I don’t know. But definitely do this … your Van den Hoogenband never completely swimmer is only 14 and a stitch in time saves straightens his left elbow, and he is the fastest nine. Freestyle swimmer (100/200) in history. A 2. Posterior rotator cuff strengthening (to strengthen female distance swimmer should never swim active stabilisers – i.e. the rotator cuff itself – to with a locked elbow stroke unless she is Astrid keep the head of the humerus down where it Strauss on steroids with an unbelievable kick belongs and not migrate upward. Particularly racing Janet Evans in the ’88 Olympics. important if the elbow bend test diagnoses Otherwise, swim like Brooke Bennett or Diana hypermobility. Munz. Shorter stroke – faster turnover – no Neer test – no internal rotation during recovery and entry. Early exit to avoid supraspinatus arty

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wring out. Locked elbow stroke only makes While reaching for the wall, do so with thumb up. sense in the context of a great kick – e.g. US distance ace Erik Vendt. Otherwise, in a weak While raising her hand in class, do so with palm kicker – e.g. most female distance swimmers or back, thumb outward, etc. swimmers such as Claudia Poll and Lindsay Benko – the more rapid turnover is needed to P.S. – YOU SAY THAT SHE FAVOURS conserve momentum, which is rapidly lost with LEFT-SIDE BREATHING locked elbow orthopaedic Neer impingement test and will be more likely to produce shoulder Is she right handed? (rotator cuff) injury. Right-handers should never develop dominant 3. Basically, you want to have thumb ahead of left-sided breathing. pinkie during recovery and entry. At the moment

of catch and pull, it is probably more efficient to Never … never … never. have some internal rotation, but 80% of all

impingement occurs at recovery and entry, and This is one of the cardinal sins in Freestyle only 20% during pull through. However, if the swimming. swimmer is still having pain, then even keeping

the thumb slightly forward (toward the direction All swimmers are asymmetric ... even elite that the swimmer is moving in or toward the swimmers. This was documented at the International approaching wall) of the pinkie during pull Centre for Aquatics Research Centre in Colorado through will eliminate internal rotation at all Springs. Described in Maglischo’s book, Swimming times, and minimise impingement as well. To Even Faster. allow for an effective angle of attach, the entry

should be a little wider than usual, so that the Put any swimmer in the middle of the ocean initial part of the pull resembles the initial part of without visual clues and he will swim in circles ... the Butterfly pull (where the hand typically just like everyone would row in circles. So you want enters wider than in Freestyle and the start of the to strengthen the left-sided pull (if you are right- pull is an inward diagonal). handed). Otherwise, you are creating a lot of drag as 4. Butterfly is recovering with palms down, thumbs you constantly re-aim to stay on the black line and forward. not veer against the lane line. 5. Backstroke is thumb out, pinkie in … but when do you rotate the wrist? Many Backstrokers This is what van den Hoogenband’s loping stroke rotate immediately, to lead with the pinkie as the achieves. But everyone lopes a bit – just by hand moves out of the water and over the head. breathing. You end up getting more body side forces This is internal rotation (bad). You want to keep assisting the pull of the non-breathing side arm, as the thumb forward, pointing to the direction of the body rotates back from breathing. travel until just before entry, when you feather the hand to enter pinkie first. Thus, a left sided/right handed breather is accentuating the right/left strength asymmetry, 6. Breaststroke … your swimmer is getting pain, I rather than reducing it. presume, at the time she rotates her thumbs inward to begin the (high elbow) pull. Internal The bonus is that there is often less impingement rotation again. Hard to describe how to modify on the breathing side. Easier to main external rotation this without seeing her swim in person. Maybe during recovery and entry and avoid internal rotation. just a slight reduction in internal rotation – i.e. thumbs not so much inward – is all it will take to If your swimmer is right-handed, she should be a give her some relief. primary right side breather. This will even out force vectors between right and left and should reduce Generally, avoid internal rotation wherever impingement to her right (sore) side in the bargain. possible – e.g. if doing a hard lead kicking drill on the side, keep the palm of the hand up, rather than down.

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Mark Warnecke of Germany owns the 50 Short Rethinking Sprint Course metres world record at 26.70 from 1998. The record for the 100 is 57.66 by Ed Moses (who also set the 200 Breaststroke record of 2:06.40 one day Breaststroke later). By Wayne McCauley Wayne McCauley is an ASCA Level 2 coach and In addition, Moses also holds the long course WR Masters national champion in Breaststroke. in the 50-metre Breaststroke with a 27.39 from the US nationals in March. And in the 100, Russia’s Should sprint Breaststrokers breathe every stroke or Roman Sloudnov became the first man to break a use alternate breathing? The suggestion is made that minute when he went 59.97 in June. He later lowered there is a benefit to alternate breathing, while that to 59.94 at the World Championships in Olympians Mike Barrowman and Kristy Kowal offer Fukuoka, Japan. their reactions. Barrowman suggests even less frequent breathing. How can these times be improved?

The Proposal Probably not by strength alone – former Breaststrokers Steve Lundquist, Richard Schroeder, Why do swimmers breathe every stroke in the 50 John Moffet and Linn were probably some of the and 100 Short Course Breaststroke races? Coaches strongest swimmers ever to race Breaststroke; say, “Breathing is part of the biomechanics of the likewise, Penny Heyns among the women. Increasing stroke. Therefore, why not?” already strong men’s and women’s flexibility to improve streamlining can certainly help to better That answer is not good enough for me. these world records. And we must always work on reducing water resistance. Consider the facts derived from scientific research and published by the American Swimming Coaches Consider this... Association… I propose another idea for sprint Breaststroke … • Breaststroke requires more strength (power) how about rethinking the idea of breathing every than any other stroke, including Butterfly. stroke? • Anaerobic glycolysis is the primary energy system used for the first 40 seconds of a sprint. Coaches do not insist that their Freestylers and This encompasses all 50s. Discounting the Butterflyers breathe every stroke. In the 50 Butterfly, dive, 40 seconds accounts for about 75-80% of more than two breaths will cost a swimmer a race the 100 yard Breaststroke. The fastest men’s because someone will breathe less and win. 100-yard Breaststroke is 51.86; the women’s record is 59.05. It has been established that we use the anaerobic • More coaches are teaching Breaststroke and glycolysis for the first 40 seconds of a race. This Butterfly together as the short axis strokes … means we are using energy stored in the muscles pressing the T, the outstroke is identical in (CP) and energy stored in the liver (glycogen) for the both, the butt rises in both, the minute the butt first 40 seconds. This can occur without any oxygen sinks, swimmers using both strokes start (anaerobic), meaning we don’t need to breathe at all swimming uphill instead of the desired for 40 seconds! downhill. So why not breathe every other stroke, or every The speed generated by college sprint third stroke in the 50 and 100 Breaststroke races? Breaststrokers is amazing … there have been numerous relay splits of sub-23.5 for Short Course The reasoning for not breathing every stroke in yards. Jeremy Linn’s split was 24.28 on the way to Butterfly also applies to Breaststroke. Too many his amazing 51.86 American record for the 100-yard Breaststrokers have too much vertical force. By not Breaststroke in 1997. Even Masters swimmers at age breathing, the head and body remain in a position 52 have done 28.0 for 50 yards. where the swimmer can apply more horizontal force (swimming downhill).

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Let’s discuss the 50 Breaststroke first. the sculls and not breathing, the sculls become faster Breaststrokers cut their underwater timing by 1-2 with more power output. seconds to maintain race speed, get to the race stroke and power the swim. The problems begin when If anaerobic glycolysis is the energy system used swimmers break their streamline early to breathe on for the first 40 seconds, there is probably no reason to the first stroke up (after breaking the surface of the breathe at all in the 50. Probably the only reason is to water). exhale carbon dioxide to delay the effects of lactic acid and acidosis. This will help in your next race, I advocate not breathing at all on the first stroke but not in the 50 you are swimming or just swam. up – it’s only 5-7 seconds into the race, and it should The 50 does not begin to produce acidic blood pH be the most powerful part of the entire race. By not like it does in the 200 Breaststroke. breathing on the first stroke up, we accomplish two things… I foresee 23-flat splits for the 50-yard Breaststroke leg of the men’s college 200 Medley Relay if • We can maintain our streamline by not coming swimmers use two or three strokes between breaths. up so high out of the water. And in Short Course metres, I believe a 26-flat for • We can concentrate more on the first and the men s 50 Breaststroke is possible. second arm sculls to keep a more horizontal force component. What about the 100-metre Long Course Breaststroke in the Olympics? The fastest split is not The first stroke up is so very important – more Lundquist’s from ‘84, or Frederic deBurghgraeve’s in races have been lost at this time when swimmers ‘96. It was Russia’s Dimitri Volkov’s 28.12 in 1988. concentrate on the first breath instead of the pull He swam that fast because he had the best start and (scull). underwater stroke in history. He was the last swimmer to break the surface after the start of the Different Breaststroke Styles race, but he emerged over one body length ahead of the field – streamlining and body position are I am currently a Masters swimmer who swims everything! Breaststroke, and I have experimented with the stroke for 35 years. I was always best at the 200 and I maintain that a properly trained Breaststroker horrible at the 50. who breathes every other stroke could go out in 28.0 and come back in 31.5 for a 59.5 Long Course metres In the 1960s, I swam the Russian style of Breaststroke. Too many times I have seen races won Breaststroke when most US swimmers were trying to in 1:01 with a swimmer sprinting hard at the end, but be like Chet the Jet Jastremski. I know close to 55 with lots of gas left in the tank because he went out different Breaststroke styles, such as undulating, flat, in 29+. chicken wing, Russian, Chet the Jet, the wave, etc. High school and college coaches should be the Only when I started practicing and racing the 50 first to benefit from this new thinking in sprint Breaststroke by breathing every other stroke did my Breaststroke. Teach the drills to freshmen and 50 times come down. And, boy, did they ever! I sophomores, and by the time they are seniors, they’ll dropped two seconds and achieved a Masters All- be record holders. American ranking. I even won a Masters national championship in the 50 Breaststroke! Recommended Drills

It seems that more and more Masters • Forward eggbeaters (25 yards), all-out Breaststrokers are swimming their races by breathing pumping each leg. This helps develop speed every other stroke. Almost everybody who does and leg endurance. reports a drop in his time. I have also experimented • All-out sculls (25 yards), with Zoomers or with age group girls (ages 10-13), and they have other fins, using dolphin and flutter kick. This dropped their times by one second per 25. helps develop hand speed and awareness of water speed as well as streamlining at above Swimmers need to have fast hands and fast feet race speed. Have your swimmers try to break for the 50, without any slipping. By concentrating on 10 seconds.

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• Sprint full stroke (25 yards) completely In conclusion, Breaststroke has always been a underwater, all-out. thinking person’s stroke – so how about swimmers • Dive 12.5 yards with no breath on any strokes. and coaches rethinking Breaststroke? • Push-off and dive 25 yards, quick underwater and no breath first stroke up, then breathe The Reaction – Mike Barrowman every other stroke. Clearly, the author has the right idea regarding Sprint Breaststrokers should always do their how the body functions. And he’s not placing sprints during the first 30-40 minutes of workout emphasis on the wrong races. because studies have shown that after 20-30 minutes, the fast twitch muscle fibres were completely The 50 Breaststroke may, indeed, work with less depleted of ATP-CP and slow twitch fibres use their than one breath per stroke. The 100 may be a ATP-CP more sparingly, so only slow twitch fibres different story. are still available for work. If you look at Steve Lundquist’s 1984 Olympic You cannot use anaerobic glycolysis at the end of race in the 100 Breaststroke, I believe he did exactly a workout because there is no glycogen left for what McCauley is talking about – he held his breath sprinting. And you must use anaerobic glycolysis for on a few strokes on his way to gold and a world your sprint Breaststrokers. record. However, the 100 is still a bit longer than that period where anaerobic glycolysis is the primary Do lots of dryland training and lots of plyometric energy system. training for sprint Breaststroke. Convert all the muscle fibres you can to fast twitch. Train the Personally, I hate to see someone lock up and die anaerobic systems. Improve the ATP-CP within the hard at the end of a race. And by depriving the swimmer of even a small amount of precious oxygen, cells and muscles. Do much of the drills at SP1, SP2, I think this would happen more readily. SP3 and EN3. Train them as you would a sprint Freestyler, but remember that the Breaststroker needs to be stronger. The primary question for the 100 is … “Can we train oxygen deprivation well enough to ensure that Another important thing to consider is the taper. this would have minimal effect?” Remember, the Freestylers, Butterflyers and Backstrokers can use pullout alone already brings Breaststrokers into a Zoomers to exceed race pace speed in order to work pretty severe state of hell! on race pace streamlining, breakouts, etc. But there is nothing available to Breaststrokers except assisted The 50 is different. I think he’s on to something pulling devices – and I believe they do not work that could work. By not having to use energy to lift properly for Breaststrokers, anyway. If you eliminate the 40 or so pounds of upper body out of the water the timing between the sculls and the kick, you are every stroke, the swimmer can now channel that not swimming the same stroke. upward motion directly forward. So far, so good.

The hardest thing for a sprinter to master is the To be able to keep the body more streamlined by not feel of the water after shaving down. Everything feels breaking the aquadynamic flat plane of the body ... strange and out of control. Try having your another plus. Breaststroke sprinters shave down a week before the big Meet – at the point of the taper when things are The major obstacle, as I see it, is the rhythm of the starting to feel good again. This accomplishes two stroke. Every stroke at the highest level has a rhythm things… that keeps the elite swimmer moving with less power than the swimmer who falls out of rhythm and must • It allows them to train at race speed. pick it up again. • It allows them to adjust to the faster speed in the turns and under water stroke. To breathe one stroke and to change to a different style on the next breaks that rhythm. So, in this The shave-down on race day will still produce the regard, there may be another option – just hold the desired results – it’s just that your swimmer will head down through the entire 50. swim under control.

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It’s obviously going to take another sweeping Reproduced from SWIM Magazine Nov/Dec 2001 revolution in stroke technique, but this is what I see as one possible outcome of McCauley’s premise. In the end, I’d love to see what happens with this idea – GGrreeaattnneessss I’ve always been a big fan of stroke improvement.

The Reaction – Kristy Kowal tthhrroouugghh

Breaststroke is a discipline that relies heavily on rhythm and coordination. To me, it is the most AAddvveerrssiittyy graceful and the most difficult of all the strokes. By P.H. Mullen As Breaststrokers, we have changed our stroke Tom Wilkens is but one of several athletes styles over the past years with more frequency than featured in the book, “Gold in the Water”, a any other stroke. Sure, we have seen some variations behind-the-scenes look at one group’s of the Butterfly, Backstroke and Freestyle, but none as dramatic as the Breaststroke. In a heat of eight captivating journey to the 2000 Olympic Breaststrokers, it’s often the case that no two Games. swimmers share the same style or technique. We are constantly looking for improvements that The following article is excerpted with permission will give us the edge over our competition. It was from P.H. Mullen’s new book, “Gold in the Water”. only a matter of time before alternate-breathing Breaststroke would be introduced. SYDNEY OLYMPICS Wayne McCauley’s article is very persuasive. SITUATION: OLYMPIAN TOM WILKENS RACES IN However, I have several questions… THE FINALS OF THE 200M IM • Can you teach an old dog new tricks? • Can one season of learning a new technique In the semis of the 200m IM later that day, top replace years of practicing something the same athletes like (Tom)Dolan eased up to conserve energy way? for the finals. Wilkens, who only months earlier was • Would focusing on learning a new technique the fastest in the world in this event, no longer had for a 50 take away from endurance training for that luxury. His groin was flaring and all four of his a 200? strokes felt awkward. By now he knew the taper had • Once we learn this new technique, how hard been missed because his injury had set it in motion will it be to revert back to our old stroke for a too soon. He had probably peaked two days before 200-metre race? his first race. That meant, realistically, he would have When I came to the University of Georgia to trouble swimming near his best times. Swimmers are swim for Coach Jack Bauerle, the first thing the at the mercy of their tapers and that added to the coaching staff did was make my stroke more energy grimness of the situation. Everyone who cared about efficient for my body type. With these improvements, him felt a rising lump of fear as he prepared for his my times dropped dramatically. Therefore, I am not semi-finals race. opposed to trying a new technique that could improve “This is business,” he told himself. “You know my chances of victory. what you need to do and how to do it. Don’t look at However, it would take extensive experimentation cameras or the crowd or anything except the water. on my part before I could feel comfortable enough to Let’s do this right.” try this new style of racing in an actual competition. His Butterfly and Backstroke were slow but In swimming, what works for one person may not technically sound. But on the Breaststroke leg, his necessarily work for another. It is all up to the money stroke, he swam terribly. The bum leg threw individual. If you try this new technique and see vast everything out of whack. His angles were off and his improvement, then by all means use that to gain the weakened legs struggled to hoist his torso high greater edge over the competition. Sometimes the enough to properly lunge forward. The final Freestyle only way of improving a stroke that is already leg was full of hurt and struggle … but he didn’t working for you is to change the little things. panic. The hands didn’t slip and he qualified for To each his own. finals. Yet it was frightening how hard he had worked to get there. He had put everything he had into that race. Even so, he only qualified sixth.

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“That doesn’t matter,” he thought. “We all start have been gold had he swum a better race. But he from zero tomorrow.” would outdo himself by leading the United States to He had 24 hours. Life sped up as the hours fled victory and a world record in the Medley Relay. past. He moved his fear and uncertainty out of his Sergey Mariniuk (a Santa Clara teammate of consciousness and filled the space with confidence Wilkens’) didn’t win a medal, didn’t crack the Top and adrenaline. He was ready to take the offensive … 20 and didn’t even get to swim the 200m IM for to attack and blast all his troubles out of his way which Wilkens was now preparing. But it didn’t seem forever. He wanted this race more than anything in to matter to the Moldovan, who was flush with life. Wilkens was the underdog again. excitement over his wife’s pregnancy. Being there (His coach, Dock) Jochums was there – in his face had been its own reward. – hovering like a stirred-up mythological force. In short, Wilkens was surrounded by success. It (Assistant coach John) Bitter slipped into the role of glowed off the others and in a small way their strategist and convinced Wilkens that his only triumphs bothered him because his own struggles possible shot at a medal was to accept that for the stood in such sharp relief. But there was no time to very first time in his career he could not rely on his dwell on it because the hours had galloped forward Breaststroke. He had Wilkens alter it, making the and he suddenly found himself in the ready room, kick much narrower and less powerful. That put the just minutes from his Olympic final. onus for forward movement squarely on the In the ready room, he did not think about the past swimmer’s arms. The possible negative fallout of or the future – only the present – and the four laps such a decision was staggering. Not only would that stretched before him. The room was hushed, Wilkens willingly neutralise his best weapon, but he except for the swishy sounds of fabric on fabric as would trash his arms before he had even started nervous athletes moved about. That, and the faint Freestyle. Freestyle is always an arm-based stroke, music coming from Walkmans. The tension was but never more so than at the end of the 200m IM enough to expand and contract the concrete walls. because the legs are so wasted. It was a decision that Above and beyond they could hear the low, bestial required great courage. roar of the crowd. Wilkens could feel its weight, its Wilkens tried to read his coaches’ faces. They desires and its sweating want as it all pressed down were all thinking the same thing … it is a thousand on his chest. More than a billion people were said to times better to die fighting than to live in fear. be watching this race. He was no longer an ordinary person. He had stepped out of that anonymity. This MARVELLOUS MEET was an ultimate moment of truth … a suspended instant that defines forever who a person is. In the big picture, these 2000 Sydney Olympics It distantly occurred to him that this was the had already proved a marvellous Swim Meet. When Olympics and everything he had dreamed of. But he the water would finally grow still, 14 World Records didn’t dwell on it … instead, he was rising from his would be set … the most in many, many years at one plastic chair and walking down the dim corridor to Meet. Only four of them would be set by the United the pool. The men around him easily represented the States, reinforcing the notion that a new kind of most talented field ever assembled for a 200m IM. international parity – at least on the individual level – The noise swelled and then he stepped on the deck was coming to the sport. But the United States still and into a world of deafening sound and blinding dominated. Wilkens and the other captains would light. His vision briefly spun, tipped and returned to lead Team USA to 33 medals – 14 of them gold. focus. The still blue pool exploded with reflected Their closest rival, Australia, would capture just 18 light from thousands of flashes. medals total. Individually, the Meet was a crowning success for READY TO RACE the others, (Dara) Torres was going to go home with two individual bronzes, two relay golds, two relay Everything felt right. The nervousness of his world records and the promise of stardom. Tom earlier races, the collection of setbacks, failures and Dolan’s second Olympic gold in the 400m IM had emotional upheaval had been vaporised. Wilkens had ended for all time any discussion about who was the found the ability to put everything behind him. This most dominant American male swimmer of the era. was a race like any of the thousands he had done. He He was the only American to set an individual world pointed at a camera and winked. He turned to the record during the Meet and now he was in the hunt spectators and looked for his sisters. In the chaos of for a second gold in the 200m IM. Ed Moses would lights and sounds and thousands of faces he actually depart Australia believing his individual silver would

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found their handmade poster dancing in the crowd NEVER PANIC and he waved. Remember this, because everything you will ever “Let’s go,” he thought as he turned to his lane. do in life comes down to one message … never “This is the Olympic Games. Let’s hit it.” panic. Jochums had said that more than a year earlier. He had said it many times since then … always the He was stepping on the starting block. He was in same message … never panic. This was his race, too. lane seven, the spot for the third-slowest qualifier. Wilkens resisted changing to his old stroke and His body emptied of thought. The soft, friendly voice suddenly his narrow legs and overworking arms of the starter told the finalists to take their marks. clicked together. And from that moment, the race And then Wilkens was halfway down the pool unfolds in the present, in cinematic slow motion swimming Butterfly as hard as he could. Four laps, because that is how it should be remembered – as four sprints ... and Wilkens was good for only three something that is always happening on another plane, of them. With this Breaststroke a liability, he needed in another dimension. this lap to be perfect … it wasn’t … at 50 metres, he Wilkens feels the familiar adrenaline and joy of turned sixth. being in a race, any race, rushing through his body. He was swimming Backstroke – his weakest link. He is flooded with happiness. Winning an Olympic He churned his arms furiously, far faster than he ever medal no longer matters. He could be in the empty moved them in practice. Halfway down the pool, the Santa Clara pool racing Tim Shaw’s ghost on a rainy beginnings of fatigue began to stir in his chest … but morning. He could be in the Red Bank YMCA of his in an Olympic Final you cannot allow yourself to feel childhood or in the Stanford pool. Joy pushes out pain. As Wilkens finished the length, it was everything else. His rhythm perceptibly changes and impossible for him to see the competition. He didn’t his swimming becomes nothing short of heroic. He is know that on the far side of the pool, in lane one, the taking monster strokes, ones that force all his power defending Olympic champion, Hungary’s Attila through the arms instead of the legs. His Breaststroke Czene, was winning the race as outside smoke – just split will be among his slowest in several years and as he did in 1996. Or that Dolan was second and the the arms are already lost for Freestyle – he can feel event’s No.1 swimmer, Italy’s Massimiliano that. But when he comes to the final turn, he is, Rosolino, was third. But on Backstroke, Wilkens had suddenly and implausibly, in contention for a medal. improbably passed two people. He was fourth – one He is third. spot out of the medals. Breaststroke as usual has proved the defining moment of this race. The leader, Hungary’s Czene, “Narrow legs,” he thought as Breaststroke began. has slipped from first to fourth. The third-place “Use the arms.” Italian has delivered one of the fastest Breaststroke laps ever and assumed the lead. Dolan remains Wilkens was swimming beyond his physical second. limits. He should not be in the medal hunt … not on Wilkens turns just 8/100ths ahead of the this particular day. It is a myth that great athletes Hungarian. That is the width of a nickel. The outperform themselves under pressure. They access Hungarian is a much better Freestyler. Wilkens has and unleash the potential they already possess. no right to be in medal contention – not today. He Wilkens was improvising his race, but he was closes his eyes and thinks, “No slipping. accessing a lifetime of preparation. The best Get…to…the wall. This will be…close.” champions become the sum total of their parts ... Red His hands cut through the water. They find and Bank YMCA … Stanford … Santa Clara. grip and hold it as his body rockets forward. There is What is the Olympic dream when all is said and no slipping whatsoever. The swimmer is in the done? Is it the race or is it the medal? The shortest closest, most important race of his life and he was sentence William Faulkner probably ever wrote is refusing to panic. Jochums seems how Wilkens is also his truest … “Life is motion”, he noted. The willing his body to stay in proper stroke as it transcendence is in the doing and the acting … it is in instinctively fights to thrash. That is what Jochums the chase. Wilkens began swimming his wounded will remember for the rest of his life … the Breaststroke and it was ominously flat. For five swimmer’s refusal to panic. On the other side of the strokes – about one-third the pool’s length – he pool, the Hungarian is a demon shark. And what kind struggled to rebalance himself with his untried kick. of cosmic closure is this – the Hungarian trains at He noticeably fell off his pace and every fibre in his Arizona State University, just up the road from the body fought to switch to his old stroke.

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University of Arizona, where a lifetime earlier Jochums had lost so much. Tom Wilkens can swim for another 20 years. He can go to three more Olympiads and win in world- record times. But unequivocally this will forever remain the single greatest Freestyle lap of his career. Health He is soaring above his own talent. He is in the sky and brushing as close to heaven as a human can ever Waves get. The pain in his exhausted arms is excruciating, Tips for Improving Your Lifestyle unlike anything he has ever felt. The lungs are By Rick Curl and Edmund R. Burke, Ph.D. overwhelmed, the legs are wasted. Yet this lap is nearly a second faster than it has ever been before. (Reproduced from SWIM Magazine, Nov/Dec ’01) There are others ahead, but he doesn’t know how SWIMMING PERFORMANCE many. Fuelling Muscles during Workout and THE VERDICT Competition How much water and carbohydrate should a “Hand…wall,” is his last thought. And then he swimmer consume during a workout of at least 5,000 crashes to the finish. The Italian Rosolino has won, yards? We have come a long way in understanding barely missing the world record and setting a new the importance of rehydrating and resupplying Olympic mark (1:58.98). Dolan has captured second muscle energy stores during exercise. Your ability to in a new American record (1:59.77). And Santa maintain workout intensity is directly impacted by Clara’s Tom Wilkens is third (2:00.87). The Olympic how well you restore body fluids and replenish bronze medal. muscle carbohydrate stores. He leaps from the pool, shouting and punching the As little as a 2% loss in body fluids will air ... an explosion of relief and joy. If you were to negatively impact cardiovascular performance. For a turn on the television right now, you would think 160-pound swimmer, that is only 3 pounds. The Wilkens is the victor, for in the water and then on problem becomes even more complicated because we deck he is throwing one of the week’s biggest cannot depend on our normal thirst mechanism to celebration parties. And that is how it should be, for replace the fluid we lose during exercise. this is the Olympics. He could swim three of the four Exercise physiologists call this involuntary laps properly and his time is only 2/10ths off his best. dehydration. That is one reason why sports drinks He has done it … an Olympic medal. Wilkens finds that contain electrolytes are beneficial. Not only do Jochums and they happily greet each other and then they restore electrolytes lost during exercise, but salt the swimmer hurries to his medal ceremony. also makes us thirsty, resulting in continual The ceremony takes place 15 minutes later. consumption of fluids. It is best, however, to drink on Wilkens steps onto the medal dais. Jochums watches. a schedule. The coach sees Wilkens triumphantly raise his arms. The second aspect is carbohydrate intake. He sees him fight back tears as the flags are raised Carbohydrate is the primary fuel that powers the and first strains of the winner’s Italian national muscle during moderate to high-intensity exercise. anthem begin. However, if you consume too much carbohydrate “Tom, you are a racer,” Jochums thinks. It is his during a workout, you may feel bloated and can even highest compliment, for it means Wilkens represents become nauseous. Too much carbohydrate delays everything of value in this world. For the rest of the gastric emptying. evening there will be a joyous late-night celebration WHAT IS THE CORRECT AMOUNT? for the Wilkens family, beginning at the pool and Although everyone is different, here are some later moving to a restaurant. Jochums will have none guidelines to determine the correct amount of of it. He has always promised his swimmers that he carbohydrate during a workout. would step forward to assume the blame when they Your muscles normally store about 2,000 calories failed and step back into the shadows when they of carbohydrate (glycogen). However, you can’t use succeeded. Now he is blinking back tears of his own them all. Normally, you have about 1,600 calories so he finds an exit, pushes it open and disappears available for energy. At a VO2max of between 60- alone into the Australian night. 80%, you are burning approximately 400-500 calories per hour. After an hour, you are starting to bring your muscle energy reserves down to a level

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where they need to be replenished. You should take The results were quite dramatic. The athletes in at least 60 grams of carbohydrate per hour. This consuming the carbohydrate protein drink in the 4:1 additional carbohydrate delays the use of stored ratio had a 24% improvement in endurance when muscle glycogen. compared to the 7.75% carbohydrate drink, and a Over the last 20 years, it has been shown that 54% improvement when compared to water. athletes who consume sports drinks that contain 6-8% The study showed that the addition of protein carbohydrate (6-8 grams of carbohydrate per 100ml improves the muscles’ fuel efficiency by speeding of fluid) can exercise longer and with less fatigue carbohydrate uptake, thereby sparing muscle than athletes who only drink water. glycogen. The result – an improvement in endurance However, new research from the University of capacity. Texas may dramatically change our view of what At the Curl-Burke Swim Club, we make sure that constitutes an ideal sports drink, Previously, our swimmers consume carbohydrate and fluids researchers showed that a sports drink that contained during workouts and competition. Our preference is a both carbohydrate and protein in a 4:1 ratio could drink that has the 4:1 carbo-protein ratio. And we speed muscle recovery and deliver the benefits of clearly see the benefits. Our swimmers have more protein without negatively impacting fluid and endurance and feel stronger at the end of their carbohydrate replenishment. workouts. Dr John Ivy and his co-workers at the University BOTTOM LINE of Texas speculated that a carbohydrate-protein If you are serious about swimming, during your sports drink consumed during exercise might provide workout use a sports drink that helps you rehydrate more immediate energy and greater endurance than a and also contains protein in the correct proportion to conventional sports drink. carbohydrate so that you don’t compromise the ASSUMPTION PUT TO THE TEST ability of your muscles to perform at optimal levels. Athletes on three different occasions were either A sports drink that combines carbohydrate and given water, a 7.75% carbohydrate sports drink or a protein in a 4:1 ratio spares muscle glycogen so you 7.75% carbohydrate and 1.9% protein sports drink can train at a higher level of intensity. during an exercise bout of varying intensities.

SPORTS DRINK COMPARISON Branched Carb/ Chain Ingredients Carb Carb Carbohydrate Protein Sodium Potassium Magnesium Vit.C Vit.E Glutamine Calories Protein Amino per 12oz (%) (gram) Type (grams) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (I.U.) (mg) Ratio Acids (mg) Sucrose Accelerade 140 7.75 26 Maltodextrin 6.5 4:1 190 64 128 120 60 972 1,328 Fructose High Fructose Corn Syrup Cytomax 75 6 20 0 0 60 112 0 60 0 0 0 Maltodextrin Lactate Fructose Maltodextrin Enervit G 120 7.6 28.5 0 0 46.5 45 13 4.5 0 0 0 Glucose Sucrose Extran Fructose Thirst- 90 5 22 0 0 122 83 0 0 0 0 0 Maltodextrin quencher Maltodextrin G Push 105 7.5 27 Galactose 0 0 285 60 5 45 0.9 0 0 Fructose Maltodextrin GU20 75 5.7 20 0 0 189 30 0 0 0 0 0 Fructose Sucrose Gatorade 75 6 21 Glucose 0 0 165 45 0 0 0 0 0 Fructose High Fructose Corn Syrup Powerade 108 8 28 0 0 79 49 0 0 0 0 0 Glucose Polymers Maltodextrin Revenge 90 7 23 Fructose 0 0 100 110 20 60 60 - 0 Sport Glucose Ultima 24 1.7 6 Maltodextrin 0 0 12 24 - 240 0 0 0

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~~ 86 ~~ SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002

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SETTING THE PACE IN SPORT

~~ 87 ~~ SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002

The Aquapacer™ is a durable hand held programmer that has a cordless RF link to a Pacer, which is worn by the swimmer. The coach or swimmer can program it for up to 120 laps per swimmer, including rest periods, plus there is the facility for memorising 16 different swimmer Aquapacer™ programs. The programs are then downloaded, at poolside, to the Pacers, which the swimmers then take with them into the water. The Pacer provides the swimmer with a ‘beep’ for stroke rate and can also provide different sounds for pace per lap and rest periods. The combination of Aquapacer™ enables coaches and teachers to give individual training programs for up to 16 different swimmers for a 1-2 hour training session, or more. While some swimmers are on the Aquapacer™ training sessions they can… • Improve stroke rate – consistency as well as achieve a higher rate on sprint sets • Develop stroke technique while closely tracking competitive stroke rates – every stroke • Increase stroke length using ‘Stepping Training Technique – STT’ • Improve turns – maintain stroke rate into and out of turns • Practice starts using random start program • Practice race simulation • Control aerobic and anaerobic training, plus heart rate sets • Introduce fun and realism – create random programs to keep swimmer sharp! • Use in conjunction with heart rate training protocols for more accurate control By having some swimmers on Aquapacer™, training coaches/teachers have found they can give more time to individual training and/or studying specific swimmers. Aquapacer™ swimmers have found the Pacer to be a great motivational and performance feedback tool in the water, which has helped to make their training more focused and rewarding. To quote Ian Thorpe, Olympic Gold Medallist … ”Aquapacer™ somehow makes the sets seem easier.”

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~~ 88 ~~ SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002

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T I am enclosing a cheque or money order for $______T I wish to charge this purchase to my Credit Card Please tick: T VISA T MasterCard T American Express T Bankcard

Number: ______-______-______-______Expiry Date: ______/______I hereby authorize It's Mind over Matter to charge the (abovementioned) amount to my credit card for the purchase of the (abovementioned & clearly marked) product.

Signature: ______Product sent immediately payment is received. Make money orders or cheques out to (and mail to) … It's Mind over Matter PO Box 106, Belrose West NSW Australia 2085 … or … Fax to (02) 9453 9475.

~~ 89 ~~ SWIMMING in AUSTRALIA – March-April 2002

AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING CALENDAR

MARCH 2002 9 WA Sprint Championships Challenge 9-11 Tasmanian Age Championships THAC 10 NSW Relay Championships SAC 18-23 Telstra Australian Championships (Commonwealth Games Trials) Brisbane

APRIL 2002 3-7 6th FINA World Short Course Swimming Champs Moscow 9-13 Australian Age Championships Sydney 14 5k Australian Age Open Water Championships Manly Dam 20-21 Australian Open Water Championships Bond Uni, QLD

MAY 2002 25-26 Telstra Grand Prix 1 Cairns

JUNE 2002 9-13 Oceania Championships … * NOTE CHANGE OF DATE New Caledonia 15 TBC Qantas Skins Sydney TBC

JULY 2002 19-20 TBC Telstra Grand Prix 2 Sydney TBC 25-4 Aug XVII Commonwealth Games Manchester

AUGUST 2002 9-11 SA State Short Course Championships Adelaide 24-29 Pan Pacific Championships Yokohama

SEPTEMBER 2002 2-5 TBC Telstra Australian Short Course Championships Melbourne TBC 7-9 Tasmanian Short Course Championships THAC 23-28 World Open Water Championships Egypt

NOVEMBER 2002

DECEMBER 2002 6-8 (TBC) Telstra World Cup Melbourne 9 (TBC) Telstra Swimmer of the Year Melbourne

MARCH 2003 22-29 Telstra Australian Swimming Championships (World Championships Trials) TBA

APRIL 2003 24-28 Australian Age Championships TBA

JULY 2003 15-27 10th FINA World Swimming Championships Barcelona

AUGUST 2004 13-29 Olympic Games Athens

OCTOBER 2004 7-10 World Short Course Championships Indianapolis

NOVEMBER 2006 TBA II Commonwealth Youth Games Australia

~~ 90 ~~