l" WORLD HEALTH ORGANTZATION owfez.t ORGANTSATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE @ ORIGINAL: ENGLISH -) I
ONCHOCERC IASIS CONTROL PROGRAT'{ME
PROPOSALS FOR A SIESTERN E}IIENSION OF THE PROGRA},IME IN },IALI, GUINEA, GUIMA.BISSAU SENEGAL AIID SIERRA LEOiIE
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CONIENIS
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SIJMI,IARY 5
PART I IMRODUCTION TO ONCHOCERCIASIS IN THE PROPOSED OCP WESTERN EXTENSION AREA AND THE BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ITS CONTROL: I
Chapter I. IIITRODUCTION 7
1 Background . . 7 2 New approaches and developments 8 3 The proposed Western Extension area 9
3.1 Limits 9 3.2 Physical geography 10
3.2.t Mali 10 3.2 .2 Senegal L2 3.2.3 Guinea . 13 3.3 Social and economic geography t4 3.4 Logistical aspects of the area 15 4 The need for onchocerciasis control r6
4.t Health considerations . 16 4.2 Socioeconomic considerations L9 chapter II. THE PRINCIPLES OF ONCHOCERCIASIS CONIROL 20
1. Introduction . 20 2. Vector control . . 20
2,L Vector species in need of control . 2L 2.2 VecEor control techniques . . 22
2.2.1 Environmental methods 22 2.2.2 Chemical control techniques 22
2.2.2.L Adulr iciding 22 2,2.2.2 Larviciding . 23 2.3 The evaluation of vector cont,rol operaEions 25 2,3.L Entomological evaluations 25 2.3.2 Epidemiological evaluations 26 2.3.3 Environmental moniEoring . 26
REFERENCES CITED IN PART I
PART II ) PI.AN OF OPERATIONS FOR THE FIRST SIX YEARS OF ONCHOCERCIASIS COT\MROL IN THE T.IESTERN EXTENSION AREA:
Chapter III. RESPONSIBILITIES 29 t Introduction. 29 .\ 2 Responsibilities of che OCP ,o 3 National responsibilit ies 30 I ocPf82.3 page 3
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/ Chapter IV. PHASING OF EXTENSION ACTIVITIES 3I I. Introduction. 3I 2. SpaEial phasing 32 3. TimeEable for phasing of activities 33 3.1 In Ehe northern subregion 33 , 3.2 In the southern subregion 34 Chapcer V. PREPARATORY ACTMTIES 35 1. Introduction . . 35 2. OCP acEivities . 35 2.L In the Phase I zone 35 2.2 In the Phase II zone 36 2.3 In the Phase III zone 36 3. National activicies 36 t 3.r. In the Phase I and II zones 36 3.2 In the Phase III zone . 37 4 AcEivities conducEed jointly by the OCP and naEional authorities . 37 5 OCP requirements for additional hydrological staEions and roads in the Phase I and II zones . . 37 5.1 Requirements for hydrological stations 37 5.2 Requirements for addicional roads 39 6. Other consideraEions 40
Chapter VI. VECTOR COMROL OPERATIONS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES 4t 1. OperaEional bases 4L l.l Primary operaEional base 4l t.2 Secondary operational bases 4l 1.3 OCP helipads 4L t.4 LogisEic supporE 42 2. Aerial operations logistics and cosEs 42
2.L AircrafE requirements . 42 2.2 Deployment of aircraft. . 42 2.3 Basic aircrafE costs 42 2.4 Flight hour requirements and costs 42 3. Insecticide requirements 42 3.1 Temephos requirement.s for the Phase I zone 43 3.2 Temephos requiremenEs for the Phase II zone 43 3.3 ToEal temephos requirements and costs . . 43 4 Managerial staff 43 5 Applied research 44
Chapter VII. ENTOMOLOGICAL EVALUATIONS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES 45
I 1 IntroducEion . 45 2 Entomological evaluation sub-unit 45 <, 2.1 SecEors and subsectors 45 2.2 Staffing of sectors and subsectors 46 2.3 Responsibilities of sector and subsector chiefs 47 2.4 Timetable of secEor activities 48 ocPf82.3 paSe 4
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2.5 Sector requirements for vehicles 48 \ 2.6 SecEor requiremenEs for equipment 48 ^ 2.7 Requirements for radio stations 49 3 Cytotaxonomy sub-unit 49 4 Duration of pre-control evaluations 49
ChAPtET VIII. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVAIUATIONS IN IHE P1IASE I AI.ID II ZONES 50 .t'
1 InEroducEion 50 2 Selection of indicacor villages . 50 .t 3 Population covered by evaluations in indicator villages 51 4 Evaluation Eeams 51
4.1 For parasitological evaLuations 51 4.2 For ophthalmological evaluations 5l
5. Capabilities of national health auEhorit.ies 52
5.1 Simple evaluations . 52 5.2 Detailed evaluations . 52 .l 5.3 Options for ophthalmological evaluations 52
ENVIRONMENTAL Chapter rx. MONITORING IN TIIE PHASE I AND II ZONES 53 1. roduc Int t ion 53 2. Intercountry moniEoring team 54
2.L Staff requiremenEs . 54 2.2 Equipnent requirement.s . 54 3. Monit.oring procedures . . 55
3.1 Merhods 55 3.2 Recording and analysis of data . 55
Chapter X. oPERATIOIIAL BASE, BAMAKO 56 ( 1 Incroduct ion 56 2 Scaff . . 56
2.L VecEor Control Unit 56 2.2 Epidemiological Evaluation Unit. 57 2.3 Administration Unit 57
3 Vehicle requirements 57 4 Requirement.s for equipmenE and supplies 57
Chapter XI. BUDGET 58
1 Introduct ion 58 2 National contribuEions 58 3 International conEribut ions 58
3.r Guidelines for t.he preparation of the budget 59 3.2 Budget . . 60
Tables I-9 61
Maps 1-7 73 t octfaz.t page 5
-, SUMMARY
When proposals for a Senegambia Onchocerciasis Control Project were reviewed by the Joinc progranune Conunittee in December 1981 it was acknowledged Ehat, Ehere was a serious onchocerciasis problem in the region to the wesE of the onchocerciasis conErol Programne in the Volta River Basin area and chat for both hea}Eh and socioeconomic reasons there was justificaEion for a ['lHO control activity. In addition iE was agreed Ehat any such control activiEy in thaE region should be implemenEed as an exEension of the OCP and not as a separaEe and multi-disease project
7 Accordingly Ehe OCP was charged with appraising and studying Ehe original feasibility reporE, with collecting additional information from the region, and wiEh the preparaEion of a revised plan of oPeraEions..
Investigarions conducted during 1982 both in the existing OCP area and in the proposed WesEern Ext,ension area brought Co lighE informaEion which qras eiEher not available at the time of the original feasibility survey or was noE fully aPParent at that time, buE which is now considered of such importance Ehat a completely different approach to onchocerciasis concrol in the Western Extension area has to be adopEed. This new information relates primarily to an incomplece picEure of vector distribution, to the insecticide resistance problem in the t Ivory CoasE, to infrastructural and logistic constrainEs in the extension zone, and Eo topographical and climatic constraints in the souEhern part of the exEension zone.
AlEhough Ehe vecEor species of the Western Extension area are Ehe same as those in che OCp, precise information is not yet available on the disEribution of all the species. Similar1y Ehe vecEorial capacity of at leasE some species has not yeE been fully assessed. However, what is known with some cerEainEy is that S. soubrense is widely distributed in the upper basin of the River Nlger and that Ehe zone of distribuEion is contiguous with infestations in Ehe OCP which are noy double resisEant to the larvicides temephos and chlorphoxim. Thus until such Eime Ehat the present resistance problem is satisfactorily resolved, an extension of vector control operations into the upper Niger basin would involve unjustifiable risks and could have serious rePercussions. l' With regard to infrastructural and logistic constraint.s Ehe main problems relate to the inadequacy of road negworks in many technically critical Parts of the extension area' and, to the generally poor condition of many existing roads. Because of the higher rainfall in the southern parE of the area (annual means of 15OO-280O nm compared to 7OO-15OO nrm in the north) road condiEions are generally poorer in the souEhern subregion than in the northern subregion, especially during the wet season. The implicaEion of these sicuations is Ehat even if vecEor control was technically jusEified in the souEhern subregion there wouLd be many logisEic probleme and iE would not be possible to conduct entomological evaluations on a sufficienEly large scale to meet OCP requirements.
The remaining constraints Eo an early extension of operations in Ehe souEhern subregion are imposed by copographical, vegeEational and clinatic factors. More specifically the constraining factors are combinations of mountainous Eerrain, very lush riverine fringing forests (which conceal many of the rivers when viewed from the air), and much low cloud which would make low-level flying by larviciding aircraft impossible in some localities and extremely dangerous in others.
These consEraints require much more detailed sEudy in order to identify the aPProPriate measures to be Eaken Eo remove, reduce or circumnavigate Ehem. In the meantime iE has been necessary Eo make a decision on Ehose parts of the exEension area which could receive early onchocerciasis conErol action, and those which, contrary\irise, cannot be considered until such time EhaE consEraints to effective control have been diminished Eo accePEable levels. Accordingly it has been assessed that an early exEension of oCP acEiviEies is feasible in the northern subregion, which is a generatly low-lying, dry savanna area containing only the tru1ysavannavecEorsofonchocerciasis,[email protected]@s.s.Converse1y,for the t,ime being an early extension cannot be envisaged for the souEhern subregion which conEains much humid savanna, rain forest, and rugged upland t.errain, and which provides habitacs for a \ ocPf}2.3 Page 6 I
Sreater number of vector species. The northern subregion includes hrestern Ma1i, much of 1- eastern Senegal and a narro$, frontier zone of Guinea, while the sout,hern subregion includes I most of Guinea, a small part. of east.ern Senegal, all of Guinea-Bissau and the affected areas .i of Sierra Leone.
The strategy ProPosed for the implement.at,ion of the extenslon is to subdivide the northern subregion into Er"ro phase zones designated I (Ehe R. Senegal basin, mainly involving srestern Mali) and II (Ehe R. Gambia basin, mainly involving eastern Senegal), and to consider for the cime being, the souEhern subregion as the phase III zone. \ Depending on when Ehe st,arting date is set for the conEnencement of oCp activities in the Phase I zone, activities will cortrnence in the Phase II zone one year later. In both phase zones veccor conErol oPerations will normally noE conrnence until a two-year preparatory acEivities period has been completed. Dtrring these preparatory periods logistic problems will be resolved as far as possible and the necessary evaluation units will be created in order Eo ensure at least one fu1l year of pre-control data are available before vector control starts.
During boEh the PreParaEory activiEies period logistic and technical investigations will be intensified in the Phase III zone with a view to defining an appropriate conErol stracegy(ies) a and a tentative starting date for vector conErol in thaE zone. It is envisaged that in all phase zones aerial spraying operations for vector control will be implemented Ehrough an appropriate extension of the present OCP aerial operations contract.
With regard to the responsibilities for and the stafflng of the various activities necessary for an effective exEension, these will be shared between the OCP and participating governmenEs. The oCP will have overall directoriaL and managerial responsibility, will conducE all vector control oPerations, and will also be responsible for entomological evaluations. Epidemiological evaluations and environmental monitoring acEivities will be conducted by participaEing Sovernments, eiEher individually or collecEively. t'ltrichever is Ehe case, these two national accivities will be supervised and coordinated by the oCP. FurEhermore the oCp will assisE .\ in the creation of the epidemiological and environmental teams/services, by providing basic equipment and by training the personnel required. As none of che participating countries has an environmental monitoring service the establishmenE of the appropriaEe national teams will be quite an undertaking. IE is Eherefore proposed that the OCP will be responsible for an initiaL two-year monitoring contract with a specialized Institute, during the implemenEaEion of which sEaff will be trained and the teams created.
In view of the distance of the Western ExEension area from OCp headquarters in ouagadougou, it is proposed Ehat extension acEivities will be conducted from a primary operaEional base locat.ed in Bamako, Mali.
If Ehe Ecological Group endorses the strategy proposaLs contained in this report and if the JPC aPProves the early implementation of Ehe extension, preparatory activities could commence in the Phase I zone in 1983, wiEh vector control operations comnencing approximately two years later in February 1985.
The anEiciPaEed cosE of the international contribut.ion to t.he Western Extension has been calculaEed in some deEail for the first three years of operations, and a more generalized prediction made of cosEs for the next three-year period. The resultant six-year budget can be sunrnarized as follows:
Year 1 L 3. ! t 9. us$ 3 018 5 407 7 t49 7 909 8 391 6 876 (ooos)
giving a Eotal of US$ 38 751 OOO. I ocP/82.3 ) Page 7
7 PART I 7 II{TRODUCTION TO ONCTIOCERCIASIS IN fi18 PR.OPOSED OCP WESTERN EXTENSION AREA AND TTIE BASIC PR.INCIPLES FOR ITS CO}IIts.OL
CHAPTER I I INIB.ODUCTION 1. BACKGROUND
During the Second Session of the OCP JoinE Programe Comittee, held in Geneva in Decetnber 1981, the OCP was requested to prepare a PLan of Operations for a Prograume extension into Mali, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Sierra Leone. To facilltate the early execution of rhis task the JPC approved a budget for 1982 of US$ 442 OOO, and accePted the following Terms of Reference: 1. To scudy the report of the feasibility study of an onchocerciasis control campaign in the Senegal River Basin area and annexes and have decalled discussions with those who prepared Ehe reporc and collect all the relevant information available (cf. document JPC 2.8).
2. To visiC the counEries concerned and determine r^that personnel is available Eo EounE vector conErol.
3. To draw up a Plan of Action for the imPlenentation of Phase I. This urlll include:
(a) establishmenE of seaff and logistic neEwork - buildi.ngs, transporE, radio- i corurunication, eEc; (b) collecEion of base-Iine entomological and hydrobiological data; (c) preparaEion of insectide application circuits, assessment of insecEicide required and the number and Eype of aircraft; (d) drawing up of timetable of evenEs for launching control oPerations.
4. Collaborate with Ehe Office of the Legal Counsel, IIQ-UIHO co review Ehe legaI implicaEions for extending into SenegaEbia counEries.
5 To project the requireqenEs for Phases II and III with a timetable for implementation.
6. To prepare Ehe Budget for Ehe WesEern Extension Prograrmne. 7. To ensure, in associat,ion $rit,h the Regional Office for Africa chaE Ehe sEructures are available within Ehe counEries to pursue the epideoiological moniEoring acEiviEies.
8. To prepare a comprehensive report for present,ation to Ehe third session of the JPC.
Since January, L982, a ConsultanE Coordinator has worked in close associat,ion with scaff of che OCP and of ttre Project *X/tCt/WO/OOt to assist in data collection and to prepare this report in accordance with clause 8 of the above terms of reference.
The report is presenEed in Erro parts. Part I is an inEroduct,ion to onchocerciasis in t,he proposed W.estern Extension area and to the basic principles for its conErol, while ParE II presenEs the Plan of Operations and Budget. ( ocP/82.3 Page 8
2. NEI.I APPROACHES AND DEVEIOPMENTS ! In collecting daca and in considering various scenarios, due attent.ion has been given to :r various oPtions for new approaches to onchocerciasis control and evaluation in Ehe [,lestern Ext,ension, socioeconomic to recent developments in some of the involved countries, and to new Eechnical developments in the existing OCp.
Noting the need for a conservati.ve approach to the Western Extension, and, taking a broad vieqr of national resources and capabilities on the one hand, and the t,echnlcal know-how and resources of the oCP on the other hand, much consideration has been given to various options for striking a balance beEween national and international participation. The option ,t i"t has mosE to comnend ic is that the oCP be responsible for overall adminisEration, for vector I conErol oPerations, for enEomological evaluations and for the overseeing of epidemiological, hydrobiological and economic development monitoring. Conversely, national authorities of the ParticiPating Countries, either individually or collectively, should be responslble for: (i) the provision of basic infrastructural facilities and servicesl (ii) the provision of nacional parasicological and ophthalmological teams for the the collection of data necessary for accuraEe long-term epidemiological evaluation (these teams could be part of a mulcidisease surveillance service depending upon the particular requirements of the countries concerned); (iii) uraking available comprehensive networks of hydrological and of mereroLogical s tations ; (iv) ensuring adequate lines of cotrmunicatlon;
(v) surveillance of the possible effecEs of repeated long-term use of pesticides on aquatic eco-sys t,erns.
These are ideal objectives, and some naEional auEhorities oay havedifficultyin attaining them. Consequently, a very ftexible approach must be traintained t,o the apporEionment and ,) funding of the various responsibiliEies.
In attemPt.ing to define the most, appropriace sEraEegy for extending OCp vector conErol operations westward, much attention has been given to studylng the uBjor technical problems which currently plague the OCP: insecticide resistance and reinvasion. Of part.icular importance is the critical insecticide resist,ance problem which affects many of the valleys of the Ivory Coast. The situation is very seri.ous in che present context by virtue of the fact that resistant blackfly populations extend to t,he frontier between Guinea and Ivory Coast. Consequencly, it is logical t,o assume that these resistant populations of blackflies have already spread into eastern Grinea, or, are tikely to appear there in the near future. At PresenE the resistance problem prioaril-y revolves around Simglium soubrense, a species largely confinedtotherainforestandhumidsavannabelts.Th@significanceofthese temephos-resistant populations of S. soubrense is at present unclear. Experience has shown Ehat once insecticide resisEance appears iEs spread to other river systems can be very rapid. This is amply il-Iustrated by the following list of dares on which r,emephos resistance was detected in S. soubr ense Ehroughout the Ivory Coast.
Date River
l[ay 1980 Lower Bandana August I98O Marahou6 November 198O N'zi and t(an January 1981 Middle Sassandra February 1981 Leraba March 1981 White Bandama and Upper Sassandra May Middle and lower Como6
( ocP/82.3 Page 9
A subsequent serious complication of this resistance $ras the developenE by temephos- 7 resisEanE S. soubrense of double-resistance Eo chlorphoxim; the alt,ernative compound first F inEroduced in an at.tempt to cont,rol temephos-resisEance.
At the present time every effort is being made Eo bring the double-resistance probleo under control by the aerial applicacion of a larvicide containing the biological control agent, Eacillus Ehuringien , sero type H-14 (p.._!. H-14). Unfortunately, the B.t. H-14 formulaEion available t.o Ehe OCP is not ideally suited to conventional OCP aerial spraying equipment and t,echniques. Because of its special formulation characEerisEics iE has Eo be applied: i (i) after dilution with waterl (ii) as a conventional spray, oEherwise, because of its high specific graviEy iE rapidly sinks to Ehe bott.om of the rivers to which it is applied; (iii) at volumeEric dosage rates three Eo ten times those of temephos, depending upon Iocal hydrological conditions.
Consequently, ic has been, and continues to be necessary to develop and install into OCP aircraft differenc and more complex Eypes of spraying equipment Ehan have hitherto been necessary for ilrapid-releasett applications of temephos. Furtherrnore, in situaEions where river discharge raEes have been high, the quantity of B.t. H-14 required to be applied to treat a single S. soubrense breeding site, has exceeded the insecticide reservoir capacity of the aircraft. This situation has creaEed new operational and logistic probleos which have noE been insurmountable under dry season conditions when river discharge raEes have generally been low. However, under $ret season conditions the discharge rat,es of some Ivory CoasE rivers, e.g. Coood and Bandama, have been sufficiently high to make BJ. H-14 aerial appli- cations impractical, resulEing in a temporary suspension of vector conErolmeasures using this insecticide in some areas.
Ihis emphasizes the need to accelerate the search for and the evaluaEion of alternaEive larvicides.
The problems of insecticide resisEance and of applying B.t. H-14 in Ehe Ivory CoasE confirm the dangers of exEending vector conErol operations into Ehose parts of the humid savanna and forest zones of the Western Extension area where S. soubrense is known or suspecEed to occur, until such time as alEernative, back-up larvicides are available. This expression of the situation is in accordance with the constraints introduced into Ehe OCP by Ehe Ecological Group.
3. fiIE PR.OPOSED WESTERN E}ilENSION AREA
The region proposed for Ehe Western ExEension, which has a human populaEion of aE least 5.3 million persons, is depicEed cartographically in ttap 1.
3. I Linits
Bearing in mind that fhere are still many gaps in our knowledge of the distribucion of the various $!gg!!g species and of onchocerciasis in che high rain-fall parts of che region, there may eventually be justification for modifying the souEhern and souEh-wesEern boundaries. ReLocaEion of rhese boundaries may be deemed necessary to include areas ouEside the current proposed limits; the endemic onchocerciasis area of Liberia is a case in poinE. t\ In addiEion, iE Er.rst, be noted that the GovernmenE of Guinea would wish that the River Konkour6 basin be included in any Western Extension proposal, in view of current plans to const.ruct cwo dams (at Souapiti and Arnaria) on the R. Konkour6. f ocP/82.3 page 10
The western limit of the l,lest,ern Extension area would seem Eo be valid, although the t Simulium and onchocerciasis situations in the Cambia are by no means clear. The impor.ance of clarifying this siEuation as soon as possible has recently been stressed at ministerial .' level (Anon, 1981).
Although the available evidence suggest,s EhaE t,he R. @mbia (withln the national boundary of the C,ambia) is unsuitable for S. damnosum s.I. breeding and that the occasional cases of onchocerciasis detecced are not, ."Effii;;, det.ailed enEomological surveys of the R. Ganbiashould be conducted before plans are formulated for vector control operations along t,he upstream reaches of this river in south-eastern Senegal. 3.2 Physical geography
A re-examination of the spacial area of the l'lesEern Extension zone, according co iEs original shows lisrits that the area under consideration is about 365 ooo tm2 llZo ooo km2 according to Oraln, 1981; 361 7oO lo2 according to chis reporc). The extension of the concrol oPerations into the Konkour6 basin (Guinea) would increase the size of the area by ca L2 oOO km2. If, to Ehe east of Freetown (Sierra Leone) t,he southern limit is extended southwards t.o occuPy a posit,ion ca 90 km fron the coasE and paralle1 to it., the area would be further increased by knrz., Including all these possible expansion zones, the final control zone could reach"".6?,9O9 44O OOO kur4.
In Eerms of topography the region is dominaEed by a crescenE-sheped highland range (mountainous in some areas) which extends westqrards from che Guineaftvory coast frontier, northwards through west-central Guinea and then nort,h-eastwards inEo erestern tlali. The main components of this highland range are:
- Ehe Guinea Highlands and Monc Nimba i.n south-east,ern Guinea; - the Guinea Highlands, with their lrlara llara, Loma and Iingi Mountains in Sierra Leone; - the Fouta Djalon Plat,eau in wesc-cenEral Guinea; - the I'lont.s Manding in the extreme t^rest of t'lali and the Malinke Plateau more centrally positioned in wesEern Mati.
Of particular interest is Ehe dramnEic influence of this crescent-shaped highland range on the drainage system of the region. The crescenc cradles the sources of the R. Niger which ramify through Ehe so-called Upper Niger Plains (see l4ap 1). It also forms the hrater- shed which seParates che Niger Basln from other savanna river basins (the Gambia and the Senegal) and from a coast complex of drainage syscems (Corubal, Konkour6, LiEtIe Scarcles, Moa, Loffa, Cavally, etc.). Altogether, the Western Extension area is unrch more complex than the existing OCP both with regard to the patEerns and characterlstics of the drainage syst,em and to their fauna and flora.
The bioclimatic zones of the regi.on, based on the work of Aubreville er aI. (1959) are illustrated in Map 2. llean annual rainfall patterns of the region are shoqm in l4ap 3.
More specific geographical details of the three count.ries which const.itute Ehe greater part of the l,lestern ExEension area, Mali, Senegal and Guinea, are presenEed below. 3.2.L MaIi
The part of !,lali included in the Western ExEension has an area of ca l5o Ooo km2 and a population of g I 15O OOO per6ons. IE includes a small part of rhe R-niger valley buE is otherwise coincident, with Ehe upper basin of the R. Senegal. tlithin this region Ehree sub- regions can be dtstinguished, as follows: \ ocP/82.3 Page 11 a, (a) The upper basin which is dominaEed by the northern flanks of che Fouca Djalon range. lhese uplands look down on the l,Iandingo plac,eau which stretches as far as the line I formed by the Senegal, Bakoye and Baoul6 rivers. The average height of che plateau is 5OO m but it reaches an alEitude of 70O-8OO m and more in its souEhern parts where che Bakoye and Baoul6 rivers rise. The average altitude ls 5O0 m but. it increases to 7OO-8OO o (and more) ) in souEhern parts where the Bakoye and Baoul6 rise. DespiEe its name, the l{andingo plateau is not a vast and uniform plain but is made up of a series of plateau of unequal heights falling in steps not only from souch to north but also to$rards the courses of the rivers that, divide it up inEo sections.
Along its lcesEern border, the plateau becomes more massive and ends abruptly in a cliff thaE rises 2OO m above che flat low-lying land along Ehe Bambouk and Fal6me rivers. As a general rule the plateau runs out in gentle slopes. The rivers of che region are permrnent waEercourses and in their middle and upper reaches often run through gorges and are puncEuaced by waterfalls and rapids. The valleys open ouE only in their Lower reaches, generally where they join oEher rivers.
(b) The Kaarta (or Sarako[16) range is bounded on Ehe south by che combined valleys of the Senegal and Bakoye rivers and then by the valley of the River Baou16 as far as Ehe exEreme point. of its ttloop". On the rresE, it is bounded by Ehe Ko1imbin6 river, and on t,he north by the Hodh depression. In the east, the plateau gradually sinks under a sandy desert of great. anciquicy. Depending on altitude, relief and soil type, four sectors or natural microregions Eray be distinguished:
(i) The south-western sector is the highest part of the massif with an alEitude of over 5OO m and includes Ehe KaarEa's highest poinc which lies co the north of Bafoulab6. The valleys of the Bakoye and Kolimbin6 rlvers are dominated by a 3OO m cliff forming a wall that runa on towards the North wich slightly lower peaks and heighEs. Inbetweenthe hiIIs, valleys rich in clayey soil run far inEo the massif.
(ii) The south-eastern zone, known as the t€arta-Bagu6 because it is near t,he Bakoye river (Bagu6 in tlallnk6), is made up of broad valleys and boctom-lands with a gentle gradient that keeps it,s moisEure well into Ehe dry season.
(iii) The cenEral zone is the t,rue Kaarta. It is a region of varied topography and the plains and bow-shaped depressions it contains are filled with deep, black, very ferEile soi 1.
(iv) The secEor Eo the north and north-east, is low in alt,iEude with a fairly shallow relief. There is some bottom-land with heavy soil, but oEherwise the soils are light. The valleys that the Kolimbind and its tributaries have cuE across Ehe KaarEa collect Ehe run-off water and degradaEion products from schist, LioesEone and dolerite. These degradation products account for the high fertility of the soil in Ehe valleys, depressions and plains within this area and make Ehe Kaarta the rrmilleE basket" of the upper Senegal basin.
(c) The higher ground on the plaEeau of the upper basin which varies in detail and changes from one region Eo another, is cut up by river valteys of varying width depending on the nature of the underlying rock and pierced by enclosed plains that have formed aE Ehe confluence of rivers.
The rivers in the northern part of erestern t'lali flow through relatively wide, shallow valleys. Most of them are temporary qraEercourses, flowing only in Ehe $ret season and drying up for the rest of che year. Only the Kolimbin€ and the l(arakoro have wat,er all rhe year round in Cheir lower reaches, but, it is stagnant during the dry season. ocP/82.3 PaSe 12
In the South, and unlike the Sahelian regions to the North, lraEer j.s not a problem, or q at' reasc is noE the same kind of problem. ArEhough Ehe watercourses flow all the year round, t,wo facEors cancel ouE Ehe advantages of having a permanent, suppty of waEer in the valleys. one is that most valleys have a V-shaped cross-sect.ion and st,eep sloping side unlikely to retain considerable deposiEs of alluvium, and the other is that, the humidity resultirri f.o. the heavy rainfall (8oo-l5oo m during five to seven monEhs) is favourable to many insect I vectors of disease, including onchocerciasis.
3 .2.2 Senegal
The lrlestern Ex99n1ion_ area coincides with Easeern Senegal, rhe largest region of Senegal, rdiEh an area of ca 56 ooo km'and a human populaEion of g, 3oo ooo persons.
EasEern Senegal is composed of the administrative departments of Bakel, K6dougou and Tambacounda, and is bounded by:
- the Fleuve Region to the norEh, - the frontier with Guinea to the south, the frontier with MaIi to Ehe east,
- Che regions of Casanance and Sin6-Saloum, and Ehe frontier with Che Gambia.
The pre-Cambrian basement complex outcrops in the sout.h-east of the Region in the form of folded metamorphic series (quartzites, arkoses, schists, micaceous schisEs, gneiss) and synkinematic (Saraya and south-east of Kidira) or post-Eectonic Birrloian granitic massifs (north of K6dougou). Ttre socle is cross-bedded by primary straca forming a north-south band between Kidira and @mbia, and comprising:
- Lower Cambrian sandstones and quartzites making up Ehe northern edge of the Fouta- Dja lon; - Cambrian, rnade up of a volcanic complex and conglornerates overlaid with sedimentary strata ending in red clayey sandstones of the upper cambrian; - ordovician: white sandstones cross-bedded with the cambrian; - Schistose Silurian outcropping r^resE of the north-souEh band of Canbrian and Ordovician series.
Post-Devonian doleriEe intrusions appear to the north and west of Kddougou. The norEhern half of the region is a vast peneplain, less than IOO m above sea level, gradually rising to 2OO m (the hills of the Bassari counEry). The only real uplands (4OO-5OO m) are to ghe sourh (frontier of Guinea and the loop of Ehe River Gambia) and correspond either Eo the edge of the Guinean Plateau or t.o outcroppings of dolerites forming series of t,erraces along the rivers.
0n the uplands Ehere is Combretum or Andropogon savanna, which may be tree-studded, wooded orshrubby.Thevegetationi"Ehehyd.o*6ffi1areasref1ect,stheconditionsofhydro- morphism. Mention may also be made of two speciat plant formaEions - the rrBowel (where the laterit.e slab appears bare) and bamboo thickets.
The river basins of ioportance for the area are Ehe following:
(i) The River Senegal basinr with rhe R. Fa16me, whose catchment area is 28 9OO km2 ar the Kidira Station. Oisctrarges range from over 3OOO d/s Ur the highesr, fLoods Eo pracCically zero at lo!, srater.
(ii) The River Ganbia basin. The river has its source in the FouEa Djalon and tts catchment arei ii-755o-LnzJr K6dougou and 10 45O km2 at Mako. In che K6dougou area its main tributaries are the Koumb,outourou, che Tiokoye, the Dln Kha and the Niokoto-Koba. ocP/82.3 Page 13
Ehe rt At Wassadou River Gambla has a cat.chment of 20 9OO km2. Its low-waEer bed is well- marked (width l2O m) and its vert.ical banks 1O m high. At Ehe height of the flood there are extensive innundat,ed areas.
In Ehis area the River Gaobia receives the Nieri-Ko, which Crains a caEchment. area just ).. of ll 946 km2. IE then receives the Koulountou and before C,ouloumbou Ehe Niaoul6, which has a small catchmenE area of 1584 kn2. AE Gouloumbou iEs cat.chment area is 41 4OO kn2, its beci ls wider and in the shape of a vasE trapeziuul. Afcer crossing Ehe lr. GuenoEo plain it enEers Gambia, where it receives the Sandougou, which has a catchment area of 996O kmz. The Sandougou flows sometimes downstream when Ehe runoff from iEs caEchmenE area is preponderant, and sometimes upstrean (reflux arising from che @mbia flood which arrives earlier and is larger than thaE of the Sandougou).
(i ii) The Rivers Kayanga and Anambe basins. The Kayanga rises to the south of che Senegal-Guinea frontier and enters Senegal sout,h of Patim-Kouta. It joins the Anambe near Niapo, where its catchment area is abouE 1755 km2.
The Anambe basin is a vasc depression, separaEed from the River C'ambia caEchment area to the north, that of Ehe Casamance to Ehe Lrest, and that of the Kayanga to the south and west.. Its area is about llOO km2.
3.2.3 Guinea
Guinea is one of the coastal SEates of West Africa. IE Iies between 7'and 12"lacitude north and 8"and 15'longitudinal $rest; it is 246 OOO km2 in area, and situated in the humid cropical zone of West Africa. The States bordering iE are Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and l'lali to the north, the Ivory Coasc to the east, and Liberia and Sierra Leone to che sout.h; and ic has a coastline some 3OO km long, which gives iE an excepEional geopolicical posiEion.
The urajor factors of relief, climate and vegetation combine Eo form four naLural regions, which make possible che producEion of a very wide range of differenE Eypes of agricultural produce. These regions are as follows:
(i) t'laritime Guinea is a low lying coastal region; it has a cropical humid climat.e of E.he sout,h Guinean Eype, and annual rainfall is everywhere over 2OO cm, the dry season lasEs five months (December to Aprit). It is a region of mangrove shlamps, rainfed rice-growing fields and orchards; iE is also Ehe site of substantial mining operations (bauxite).
(ii) Middle Guinea corres ponds to the Fouta-Djalon massif, with an alritude ranging from 60O ro 15OO m (t'lount Loura); Ehe dry season lascs five co six monEhs (November Eo April) and mean annualrainfallisabouE l8OO mn. Themainriversofthe region rise in Ehe Fouta-Djalon; formerly foresE-clad, che uassif now has a degraded vegeEaEion anderosionhasassumedalarming proporEions. The region is used for agriculture and sEock-raising and has one of che highest populacion denslties in the country (over 40 people per km2). It is also, of course, an area of high emigration to Ehe Eowns and to adjoining count.ries, ParEicularly Senegal.
(iii) Upper Guinea covers the north and east part.s of the counEry and has an area of some 97 OOO km2. The climate is of the souch-Sudan type and Ehe mean rainfall is 15OO nrn buc the dry season may lasc eight months and variations are extreme, causing wide fluctuaEions in the level of agriculEural production. This is a zone of savanna, where acEivity is centred on the river valleys, particularly the Niger valley, and the population is disEribuEed unevenly, mainly along Ehe rivers.
(iv) ForesE Grinea, in the souch of the country, has a clirnate of the equatorial type, with a wet season frequenEly lasting more than 10 months and a mean annual rainfall of over 2OOO mm. BasicalLy it rs the zone of deep forest, and it has a dense population; it also contains an iron ore deposit of first-cLass imporEance (Mount Nimba). ocP/82.3 Page 14
Area and population esEimrtes of chese regions are a6 follows: a,
Maritioe Middle Upper Fores E Guinea Guinea Guinea C,uinea ( erea (lcn2) 45 000 55 000 97 000 49 000 ,1 Population (f978) I 300 000 I 550 000 I 140 000 I 160 000
3.3 Social and economic geography
Historically and culturally, despite the frontiers inherited from the colonial period, che populations of the region display very strong affinit,ies. The great. majority of them belong to one of two mrin ethno-linguiscic groups, the Fulani (Peul) and the Bambara-l,Ia1ink6, who have shared pre-euinence in the region's history in recent centuries: the Mandingo Empire of Soundjata in the fourt.eenth century; Eheheydayof theFulaniof.KoliTenguelainche6ixteenth cenEury; thekingdomsof @bou, Boundou, KaartaandS6gou; t.heFulaniregimesof Lab6andTimbofroul the seventeenth to Ehe nineteenth century; the jihad of El Hadj Ooar which, starting from Dinguiraye in the l85Os, subjected the whole of lrlestern t'trali before fading out in the tlacina; finally, there was the emergence of the Samori Empire aE the end of the nineEeenth cenEury from Upper Guinea and ics extension over a large part of central West Africa. Alongside these rnajor populaEion Sroups there are small eEhnic groups, linguisticalty and cult.urally different., which aE some point in their history were driven back either inEo the mountainous areas (Bassari, Coniagi, Diakhand6) or Eo the edge of the forest (Kissi, Toma, Guerz€, etc.) at the border becween Liberia and the Ivory Coast.
The peasants of the region oainly grow cereals (sorghum, millet,, maize, rice) and also coerPeas, groundnut6 and sooeEiEes cott,on. In Ehe southern part of the area fruit crops (mangoes, citrus) are cornparaEively plenEiful, as are t,uber crops, especially cassava. Ihere is a great deal of livesEock raising: not only cattle (mainly in the form of Erypano-colerant variet.ies such as Ndamr which appears to originaEe from Guinea) but, also small ruoinanEs, sheep and goats. IEinerant cultivation of burned land with fairly long fallow periods reunins Ehe predominant syst,em, despite Ehe introduction of more intensive practices (animal Eraction, use of fercilizers, bot,t,ooland crops) at sone places in the area.
From a demographic viewpoint Ehe region can be regarded as underpopulated (about 10 irftabitants Per kma on average) but there are some more populated areas and even one area which can be regarded as overpopulaced. The oajority of the region has population densiEies between 5 and 20 inhabicants per kma: alroosE all the First Region of t'tali, Upper Guinea, Forest Guinea and the Gabu region in Carinea-Bissau. One area is distinct,ly underpopulated: EasEern Senegal with less than five intrabitants per km2. One area can be regarded as overpopulat.ed: che cent.ral part of the Fout,a Djalon massif (over 4O inhabicants per km21: on the ot.her hand, some areas can be defined as averagely populated (25-4O inhabitants per h2): the Khassonk6 country in Mali, forested subareas of Macenta and Nz6r6kor6 in Gulnea. Senegal is an example of inequality in che geographical distribucion of population: while the mean national density is about 25 inhabitants per km2, the population densit,y exceeds l2O per kn2 in some rural areas of the Groundnut, Basin and drops below four in some parts of Eastern Senegal (K6dougou area). The reasons for this uneven population distribuEion are extremely complex and are linked to t,he naEure of che soil, the environoenE, the prevailing health conditions in the area, and finally to history.
From a socioeconomic viewpoint the region can also be regarded as a fairly homogenous whole; excePt in certain subareas of Guinea, either with diamond deposits (K6rouan6) or at the fringe of the tropical forest (Nz6r6kor6, Macenca) where some shrub crops are grown (coffee, ocP/82.3 PaSe 15
bananas), incomes are extremely low; the region is among Ehe poorest in the world and annual incomes in the rural areas are generally between US$ 50 and lO0; and of course there are all che diseases, hardships and sufferings which usually accompany such income levels. Tttis situaEion is found particularly in the northern parE of the area (between isohyets 7OO and lOO0 run) ar. Ehe edge of the Sahel where rainfall is low and displays wide variations from year Eo year. The decade I97O-198O saw a series of drought years which jeopardized che enEire food balance of Ehe area and produced genuine famines. As a result of this, and the prevalence of many endemic diseases (particularly malaria) and a very low level of infrastrucEure and of , social and health resources, the mortaliEy raEes for children under five are among Ehe highesE in che world. Fina11y, a characterisEic corrElon to almost all parcs of the region musE be sgressed: chis is the isolation which hampers the movement of people and goods and in particular substant,ially restricts the opporLunities for uarkeEing croPs. Because of the lack of any real road neEwork, four-fifths of the region are coEally impenetrable during Ehe rainy season and Ehree-fifths are very difficult Eo reach even during the dry season.
3.4 Logistical asp ts of the area As a resulE of various combinations of topographic, climatic, vegetational and social factors, a number of criticat logistical problems have been idenEified. Mention has already been made briefly to Ehe deficiencies of the road networks of the WesEern ExEension area which make about four-fifths of the area impeneErable during the wet season, and three-fifths very difficult to reach during the dry season. These situations are largely due Eo a combinaEion of rugged mountain Eerrain, heavy rainfall and dense vegetation in many of the upland areas, and to sandy soils in the drier more norEherly parcs of che area.
In order to obtain up-Eo-date first-hand information on Ehese siEuations road journeys $rere nade through wesEern MaIi in March 1982 and Ehrough eastern Guinea in April 1982. In both count,ries all towns Eenta.t,ively earmarked as secEor or sub-secEor headquarters for entomological evaluations and/or aerial operaEtons, were visired. the findings of the Ewo missions are sumrrized separately below:
Wes tern l,Iali
The limiEed road netqrork in hrestern l{,ali 1s noE in good condition. In che Monts l4anding and t,he I'lalink6 Plateau the roads are rocky and traverse a great, oany small ravines which are often difficult to negotiate. Along the norEh (right) bank of the Senegal and Baoul6 rivers, sandy roads are an ever present, problem. In the region of che ttBoucle de la Baoul6rr sandy roads so quickly become impassable Ehat they are frequently abandoned and realigned. This siEuaEion makes road travel very frusErating and Eime-consuming for the newcomer, but, might not be Eoo much of a problem for regular Eravellersr e.B. an entomological evaluat.ion team.
A reassuring factor is that work to improve the condicion of oany of Ehe roads in che Senegal-Baoul6 valley, is in progress. FurEhermore, what can only be described as a highway, between Bafoulab6 and I'lanantaIi, is nearing completlon.
AnoEher factor of appreciable logistic importance is Ehe facE that a very frequent and regular rail service connects most, of the t.oqrrrs desEined to be sector or sub-secEor headquart,ers, with Bamako (the overall centre of operations for Ehe lrlesEern Extension). Consequently, at least some of the consErainEs imposed by inadequate roads could be diminished by resorEing Eo rail transport.
EasEern Guinea
This area, which involves part of the upper and of the forest, regions of Guinea, has t,wo major road comrunicaEion problems. The first is the lack of roads in the exEreme east of the area, which prevenEs or restricEs accessibility to the headcraters of River Sankarani sub- sysEem, i.e. to Che rivers Dion, Lioou and Kourai; the second is the condition of che existing ocP/82.3 paSe 16 road netrrork, resulEing from nany broken bridges and generally poor road surfaces. The general impression gained during the road survey qras that the condition of almost all the roads $ras Progressively deteriorating, wiEh virtually no repair work in evidence. Most, of che diversions around broken bridges were tuell worn, suggesting thaE they were of considerable a8e.
Kankan is at the end of the railway from points lresE but the rail services are neither frequent nor regular and so offer no real alcernative t.o road transport ln Ehis area. anY AccordinglY, OCP extension activities in the area will have to face the reality of an a\ inadequate road conuurnication system. Also, with the general absence of electriciEy, running water, vehicle fuels and lubricating oils, equipmenE and supplies, food, etc. in eastern Guinea, Ehe region currently lacks the minimal infrastructural and logistic support facilities for the introduction of a conventional onchocerciasis control operat,ion.
Clinatically there is anoEher potential major problem. In the region of the Guinea Highlands (in eastern Guinea) low cloud which enshrouds the tops of the mrny mountains and which descends far down into many of the valleys, will pose serious EhreaEs to the efftcient. execution of aerial spraying operaEions and surveys, and, Eo the security of aircraft.
AlEhough the region around Beyla (in the Guinea Highlands of easEern Guinea) is classified as being covered by'rmoist, savanna woodlandsrr the vegeEaEion is much more luxuriant than one normally associates with this type of woodland. On many of the mountainsides there are Patches of climax foresE. tlany of the rivers run through very sEeeply-sided valleys and under the Prot.ecEion of dense riverine forest canopies. Ihus, apart. from the basic problems of operaEing low-flying aircraft in these conditions, specialized aeronauEical problems witl be encountered. In many places it will be impossible to conduct aerial surveys of Simulium breeding sites, and there will be other places where it will be impossible ro discharge insect.icide at Ehe required points, because Ehe rivers are concealed by vegetation. Walsh eE aI. (198I) working in Ehis type of situat.ion in the Man region of the lvory Coast reported, rtAmong t.hese heavily forested ravines aerial concrol is difficult to achieve withouE risk to the aircrews. Accordingly, larviclding $ras curtailed where this risk was judged to be excess ive.
Alt.hough no road survey has yet been conducted in eastern Senegal, it is evident. from information available that the road network is not very extensive, especially with regard to access Eo the River Faleme valley.
4. THE NEED FOR ONCTTOCERCIASIS COIITROL 4.L Health considerations
The prevalence and severlty of onchocerciasis in the West,ern Extension area have long been recogttized, and the exEent of the problem can be judged frm the statisEics presenEed in che following table.
ENDB{IC ONCHOCERCIASIS: SITTJATION IN 1980*
Population of areas where Ehe disease is endemic 5 390 ooo Non-exposed population 2 L9L ooo Population directly exposed 3 L99 ooo - aE the hyperendeoic level 428 ooo - at, the mesoendemic level 904 500 - at the hypoendenic level r 865 500 Number of blind persons 33 700
* Data from Sierra Leone is noE included. I ocP/82.3 page 17
l,l.ore specific information on onchocerciasis in the Participating Countries of Ehe region are given below.
Guinea
Upper Guinea is a hyperendeoic zone where onchocerciasis has very serious consequences in the form of high percentages of blindness and the abandonment by the populaEion of vast valley areas even Ehough t,hey are reputed to be very fertile.
I'liddle Guinea is generally mesoendeoic but sriLh serious hyperendemic foci on ehe Bafing, ) Bantala-Kqrba, Coliba and KoulounEou rivers resulCing in high percentages of blindness. However, Ehe disease is hypoendemic in che administrative regions of Lab6 and Pita, siEuated on Ehe high ground of the Fouta-Djalon. In Forest Guinea, onchocerciasis is hypoendemic Eo mesoendemic, wiEh one hyperendemic focus in the Beyla region. The generally low rate of blindness, however, means Ehat the disease is less serious in this zone.
Finally, in Lower Guinea onchocerciasis does not appear to be endemic and prevalence and rat.es of blindness are low.
On the basis of existing data it appears Ehat in Guinea it is Upper Guinea and Middle Guinea (with the exception of the Fouta-Djalon highlands) where the serlous form of oncho- cerciasis is rife and which should be included in an onchocerciasis control campaign as a mat,ter of priority.
It. can therefore be concluded that onchocerciasis is present Eo varying degrees in mosE of Guinea. Some regions are particularly seriously affected, mainly in Upper Guinea (Kankan, Faranah and Dinguiraye), but in the oEher regions numerous arrondissements are also sEricken. In Middle Gtrinea Ehe endemicity level seems low in the central parc of the Fouta-Djalon massif, where populat.ion density is relatively high (over 4O inhabicantr/t^z). In Ehe areas surrounding the Fouta-Djalon, on the oEher hand, u'here population is sparse, the level of endemicit.y is higher. Onchocerciasis does exist in ForesE Guinea (Yomou, N'Z6r6kor6 and LoIa) but is not as serious as Ehe savanna form.
The area proposed for inclusion in the WesEern Extension covers approxinrately 22O OOO km2, with a population of g 3 557 OOO. The population directly exposed to onchocerciasis is estimaced aE 2 O09 OOO persons, of whom 254 OOO live in hyperendemic, 545 OOO in mesoendemic, and I 2IO OOO in hypoendemic, areas. The number of people suffering from onchocerciasis is esEimaEed at 560 OOO and Ehe number of blind persons at 20 OOO, so EhaE of the population at risk, 287" have Ehe disease and L% are blind.
Guinea- Bissau
In Guinea-Bissau, onchocerciasis is prevalenE only in the Ewo east,ern regions of che counE.ry, Gabu and Bafata, with an area of t3 9OO km2, a population of 2O4 0OO and a population densiEy of 15 km2. The whole Gabu region is affected, while in the Bafata region only the Cont,uboel secEor is affected. The populaEion direccly exposed t.o onchocerciasis numbers 132 OOO individuals, 13 OOO of whom are living in hyperendemic zones, 59 OOO in mesoendemic zones, and 59 OOO in hypoendemic zones. The total number of onchocerciasis sufferers is esEimaEed co be 30 OOO, wiEh I4OO case6 of blindness.
Ma li
Iwo administrative regions of MaIi are affected by endemic onchocerciasis: the firsc Region (Kayes) and Ehe Second R"F ion (Koulikoro or t,he former Bamako Region). The WesEern ExEension area covers 138 94O kmz , r{ith a population of t 214 0OO inhabitants and an average ocP/82.3 Page 18
PoPulaEion density of 8.7 inhabitancs per km2. In Ehe Firsc Region (Kayes), y61iman6, Nioro, Di6ma and Kayes Cercles are only slightly affected, while Kita, Bafoulab6 and Kdni6ba Cercles are areas of medium to high endeoicity. In the second Region only three cercles are affected: those of Kangaba and l(ati in the case of the arrondissement.s on the left bank of the Niger and that of Kolankani in the west.ern part of the Region.
In 1980 it was esEiunted that 86O OOO persons srere directly exposed to onchocerciasis (73% ot t.he population of the area), 138 OOO of them living in hyperendemic, 27O ooo in meso- endemic and 455 OOO in hypoendemic areas. The number of people wlth onchocerciasis in the area is estimaEed ar 28O OOO and the number of blind at lO 5OO. {
Senega I
In Senegal the endemic onchocerciasis area covers the southern part of easEern Senegal and in the north does not, extend beyond an ioaginary line joining Ehe eastern frontier of the Republic of Gambia to Kidira. To the wesE the focus also covers Velingara DeparEment in Upper Casamance, wit.hout, however, extending beyond BaconEo arrondissenent. The total populatlon of Ehe endemic area is 418 OOO, wtrile Ehe population direcEly exposed ro rhe risk of onchocerciasis is estimated to number 198 OOO; 23 Ooo of them in hyperendemic, 40 ooO in mesoendemic and t35 OOO in hypoendemic areas. It, is esEimated that Ehere are 44 OOO people wich onchocerciasis and l5OO blind persons ouE of t98 OOO exposed to endemic disease, i.e. 22% vLth onchocerciasis and 17" blind.
Sierra Leone
Existing encomological data suggesc thaE savanna onchocerciasis can exist in the Northern Province of Sierra Leone, although few surveys have been conducted.
The limited epidemiological 6urvey6 undertaken have shown that. ocular onchocerciasis is presenE; in tqro localities blindness raEe6 of. O.7-8% and of 4.75-8% have been recorded.
Further detailed parasitological and ophthalmological ourveys are required in the Northern Province in order co demarcat.e the focus of savanna onchocerciasis.
The daca presented count,ry by counEry above are collectively surrnrarized in the following table:
Endemicity level Tota I Popu Iacion population not. Hyperendemic Mesoendemic Hypoendemic exposed exposed
Guinea- Bissau 13 000 49 500 69 500 132 000 72 000 Guinea 254 000 545 000 I 2to ooo 2 009 000 I 548 000 Ma li 138 000 270 000 452 000 860 000 351 000 Senegal 23 000 40 000 135 000 198 000 220 000 Region as a whole (except Sierra 428 000 904 500 I 866 500 3 199 000 2 191 000 Leone)
In conclusion, onchocerciasis control in the proposed lrlestern ExEension would benefit ac I leasc 3.2 nillion persons; approximacely 1.2 nillion in t.he nort,hern dry savanna parE. of che d region, and approxioately Ewo million in Ehe souEhern humid savanna and foresE parEs of che region. ocP/82.3 PaSe 19
>. 4.2 Socioeconomic considerations
In addition co the health benefits which would derive from onchocerciasis conErol in the I West.ern Extension area chere would also be imporEant socioeconomic benefits, particularly with regard Eo: t, (i) increased incomes resulting from increases in the quanEity and quality of labour and land resources'
(ii) distribut,ional benefiEs reLating to the facE that the beneficiaries are amongsr Ehe pooresE in Ehe world.
BeEween 1978 and 1981, when feastbility surveys were conducEed in the lrlestern ExEension area, much attention was given to socioeconomic studies in Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, MaIi and Senegal, and approprlaEe reports were prepared and annexed to the final feasibility report,. ) Those country sEudies identified 22 developmenE projects in progress, representing a capital investment. of US$ 539 oillion, and 2O potential development projects the cosE of which oas esEimrEed at US$ 685 million. These projects, to a EoEal value of US$ 1224 nillion are benefiting, or cou[d benefic 3.6 million people.
An imporEant recent socioeconomic developmenE in the proposed ['lescern Extension area eras the awarding by the Organization pour la Mise en Va1eur du F1euve Senegal (OMVS), in March 1982, of a contract, for the const,ruction of a Large dam near che village of tlanantali on the River Bafing in wesEern Mali. Const,ruction costs are escioated at US$ 8OO million. When completed, this dam will modify Ehe River Senegal valley Eo the excent, that sone 35O OOO hecEares of good agricultural land could be opened up for culEivation. ocPf82.3 PaBe 20 .< CHAP1ER II .( THE PRINCIPLES OF ONCHOCERCIASIS COMROL I I. INTRODUCTION t As in the existing OCP, the objective of the proposed Wesr.ern Excension is to reduce Che impact of clinical onchocerciasis to a Level where iE no longer represents eiEher a public health problem, an obsEacle Eo socioeconomi.c development, or a hindrance to the reclamaEion of good agricultural land Ehat is currently unoccupied.
Similarly, the principles and strat.egies of control proposed for the Western Extension wiII, as far as possible, be the same as E.hose currently employed by the OCP.
DespiEe encouraging indications in the field of chemotherapy research, Ehe absence of a ( specific drug thac can be easily and safely used for mass treatment dicEates that oncho- cerciasis conErol must aE present be achieved by reducing or interrupting Eransmission through vecEor conErol.
In general vecEor control operations are directed against. SimuLium larvae, using insecti- cides which do not cause unacceptable hazards t.o the aquatic environment. However, it must be noced that the OCP is intensifying its applied research prograrme on adulticiding to determine whether this might offer an al-ternative and efficient technique (or Eechniques) for reducing the local impact of the reinvasion problem. It ls possible Eherefore EhaE. adult.i- ciding activities could play a role in parts of the WesEern Extension area where Ehe consequences of reinvasion may be serious.
It is generally acknowledged that the migratory (dispersal) potential of adult Simulium makes it necessary to undertake simultaneous control acEion over large areas so as tG.hr""- che risk of reinvasion of Ehe treated areas. Ttris is an ideal objective which it has been possible to aEtain in the exlsting OCP (although reinvasion remalns a serious problem on the $rescern and easEern flanks). As far as the dry savanna regions of the WesEern ExEension area are concerned (western Mali, eastern Senegal and the northern fringe of Guinea), this is also a valid objective, but there may be some const.rainEs to implemenEing it cotally in the humid savanna and forested uplands of Guinea and Sierra Leone. Because of the combined problems of dlfficult terrain, heary vegetation, bad weather conditions, inadequate logistic facilities and the dangers of the development of insecticide resistance, an alternative modified stracegy involving mrch more spacially restricted aEtacks on the vector might be necessary.
The extended life-span of the parasite (both adult qrorms and microfilariae) dictat.es Ehat control activities must be conducted continuously for several years. Ttre latest OCP parasitological findings suggest Ehat Ehe period could be less than the 20 years originally estimated as being necessary but it is premat,ure Eo identify how many years less.
If current research should lead to the development of an appropriate drug or of any oEher onchocerci.asis control technique which meets the requirements of the OCP (see the Final Report of the Independent Conunission), the strategy of conErol, both within Ehe existing OCP area and the Western Extension, wouLd have to be revised to incorporace such an important developmenE. However, no such alternaEive influence will have a major impact on the Progranrne during che six-year period for which the present reporE has been prepared, but it may be reflecEed in subsequent operations.
2. T'ECTOR CONTROL
In general, Ehe vector control t.echniques and strategies which will be appropriate for the lrlestern Extension area are Ehose which are currently employed by the OCP, i.e. aerial larviciding of Simulium breeding sites employing biodegradabl-e compounds. It is anticipaEed thaE, alEogeEher, at least 22 OOO km of hratercourse in the West.ern Extension will need to be treated in t.his way. Ttrls compares with the 18 OOO km under control in the present OCP area. ocPf1z.3 Page 2 1
2.1 Vector s ies in need of control
CurrenE knowledge of the disEribution of the species of the S. damnosum complex in Ehe WesEern Extension area is sununarized in Map 4. l'Ihen consulting ](ap 4 ic rmrst be borne in mind chat t.here is no relationship between the numbers of species symbols and the abundance of che various species. The greater number of records shown in the southern half of the region is due co Ehe fact that:
- anxiety abouE the possible spread of temephos resistance from the existing OCP into the adjacenc souEhern part of the [rlestern Extension area has inspired much more intensive sampling,
- there are many more species in the southern half of che region (at least five known vectors) Ehan in che northern half (only two known vectors).
> After careful consideraEion of the geographical distribution of Ehe various species, of cheir bioecological characteristics, and of their vectorial capacity, cerEain conclusions can be drawn concerning Ehe areas which require to be treated. V IE is essential that regions occupied by S. damnosum s.s. and S. sirbanum be treaEed. Ihese two species transmit. the savanna strain of Onchocerca thac is most PaEhogenic to man. Their range coincides wit.h hyperendemic foci of onchocerciasis. In addition both species are highly mobile and capable of covering distances of 3OO-4OO km under appropriate reinvasion rnreaE.her conditions.
S. soubrense, a species of forest origin, is capable of esEablishing itself in the r guineansavannaand remaining Ehere throughout the year, al though iE is noE renowned for long distance travel. Studies of transmission under naEural and experimental conditions have given confliccing resulEs which at present make ic difficult co judge whether this species should be regarded as a target or a non-target species. Further research is therefore required.
S. sanctipauli, a species confined to humid zones, has practically no vecEorial capacicy under natural condiEions, having regard to its shorr life span and co the facc that it is I largey zoophilic. It is not usually a mobile species. There is therefore no point in Ereating zones populated by Ehis species.
S. yahense and S. fquemS$m are species that are excellent foresE vecEors, but the Onchocerca scrain which they transmit is not especially pathogenic Eo man (absence o f ocular lesions). Furthermore, they are poor vectors of the savanna strain. While S. squamosum is known Eo move for distances up to lOO km, L_-g[9EE is a much more sedentary sPecies. There r seems, therefore, to be no point in treating the breeding places of these species. To sununarize, only the ranges of !!ry.."., S. sirbanum and possibly S. soubrense should be included in the treatment zone.
It follows, Eherefore, from the data p resented above that S. damnosum s.s. and S. sirbanum are the species of greatest epidemiological importance with regard to the reinvasion problem. r However, Ehe local importance of "arrivalrr flies is not geographically uniform. In fact, there appears Eo be a relaEionship between vectorial capacity and mean annual rainfall (Dr t' J. B. Davies, personal conumrnlcation). In the 125O-15OO mm mean annual rainfall belE of the OCP area, reinvading flies are usually so numerous that transmission leveLs are unchanged by larviciding oPeraEions. r (Situation 1. )
7
7 ocPf82.3 PaBe 22
In Ehe looo-125o flrn mean annual ralnfall belt of the OCp area, reinvading flies are usually in sufficient numbers to maintain transmission. (situation 2.)
In the 75o-1ooo run mean annual rainfall belt of the OCp area, reinvading flies are not normally in sufficlent numbers to pose a threat. However, if local breeding is able to take place, a dangerous, but localized disease situacion, can develop. (Situation 3.) By projecting these relationships to the Western Extension area it is possibl-e to obtain some foresight of t.he severtty of reinvasi.on problems which may develop. Ttre following predict,ions rmrst however be read wiEh caution:
Situacion 1
- The conrrcn frontier region of Senegal and Guinea. ( - The extreme southern part of western l.Ia1i.
- The northern part of Guinea (below Mali) affecting the valleys of rhe lower River Bafing, of the middle and lower Rlver Tinkisso, andoftheheadwatersof the River Bakoye. I
Situation 2:
- The valley of che River Ganbia in eastern Senegal.
- In wesEern t'Iali' most of the River Bafing system, the middle and louer River Bakoye and the headwaEers of Ehe River Baoul€. r1
Situation 3:
- In eastern Senegal the valleys of the River Nieriko and t.he lower River Faleme.
- In western Mali, the Rlver Senegal and the middle and lower River Baou16. 2.2 Vector control techniques I Vector control may take various forms, such as environmenEal management, the application of insecticides to adult insects or larvae, or the use of blological These different forms of control may be apptied by various means. They can be employed"!..,t". separacely or in combinaEion. ''l 2.2.L Environmental meEhods
Alchough environmental management, environmental modification and environmental manipu- lation might be effecEive in very special circumstances, these methods cannot be reconunended for large-area control.
2.2.2 Chemical cootrol Eechniques 1 Since environmental rnanagement l^rill never result in the elimlnation of all the vecEor populations, it has been necessary to resort to insecEicides, which seem sEiIL to be the besc qreapon available. 2.2.2.L Adutticidine
i Efforts to control the onchocerciasis vector by killing the adult blackfly cannoc ar 't present be considered a method of control, because of the great dispersal capacity of these insects, wtrich would make necessary Ehe application of t.reat."nt or". vast areas. Localized protection of certaln areas might be consldered, however, provided suitable insecticides are ''t available and the restlng places of the females are accurat,ely knovn. .'( ocPf}2.3 PaBe 23
)- Wtrile Ehere is no case for the routine use of adulticiding techniques on a large scale, Chere is an urgent need to develop appropriate adulticiding Eechniques Co assess their effect in conEroLling reinvasion problems under r^ret season conditions. Ihe endorsemenc of this view has been presented in the Final Report of che Independent Conunission, and in the OCP
-r Progress Report for 1981 (OCPfPRfil.4).
Davies et aI. (in press) have reviewed Ehe various Eypes of adulciciding Eechniques employed in different parts of Africa, and togecher with Baldry ec aI. have described che resulcs of trials that were conducted in Ehe OCP area in 1978. Very encouraging resulEs were obtained from the laEEer rrials. A single discriminative helicopt,er applicacion of delcamerhrin (OMS 1998) at a swath dosage of. L2.S gfna (swath width 30 m) to riverine forests varying in widEh from 3O-1OO m, was effective in conErolling S. damnosum for ca 12 days under lace dry season conditions. A similar application of endosulfan (OMS 57O) at a shrath dosage of 1OO gfA" *^" effective for ca 9 days. { Subsequently, and as interest in adulticiding techniques has mounted, the OCP has awarded a research conEracE Eo IRTO, Bouak6, for the screening of insecticides which would be acEive against Simulium. At the present t.ime Ehe OCP is actively stepping up its own research programme towards the developmenc of some effective and economic adulticiding Eechniques. t' In this regard it is reassuring Eo note thaE it is now known that che majority of reinvading Simulium setEIe very close to watercourses; their numbers decllne progressively over a disrance of 3 km from a r,ratercourse. It may therefore be possibLe to develop adulEiciding Eechniques which are far more discriminative than was earlier supposed possible. 2.2.2.2 Larviciding
Ihe vector reproducEion sices are disEribuEed irregularLy along rivers because Ehey occur only where there is flowing $rater. Ttre larvae constiEute the most vulnerable link in the development cycle of the bLackfly and their destruction seems at present to be Ehe mosE appropriate method of concrolling Ehe vectors of onchocerciasis. The treaEment , periodicity depends on che duraEion of the vector's larval stage, which averages seven days in the climatic conditions of the West African savanna.
Ihe larvicidal formulaEions musE be of such a Eype as to permit easily repeated and r effective treatmencs on a weekly basis and must noE cause irreversible damage t.o the aquaEic environment. Ttre insecEicides used musE be of Low Eoxicity for man and manurals. The active substance should not, persisE in Ehe environment, since, oEherwise, an accumulacion in food chains may result.
Ttre compounds currenrly in use in the OCP area are:
I Organophospha ces
A 20% (active ingredient) emulsifiable concentrate of cemephos is the compound which has been used most extensively by che OCP, and at the present. time approximately 75% of. the OCP area is under successful temephos treatment. f In 198O, unfortunaEely, temephos resisEance appeared in the OCP area in S. soubrense and S. sanctipauli and could not be overcome by increasing the quantities of insecticide used. It is worth not.ing, however, thaE no case of resistance has yet been reported in S. damnosum s.s. or S. sirbanum Ehe typical savanna vectors. In vies, of Ehe continuity / of distribution of S. soubrense beEween Ehe souEh-qrestern part of the Ivory Coast, where the resisEance appeared, and south-eastern Guinea, it is likely Ehat this sector of che Western Extension area temephos resistance is either already present, or, will soon / develop (especially if it is directly exposed Eo cemephos treatmenEs). Chlorphoxim as a special 2O7. emulsifiabLe concentrate $ras introduced into the OCP / area co control temephos-resistant populations of S. soubrense (at less than half the Eemephos dosage). Ttris forrmrlation has the drawback of being more Eoxic Eo non-E.arBet aquaEic fauna than Eemephos. Its utilization in the OCP was short-Iived because temephos j resist.anE populations of S. soubrense quickly developed double-resistance to chlorphoxim. ocPf 82.3 Page 24 { Field trials are now conEinuing $rith Ehree other compounds, chlorpyrifos-methy1, pirimiphos-methyl and bromophos.
Bacillus thuringiensis (biological control agenr); -t Because of its harmlessness for manrnals and non-target aquatic fauna, Bacilltrs thuringiensis sero type H-14 rdas inrroduced inEo the OCp Eo conrrol pop,rt"ii6i-F s. soubrense which were resist.ant to both temephos and chlorphoxim.
Unfortunately, B.E. H-14 is only effective when applied in high volumerric dosage (uP Eo 10 times that of temephos), and, as a spray (otherwise it rapidly sinks and becomes ineffective). As chese are very largely incompatible parameters many cechnical and logistic problems have been and continue to be, experienced by the OCp. During the 1982 wet season these problems became unsurmountable with regard to Ehe control of S. soubrense in parEs of the southern rvory coast, wich the resulE that the use of l> B.t. H-14 has been discontinued in situat.ions where river discharge rates are high.
Evaluations are now being made of B.E. formulations which are two and Ehree times more concentrated than the one currentl[employed by the OCP. UnforEunately, neither \ of these forrmrlations is at present being produced in large quancity.
the cosE.s Per licre of the compounds used by the OCP are: temephos US$ 7.8O, chlorphoxim US$ 7.4O, and B.c. H-14 US$ 5.2O.
Taking noce chaE, chlorphoxim is applied at approximately one third the dosage of temephos and thaE B.t. H-14 is applied aE dosages of 3 to 10 rimes those of Eemephos (depending T on hydrological conditions), the comparative costs, using one litre of temephos as standard, are:
temephos us$ 7 80 ch lorphoxim us$ 2 50 B.r. H-14 us$ 15 60 to 52.O
When one E.akes into account the facts that B.t. H-14 has E,o be diluted with water, and I thaE for applying ic in large quantities, the flffig cosEs are greatly increased, iE is very clear that. t.his is a very expensive larvicide in its presenEly available formulation. It should be improved or replaced as soon as an alt.ernative compound becomes available. Various methods can be used to apply larvicides ,'l (i) Ground applications
Ground applications can be recormended for the treatmenE of a single breeding site (dam, ford, broken bridges, etc.) which is fully accessible at all times of the year, or a series of sices situated only a short. distance from a road. This method cannoE be used, however, for general and continuing treatment, of an ext,ensive area including many drainage basins. (ii) Aerial applications \
The mosE reliable and economic means of reaching all the larval sites in all seasons is Eo use aircraft. this will be the method of choice for treatment of the breeding sites in \ Ehe Western Extension. The type of aircraft will vary according to the Eype and discharge of che river to be treat,ed. For the treatmenE of large watercourses or rivers, where large quantiEies of insecticide have to be used, preference w111 be given to fixed-wing aircraft. It should be noted that the same rivers mzry only require small quant.it.ies of insecticide \ during the dry season, and helicopters may then be used. Generally speaking, however, helicopters wilL be used for treating smalL, winding rivers with a llmited discharge to take .\ advantage of the greaEer manoeuvrabillty of Ehese aircraft., which in any case have a smaller insecEicide capacity. Ttris is the control method used successfully by OCp and it wlll also be used in the l,lesE,ern Extension area. t ocPf82.3 Page 25 ) The quantities of insecticide used at each EreatmenE point are calculaEed on Ehe basis of river discharge. In order Eo avoid either an excessive dose of larvicide, which will be harmful E.o Ehe non-target aquaEic fauna, or too small a dose, which will make the application ineffecEive, iE is necessary, for any onchocerciasis vector control campaign, Eo have a relacively dense neEwork of gauging stations.
2.3 The evaluation of vecEor control operations
2.3.L Entomological evaluaEions
Because of che cumulative nature of onchocerciasis and the l-ong life span of Ehe parasite 7 in man, the effects of a vector conErol campaign aimed at eliminating transmission or reducing it co an acceptable level for human conrmunities will not become apparenE in the protecEed populations for several years. + In order Eo assess the efficacy of larvicide treatments as early as possible, Eo det.ecE and swifcly remedy any shortcomings, aod to adapc Ehe treatmenEs ad hoc to che excremely fluccuacing environmenEal condiEions it is necessary to make provision for detailed enEomo- r logical evaluaEions. The objectives of Ehese evaluations, wtrich should be conEinuous ani have the SreaEest possible geographical spread are as folLovs:
? - to establish, prior to Ehe campaign, the blackfly populaEion densities and transmission potentials; ) , - to monit,or, during the campaign, the results of insecEicide applications, which should be adjusted in rhe Iight of the data obtained (temporarily suspended, conEinued according to plan, possibly intensified); r t.o determine Ehe levels of residual Eransmission;
F co collect rhe hydrological data needed for the planning and implementacion of insecticide applicacions I
to moniEor continuously the susceptibilicy of che vecEors to inseccicides. t Ihe simplesE way of evaluating the effects of larvicide applications is to observe Ehe disappearance first of the larvae and t.hen of the pupa e of S. damnosum s.1. from the breeding sltes concerned. In view of Ehe very large number of sites Eo be examined, the sheer size I of some of them and the difficulties of access, Ehis purely qualitative method provides only an imperfect impression of the real effects of the Ereatment and can be used only as an occasional supplementary measure.
The only reliable method for the quanEiEative measurement of che result.s of EreatmenE consists of capturing female vectors seeking a blood meal. This is done by sE.aEioning human insect collectors at specified places, generally adjacent Eo rivers or viLtages; Ehese 7' collectors caEch all the S. danrrosum s.1. females EhaE seEcle on Ehem before v bite In I view of che daily and seasonal variations in biting activicy coLlection takes place throughouL rhe insect,'s period of activity (7 a.m. co 6 p.m.); Ehe number of collection days per week or fortnight is determined according Eo the imporEance of the collection PoinE, iEs ?- accessibility and che available manpower and transPorE.
By dissecting these females it is possible to determine the extenE to which they are a infecred wiEh O. volvulus and their physiological age. A young population indicates the appearance of an active breeding site close co the collection point, while an old population r gives a definite indication of reinvasion by females from elsewhere.
7 ocPf82.3 page 26 ( Since it is now possible to establish a relationship between the number of infective O. volvulus larvae received by the individuals in the conmrunity and the endemicity level (prevalence and incidence) observed in that comnunity, it is also essential to be able to measure the vectors' transmission potential before and during a control campaign. Ttre method for evaluating this transmission potenE.ial per unit of time is Eo take Ehe number of infective larvae obtained by regul-ar and periodic collection at a given point and extrapolate this Eo one monEh (monthly transmission potential: MTP) or one year (annual Eransmission poEential: ATP). It was concluded aE a meeting held ln Geneva Ln L977 that, in the savanna area, an ATP of loo and an annual biting rate (ABR) of looo formed rhe upper threshold of tolerance, above which severe lesions were likely Eo appear in the long run. .'l 2.3.2 Epidemiolo gical evaluations
As in the existing OCP, the objectives of epidemiologicat evaluations in the Western .} Extension area will be the continuous collection of data in certain indicator villages selected with a view co following the epldemiological situat.ion before and after ghe introduction of vector control operations. Ihe aim of the studies is to assess the impacr of vecEor control on the prevalence and incidence of onchocerciasis and to follow che .T evolution of ocular lesions.
The epidemiological evaluation of onchocerciasis in the Western Extension area mu6t take inEo account the Practical experience acquired by OCP in that field. The mode of operation, however, will require to be adapt.ed on the basis of the experience gained. After six years, I interruption of transmission it has been found that the O-5 years age-group shows no further infecEion by 0. volvulus or thaE such infection is exceptionaL. Moreover, prevalence has been spectacularly reduced in the 5-9 years group. Furthermore the absence of superinfection means that Ehe cumulative Process has been inEerrupted in adults. In chis way hyperendemic levers are reduced to mesoendemic and then to hypoendemic levels.
Depending upon the different methods that can be employed, one can distinguish between simple and detailed evaluations. Ttrese are summarized below. (a) Simple evaluations
A simple evaluation is designed to study the prevalence of the disease in the whote population of an indicator viLlage. Ihese evaluations, repeaEed every Ehree to four years, enable the evaluation of the epidemiological situatioo to be followed. Itrey involve census- taking of the population of a village by family, clinical examinaEion (for nodules, cuEaneous lesions' etc.), parasitological examination (by skin snips), and a tesE for visual acuity.
(b) Detailed evaluarions
Detailed evaluations in a small proportlon (ca 1O%) of the indicator villages, involve in-depth clinical and epidemiological studles deslgned t.o provide detailed infomration on the evolution of the disease situaEion. These studies involve the taking of a census of individuals (noting parEicularly their migration scatus), brief clinical examinat.ion, parasitological examination and detailed ophthalmological examinaEion of both eyes. 'l
2.3.3 Environmental monitoring '! Evaluation of the impacE of insecticide applicaEions on the non-target aquatic fauna is a fundamental technique designed to preserve the quality of the environment to the highest degree possible. 't In 1981 Ehe OCP Ecological Gr'oup concluded that the use of remephos for conErollint S. damnosum , at Ehe doses and with the formulations adopted by the prograrnme, does not consti.Eute, after six years, a maj or hazard for che aquatic ecosystem. Specifically: \ ocPf12.3 PaBe 27
' - the inrmedlate effect of cemephos on the invertebrate fauna is ecologically accePtable si-nce, although considerable acute mortaliEy may be recorded amon8 the inverCebraEes, there is a proportion of survivors in almost. all taxonomic groups;
- temephos reduces che density of inverEebraEes in the larval breeding places Eo an extent that. has never produced an imbalance under normal condiEions of insecticide application;
chere is no evidence of any sPecies disappearing;
- no morEality has been recorded among fish and no unstable change in fish populations has been detecEed;
- accumulation in che food chain seems slight. To rhe extenE Ehat the insecticide applications envisaged for the Wescern ExEension vould be identical wich Ehose practised by OCP (temephos in the same formulation' at Ehe same dosages and applied by Ehe same techniques), it might be considered advisable not co repeaE, Eo ilo purpose, the monitoring of che environment carried ouE in the OCP area. However, in view of the fact that other larvicides mighc have to be employed, e.8. to overcome a temephos resistance problem, environment.al monitoring activiEies musE be envisaged from the outset.
Ihe environmentaL monitoring techniques which have been used very successfully for which would also be used I studying both aquatic invertebrates and fish in Ehe OCP area, and in the Western Extension area, have had the following objectives: - determinaEion of those componenEs of the fauna that are most affected by larviciding; t - che drawing up of qualitative and quancitat.ive comparaEive balance-sheeEs for the pre- larviciding period and for the periods following the beginning of treatments; and I - che forestalling of any deleterious effect Ehat is considered important for established biological equilibria.
I REFERENCES CITED IN PART I
Anon. (1981) Rapport. de la 3Eme R6union Minist6rielle de Concertation des EtaEs du Bassin du Fleuve S6n6ga1 (Dakar, Novembre l98l)
Aubreville, Duvigneaud, HoyIe, Ke.ay, Mandoga, Pichi-Sernolli (1959) Vegetation Map of Africa (South of che Sahara), CCTA/CSA Oxford University Press
Baldry, D. A. T., Everts, J., Romao, 8., Boon von Ochssee, G. A. & Laveissiere, C. (198I) Tro icaL Pest Mana t 27, 83-110
Claude, J. (1980) Donn6es hydrologiquea necessaires pour une camPagne de luEEe contre 1'onchocercose dans la r6gion du bassin du fleuve S6n6gal, document OMS/ORSTOM, 25 PP. Eext, 6 annexes and 1 maP
Coleman, M. & Wtrite, P. T. (1979) Farmer health survey (Sierra Leone) 7 Colussa, B. (1981) SynthEse, p6r riviEre, des donn6es concernanE 1'onchocercose dans la R6publique Populaire R6volutionaire de Guin6e, au 30 mars 1981, I.IHO document rcPfwDfool (unpublished), 88 pP. text and 19 maps
Connor, D. H., Cupp, E. W., Ganley, J. P., Gibson, D. W. & Schiller, E. L. (1979) Dr4& Iepq!!. Studies on onchocerciasis in northern Liberia, including topical treatment $riEh dieEhyl- carbamazine: pathology, ophthalmology, parasitology and entomologyl and reconmtendaEions I for conrrol of the disease (26 November - 18 December f978). Published by the American F Public Health Association, 115 pp. I ocPfs2.3 Page 28
Crosskey, R. W. & Post, R. J. (1981) A synopsis of presenE knowledge of rhe Simulium damnosum t complex in the Republic of S ierra Leone, wiEh speclal emphasis on its geographical discributlon and relation to onchocerciasis (unpublished report; 35 pp. texE, 4 tables and 4 maps)
Davies, J. B., Gboho, c., Baldry, D. A. T., Bellec, c., sawadogo, R. & Tiao, p. c. (rn press) The effects of helicopt.er applied adulticides for riverine tset.6e control on Simulium populations in a [.Iest African savanna habitat. I. Introduction, method" aifEf,f effect on biting adults and aquatic st.age of simulium darurosum s.r. , Tropical Pest Management
Garms, R. & Vajim6, C. G. (1975) Tropenmed. parasir., L, 375-3gO orain, H. L. (1981) Projet d'Etude de Faisabitit6 d'une Campagne de lutre conEre l,onchocercose dans la R6glon du Fleuve s6n6ga1, document ots/rce/wo/oot, 12 pp. texr and 129 annexes
Qui116v6r6, D., GuilleE, p. and S6chan, Y. (198I) Cah. O R s.T.o.M. 66r. Ent. med et Parasicol., L4 (4), 3O3-3O9
Vajim6, C. G. & Dunbar, R. W. (1975) Tropenmed. parasir.., L, 111-13g Walsh, J. F., Davies, J. B. & Garms, R. (1981) Tropenmed. paraslr., L, 269-273
\
T
I 1 ocPf82.3 Page 29
PART II
PLAII OF OPERATIONS FOR TITE FIRST SIX YEARS OF ONCHOCERCIASIS CONTROL IN TTIE I,IESTERN EXTENSION AREA
CHAPTER III
RESPONSIBILITIES 7 1. INTRODUCTION Brief mencion has already been made in this report Eo the respective responsibilicies of the OCP and of national governmenEs in the execution of an OCP Western Extenslon. Hor"rever, before proceeding to consider Ehe finer details of che planning, implementacion and evaluation of such an extension, it, is importanE to consider the apporEionment of responsibilities in much more detail.
I 2. RESPONSIBILITIES OF TIiE OCP I The responsibilitles of the OCP, which will be met from international funds, wilI, in broad Eerms, be as follows: r (i) The overall administration of the Western Extension, in close liaison with National Onchocerciasis Cormnittees.
I (ii) A11 vector controL acEivities and associated support acEivities. A11 aerial operations, whether for vector control or for surveillance purposes require the most perfect coordination and extremely good logistic support facilities. Consequent.ly, it is essential that all these activiEies are stricEly controlled and managed by the OCP. t (iii) The conducting of enEomological evaluations. The regular and efficient collection of entomological data, parEicularLy in relation to the orientacion and evaluation of vector cont.rol operations, makes it essential chat enEomological evaluations are Ehe responsibility of the OCP. I (iv) Supervising national and,/or inEercountry epidemiological evaluation Eeans. (v) Assistance in the establishment of naEional and,/or intercountry environmentaL r monitoring teams or servlces. (vi) Assistance in the estabLishment of additional hydrological stations and in the refurbishing of existing stations.
(vii) ltre training of national staff required for the efficient implementation and evaluaEion of the extension. r (viii) Applied research (ix) Reporting (through the established OCP reporting system). 7 At the logistic and operational levels the OCP will be responsible for
(x) The constructlon of an aircraft hangar wich supporting workshop and storage facilities for aviation fuels and insecEicides, at the main operational base. (xi) Ihe construcEion of helipads and storage depots for aviacion fuels and insecticides ( at straEegically locaeed rural sites. r ocPfs2.3 paSe 30
(xii) The equlp.enr, and furnishings of premises used by the ocp. (
(xiii) ltre purchase and operaEion of vehicles, and all other items of supplies.
(xlv) An ext,ension of the OCp radio netlrork.
(xv) The dlstrlbution of all equiprment, and supplies. (xvi) ltre recruitment and costs of alL international staff. T 3. NATIONAI, RESPONSIBILITIES .tl Activlties which w111 be the responsibillty of the governments of the countri.es partici- pating in the l.Iestern Extenslon will be as follows:
(i) Itre establishment of National Onchocerctasis Cotrmittees (Mali excluded).
(if) Ttre appointment of national liaison officers n*ro will work in close collaboration wlth the nat,ional and international bodles to ensure the smooth day-to-day execution of all operations.
(iii) Ttre provision of all buildings and premises required to accogrnodate the main oPerational base and the te€rms resPonsible for entomological, epidemiological and environ- mental monitoring aE their respective locations.
(iv) rhe employment of all staff required for epiderriological evaluaEions and for environ- mental monltoring acEivlties, and the creatlon of the services (wtrere appropriate) to accounodate them- In connexion with Ehese activities, governments will be responsible for assessing training requireoents and for submttting candidates to the qCp for appro- priate training.
(v) The operation and maintenance of all existing hydrological statlons. I (vi) The construcEion, oPeration and maintenance of any additional hydrological srations required by the oCP (in this respecE Ehe oCP will assisr in che purchase of essential equipment) . (vii) Ttre maintenance and repair of all roads needed by national and lngernational Eeams I co gain access to hydrological st.ations, helipads, indicator vi1lages, entomological evaluaEion points (catching st.aEions) and aquatic monit,oring sites. \ (viii) The construcEion of new roads t,o al1ow access of the varlous evaluation ceams to otherwise inaccessible areas. (ftrese activicies could require very subsE.antial funding, which may be beyond the Eeans of the appropriate natlonal authorities. Governments may therefore find it necessary to seek the required funds from external sources.)
(ix) Arrangernents with the appropriate civil aviation authorities for Ehe consEruction of aviation suPPort facilities, for Ehe waiver of duty on aviaEion equipment, fue1s, lubricants, sPare Parts and Eools, for the waiver of aircraft fana-ini and parking fees at 1 urban airfields, and for over-flight clearances.
(x) Comprehensive public relaEions campaigns which will ensure that all miniscries, I national services, administraEors and armed forces, in addition to rural population", .." completely famlliar wlth and cooperate LriEh all national and international personnel involved in Ehe ['lestern Extension.
oCP requirements for additionaL hydrologicaL stations and roads (see clauses (vi) and (viii) above) are specified in later sections of this report rrhich deal spectfically with chese subjects. 'I I ocPf12.3 Page 3l
CHAPTER IV
PHASING OF EXTENSION ACTIVITIES
1. INIRODUCTION The original proposals for Ehe spatial phasing of operations were as follows
Phase I: The River Niger Basin, and some coastal rivers in Sierra Leone. Phase II: The River Senegal Basin and some coastal rivers in Sierra Leone. Phase III A11 other river basins in Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and WesEern Guinea.
Wit.h regard Eo temporal phasing it was proposed thaE once operaEions conrmenced in the Phase I zone, acEivities would foIlow in the Phase II and III zones one and two years laEer, respecEively. However, in the lighE of recent additional findings in the WesEern ExEension area and of recent developmenEs in the OCP iE is no longer considered feasible Eo adhere to rhe original phasing proposals. The most important of these facEors are discussed separaEely below. T- (i) DisEribuEion of blackflv soecies
The data on Simulium species disEribution, presented in Map 4, by no means gives a complete picture of the distribution of all the species. Much of the informaEion collected is restrictive both in space and time, especially wiEh regard to many of the upland and foresEed areas. tlhile the norEhern half of the Western Extension area aPPears to be dominaEed by a very limited number of savanna species (mainly S. sirbanum, wiEh some L-1|31gg1!g1 s.s.), a converse, much more complex and less understood siEuation exisEs in the southern half of the area. In this laEter area Ehere are five importanE species (six if the Konkoure form is considered to be separate from the oEhers), knowledge of whose distribution is aE PresenE scanty, if noE non-existent. In Ehis connexion it musE be pointed ouE t.haE, aE Ehe Presenc Eime, no informacion exisEs on the species of many long streEches of rivers which form what has been referred Eo earlier as the coastal complex, e.B. Rio Geba, Rio Corubal, LictIe Scarcies and Moa. This situacion applies equally further north in the easEernmost hyperendemic onchocerciasis focus associated with the rivers Dion, Limou, Yeremou and Kourai.
(ii) Temephos-resistance and Ehe need for alcernative larvicides
In the Report of the 2nd Session of the JPC (which met in December, 1981) it was staEed:
'rAs wiEh the extensions into southern Benin, Ghana and Togo, considerable stress was laid by participants on t.he imporEance of having back-up larvicides available before embarking on vector conErol in the Senegarnbia area. AE least two and preferably Ehree larvicides should be kept in reserve, and should all belong Eo ( different, insecticide groups Eo avoid cross-resistance.rf Alchough progress has been made in conErolling Eemephos-resistanE populations of S. soubrense in Ehe Ivory Coast, the situaE.ion in some forest and humid savanna localicies is such thaE, at t.he moment, the OCP does not have EoEal capabiliEy for conErol under wet season condiEions. Every attempt is being made Eo improve Ehis situation by using larger aircraft, by spraying a more concentrated formulaEion of B.c. H-14, and by intensifying E.he t search for alEernaEive larvicides. However, until such time as additional larvicides have become available and have regularized the resistance problem in the Ivory CoasE it would be unwise to ext.end t.emephos and B.t. H-14 creatments into t.he humid savanna and forest, regions of the Western Extension area. r ocPf12.3 Page 32
(iii) Infrastructural and logistig supporE facilicies (
Recent field surveys in wesEern Mali and easEern Guinea have revealed Ehat there are many ParEs of the Western ExEension area which lack the fundamental infrastrucEural and logistic support facilities which are essent,ial for the introduction of large-scale onchocerciasis control activities. This applies particularly to the poor condition of many roads, and co the inadequacy of the road networks in many regions where all-season accessibility is essential for the effecEive execuEion of vecEor control and evaluat,ion operations buE present.ly not possible. The situation is part.icularty crltical in many of the humid savanna and forest.ed regions of che southern part of the West.ern Extension area.
As stated earlier in this reporE the OCP has already conducted some logistic surveys in the Western ExEension area. These studies are continuing and will be continued into the I preparaEory act,ivities phases of the extension.
(iv) Toooeraohical and climatic facEors
The siEuation referred to in item (iii) above, is in many cases aggravated by extremely rugged mountainous terrain and by high precipit.ation rates. These factors, both individually 1 and collectively, impose serious constraint.s to the free movement of vehicles and the technical personnel dependent upon them. Lengt,hy rret seasons (of up to seven months'duraEion, and trith each month having a minimum of 5O-1OO nrm of precipitaElon) in combinaEion with rugged terrain aE high altitude, result in much low cloud and ground mist which lmpose serious constrainE.s E,o the unresEricted and safe operation of low-flying aircraft. Thus topographical and climatic factors impose two importanc constraints; a logistic ,\ one and a Eechnical one. As parE of the cont.inuing logistic surveys referred to in secEion (iii) above, more informaEion will be collecEed during the coming months. With regard to Ehe technical problems of vector control in mountainous and densely vegetated terrain, it seems unlikely appropriate solutions will be quickly identified. In all probability the applied research service of the OCP will be required t.o expand its current Programme in order Eo provide the speciaLized attencion that Ehis problem requires.
If all these factors are read in combination wiEh the JPC reconunendaEion on the need for alternative, back-up larvicides t.he prospects for early implement.ation of a Western Extension are noE encouraging, especially with regard to forested, humid savanna and upland areas. Hotrever, the fact that the JPC has conrmissioned the OCP to prepare a Planops for the Western Ext.ension infers thac Ehe JPC reconurendation on back-up larvicides was formulaEed as a guide- line for the OCP and not as a total embargo on all extension proposals. By accepting this thesis we can proceed by considering what activities could be implemenEed in the Western Extension area, cautiously, flexibIy, at the discretion of OCP experts and their professional advisers, and without undue delay. Furthermore, $re can define those areas and activities which must for the foreseeable future be left in abeyance until such time as the many constraints, discussed above, have been satisfactorily removed, reduced or circumnavigaced. .1
2. SPATIAL PHASING
ln the northern half of the Western Extension area which is dominated by generally Low altitude dry savannas, only the savanna species of the S. danrnosum compl-ex occur, and the vecEor situation is, therefore, not unlike t.he northern parE of the existing OCP area where vect.or control is feasible and has been very successful. Consequently, vector control in this region, utilizing existing OCP spraying technology and the larvicide temephos, can be considered feasible, provided that such a concept meets $rith Ehe approval of the Ecological Group and che Expert Advisory Conurlttee. I ocPf82.3 Page 33
Conversely, and in view of the many consEraincs to effective onchocerciasis control and evaluat.ion in the humid savanna and forest regions of the Western Extension area, as discussed earlier in this chapEer, OCP operations in the souEhern parE of the region mrst be postponed for theEimebeing. However, the OCP is continuing its studies in this part of the region, and chose st,udies will be considerably expanded when t.he West.ern Extension is implemented.
After very careful considerat,lon of che Eechnical and logisEical consequences of having two parEs of the WesEern Extension area (norEhern and southern) with differenE timetables for Ehe conulencement of onchocerciasis conErol activities, it was found Ehat no one parameter could adequaEely consEitute the dividing line between the tqro subregions. ConsequenEly, many parameCers qrere considered in order Eo derive what can be called a realistic t compromise. As precipitation patt,erns consEituEe a very imporEant factor in distinguishing dry savanna regions from humid savanna and forest regions, much aEtention was given Eo them (see Map 3). Similarly, much attenEion was given to the delineation of areas in which only the savanna species S. sirbanum and S. damnosum s.s. occur (see Map 4). Finally, ; consideration was also glven Eo drainage patterns, topography and accessibility of waEer- cour se s .
I In the final analysis of the different sets of data appraised, the conclusion was derived EhaE che dividing line should be located betqreen the mean annual rainfall isohyets of l3OO and 15OO nrm (see Map 3). t'laking allowances for the other criteria, it can be defined (see maP 5) as a line which proceeds in a westerly direction:
from Ehe existing OCP western limiE on the lower R. Niger, at the Mali-Guinea r fronEier; t - along the watershed'ehich separaEes Ehe Senegal River basin from the R. Tinkisso subsystem (of che R. Niger basin);
- across Ehe upper R. Bafing aE the Boureya hydrologlcal station;
- along Ehe eratershed which separates Ehe R. Faleme (Senegal River basin) from the upper R. Gambia;
across the upper R. Gambia at the Madina-Kouta hydrological sEat.ion;
along Ehe watershed which separates the R. Gambia from the R. Corubal and the R. Geba. I Thus the northern, dry savanna subregion of Ehe Western Extension area embraces western Mali, much of eastern Senegal and the northern frontier districts of Guinea. t Conversely the southern, humid savanna and forest subregion embraces a sma1l part of eastern Senegal (the R. Geba basin), the whole of Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone, and Ehe greater part of Guinea. , -1 TU,IETABLE FOR PHASING OF ACTIVITIES
3 I In Ehe northern subregion f In formulaEing phasing proposals for this subregion careful consideration has been given Eo Ehe following factors:
the expediency of restricting one phase zone Eo a whole river basin;
che need to cake over responsibility for and expand any localized control operaEions ? which the O.M.V.S. may have inEroduced in che R. Baftng subsystem in order to protect the Manantali Dam site;
- the need to give early protection to the expanding populations of the R. Faleme hyperendemic focus. 7 ocPf82.3 Page 34
phase Thus it is proposed that I will be confined to the Senegal River basln and Phase II to the R. Gambia basin (see Map 5). I
The main operaEional base for OCP operations in both phase zones will be Bamako, Mali.
It is ProPosed that OCP operations will conunence in the Phase I zone, and will be followed one year later in Ehe Phase II zone. Unless future developments in the subregion indicate otherwise, vector control operations in each phase zone will not commence until a tto-year PreParatory activities period has been successfully concluded. Thus within the six-year time frame of this Western Extension proposal, vector control operations will be conducted for four and three years in the Phase I and Phase II zones, respectively. 3.2 In Ehe southe rn subregion
UnEil such Eime as much more information is available on the distrlbution of Simulium \ species, on logisEic factors and on appropriace strategies for vecEor control in.lGEGlr" and foresEed areas, it is impossibte to say whether the subregion can eventually be considered as a single spatial phase zone or as a group of smaller phase zones.
For the time being and for the purposes of this report, the sout.hern subregion will be referred Eo as Ehe Phase III zone. 'l
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I CHAPTER V
PREPATdTORY ACT IVIT IE S
1. INTRODUCTION
The training of staff, the collecEion of the additional data essential for planning, the setting-up and calibration of additional hydrological stations, Ehe esEablishment of ehe infrasErucEure for Ehe aerial applicaEions, the ordering of equipment and supplies, the organization of conmrunicaEions wiEh Ehe oPerations centres, and the efficient organizaEion of the exEension will require a preliminary period of Ewo years, in most cases. t For each phase zone the first and second years of preparaEory acEivit.ies are hereafEer referred to as exEension year 1 and exEension year 2, respectively. Similarly the years during which vecgor conErol operaEions are in progress are referred to as exEension year 3 or 4 t or 5 or 6.
In t.he case of che Phase I zone, exEension year 1 could be synonomous with calendar ? year I983.
The various preparaEory acEivities which must be completed in a timely fashion are , considered separately beloqr according to Ehe ProPosed aPPorEionment of resPonsibilities.
2, OCP ACTIVITIES
.i 2.1 In rhe Phase I zone
The mosE imporEant OCP activlties to be conducted during exEension year 1 (EYI) in the , Phase I zone are: (i) Ehe recruitmenE and installaEion of international Personnel at the Bamako main operaEional base and in Ehe enEomological evaluation sectors and subsectors;
(ii) construction of an aircrafE hangar and support faciligy at Bamako;
(iii) equipment and furnishing of all bases for operations, and evaLuations, including t.he purclase and distribution of vehicles, equipmenE and supplies;
(iv) extension of che OCP radio coflmunication network;
(v) conducting of aerial surveys of Simulium breeding siEes and collectlon of samples for cytotaxonomic study and for insecticide susceptibility tesEing; (vi) awarding of a two-year conEract to an independent insEiEution for Ehe conducEing of environmental monitoring, acEivities, and for assistance in Ehe training of national staff; (vii) assisEing in the training of epidemiological evaluation staff;
(viii) cormencement of entomological evaLuaEions;
(ix) assisEing governments (Mali and Senegal) in the establishment of epidemiological evaluacion t.eams, and supervising the cofimencement of evaluations;
t (x) coflmencement of applied research on adulticiding.
Needless Eo say some of these activiEies will continue inEo subsequenE exEension years It is however essenEial Ehat they be cornmenced as early as possible in EYl.
7 ocPf82.3 page 36
other activities, which can be conducted during Eyl and Ey2 are:
(xi) assessment of aircraft requirement.s and the making of arrangements for an expansion of the OCP aerial operations contract;
(xii) consErucEion of helipads and storage facilities for aviation fuel and insecticides;
(xiii) conducting logistic and technical surveys in Ehe Phase I and phase II zones;
(xiv) establishment of. a system of river codings approprlate to larvlciding operations and Eo the recording/processing of entomological evaluation datal (xv) reporting.
2' In the Phase II zone \ The preparatory activiEies to be conducted in the Phase II zone are essentially the same as L,hose listed in section 2.1 above for the Phase I zone. However, it will not be necessary EO: (
(i) install an operational base;
(ii) construct an aircraft hangar and support facility;
(iii) award a contract for environmental moniEoring (the contracE referred to in section 2.1 (vi) above will cover boEh phase zones); ?.- (iv) conduct. adulciciding rrial-s.
2.3 In che Phase III zone
As stated earlier in this reporE those 6Eaff of the OCP who are direcEly concerned with the planning of the Western Extension are continuing their investigations in Ehe proposed phase III zone, even if they are on a limited scaIe. However, with the cornmencement of exEension operations in che Phase I zone and as soon as the initial settling process has been comPleted extension staff will be in a position Eo conduct much more extensive invest.igations in the Phase III zone. Thus during the period EYI to EY3 surveys in the phase III zone will concentrate on logistic factors, but, eventually more at.tention will be given to technical 1 asPects of onchocerciasis conErol. In part.icular, studies will be made of Simulium species distribution, and insecticide susceptibiliEy Eesting.
3 NATIONAL ACTIVITIES
3 1 In Ehe Phase and II zones
National activities which apply equally to the Phase I and II zones, but which are fitted to different time scales and which mainly concern Ehe governmenEs of Mali and Senegal, are as fol lows : T (i) establishment of National Onchocerciasis Conmittees in Senegal and Gulnea;
(ii) appointment by the NaEional Onchocerciasis Cornnittees of Mall, Senegal and Guinea of a liaison officer in each country who will work in close collaboraEion with national and internationaL bodles and who will assist them in day-to-day problem solving; .t (iii) ensure that al1 hydrological stations are funcEioning properly, and that they are readily accessible at all t.imes of the year;
(iv) construcEion of additional hydrological statlons in accordance wlth the requirements expressed later in Ehis chapter, ensuri.ng all-season accessibility; T ocPf82.3 Page 37 (v) improve and maintain the existing road network and consErucE and mainEain addieional i roads in accordance with t.he requirements expressed later in E.his chapter;
(vi) che making available of buildings Eo acconunodate the teans Ehat will be responsible for entomological, epidemiological and environmental monitoring activiE,ies;
(vii) che making of arrangements Lrith Ehe appropriat.e civil aviaEion aut.horities for Ehe construction of an aircraft hangar at Bamako internaEionaL airporE, for Ehe construction of helipads in rural areas (construction costs will be met by the OCP), for Ehe waiver of dut,y on aviaEion equipment, fuels, lubricanEs, spare parts and Eools, for the waiver of aircrafE landing and parking fees at, urban airfields, and, for over-flight clearances ; 'v (viii) the creation of epidemiological and environmental monitoring units, involving the early identification of personnel who will have to be trained by the OCP;
I (ix) the initiation of a comprehensive information campaign.
3.2 Phase III zone
L Noting t.hat. Ehe National Onchocerciasis Conrmittee of Guinea will be created during EYl in relation to extension acEivities in Ehe Phase I and II zones, it is anEicipated that similar conuniEtees for Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone will be escablished during EY2.
In view of the uncertaint,y abouE a possible starEing date for extension acEivities in the Phase III zone, it is considered unnecessary Eo present here a detailed list of che r1 activiEies Eo be conducted during the preparatory period(s); in any case they will, to all intents and purposes, be similar Eo those which have been described above for Ehe Phase I and II zones.
4. ACTIVITIES CONDUCTED JOINTLY BY TTIE OCP AND NATIONAL ALNHORITIES
The most important of these acEivities can be sunmarized as follows:
(i) the selection of indicaEor villages for epidemiological evaluaEion purposes and Ehe collection of baseline, pre-concrol data;
(ii) che selection of sites for hydrobiological sEudies.
5 OCP REQUIREMENIS FOR ADDITIOT.IAL HYDROLOGICAL STATIONS AND ROADS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES
5.1 Requirements for hydrological stations
A detailed hydrological survey was made of the l,lestern Extension area in L979f8O and from the resultant reporE it is possible to sunrmarize the situation in the Phase I and II zones and Eo identify additional requirements for control operations. These are considered on a national basis below. ! ( i) Western Mali:
Twenty-nine hydrological stations q,ere in operation in 1980 and an additional five stations were proposed for the following rivers: Baou16, Badin-Ko, Bale-2, Balinn and Bale- 1 .
t In March 1982, it was observed Ehat Ewo new stations, not included in the above list, had been installed Eo Ehe east of Kayes on the R. Korigon aE Segala and on the R. Gari aE LambaEara. The extenE to which these staEions could be of use to the OCP has noE yet. been determined. ocPf82.3 Page 38
Additional hydrological sracions and those existing sEations requiring recalibration are as follows:
Bafing subsystem
New sE.ations on the Bale-l, Bale-2 and Balinn.
Bakove subsystem
RecalibraEion of the Diangola sEation on the R. Bakoye
&roul6 subsysEem
New stations on Ehe R. Baou16 downstream from the Baou16 Loop, and on Ehe R. Badin-Ko. t Recalibration of the scaEions at the Baou16 Railway Sration (ToukoEo) and in the Baout6 Park.
(ii) Senegal:
Twenty-six stations were in operation in 198O and an additional two were proposed for the rivers Faleme and Niokolo-lbba.
AddiE.ional sEations are as follows:
Faleme subsygtem
New station at Sansande. River Gambia system T New station on Ehe lower R. Niokolo-Koba, near Simenti.
(iii) Guinea
There were 53 stacions in Guinea in 198O and an additional- seven stations were proposed for Ehe following rivers: Koul-ai, Bakoye, Lele, Niantan, Banie, Bouka and lbulountou. A more recent survey indicates that at least 25 of the existing stations are no longer in 1 oPeraE. ion.
For the imPlementation of vector conErol operations in the Phase I and II zones there will be no dependence on hydrological staEions located in Guinea. PartIy for this reason and partly in view of the facE that OCP requirements in Guinea have not yet been fu1ly assessed full details of the possible hydrological network Ehere cannoE be presented here.
It should be emphasized chat for OCP purposes: r - Ewo years' data are required from a new hydrologicaL staEion or from a recalibrated one before dosages can be calculated with optimum efficiency;
- $raEer level gauges should be ficted wich large figures and positioned in open siEuaEions so Ehat. they can easily be read by an aircraft piIot.
The estlmated basic costs of Lmproving Ehe hydrological networks of Mali and Senegal Eo meet OCP requi-remencs are as follows: 1
T ocPf'2.3 Page 39
AcEiviEv US dollars
Construction/repair of five stations in Mali 3 500 CalibraEion of eight stations in Mali 11 200
Sub-total: 14 700
ConstrucEion of Ehro stations in Senegal 1 400 Calibration of Ewo stations in Senegal 2 800 Sub-Eotal: 4 200 '! ToEaI: 18 900
I The provision of funds for these acEivities is the responsibility of the Mali and Senegal governments. However, in order to ensure the timely completion of these activiEies the OCP may contribute to$rards the cosE of maEerials.
5.2 Requir ts for additional roads
Unt.il such time as OCP officials have had detailed discussions with road engineers of the t., appropriace national auEhorities Ehe lists of roads required by the OCP must be considered as rengagive. Similarly, until the precise alignmenE of proposed new roads has been agreed upon by all parEies concerned, it is impossible to estimate the financial conrniEment that will be required. However, it is safe to assume Ehat substanEial funds will be required Eo extend a Ehe neEwork in Mali and Senegal. Addirional roads that will be required have been identified as follocrs: r In !.Iali: (i) westwards from Kolokani to the juncEion of Ehe rivers Baou16 and Dia;
(ii) wesEwards from Kica to the R. Bakoye;
(iii) northeastwards from Kita to Ehe R. Baoul6, crossing the rivers Badinn-Ko and ) Kenieba-Ko; (iv) sourhwards from Manantali to Bafing Makana, aLong the riSht bank of the R. Bafing;
(v) southeastrrards from Koundia, Ehrough the R. Balinn valley, to Bafing Makana;
(vi) southeastwards from Kenieba to the rivers Kouloun-Ko and Dassabola;
(vii) wesEcrards from Dialafara to Ehe R. Faleme. v In Senegal: (viii) northwards from the Kedougou-Kenieba road Eo Ehe R. Faleme;
(ix) souEheastwards from the Kedougou-Kenieba road to the rivers Koila-Kabe and Badinn-Ko;
(x) norEhwards from Salemata to the R. Gambia; f- (xi) eascwards from Ehe Tambacounda-Youkounkoun road Eo the R. Koulountou. ,, 1
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6. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS I It musE be mentioned here Ehat there are several mineral exploitation activities in the WesEern Extension area (and others are planned), which could have an influence on vector conErol oPerations (see Map 6) . In the firsc place, effluent from certain types of mining activiEy which is dlscharged into nearby rivers could reduce the efficiency of tarviciding oPeracions. Secondly, oEher types of mining activity associated wit.h the extraction of precious st.ones, such as diamonds, have very scrictly enforced security regulations I some may be totally 'rrescrictedt' areas. In such situations very complete and well-documented clearances would have to be granted by che appropriate government authorlties before any vector control and'for evaluation activicies could be planned and implemented. For obvious reasons, all che appropriate clearances will have to be secured during the preparatory r act.ivities phases.
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CHAPTER VI
VECTOR COT{IROL OPERATIONS IN THE PHASE I AI{D II ZONES
1. OPERATIONAL BASES
1.1 Primary operationaL base
Since aerial larviciding operations will be under the sEricE control of the OCP, and anticipating Ehat aerial adulticiding operations may also be introduced, all aerial operations will be centralized. a The primary operaEional base will be/at Bamako, MaIi, where it will be necessary Eo consEruct an aircrafE hangar and workshop/office complex. It is foreseen Ehat. Bamako will I not inltially be responsibLe for major repairs and overhauling of aircraft (Ehis wilI contlnue to be done at Bobo-Dioulasso), but solely for routine and day-eo-day servicing activities.
L.2 Secondarv operaEional bases
As far as possible aircraft will make full use of existlng aeronautical facilities to which the supply of fuel and insecEicide does not creaEe a big problem in MaIi and Senegal. '(t The airfields identified as being suitable for both helicopcers and fixed-wing aircraft are listed below: In Mali (Phase I):
Kayes: can be supplied by rail from Bamako Kenieba: can be supplied by road from Kayes Bafoulabe: can be supplied by rail from Bamako, through the rallway station at tlahina Manantali (Bingassa): can be supplied by road from Bafoulabe Kita: can be supplied by rail from Bamako Iblokani: can be supplled by road from Bamako. In Se4egal (Phase II):
Tambacounda: can be supplied by rail from Dakar Kedougou: can be supplled by road from Tambacounda.
1.3 OCP helipads
TentaEive l-ists of places where it will be necessary to construct OCp helipads are given be tow It !,tali (Phase I):
Bafing Makana: can be supplied by road from Bafoulabe-Mahina, via Manantali Torodo: can be supplied by road from Bamako Toukoto: can be supplied by rail from Bamako, and possibly by road from Kita. In Seneeal (Phase II):
Simenti: can be supplied by road from Tambacounda.
Helipads conscructed in remote andfor sandy areas shouLd be made reasonably durable F either by making a 5 m x 5 m concrete plinth surrounded by 4OO m2 of packed, coarse, gravel, OE, by putting down che gravel wit.hout Ehe concrete ptinth.
) ocPf82.3 PaBe 42 1.4 Logistic support (
As far as possible heavy duty lift-trucks and railway services will be used to supply insecticide and aviation fuel to the secondary operaEional bases and helipads.
In the first instances, four trucks will be required in Mali (two at Bamako, one at Bafoulabe and one aE Kayes) , and Ewo in Senegal (at Taurbacounda). The safe-keeping of rural stocks of lnsectlcide and aviation fuels will be entrusted to 1ocal1y-recruited watchmen.
2 AERIAL OPERATIONS IOGISTICS AITD COSTS
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2 1 Aircraft requiremenEs i ,! For conventional applications of temephos aircraft of che Eype currently employed by the OCP would be acceptable, i.e. a helicopter capable of carrying2OO litres of insecticide and a fixed-wing aircraft capable of carrying 600 litres. From a logistic viewpoint, aircrafc r.rith greater load carrying capacities would be advantageous.
2.2 Deployurent of aircraft t A11 aircraft will normally be based at, and operated from, Bamako. However, in order to make aerial spraying fllght circults as economical as possible, pilots will be required to make rest-over-night sEops at a limited number of secondary operational bases, e.g. Kayes and Tambacounda.
2.3 Basic aircraft costs
The costs presented below are those which will be applicable to the OCP during the period ( 1983-85 (boEh years inclusive): HeLicopters us$
Basic hourly hiring charge: 422 lOO litres of fuel at $ O37flitre: 37 Total hourly cost 4s9 { (say US$ 460)
Fixed-w:Lng airc!4fE
Basic hourly hlring charge: 440 15O litres of fuel at $ O 37fti:.rez 55 .5
ToEal hourly cost: 495.5
(say US$ 5oo)
2.4 Flieht hour requirements and costs
These data are presented in Table 1.
3. INSECTICIDE REQUIREMET{IS i
A11 calculaEions for insecticide requirements have been based on the assumption that Ehe 2O7. emulsifiable concentrate of Eemephos which is rouEinely employed in the existing OCP area, t' or similar, will be used. I
l ocPf82.3 Page 43 3.1 Temephos requirements for Ehe Phase I zone
Requirements of t.emephos for 11 months of the first year of treatments have been esEimaEed on a month-by-month basis and presented in Table 2. The total is 117 498 l-icres, but. no contingency provision has been included.
It t"rould therefore be advisable to allow for 13O 000 litres.
Estimated requiremenEs for three subsequenE treatment years are 135 OOO litres annually.
If construction work on the l{anant.ali Dam is completed during any one of the years and F breeding sites on part of che R. Bafing are flooded ouE by che newly creaEed lake, Ehere would be some savings in temephos. AE this stage, iE would be premaEure to try and calculate Ehe magnitude of any such savings.
3.2 Iemeoho s requiremenEs for the II zone
Tentative estimates of temephos requirements and costs for the R. Gambia system are 39 ooo litres for the first year and 41 ooo litres annually chereafter.
3. 3 ToEal Eemeohos re rements and costs
7 rn making the following calculations it has been assumed thaE Ehe first year's supply of temephos will be purchased in 1984.
fhase, zone and Temephos treacment year (Iitres) US dollars
Ph.I-Yr 1 (1e84) 130 000 1 170 000 7 Ph.I-Yr 2 135 000 I 309 500 Ph.I-Yr 3 135 000 L 4t4 260 Ph.I-Yr 4 135 000 L 527 400
Sub-tocals: 535 000 5 42t L60
Ph.II-Yr 1 (1985) 39 000 378 300 Ph.II-Yr 2 41 000 397 700 Ph.II-Yr 3 41 000 426 400
Sub-totals: 12 1 000 I 202 400
Totals: 656 000 6 623 560
4 MANAGERIAL STAFF
An Assiscant Chief of the Vect.or Control Unit (Bamako) will be appoinred responsibility wiEh ) for the operations in the Western Extension area. His duties wil-[ be as follows:
- permanent liaison with the chief, vcu on atl technical matters;
- coordination and supervision of aerial spraying operations and ent.omological evaluaEions, in direct consult.ation with subunit chiefs;
supervision of environmental monitoring in consultation wiEh the OCP hydrobiological contractors and national teams;
liaison with the national epidemiological evaluation teams;
) ocPfl2.3 PaBe 44
- t,ransmission of results to the data recording and analysis service;
- supervision of progress reporEs of the uniEs; - parE,icipaEion in the training of national personnel.
TheAssistantChief, VCU will visiE the sectors and subsectors as frequently as possible in order to ensure the best cohesion and the maximum motivation among the teams. He will have Eo initiaEe meetings of the sector chiefs and periodic radio link-ups.
The Aerial Operations Sub-Unit at Bamako nrill be headed by an Aerial Operations Officer who will r"rork direcEly under the AssiscanE Chief, VCU. Ihe Aerial Operations Officer will be '{ responsible for:
organizing and supervising aerial operaEions in close collaboraEion with E.he entomologisc in charge of the entomological evaluation work, who will also be based in Bamako;
arranging, in conjunction wiEh the OCP administrat.ion uniE, for che ordering, taking delivery and distribuEion of insecticides and aircraft fuel;
assisting in working ouE the r.reekly flight plans, deciding on the amounts of insecticlde E.o be applied, and selecting the treatment points; .T arranging with appropriate officials of the entomological evaluation unit. and of the research t.eam, for Ehe conducting of logistic operations, aeri-al entomological evaluaEions and research activiEies requiring the use of aircraft (insecticide susceptibility tests, collection of saurples for cytoEaxonomic examination, evaluation trials of adulticides, etc.);
- close liaison wich the OCP's overall Chief of Aerial Operations based in Ouagadougou, and wiEh the Aerial Operations Officer based in Bobo-Dioulasso.
The Aerial OperaEions Officer assigned to Bamako wiLl be assisted by two deputy aerial operations officers. Initially they will boch be based at Bamako buE evenEually one may be outposted. They will be responsible for applying the directives of the Aerial Operations Officer in the Phase I and II zones. They will liaise closely with Ehe Aerial Operations Officer located in Bobo-Dioulasso.
5. APPLIED RESEARCH
It is anEicipated Ehat Ehe Phase I and II zones will be exposed to a Simulium reinvasion phenomenon similar Eo, if not identical to, Ehat which occurs annually in che existing OCP area.
It is therefore important for che Western Extension area, the same as for the existing OCP area, t.haE effective adulticiding techniques be developed as soon as possible, in order Eo determine their effectiveness in countering reinvasion problems, which could have serious epidemiological repercussions. Accordingly, and in support of the current OCP appl-ied ( research prograflrme, provision has been made in Table 1 for addicional helicopter fIight hours for adulciciding Eria1s.
T ocPf12.3 Page 45
CHAPTER VII
ETNOMOLOG ICAL EVALUAT IONS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES
1. INIRODUCTION Plans for entomol-ogical evaluations in the l,lestern Extension area can be drawn uP on Ehe basis of the meEhods described in Chapter II. As in che exiscing oCP area' Ehese plans are in Large measure based on the deployment of teams in the field, so thaE caEching Points selected by ehe entomologists, in consultation wiEh the national epidemiological evaluaEion teams, can be regularly visiEed.
However, along many sEretches of river in Che Phase I and II zones, where iE is essential Eo conducE entomological evaluations, access roads are either in very bad condition, or, EotalIy non-existenE. D,r.rring the E$ro-year preparatory phase every attemPt wilL be made to improve and extend the road net$rorks, buE iE is extremely unlikely EhaE toCalty satisfactory progress will be made before the cortrnencement of Phase I vector conErol oPerations. Against this background of consEraints ic is obvious Ehat conventional enEomological evaluation methods cannot be effectively implemenEed in all areas. In order to overcome this problem considerable flexibilicy will have to be exercised boEh with regard to the tyPes of ground transport Co be used, and t.o Ehe arrangemenC of vector sampling Procedures. In some extreme cases, helicopcers may have to be called in to assist entomological personnel.
2 . ENTOI"IOLOGICAL EVALUATION SIIB.UNIT ) All entomological evaluaEion actlviEies will be conducEed by an Entomological Evaluation Sub-Unit (EESU) which, like the AerlaL OperaEions Sub-Unit, will be under the direction of Ehe AssistanE Chief, VCU.
The EESU, with headquarters in Bamako, will be headed by a senior enEomologist and an enEomologisE .
The Chief of the EESU will have dlrecE responsibility for the whole evaluation net.work r.riEh Ehe following duties: selecEion of catching points in cooperation with the sector chiefs, Eheir assistants and technicians, and with the responsible officlals of the epidemiologicaL evaLuaEion teams ; coordination of evaLuation acEivities by constant liaison, Eaking che form of visits and radio contacts with the sector chiefs; reception of reports from the sector chiefs;
- globa1 weekly and monthly analysis of results on the basis of consolidaced daea sheets from Ehe sector heads; correction of Ehese sheeEs, if required, on the basis of the original data; - participaEion in the supervision of environmencal monitoring activities; - permanent technical liaison with the Aeria1 Operations Officer.
2.L Sectors and subsectors
Two sectors will be required for the Phase I zone, and one sector for Ehe Phase II zone. Information pertinenE Eo these secEors ls given below.
Bamako (Phase I zone) Responsible for the Baou16-Bakoye river subsysEem and the lower R. Niger. I ocPf82.3 Page 46
Bamako city, with many facilities and amenities, is already the siEe of an OCp sector '-l headquarters. For Ehe Purposes of Ehe Phase I zone it should be a relatively simple matter to expand Ehe Bamako sector by:
- enlarging Ehe present Basrako subsect,or so that iE has the capabiliEy of evaluating the lower R. Niger and the upper R. Baou16;
- creating a neq, subsector with headquarters at KiEa, and responsible for the middle R. Baoul6 and the R. Bakoye.
AlEhough the town of Kita has no electricity and running uater supplies, it is nevertheless suitable for a subsector headquarters because it is on the railway link and has a good airfield. I
Kayes (Phase I zone): Res ponsible for Ehe rivers Senegal, Faleme and Bafing.
The Eotm of Kayes, is on t.he railway line, ls supplied wiEh electricity and running water, has a good airfield, and always has stocks of vehicle fuel. It is thus more than adequate as a location for a sector headquarters. \ Tambacounda (Phase II zone): Responsible for the rivers Faleme and Gambia.
Tambacounda is on the railway line, is supplied with electricity and running water, has a good airfield and usually good stocks of vehlcle fueI. It is thus adequate for the location of a secEor headquarters. { The overall sector and subsector netsrork can be susunarized as follows:
Sector HQ Subsectors
Phase I zone: Bamako Kita I IGyes Kayes lGyes Bafoulab6 or MananEali IGyes Kenieba IGyes Kedougou, Senegal (a cemporary measure for Phase I evaluations).
Phase II zone Tambacounda Tambacounda Tambacounda Kedougou. I The disEribution of the secEors and subsectors for the Phase I and II zones, togeEher with predictions for the remaining part of the West,ern Extension area, are illustraced in Map 7.
2.2 Staffing of sectors and subsectors
In preparing the staff lists of the various sector and subsecEor units allowance has been made for the fact.s that : I
some units will be required to use boats for surveilLance purposes;
some uniEs will require a small road repair Eeam;
laboratory technicians in 6ooe subsectors will have to accompany t,he veccor collecEors to the field and dissect flies on the spot.
The numbers and categories of staff requlred for sectors and subsectors in the Phase I and II zones are Presented in Table 3.
I I
ocPf 82.3 Page 47
2 3 ResponsibiliEies of and subsecEor chiefs
Under Ehe technical supervision of the Entomological Evaluation Sub-Unit in Bamako, sector chiefs wilI: - organize the catching nettork in their sector;
- give Ehe chief Eechnicians of Ehe subsectors the necessary instrucEions for the smooth running of catching operations and the survey of larval breeding places;
- mainEain permanent contact with their Eechnicians Ehrough visits and radio contact;
- receive infonration by radio on insect catches and dissection;
analyse Ehese results and pass Ehem on to Che Chief, EESU;
check the validity of the catches and dissect.ions recorded on the occasion of frequent vislts;
receive and verify hydrological data and pass them on to Ehe Aerial Operacions Officer or one of his assistants; - supervise sector administrative acEiviEies.
In addiEion to the subsectors which Ehe sector chiefs will have Eo supervise, each will 7 have under his supervision:
an adminisEraEive nucleus ;
a Sarage for maintenance and repair of the vehicles of the sectors and subsectors;
- a smalI catching Eeam that will enable hirn, should the need arise, to come Eo the assistance of a subsector chief, or to make periodic checks of the results obtained by the subsector tearns.
To carry out all these acEivities the secLor chiefs will have to be constanEly on the move, motivating activities and endeavouring to verify Ehe results. Sector assisE.ant entomologists will assist sector chiefs in all their duEies. In part.icular, they will maintain Permanent liaison wiEh t,he chief t.echnicians of the subsectors.
By virtue of their technical- leve1 and their deployment over the area, che chief technicians of the subsectors will- be the link between che teams engaged in data collecEion and the higher levels responsible for their analysis and use. Because of chis rhey will play a major role in the campaign.
Under the direcE supervision of their secEor chief and his assistant, they wilI be responsible for: a - organizing E.he catching itineraries in their subsector on Ehe bas-is of instructions received from their superiors;
supervising the catches ;
- ensuring the preservati.on of che blackflies caught, and Eheir rapid desparch Eo Ehe dissection points;
- dissecEing the blackflies caughr Eo determine their physiological age and infecEion with o. vorvulus; should the need arise, dissections will have to be performed at the point of capture I 7 ocPf82.3 Page 48
- enEering the results on record sheeEs and cormunicating Ehem Eo Ehe sector; - prospecEing of larval breeding places;
- collecting of hydrological daEa and Eheir Eransmission to Ehe sector; - ensuring that vehicles are in good running order and inmediately informing the sector Barage mechanic in Ehe evenE of a breakdown; - assisting the cre$rs of the treatmenE aircrafE as necessary.
Depending on the staff complement, between eight and 15 caEching days a qreek should be worked at from 1O to 15 poinEs. This will provide good overall coverage of the area, i .e . l8O-2 7O caEching points .
2.4 TimeEable of s e cEor act,iviEies
The enEomologists, assistant entomologist.s and technicians for the Phase I sectors and subsectors should be selected, recruited and sent on a Eraining course (IRTO, Bouak€ and OCP) so as to cake up their poscs as early as possibLe during the first year of PreParatory acEiviEies.
For l{ali, one Erained entomologist is available (currently employed by Ehe OCCGE at Bafoulabe). An assistant enEomologisE and six technicians (entomol-ogy) witl have to be recruiEed and trained.
For Senegal, one cechnician (entomology) witl have to be recruited and trained t
As soon as they are installed in Eheir respective bases the entomologists, assistants and Eechnicians will select catching points jointly with the EESU in Bamako.
At Ehese catching points Ehey will train their staff in techniques for the catching and preservaEion of blackflies and their transPorE Eo Ehe laboratory.
Once the staff have been trained, Ehe subsectors will conrmence regular catching operaEions in order Eo obtain Pre-sPray evaluation data (ATP and ABR). The subsector teams will have to give assistance, in as far as possible, in setting up and calibrating the hydrological sEations. They will have to learn how to read flood gauges and war.er-leveI recorder curves. During Eheir field tours they will have Eo check the locaEion of knoqnr breeding places and bring Ehe records uP Eo date in this connexion.
They will have Eo take parE in every specialized survey (insecticide susceptibility, cytotaxonomy) needed during Ehe preparation of the treaEment phase.
2.5 SecEor require s for vehicles (
These are listed in Table 4.
2.6 SecEor requiremenEs for eouioment
These are listed in Table 5
T ocPf82 3 PaBe 49
2.7 R.egqlgements for radio stations
In anticipation of extending the existing OCP radio neEwork into the Western Extension area, some long disEance radio checks (on frequency 10.143) were made in January 1982. The radio links cested, all of which gave sattsfactory resulEs, were:
Bamako-Parakou l3OO km Bamako-Hohoe 12OO km Bamako-Niamey 1t2O km Bouak6-Niamey 1O2O kn
The OCP has requested an additional radio frequency (12.0OO) and if this is approved, very good Eransmissions should be possible EhroughouE the expanded OCP area.
However, anEicipaEing Ehat there may at times be transmlssion problems, iE has been considered advisable to allow for a more poqrerful station to be insEalled in Bamako, to replace Ehe present. station.
,, Requirements for radio sEations in the sectors and subsectors of the Phase I and II zones have been presented in Table 5. The services of a consultant radio engineer will be required t.o install the new sEations. l, 3. C'ISOTAXONOMY SIIB.UNIT
In view of the taxonomic complexity of the Western Extension area, and the need Eo moniEor very carefully che seasonal movements of different [!q!!g species, it will be necessary to form a smalI cytocaxonomic sub-unit.
This sub-uniEwilloperaEe from a small laboratory in Bamako and will be staffed by
- a cycotaxonomist (a zoology graduate with postgraduaEe training and experience in taxonomic techniques) ;
- a laboratory assisrant (trained by OCP) ; - a laboratory auxilliary; - a driver.
The sub-unitwillbe equipped wiEh one four-wheel drive-vehicle, essential laboratory equipment (ca US$ 6O0O) and will require an annual budget of ca US$ 10 OOO for supplies and oPerating cosEs.
4. DURATION OF PRE.CO}ITROL EVALUATIONS
It is repeatedly stated thac pre-control entomological evaluations should be conducted for at least one year before the commencement of vector conErol operaEions. In principle, Ehis is an excellent procedure especially if new techniques are being evaluaEed, but iE may not be altogether necessary in relaEion co che extension of a control technique of proven efficiency from one region Eo anoEher ident.ical region. The aeriaL spraying technique currently used successfully over about 75% of the OCP is a proven technique for dry savanna situations. If the same cechnique (without any variation) is used slightly further r^rest, a reduced Pre-control enEomological evaluation may be adequate. Post-treatment evaluat.ions are very important because, on Ehe basis of the results obEeined, Ehe next Ereatment cycle can be planned; Pre-treatmenE evaluation data do not influence such planning buE are necessary when a complete epidemiological evaluatlon of the control operaEion is required. In the long Eerm, the only valid way of evaluaEing the conErol operat.ions is by medical means, not entomological.
a I
I ocPf82.3 Page 50
CHAPTER VIII
EPIDEMIOIOGICAL EVALUATIONS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES
I. I}TTRODUCTION
It is proposed to make use of national teams and staff to carry out epidemiological evaluations. However, considerable OCP inputs will be required, for exanple:
(i) for the training of personnel I
(ii) for Ehe provision of equipment and supplies;
(i.ii) to supervise evaluations and to analyse Ehe data collected.
The parEicipation by national teams will conetituEe a direct contrlbucion by the five countries to Ehe Western Extension, supplementary to thelr other contributions (premises, acconmodation). However, naEional particlpation impllee certain consErainEs: {.
(a) CorrecE evaluatlon of the situation calls for a unifted basic meEhodology; this applies both to day-to-day and long-term evaluations. The evaluators of the five .a counEries will have Co agree to ablde by specific pro tocols which cannot be altered on any account. The only latitude they rrtll have is Eo add suppleuentary information t,hey consider useful-.
(b) The intercountry evaluation actlvitles should be coordinated by the OCP Epidemio- logical Unit. This wilL bring together and analyse the data collected. It will see that regular meeElngs of the teasr leaders are organlzed so that they can discuss che ways and means of implenentation, the difficulties encountered and the needs. These rneet,ings will also provide an opportunity for refresher tralning and for brieflng by consultants.
(c) The willingness to participate should be reflected in the establishmenc of national conrmittees for onchocerciasis control which will organlze ad hoc Eechnical groups. Regular meetings should be organized at the national and inEercountry levels.
National Eeams responsible for the evaluation of endemic onchocerciasis should be set up as soon as Ehe preparaEory phase begins. Their trainlng should attempc to familiarize them with the techniques developed by OCP for the standardized collecEion of cIlnical, parasitological and ophthalmological data. Data collection of this kind is essential for the implementation of the extension.
2, SELECTION OF INDICATOR VILI.AGES
The selection of indicator vlllages in accordance lrith established OCP criEeria will be made as soon as possible (as soon as national Eeams are up to sErength and appropriately installed) during the preparatory periods.
Initially, in both Mali and Senegal, national Eeams composed of a sociologist and a stat.istician, wll1 be required to:
identify potential indicator villages ;
census Ehe populations I - establish sociodemographic records of each vlllage.
Once the necessary infonraElon has been obtalned, national and OCP epidemiologists wll1 jointly select the most representatlve indlcator villages which accord with OCP criteria.
I ocPf82.3 L Page 51 3. POPULATION COVERED BY EVALUATIONS IN INDICATOR VILLAGES Table 6 gives the distribution of the population to be evaluated during Phases I and II making allowance for ineviEable absentees (2O%) who will be noted during successive visits to t.he indicator villages.
4. EVALUATION TEA},TS 4.1 For parasitoLogical evaluations
Parasitological evaluations will be made aE both che simple and detailed levels
One parasitological team should be able to examine aE leasE 1OO personrfa^y.
The composition of a parasiEology team is: - I clinician/epidemiologist (team leader),
- 1 census clerk, - 1 nurse,
- 1 nurse for measuring visual acuity, - 3 microscopisEs, - 1 laboratory assistant, - 3 drivers. One team will be provided wirh che following vehicle fleet:
- 1 minibus camper (USg 10 OOO),
- I four-wheel-drive vehicle (US$ 13 23O) ,
- I cruck - Saviem Cabine (US$ i6 3OO),
and scientific/technical equipmenr E,o rhe value of USg 16 OOO.
4. 2 For ophrhalmoloeical eva luat ions
ophchalmological examinations will only be made aE rhe detailed evaluaEion leveI. One Eeam should be able Eo examine approximately 60 peopte/aay.
The composition of an ophthalmological team is:
- 1 clinician/ophrhalmologisr (ream Leader) , - 1 nurse specialized in ophthalmology, - 1 census clerk, - 2 drivers.
One Eeam will be provided wiEh the following vehicle fleet:
- 1 minibus camper (US$ fO OOO),
- 1 Saviem mobile laboratory (US$ 54 OOO). ocPf82.3 Page 52
5. CAPABILITIES OF NATIOML HEALTH AUTHORITIES
5.1 Simple evaluaEions
Because highly specialized personnel are noE required for parasitological examinations, iE is quite likely that bot.h national health authoriEies will be able Eo provide Eeams for simple evaluaEions.
Mali does not. have a Eeam aE presenE which could be charged wiEh epidemiological evaluations in Ehe West.ern Extension area. However t.he Malian authoriEies are in favour of che formaEion of such a team, and consider that doing Ehis should not present any grave problem. The parasitological unit can probably be formed by staff already available in Bamako i (one clinician, one census c1erkr..r,rt""/"nipper, two microscopists and one nurse for visual acuity tests).
Similarly, iE seems likely that the Senegal auEhorities will noc have Eoo much I difficulcy in finding the necessary scaff.
5.2 DeEaiIed evaluaEions
A number of nurses have been Erained in ophthalmology aE the I.O.T.A., Bamako (see Table 7) . In Mali, one ophEhalmologist, destined for Ehe operacion [LumiEre'r at Kayes, could be available and if necessary additional staff (mainly nurses) could be drawn from I .O.T .A.
Wtrile it is fairly certain that the Malian health authorities will be able to provide the ophthalmological expertise required for detaiLed evaluations, iE may noE be so easy for the Senegalese authorities to do so. This does noE necessarily mean Ehat qualified personnel do not exist, it is jusE that they may not be avaiLable for onchocerciasis investigations.
5.3 OpEions for ophEhalmological evaluaEions
In view of the difficulcies which the naEional health auEhorities may encounter in creating efficienE ophthalmological evaluation teams, it is pertinent to consider some possible alternatives to each government having its ot"rrl team.
The mosE obvious opEions that. can be considered are
(i) Creation of national ophthalmological t.eams which will devoEe only parE of their Eime and energy Eowards the evaluation of onchocerci.asis control operations. However, this might be difficult Eo achieve and, as equipment woutd have to be provided by che OCP to enable Ehe Eeams to meec OCP requirements, and che same equipment would be used for other purposes, the cost/benefiC ratio would noE be very favourable.
(ii) CreaEion of one inEercountry Eeam which would have the capability of making the required evaluaEions in boEh Mali and Senegal. This sysEem would not only allow national participaEion buE would also enable equipment cosEs to be kePE Eo a minimum.
(iii) Creat.ion of a new OCP ophthalmological team r.rhich would conduct evaluations in each of Che countries. This option would also enable costs to be maintained aE a low level but lacks appeal on the grounds that it does not allow any naEional involvemenE.
In conclusion, iE must be sEaEed that as che OCP epidemiological evaluaEion unit will have the responsibility for supervising evaluacions in Che WesEern Extension area, and may from time to time be able Eo give assistance in the field, opEion number (ii) above has most to conunend iE, and is the one which has been used for budget calculations.
If Ehe concept of a single inEercountry Eeam is accepted it would be up to the Malian and Senegalese authorit.ies Co suggest where iEs headquarEers should be located. LogisCically, Kayes could be a suitable location. ocPf82.3 Page 53
CHAPTER IX
E NVI RONI,IE I{TAL MONITORING IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES
1. INTRODUCTION
Assessment of the impact of insecticide Ereatments on the non-Earget. aquaEic fauna is of fundament.al imporEance for mainEaining the environmenE at the highest Possible level of qualiEy.
In this conEext, Ehe ecological surveillance of treated watercourses will take the form of continuous assessmenE of che extent of the impact of the treatmenEs.
The study mechods used will be those developed in OCP and designed, as regards both I invertebrates and fish: - to deEermine the faunaL componenEs mosE affecced by the larviciding;
- Eo Eake qualiEative and quantiEative stock of che siEuation during Ehe pre-treatmenE period and aE regular inEervals once larviciding has counrenced I
- Eo prevent any adverse effecE considered important with regard to che exiscing biological balances .
The resulcs obtained will have to take inEo consideraEion specific Eaxonomic groups but also biological conununiEies taken as a represent,ative ecological entity.
IE is certain that the conducEing of hydrobiological surveillance by Malian and Senegalese teams will entail onerous and costly infrastrucEures, and will require very careful and detailed coordination. From the scienEific sEandpoi.nt such inEensiEy of surveillance is not entirely justified and it would obviously lead to duplicaEion in Ehe collection of informaEion. To avoid this situacion developing, it would be realistic to envisage a single int.ercounEry team which would meeE the requirements of both Mali and Senegal. Such a team could be based ) in Kayes and operate Ehrough a substatlon located at. Tambacounda. The monitoring responsibilities of che t$ro sEations would be as follows:
From Kayes
the River Senegal downsEream from Bafoulabe,
the River Bafing from Bafing-Makana downstream to Ehe junction of the rivers Bafing and Bakoye,
the River Faleme from iEs junction with Ehe River Koba-Koye Eo its junction wiEh the River Senegal.
From Tambacounda
the River Gambia and it.s main tributaries, the rivers KoulounEou, Niokolo-Koba and Tiokoye.
At this poinc iE musE be st.ressed EhaE neither Mali nor Senegal has a hydrobiological service; nor do t.hey have suitably qualified and experienced personnel necessary Eo creaEe a service or team.
I i l r ocPf82.3 Page 54
Initially, a t$ro-year contract should be awarded for hydrobiological surveillance to a I suit,ably qualified independent institutlon. Such a contract would be executed under E.he ,! supervision of an OCP hydrobiologist.
During the first year of the contract national candidates for training would be identified and alrarded scholarships (six months for a graduate and three monEhs for a technician) to undergo training at one or more of the following institutions:
- Ehe ORSTOM Hydrobiology Laboratory (Bouak€, Ivory Coast);
- the Aquatic Biology InstituEe at AchimoEa (Ghana);
- the UniversiEy of Dakar (Senegal)
Successful t.rainees would then be assigned to the inE.ercountry team and receive additional field Eraining from the hydrobiological monitoring contractor's staff, and from the OCP hydrobiologist. I
Durlng the second year of the contract national hydroblologists would assume increasing responsibilities in preparation for the tlure, on the expiry of the contract, when they would have to assume ful1 responsibility. 2 IT{TERCOUMRY MONITORING TEAI,i t 2 .l St.af f requirements
The minimal stafflng of the lntercountry monitoring team is as follows: 2 - ichthyologists ) Contracted expatrlates rrho would be replaced by ) nationals within two years. - 2 invertebraEe biologists ) - 5 technical assistants (national) - 3 fishermen (natlonal) - 1 clerk/typist (national) - 3 drivers (national)
The salaries and assoclated allowances of all natlonal staff will be the responsibility of their respective governmenEs.
2.2 EquipmenE requirements
The equipment. required to escablish the intercountry monitoring team is as follows: - 2 four-wheel-drive vehicles,
- 2 Peugeot 4O4 pickups, - 4 dissecting microscopes,
- I microscope Wild Mll or equivalent, - 4 sets of fish nets (replaced annually), - 2 light plastic boats, 1 ocPf82.3 Page 55 )- - 4 ouEboard engines (9.9 or 20 HP), - 2 tents, - 2 office calculators, - 1 cypewriter,
- small items of laboratory and office equipment and supplies.
To ensure che timely commencement of hydrobiologicalmonitoringactiviEies, the OCP will be responsible for the purchase of the equipment necessary to establish the intercountry E.eam. Thereafter, the governmenEs of Mali and Senegal wiIL be responsible for the replacement of all l items, other than Ehe standardized sampling equipment, if and when required.
3. MONITORING PROCEDURES
3.1 Methods
The hydrobiological monitoring methods to be employed will be the same as those which have been approved by the Ecological Group and adopted in the existing OCP area.
3.2 Recordine and lysis of data
Taking into account:
the existence ac WllO headquarters of a data processing and staEistical unit working for OCP;
- of the experience accumulated OCP by in the spheres of recording and analysis of resulcs I
the analysis of all hydrobiological dat.a colLected by che intercountry moniEoring team should be conducEed by the OCP data processing team in collaborat.ion wlth national and OCp hydro- biologists. Should some of the data collected and processed in this rray be dlfficult to interpret the OCP will arrange for Ehem to be appraised by an independent authority.
I ocPf}2.3 Page 56
CHAPTER X {
OPERATIONAL BASE, BAMAKO
1. INIRODUCTION
As a branch of the OCP headquarters, the operat.ional base for the Western ExEension 1,7ill be housed in premises provided by the Government of Mati at Koulouba, Bamako. These premises are currently occupied by sraff of che rcefWOfOOT projecr.
The operaEional base will be composed of a vector cont,rol unit., an epidemiological evaluation unit and an administraEive unit., each of them operating under che direction of, and in close liaison with, respective headquarters uni.ts in Ouagadougou. i
2. STAFF
2.L Vector Control Unit
The professional staff of this uniE rrill include:
- 1 Assiscant. Chief VCU, - I aerial operaEions officer, - I senior enEomologist Lfc evaluations, / - I hydrobiologist,
- 1 entomologist, / - 1 cytotaxonomisE,
- 2 technical officers, Aerial OperaEions,
- I technical officer, Entomological EvaIuaEions,
The minimal requirements for generaL service staff are:
- I administraEive assisEanE, - 1 secretary, - 1 cIerk,
- t cl-erk/stenographer , - 1 draftsman, , - 4 laboratory assisEanEs (entomology, cytotaxonomy and hydrobiology), - 9 vector collectors, - 7 drivers,
- 1 messenger,
- 1 storeman. ocPf12.3 Page 57 F For technical purposes Ehe unit will be subdivided into an Aeria1 Operations Sub-Unit, an Entomological Evaluations Sub-UniE and a Cytotaxonomy Sub-UniE. lr t The Assistant Chief VCU will be che senior officer having overall resPonsibility for the I operaEional base. I 2.2 Epidemiological Evaluation Uni! ) r This unit witl be composed of one epidemiologisE, one clerk/typist and one driver. 2.3 AdministraEion Unit.
This unit, which will provide Ehe logistic support essential for the implementation of Ehe Western Extension, will be responsible for finance, personnel, supplies, t.ransport and mai.ntenance.
The professional staff of this unit will include an adminisErat,ive officer and an assisEant adminisErative officer. I Minimal requirements for general service staff are: ; 4 administrative assisEants, a - 4 clerks, I - 4 typists, v - 1 scorekeeper, r - I senior mechanic, - 2 mechanics,
- 1 messenger r I I - 1O drivers, r - 3 securicy guards.
3. VEHICLE REQUIREMEMS r The vehicle fleet required for the Bamako operaElonal base will include: I - 8 four-wheel-drive staEion $ragons, - 2 lifE-trucks for insecEicide and fuel, - 2 standard Erucks for ordinary supplies, - 2 vanettes/pickups, f - 5 saloon/estate cars.
It is possible thaE some of these vehicles could be provided from the ICP/MPOfOO1 Projecr.
4. REQUIREMEMS FOR EQUIP},IENT AND SUPPLIES
The premises in Bamako available for the operation base will require additional office furniture, equipmenc and supplies. ," ocPf 82.3 Page 58 -( CHAPTER XI
BT'DGET ,,
1. INTRODUCTION I T A budget has been prepared for a period of six years. For convenience, iE has been fitted Eo the 1983-1988 calendar period, covering the last three years of the second oCp ,-II funding cycle, and the first three years of the third ocp funding cycle.
I Only the first three years of operations have been costed in any detail; the costings for the last three years are predictlons on1y.
2. I.IATIOT.IAL CONIR.IBUTIONS
Each of the particiPating governments will be required to contrtbute:
(i) the cost of salaries and related allowances for all national staff concerned with epideniology, hydrology and hydrobiology, according to national salary scales in force; \
(ii) the cost of land and buildings required by the ocP as well as recurrent expenditure for accomrodation, such as rental and cost of electricity, rilater, posEal services and. teleconmunications (where these exisE) ; (ili) the cost of installing addlrional hydrologlcal srations;
(iv) the cost of building additional roads; u
(v) the free use by the OCP of national services of aviation, meteorology, hydrology and cartography; I (vi) an annual cash contribution, in convertible currency, the size of which will accord with those currently received from particlpating states of the existing OCP. While it would be useful to prepare a budget of national contributions, such an exercise '! is at presenE impossible in vlew of the rnany unknown factors which currently exist and which even the governments themselves are not yet in a position to quantify. 1 3. INTERT{ATIONAL COIITRIBUTIONS International- funds will cover the followlng items 1 (a) the cost of aerial operations including the provision of aircrafc, hangar facilities, helipads and insecEicides; 1
(b) the cost of radio comunication equlpnentl
(c) the cost of vehicles and relaced transport equipment;
(d) the cost of office and laboratory equipment and furniture, and other equipment, such as generators, garage tools, camping outfits; (e) all operatlng costs;
(f) part of the costs of extending hydrological networks;
(S) the cost of salaries and related allowances for internatlonal staff and consultanEs;
(h) contracts for hydrobtologlcal evaluatlons for a period of two years; ocPf82.3 Page 59 (i) the cost of training and retraining national personnel;
(j) the cost of any meerings that may be requiredl
(k) the cosE of data collection surveys in Ehe phase rrr zone.
3.1 Guidelines for the preparation of Ehe budAet (exctuding naEional componenE)
The document "t{1to/oce/At oce Plan of Action and Budger for 19g2,,, has been used as a guideline in the preparation of the budget for phase r and rr operations.
costs US in dollars have been calculated on the basis of figures seeming to be appropriate for 1983, as follows: (i) professional sraff, $ 64 960 increasing annually by L27.; (ii) general servlce sraff, $ 44gO increasing annually by L27"; a (iii) consultants, $ 6272 (one man/month, incLuding travel, stipend and per diem) increasing annually by L2%;
(iv) temephos, g 8.4O per lirre increasing annually by g7"; (v) trainees:
- stipend, $ 9O7 p". .".r/ronth, increasing annually by l2%; - tuiEion, $ 491 increasing annually by gL; - travel, $ 54o increasing annually by g%. (vi) vehicles:
ophthalmology - mobile laboratories, $ 54 ooo increasing annualty by g7"; - large heavy duty four-wheel-drive vehicles , $ 27 527 increasing annually by g7"; - all other automobiles, 14 2gg g7.; t $ increasing annually by boats - with outboard engines, $ 34gO increasing annually by g%; - mobylettes, $ gOO increasing annually by g%. (vii) large erectric generarors (dieser), $ 7990 increasing annually by g%; (viii) radio Eransceivers, $ 5O4O increasing annually by g%; (ix) aircraft hangars, $ 40 ooo increasing annually by approximately g%. rn making estimates for the six-year budgeting period the following requirements / factors have been taken into consideration: and
(a) only six months'operaEions have been allowed for during r the firlt year; (b) radio staEions will be required for all sector and subsecEor headquarcers; (c) larger four-wheel i. drive vehicles than currently employed by Ehe ocp in all sectors and subsectors; will be required (d) inaccessible surveillance siEes will have to be reached by boat or mobyleEte; I (e) two professional level staff have (eventually been allocaced to each sector headquarters some of these could be replaced by generaI service staff); ocPf 82.3 Page 60
(f) Provision has been made for a single intercountry ophthalmological Eeam, but two naEional parasitological evaluation teams ;
(g) provision has been made for a single intercountry hydrobiological team;
(h) the research provision covers only applied research on adul-ticiding Eechniquesl
(i) allowance has been made for the purchase of insecticide during the year before the one in which iE is needed;
(j) no insecElcide has been purchased during che sixth year.
3.2 Budgec
Estlmated cost6 for the first three years of the Western Extension in Ehe Phase I and II zones, are presented in Table 8.
Predicted costs for Ehe flrst six years of the Western ExEension in the Phase I and II zones are presenEed in Table 9.
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TABLE 4. SECTOR AND SUBSECTOR REQUIREMEX{TS FOR VEHICLES NECESSARY TO COMMENCE ENTOMOLOGICAL EVALUATIONS IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES
Large Medium TracEor Locat ion 4 $ID 4 $ID t rai ler Moby le tte s Boat units9 vehicle# vehicleP units
Bamako o t 0 2 1
Ki ta 2 3 o 6 o
Kayes 5 5 1 6 1
Bafoulabe 3 2 o 6 2
Kenieba 3 2 o 6 o Kedougou o 4 o 4 o
Tambacounda 4 4 I 6 t
Total L7 2L 2 36 5
I Such as che M.B. Ewin-cabin Unimog. ! sr"t as E.he Landrover. 9 Each unit composed of one boat and cwo outboard engines
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l-{ o ,*9 FT oi oo o o !l .n oo o o zA @ 6 \o (n CA o\ r{ adib : (0 l-{ E- Eo= o rtt- .o a1 r,H .A SH HE o oooO r{ CI N r-{ (vt (f) tE (l EE fJ Od f4 |t= .: q! o Ztl t d G o @6roo o r, c.l (Yl >N o (9@ t{ Oo, 5 o o-l 'i ..{ E*I k .1 H o 4& A N :dA @ o Or H< U d I A I 6traOOO r\ o @ o @ z .d c r L ocPfsz.3 i PaSe 58 t I TABLE 8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF THE 'l WESTERN EXTENSION IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES (us DoLLARS, CALCULATED rN JUNE 1gg2) Category Year I Year 2 Year 3 Total 1. Professional scaff VCIJ (Bamako) ^/* 60 L20 L20 300 $ 324 800 727 550 814 850 L 867 200 EPI (Bamako) ^/^ 6 l2 L2 30 $ 32 480 72 755 81 485 L86 720 ADMIN. (Bamako) ^/^ L2 24 24 60 $ 64 960 145 5tO 162 972 373 442 EESU sectors: Phase I t2 24 24 ^/^ 60 t $ 64 960 145 5lO L62 972 373 442 Phase II ,"/^ L2 24 36 $ 72 755 L62 972 235 727 ,r/^ 90 t92 204 486 Sub - total $ 487 200 164 080 385 25r 3 036 53r r r 1 2. General Service staff VCU (Bamako) ,r/* L62 324 324 810 $ 60 480 135 459 15 t 713 347 652 EPI (Bamako) ,r/^ I2 24 24 60 $ 4 480 lo o34 I1 238 25 752 ADMIN. (Bamako) ^/^ r80 360 408 948 $ 67 200 150 5 10 191 0l+6 408 756 EESU sectors Phase I 930 I 608 I 608 4 L46 ^/^ $ 347 200 672 278 752 951 L 772 429 Phase II ,ry'^ 396 792 1 188 $ 165 56r 370 854 536 4L5 */^ L 284 2 712 3 156 7 L52 Sub - to ta1 $ 479 360 | 133 842 L 477 802 3 09r oo4 3. Consultants Radio engineer ,d^ 3 3 6 $ 18 816 2L O72 39 888 _! Environmentalis t ,r/* $ Sub-cotal ,r/^ 3 3 6 $ 18 816 2L O72 39 888 ,d^ I 377 2 907 3 360 7 644 ComponenE $ 985 376 2 3L8 994 2 863 053 6 L67 423 ocPf82.3 Page 69 TABLE 8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF THE WES'TERN EXTENSION IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES (CONtiNuCd) Category Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 To ta1 r 4. Professional training Entomology ,r/^ 6 6 L2 $ 6 400 7 000 13 400 Epidemiology ,r/* 6 6 L2 $ 6 400 7 000 13 400 Hydrobiology ,r/^ L2 L2 24 $ 12 800 14 000 26 800 Sub-total ^/^ 24 24 48 $ 25 600 28 000 53 500 lr 5. Technical training Encomology d^ 6 3 9 $ LT 664 6 402 18 066 Ep idemio logy ,r/* 5 5 10 $ 9 720 ro 670 20 390 Hydrobio logy ^/^ 4 2 6 $ 7 776 4 268 L2 044 p ,ry'^ 15 10 25 Sub - to ta1 $ 29 L60 2L 340 50 500 l.' 39 34 73 ComponenE ^/^ $ 54 760 49 340 lo4 loo I 6. Aerial operations 6. I Non-spraying: $ 27 600 46 000 46 000 rr9 600 r 6.2 Spraying: Phase I, helicopcers $ 828 000 828 000 Phase I, aeroplanes $ 350 000 350 000 I Sub - to ta1 $ 27 600 46 000 L 224 000 L 297 600 7. Insecticides 7.1 Larvicides I Phase I: Litres 130 000 135 000 I $ I 170 000 I 309 500 2 479 500 Phase II: Li cres 39 000 I' $ 378 300 378 300 I 7.2 Experimental $ 5 000 7 200 12 200 Sub - co caI $ I 175 000 1 695 000 2 870 000 r 8. Hydrobiology contract $ 150 000 300 000 000 i r50 600 000 I I ocPf8z.3 PaSe 70 I TABLE 8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF THE WESTERN EXTENSION IN THE PHASE I AND It ZONES (concinued) Category Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 To tal '1 9. Applied research $ 10 000 5 000 15 000 Component $ L77 600 I 531 OOO 3 074 000 4 782 600 1O. Operational travel $ 195 000 346 000 385 000 926 000 11. Operations and maintenance $ 295 000 482 000 570 000 1 347 000 Component $ 490 000 828 000 955 000 2 273 000 12. Buildings: Aircraft hangar $ 20 000 26 000 46 000 Helipad facilities $ 3 000 4 000 2 000 9 000 Seccors and subsecEors $ 35 000 40 000 13 000 88 000 Sub - to ta1 $ 58 000 70 000 15 000 143 000 'l 13. Furniture $ 9 000 17 000 6 000 32 000 14. Vehicles Large 4t'lD No. 15 4 1 20 $ 4L2 905 118 916 32 LO7 563 928 Eye laboratory No. 1 I $ 54 000 54 000 Ochers (lorries, pickups, No. 40 18 1 59 vannett.es eEc. ) $ 57L 520 277 758 16 665 865 943 Moby let tes No. 30 6 2 38 $ 24 000 5 t84 1 866 31 050 Spare parts $ 5 000 10 000 15 000 30 000 Eoars No. 6 6 $ 5 184 5 184 Sub - cotal $ L O72 609 411 858 6s 638 1 550 105 l-5 . Equipmenc Radio stations No 7 7 $ 36 000 36 000 Diesel generators No 4 la I $ 33 L52 33 L52 Petrol generators No 8 8 $ 2 458 2 458 I [Jacer pumps No 4 4 $ 3 763 3 763 llyci ro logical $ 4 000 8 000 4 000 16 000 ocPf82.3 Page 7l ) IABLE 8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF THE WESTERN EISENSION IN THE PHASE I AND II ZONES (continued) Category Year I Year 2 Year 3 Total Laboratory $ 25 000 10 000 12 000 47 00(.J Camping $ 6 000 3 000 2 000 11 000 Elec rrical fiErings $ 1 000 500 300 1 800 Misc. small items $ 5 000 3 000 2 000 10 000 Sub -totaI $ 110 152 30 72L 20 300 L6L L73 Component $ r 249 76L 529 579 106 938 L 886 27E TOTAL e $ 2 957 497 5 256 9L3 6 998 99L 15 213 40r > t./ I I i/ ocPf 82.3 72 Page i \O\OdIOOOOOOO @ oOo\c,\ c{ -t-f,.{ooooooo t'\ r\ OO\tF- 6t o F{ cO\O\Od\OOOOOO d OO\od @ o G U d$O\[email protected] N \o @ \O -? tr'l (f) d o F\dNOF.'.oOH6rO\ N ( rn(?)@F\ tn rn ! H NO\ Fl\O\O\O d\\O \o i{ F\d d F\ @@ \O\O F{c\t \o I C.l @ ci (7| I No-f, oo Or o oooo o o i z c-cOO o oo -f, d OOorCt o\ \o I d dl'\d o oo d 6t OONo N IEI H (0 \O\ON fl NO 6.1 \t Ft \t (Y) \o H (f) -t (n i a 0, -f,@6r H c..t \o @ @ r\ O\d @ ci .$ f\ @ I Brlt )r rrN d \o \o i 14 H- I @ l'. oo oo o rn OOl^O rn I fq rn l.r1 N oo oo In OO\oO \o 8 o \o (Yt oo oo o\ o\ oooo o o k ct, 6 Nd rtt H r\O c..l tn d @.$ @ J &a ('t d) d \c) N(.l F @ CN 1, <(\ 0, NOr @c (fl \t (7) ,rI co >o\ dt{ Fld @ @ x d H tEl cnz Otnd ooo tl d OOo\O ol\ o cOdrN oo ooo |.\ Fl OOcoO @ o H-,= $ \t t^ \O oo ooo \o OO\oO \o ?J7 t{ &z (0 dftN -f, o\ (iNtn o \Oc{d\O o\ HH (l rnod .d' d .f,@ C-t F\ @ o tr Lr\N l.\@ c.t \t r{ @ o\ A rc El dd dd F\ N EFr E<< -l &= F{ 6{ oooooo o\ C.l OOcoo @ o OU tno oooooo o \o oo(.)0 -l o f& Fl N@ oooooo o o OO\O(f! CA o Lr c,) c) (u 6f\ I .f,t^O'/'\6O o N t/f\O6O \o o\ E{ o @r\ c-l O\ fi @ lr rn d \OC\ o \t U) \t c-l \o d (n (n F{ o d 1 o(/l -) (-)c dd i{ il r\ F\ H H H oi F{ 4 E] 4 J H th H tq r{ oo F{ x rduo H 0.1 o H .h +{oc (, q.l (0(u(! 0, lr .n I .h 'HuHFltr .h ) (u x (! (! o (., tr '{{(,).lr{OO(0 C d >u A E o A uooo(!d A A @ O O .d O t{..{ o ..{ o .r{ ! tt (0 ..{ (h u th d>(o(nx8 q u +l e (! TJ (u H O ,r C, O0 F{-'\ u o o o (,) (,) qJ o c) dQruoEo(,(,) (.) o O (n tr A..r d C C o F{ ri ood F{ o .d(!000(Jo-coo U d (u @k o (! o @drJC'r{'.{U'.{'.{ o u d croo rJ (,) .dud..{ F{ (D (!d..{Fl +J.O lr u lJ d o 6 o (u I (! {rr{fCGOO(!(!O +, +J 8..{(JC u Ff q O O..{..{ O H O k t{ C' I ..{ AC.EE I OcjcOtro'O(/)oo u .o o ..{ li -C ql p ts L{ CJ O lr q,, C >C} AA (0 ) (u ,roo o pr (.,oH ( ocPf 82 .'r page 73 D EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE BIO-CLIMATTC ZONES (MAp 2) Zoae Name Descrip E ion \ I I Sahel savanna ldooded steppe wirh abundant Acacia and Conuniphora tI Sudan savanna Dry savanna woodlands III Northern Guinea savanna Savanna woodlands with abundant I sober I inia IV Southern Guinea savanna MoisE savanna $roodlands V Forest-savanna Mozaic Derived savanna, i.e. savanna derived from forest VI I'loisc foresE Coastal rain foresc EXPLANATOP.Y NOTES ON THE MINERAL DEPOSITS (MAp 6) Abbreviat ion Descript ion AI Aluminium deposits (Bauxire) Au AlluviaL gold Cr Ch romi te Cu Coppe r D D iamonds Fc Iron ore L LimesEone and marble I Pb Lead lrt l, T ) ocP/82.1 Pag€ 74 I I f i uv <=E j..l q)J lrJ I 1 { ocPf 82 .1 p.rge 7 5 i' l'r o. a I o. o a<.( I o o \rI I a< I o l{a \ / o {.J a t t 4,- t H ) ZO5[ I >a H cEa t osF9 I l ocP/82. pa,aa 7 6 o 0" o 9 ,-1 ( o l! 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