Amerikastudien / American Studies 61.2 Reviews Lawrence I. Berkove

Amerikastudien / American Studies 61.2 ★ Reviews

Lawrence I. Berkove and Joseph Csicsila, reminder that nineteenth-century American Heretical Fictions: Religion in the Literature culture in general, and American literature in of Mark Twain (Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 2010), particular, unfolded under the infuence of a 271 pp. powerful belief system. In view of this situation it may be surpris- For many people, the name “Mark Twain” ing to see that, as Berkove and Csicsila note is synonymous with American humor. There- in their introductory chapter, the topic of fore, it is worth noting that this book says very religion has been “mentioned in Twain stud- little about humor, in fact the term’s entry in ies” (3), but has rarely been pursued with suf- the index is shorter than that on “hell.” Berk- fcient intensity.2 It is perhaps a telling sign ove and Csicsila regard Twain’s gift of nar- that even A Companion to Mark Twain, a rative and humor as simply a surface feature standard reference book from 2005, does not that served to establish and maintain his pop- feature an essay on the topic.3 That the au- ular appeal, but does not have enough weight thors of the present volume felt the need to to justify Twain’s status as “one of literature’s supplement the existing literature with their most accomplished writers” (xiv). Similarly, own critical observations has nothing do the authors pay virtually no attention to the with the quality of the previous publications regional and historical dimensions of Twain’s which they, in fact, acknowledge as valuable work that are a mainstay of traditional schol- sources of inspiration. It is in the approach to arship. Instead, it is their ambition to identify the topic that separates them from their pre- the fundamental values, convictions, and the decessors. Whereas previous studies tended literary strategies which establish the unifying to emphasize historical and biographical as- bond that connects all of Twain’s writings and pects, Berkove and Csicsila choose to focus thus provides a consistency to his work that is their attention and their interpretive skills on the true hallmark of the literary artist. In this Twain’s literary texts. Convinced that Twain endeavor, entertaining episodes of life in the manipulated biographical materials in an at- West, adventures along the Mississippi River, tempt to conceal those of his views that might the pranks of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn, and have offended his reading public, they believe imaginary excursions into the world of King that only a thorough and informed analysis of Arthur are nothing more than means to an Twain’s fction can provide the key to his hid- end. Twain’s main purpose, the authors con- den beliefs and thus shed light on the founda- tend, is to “expose life as a cruel hoax” (136) tions of his literary art (8). and to identify “an ingenious, deceptive, and Their endeavor is further motivated by a malevolent” (11) God as its cause. situation which they experience as unsatisfac- To substantiate their ideas, Berkove and Csicsila take on the task of explaining how 2 The list of in-depth studies of the role of religion, and more specifcally Calvinism, religion in the works of Mark Twain includes served as a powerful, if painful, catalyst for the following titles: Harold K. Bush, Mark Twain’s literary imagination. The authors’ ap- Twain and the Spiritual Crisis of His Age (Tus- proach is plausible and promising. In his note- caloosa: U of Alabama P, 2007); Cyril Clem- worthy observation about the role of religion ens, Mark Twain’s Religion (Webster Groves in the United States, Tocqueville stated that Mo: International Mark Twain Society, 1935); “there is no country in the world where the Allison Ensor, Mark Twain & the Bible (Lex- Christian religion retains a greater infuence ington: U of Kentucky P, 1969); Joe B. Fulton, over the souls of men than in America.”1 The The Reverend Mark Twain: Theological Bur- statement appeared in the American transla- lesque, Form, and Content (Columbus: Ohio tion of Tocqueville’s book in 1838, three years State UP, 2006); John Q. Hays, Mark Twain after the birth of Mark Twain, or rather Sam- and Religion: A Mirror of American Eclecti- uel Langhorne Clemens, and may serve as a cism (New York: P. Lang, 1989); William C. S. Pellowe, Mark Twain, Pilgrim from Hanni- 1 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy bal (Philadelphia: R. West, 1945); William E. in America. With an Original Preface and Phipps, Mark Twain’s Religion (Macon GA: Notes by John C. Spencer (New York: George Mercer UP, 2003). Dearborn & Co., 1838) 285. Internet Archive. 3 Peter B. Messent and Louis J. Budd Web. Blackwell, 2005).

Amerikastudien / American Studies 61. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2016 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Reviews ★ Amerikastudien / American Studies 61.2 tory: In the history of Twain scholarship, crit- would punish his creation for committing acts ics have given divided testimony on the merits which resulted not from free will, but were of Twain’s books. Although some of his works preordained. Despite his resentment of Cal- have received praise for their narrative power vinist thought, he was never able to free him- and topical relevance, they have also been self from its impact and it manifested itself in criticized for supposed technical defects. Sec- the following tenets of his countertheology: ondly, Berkove and Csicsila take issue with (1) God exists, but He is malevolent; (2) hu- the fragmentary and contradictory nature of man existence is an evanescent phenomenon, Twain criticism. The existence of multiple in- a dream; (3) the “Moral Sense” is an agent terpretations means that “they cannot all be of human degradation; (4) the human race is true” and they also make it impossible to see inherently corrupt; (5) virtue is impossible, that “Twain’s artistry was somehow more so- therefore humans cannot be saved; (6) predes- phisticated and integrated than the constantly tination makes human freedom impossible; changing state of biography suggested” (xiv). (7) most humans are so depraved that they Based on the contention that “religion was a deserve to go to hell; (8) there is no escape main concern of Twain’s during his entire life” from predestination, God will never change (1), they proceed to reveal to the reader that His mind; and (9) human conscience serves there is “unity of purpose and consistency only as a device to create inner turmoil and in Twain’s literature” (xv). This unity, they suffering. claim, is provided by a “sense of the ultimate In the following six chapters, Heretical Fic- relationship of humanity and God to each tions turns to the texts which the authors se- other.” According to the two authors, this is lected as their primary sources to support and “the common theme of all his literature” (2). illustrate their ambitious claims. Berkove and More specifcally, the keystone to Twain’s Csicsila focus on Twain’s major fction; they writings is his conviction “that because of leave travel books and minor writings aside God’s malice life is deceitful and humans are (6-7). not meant to achieve in it their dearest goals Chapter two, on Roughing It (1872), makes of freedom, happiness, and fulfllment” (2). It the case that the book has been misunder- is the essence of what the two authors call his stood and underestimated as an entertaining “countertheology” (a term they borrow from but insuffciently organized travel book. In re- Stanley Brodwin),4 the personal creed that ality, the authors argue, it is an “artful work of emerged from Twain’s antagonism to the the- fction” (35) whose intricate structure, intel- ology which had dominated his life since his lectual power, and central theme justify call- boyhood days. ing it a “novel” (38). In their intensive analysis To argue their case, Berkove and Csic- of the book, the authors identify and draw at- sila frst lay out their premises, defne their tention to previously overlooked literary tech- terms, and supply the necessary background niques such as the use of “detached sketches” information for an understanding of the Cal- (29), the “misleading past tense” (31), the vinism that was the driving force for Twain’s “layered style” (55) and the “diverted target” intellectual and moral struggle. In chapter (56). Most importantly, under the infuence one, the reader learns that Calvinist dogma of the “Sagebrush School” Twain becomes a was imposed on him during his childhood in master of the literary hoax and develops it to a Hannibal, Missouri, and that it stayed with new level of artistry (28). As a matter of fact, him throughout his entire life. “The religious the hoax constitutes the central element in folly you are born in you will die in,” Twain Roughing It because it also serves to trick his explained in an 1884 letter to William Dean readers into accepting the illusory attractions Howells (9). Nevertheless, Twain resented of travel and life in the Far West. In the fnal Calvinism—he regarded its rules as unfair, de- analysis, the book is revealed to be “a work ceptive, and cruel. He could never understand which bleakly surveys life as rigged by predes- why and how a supposedly benevolent God tination and the vain dream of evading God’s doom” (30). As such, it can be regarded as the 4 Stanley Brodwin, “Mark Twain’s The- early entry point into the distinctive thematic ology: The Gods of a Brevet Presbyterian,” pattern that became characteristic for the fc- Cambridge Companion to Mark Twain, ed. tion of Twain’s most creative period. Forrest G. Robinson (New York: Cambridge The chapter devoted to The Adventures of UP) 233. Tom Sawyer (1876) continues and advances

Amerikastudien / American Studies 61. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2016 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Amerikastudien / American Studies 61.2 ★ Reviews previous critical attempts to move the book tail, hampered the audience’s ability to grasp away from its reputation as simply an enter- the true essence of his narrative. Although taining boys book and to establish it as a se- Twain provided them with a suffcient amount rious work of fction. This is achieved by an of clues to understand that there was no way intensive and detailed analysis of illustrative for a happy ending, his readers tended to cling textual examples which highlight patterns of to the romantic surface level of the text. violence, horror, and despair, culminating in The discussion of A Connecticut Yankee in a portrait of life in a repressive small town. King Arthur’s Court (1889) in chapter 5 consti- In contrast to the predominant readings of tutes the next exhibit in the endeavor to illus- The Adventures of Tom Sawyer as a nostal- trate the impact of Twain’s countertheology on gic depiction of a boyhood idyll, the present his writing. Crediting the novel with a “deeper interpretation suggests an unsettling vision of organizing design than has been noticed” (110) human life that is brought about by a religious and an effective technique of “narrative indi- creed that denies the possibility of escape rection” (111), Berkove and Csicsila dispense from a hopeless destiny (79). with unfavorable evaluations of the novel that Like its two preceding chapters, the chap- have been directed against its alleged disjunc- ter on Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) tive structure. Similarly, they oppose the fre- seeks to distance itself from most of the tra- quently held belief that the protagonist, Hank ditional readings of the novel. While Berkove Morgan, represents Twain’s values and his at- and Csicsila acknowledge that the book is titudes toward progress. Supported by their concerned with freedom, they reject the no- intensive reading of relevant passages, the tion, originally advanced by Leo Marx, that authors build a case for their argument that it affrms freedom and claim that the last ten the novel is “constructed around a tragic vi- chapters fail to adequately sustain the main sion of universal damnation” (125) and that theme (83). By way of a systematic and cogent the hellish environment depicted in the book argumentation the two authors explain why, at “is the common lot of humanity” (136). They the end of the book, neither Huck nor Jim are argue that there was never a chance for Hank truly free. Their reading shows that Huck is Morgan to actually succeed in reforming and “steadily debased and forced to relinquish the improving the medieval world with the help of maturity, humanity, and independent person- his supposedly more advanced and superior ality he had begun to achieve” (103). “Light- knowledge and skills from the nineteenth cen- ing out for the Territory,” that is, escaping to tury. By extension and in complete agreement the American West to fnd freedom, was a ro- with the bleak convictions deriving from his mantic idea but defnitely not a solution that brand of Calvinist thinking, Twain presented could provide a convincing conclusion to the his readers with a view of life as a cruel decep- problems and dilemmas Huck had encoun- tion and a “grim and mirthless hoax contrived tered throughout the narrative. The section of false hopes” (151). that explains why the idea of Jim’s freedom The discussion of No. 44, The Mysterious was equally misleading is perhaps even more Stranger (composed between 1902-1908 and important for contradicting the claim that published posthumously) in chapter 6 shows a the book illustrates a road to freedom. With temporary diminution of Twain’s gloomy out- reference to the historical facts, the authors look on life. The chapter draws on the work point out that Jim was not a free man, but a of William James to argue that Twain’s inter- free man of color—an important distinction est in the emerging science of psychology of- which meant that Jim was still vulnerable to fered a temporary alternative to the writer’s all kinds of white aggression (103). As a conse- adherence to a Calvinist-inspired world-view. quence, Berkove and Csicsila propose that the As is evidenced in the fnal chapter, in which book “is best read as a novel which depicts the the two authors engage with a selection of his impossibility of any meaningful measure of late writings, Twain ultimately returned to his freedom for any of its characters” (84). Once Calvinist countertheology. In their analysis this realization has sunk in, the supposed the- of “The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg,” matic inconsistencies are resolved and reveal “The Second Advent,” “The Great Dark,” a themselves as features of a coherent, if tragic collection of texts based on Adam and Eve, vision of human existence. Like in the previ- What is Man?, and “Letters from the Earth,” ous examples, the authors insist that Twain, Berkove and Csicsila bring their project to a through his use of humor and entertaining de- conclusion. Although they identify “The Man

That Corrupted Hadleyburg” as “the high wa- Based on the most thorough acquaintance ter-mark for Twain antipathy for humankind” with a large body of primary material, sup- (196), they also notice that the writer’s view of ported by a deep familiarity with the sig- humanity now made room for a slightly more nifcant scholarship in the feld, aware of the compassionate attitude. As “Letters from the relevant contextual factors, and sustained by Earth” dwells upon the actions of an unjust solid evidence and convincing arguments, and cruel God, humans appeared as helpless Heretical Fictions is a major addition to Mark victims who deserved pity and sympathy. Twain studies. Students will appreciate the In their fnal paragraph, the authors con- rigorous textual work and the jargon-free clude that Twain was neither an atheist nor a language; scholars will be rewarded by the misanthrope. They see him as an individual challenging insights and the ambitious claims entrapped by a powerful religious creed, one set forth by two experts with an impeccable that had terrible implications for the notions reputation in their feld. Although the chap- of human freedom and happiness. As he wit- ters are designed to build up and support the nessed the clash between human hopes and overarching argument of the book, they will ideals, on the one hand, and a reality domi- also provide illuminating insights and supple- nated by injustice and undeserved suffering ment more traditional readings when they are caused by a pitiless divine scheme on the oth- read individually. As one of the rare attempts er, Twain felt compelled to “describe reality as to undertake the ambitious endeavor to reveal he saw it in practice” (213). It was a desperate the intellectual and ideological core that lends attempt to “[bring] light to humankind” (214) unity and substance to Mark Twain’s writings, and relieve his fellow humans from their mis- Heretical Fictions clearly deserves a place on taken notions of what life was about. It is here the shelves of academic and private libraries that Berkove and Csicsila locate the central alike. key for an understanding of Twain’s work and an adequate appreciation of his art. Magdeburg Holger Kersten