heritage

Article Urban Heritage Conservation of China’s Historic Water Towns and the Role of Professor Ruan Yisan: Nanxun, Tongli, and Wuzhen

Heleni Porfyriou Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, Cultural Heritage, CNR - National Research Council of Italy, 00186 Rome, Italy; [email protected]



Received: 23 June 2019; Accepted: 10 August 2019; Published: 13 August 2019


Abstract: Between the 13th and the 19th century, hundreds of water towns flourished in China along the Grand Canal and to the south of the Yangtze river, the latter being the focus of this paper. Despite their long history, water towns still lack a comprehensive account of their urban history and development, yet they have become world famous as tourist destinations. Initially branded under titles such as the “Venice of the East” or the “Venice of China”, they are visited nowadays, for their own sake and not as surrogates of Venice, by millions of Chinese tourists. Focusing on the urban form and heritage of the three historic water towns of Nanxun, Tongli and Wuzhen, and on their conservation planning as promoted by Professor Ruan Yisan since the mid-1980s, the aim of this paper is twofold. On one hand, the aim is to identify and examine, through personal observation and secondary sources, the urban patterns and morphology of these places; on the other hand, to explore through his publications the impact of Professor Ruan Yisan—a (if not the) key figure—in their conservation and tourist development. The paper’s broader aim is to contribute to a more systematic analytical approach towards the urban form of Chinese historic water towns as a basis for further research and heritage conservation planning.

Keywords: Chinese historic water towns; urban form and conservation; heritage tourism; Ruan Yisan; Nanxun; Tongli; Wuzhen

1. Introduction: Water Towns—A Story Still to be Written Water towns have a long history that is closely linked to the natural configuration of the land, particularly in East China, which “is so dense with waterways and small lakes that the map looks more like a cross-section through a sponge” (Figure1), as Philip Ball put it in his fascinating book The Water Kingdom. A Secret History of China [1] (p. 127). Their development was strongly dependent on the—until recently—predominantly agricultural economy of China (Figure2), while their history is closely related to the big commercial route of the Grand Canal and its ingenious hydraulic works, dating back to the Sui (581–618 C.E.) and Tang (618–907 C.E.) dynasties (Figure3).

“On a good day a riverboat could hope to cover fifteen to twenty-five kilometres. The imperial grain vessels seldom kept the same crew from start to end of a journey—there would be changes along the way [Grand Canal], and sometimes the grain might be stored in granaries en route if repairs or bad weather impeded progress. The lives of the river merchants and their captains were a constant procession of misty peaks and water towns, as elegantly conveyed by the Song painter Zhang Zeduan [2] in his famous scroll painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival”. [1] (p. 121) (Figure4)

Hundreds of water towns were built along watercourses. A significant number of them, located both south of the Yangtze river and along the Grand Canal, have been greatly influenced and developed

Heritage 2019, 2, 2417–2443; doi:10.3390/heritage2030149 www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2019, 2 2418 Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 indeveloped relation toin the relation impact to of thisthe imposingimpact of communication this imposing and communication commercial route and (measuringcommercial around route 1800km(measuring in the around 13th century), 1800km in which the 13th connected century), Hangzhou, which connected in the southern Hangzhou, part of in the the empire, southern to Beijing,part of inthe northern empire, to China Beijing, (Figure in northern3). “Constructed China (Figure in sections3). “Constructed from the in 5th sections century from BC the onwards, 5th century it was BC conceivedonwards, it as was a unified conceived means as of a communicationunified means of for co themmunication Empire for thefor the first Empire time in for the the 7th first century time AD in (Suithe 7th dynasty)” century [AD3]. Around(Sui dynasty)” the 12th [3]. century, Around the the Grand 12th Canalcentury, became the Grand the most Canal important became the north most to southimportant communication north to south artery communication of China, and artery when, of during China, the and Song when, Dynasty during (in the 1127), Song the Dynasty capital was (in moved1127), the to Hangzhoucapital was on moved the Canal, to Hangzhou south China on the became Canal, the south center China of the became whole the country center and of the the whole water 1 townscountry of and the the Yangtze water delta towns were of the boosted Yangtze in both delta economic were boosted and culturalin both economic terms. As and a Chinese cultural proverb terms.1 saysAs a “theChinese harvest proverb of Suzhou says “the and harvest Huzhou of feeds Suzhou the and whole Huzhou world” feeds [4] (p. the 21). whole world” [4] (p. 21).

Figure 1. HydrographicHydrographic basin of Shanghai Region Region,, 1930 (re-elaborated by the author).

Figure 2. RuralRural landscape near Tongli, 2015 (photo by the author).

The Grand Canal was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2014, and this gave a new impetus to the opening and promotion of at le leastast 40 new heritage sites sites along along its its course course [5]. [5]. However, despite this long and rich history, waterwater towns still lack a comprehensive account of their urban history,2 or at least a history of the urban morphology and evolution of the more homogeneous

1 The Yangtze region was always of great economic importance to successive dynasties for its agricultural potential. The areas around the cities of Huzhou and Suzhou (situated respectively in the south and north east of Tai lake) and south of the 1 TheYangtze Yangtze river, region in Zhejiang was province, always dueof great to their economic abundant watercourses,importance wereto successive the grain baskets dynasties of China. for Theits agricultural Grand Canal was built, in fact, in order to transport grain from the Yangtze basin to the great northern capital cities. “The management of potential.the Grand The Canal areas was around made the possible cities over of Huzhou a long period and Suzhou by means (situated of the Caoyun respectively system, thein the imperial south monopoly and north for east the transport of grain and strategic raw materials, and for the taxation and control of traffic. The system enabled the supply of of Tai lake) and south of the Yangtze river, in Zhejiang province, due to their abundant watercourses, were the rice to feed the population, the unified administration of the territory, and the transport of troops.” [3]. 2grainThe baskets reason whyof China. the recent The inscriptionGrand Canal of the was Grand built, Canal in fact in the, in UNESCO order to WHS transport didn’t managegrain from to promote the Yangtze a more basin in-depth to historical analysis of the water towns and of their development is due, in our view, to the fact that the inscription was the focusedgreat northern on the hydraulic capital cities. importance “The management of the Grand Canal of the works Grand and Canal of the was archaeological made possible excavations over a long related period to them, by and not on the historical development of the sites and water towns developed along it [5]. means of the Caoyun system, the imperial monopoly for the transport of grain and strategic raw materials, and for the taxation and control of traffic. The system enabled the supply of rice to feed the population, the unified administration of the territory, and the transport of troops.” [3].

Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 3 Heritage 2019,, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 24193 urban history,2 or at least a history of the urban morphology and evolution of the more homogeneous clusters,urban history, such as2 or the at oneleast we a history will focus of the on urban in this morpho paper,logy3 located and evolutionto the south of the of themore Yangtze homogeneous river in 3 theclusters, Jiangsu–Zhejiang suchsuch asas thethe oneone provinces we we will will focus[6–8]. focus on on in in this this paper, paper,located3 located to to the the south south of theof the Yangtze Yangtze river river in the in Jiangsu–Zhejiangthe Jiangsu–Zhejiang provinces provinces [6–8 [6–8].].

Figure 3. Map of the Grand Canal. The Sui Dynasty Canal is shown in red (elaborated by Paola Brunori).Figure 3.3. MapMap of of the the Grand Grand Canal. Canal. The The Sui DynastySui Dynasty Canal Ca isnal shown is shown in red (elaboratedin red (elaborated by Paola by Brunori). Paola Brunori).

Figure 4. Zhang Zeduan, famousfamous scrollscroll painting paintingAlong Along the the River River During During the the Qingming Qingming Festival. Festival.Detail Detail of “rainbowofFigure “rainbow 4. bridge”Zhang bridge” Zeduan, spanning spanning famous the the Bianhe scrollBianhe river, painting river, 18th 18th Along century century the edition River edition During of theof the 12th the 12th Qingming century century scroll. Festival. scroll. Detail of “rainbow bridge” spanning the Bianhe river, 18th century edition of the 12th century scroll. Although they lack a dedicated history or a place in urban history books4 [9], water towns have 2nevertheless The reason why become the recent world inscription famous as of touristthe Grand destinations. Canal in the Branded UNESCO as WHS the “Venicedidn’t manage of the to East” promote or the a “Venice2 of China” [10], they are nowadays visited for their own sake, and not as surrogates of Venice, more The in-depthreason why historical the recent analysis inscription of the waterof the Grandtowns andCanal of intheir the developmentUNESCO WHS is due,didn’t in manage our view, to promoteto the fact a by millions of Chinese tourists (Tongli has received more than 2 million visitors yearly since 2008 [11] thatmore the in-depth inscription historical was focused analysis on of the the hydraulic water towns importan and ceof of their the Granddevelopment Canal works is due, and in ourof the view, archaeological to the fact excavationsthat the inscription related wasto them, focused and on not the on hydraulic the historical importan developmentce of the ofGrand the sites Canal and works water and towns of the developed archaeological along it3excavations [5].Fei Xiaotong related [6] by to conducting them, and anot series on ofthe surveys historical was development the first to bring of thethe attentionsites and back water to towns these small developed urban centres. along Ruan Yisan, instead, since 1986 was the first to focus on these towns’ historic urban heritage, promoting an alternative way 3 it Fei[5].to Xiaotong their development [6] by conducting [7]. Within thea series Jiangnan of surveys region (literally was the meaning first to southbring of the the attention river) may back be identified to these more small than urban one centres.3 Feiclusters Xiaotong Ruan of water Yisan, [6] by towns, instead,conducting such since as for a example1986series was of the surveys the one first discussed was to focus the in first thison these article,to bring towns’ or the one attentionhistoric forming urban back the Shaoxing toheritage, these Prefecturesmall promoting urban city (with a population of approximately 5 million in 2010) [8]. an4centres. alternativeResearch Ruan on Yisan,way urban to instead, history, their development in since general, 1986 is was still [7]. laggingthe Within first behind to the focus Jiangnan inChina on these andregion towns’ in particular (literally historic studies meaning urban regarding heritage, south urban of promoting the physical river) form and morphology are as yet not well established [. One of the few well done works on the subject and relative to the city mayan alternativeof be Suzhou identified is way [9]. more to their than development one clusters [7].of water Within towns, the Jiangnan such as forregion example (literally the onemeaning discussed south in of this the article, river) ormay the be one identified forming more the Shaoxing than one Pref clustersecture of city water (with towns, a population such as for of approximatelyexample the one 5 milliondiscussed in 2010) in this [8]. article,

or the one forming the Shaoxing Prefecture city (with a population of approximately 5 million in 2010) [8].

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(p. 8); Wuzhen received almost 7 million in 2014, with an increase of 21.67% compared to the previous year [12]). Considered the best exemplars of the peaceful and traditional slow-living style that has only recently faded from existence, they represent the myth of the small town, close to the countryside, but easily accessible from big metropolitan agglomerations such as Shanghai. Today, these water cities are no longer “small towns”, nor “closely related to the countryside”, yet the myth still persists. Large cities have grown around their ancient historic centers, often with important industrial districts that reduce the importance of any productive relationship to the countryside. The numbers speak for themselves: in 2015, the population of the historic water town of Tongli was approximately 11,000, while that of Tongli city was approximately 60,000 and the Wujiang District population reached 1,300,000 inhabitants [13]. Nevertheless, the description of Tongli on the Suzhou provincial government tourist website stresses the city’s ancient relationship to the countryside without making any reference to today’s city extension and population, as the following quotation illustrates:

“Being an ancient township, Tong Li borders on Tongli Lake on the east, Nanxin Lake on the south, adjoins Pangshan Lake on the west, Jiuli Lake on the north and Wusong Jiang River on the northwest. The town proper is divided by the streams into seven islets interlaced with the surrounding water area, forming typical water county of the south”. [14]

The overview that follows of the historic water towns to the south of the Yangtze river, based on secondary sources and on first-hand observation, aims to identify some threads of urban history and major urban patterns on which to build future research on historic water town conservation. In parallel, the paper focuses on the impact Professor Ruan Yisan’s conservation planning has had since 1985 on the tourist development of three representative cases: Nanxun, Tongli and Wuzhen, thus highlighting through a critical presentation and assessment limits and potentialities.

2. Historic Water Towns to the South of the Yangtze River: Urban Form and Heritage Between the 13th and 19th centuries, hundreds of water towns flourished to the south of the Yangtze river (that is, in the south of Jiangsu Province and north of Zhejiang Province), as evidenced in the built heritage from the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1911 C.E.) that is still standing in these towns. The “bridge–water–house” trinity (Figure5) represents a typical feature of these water towns. Ruan Yisan—who was the first to study water towns and propose plans for their conservation [7], from the mid-1980s onwards—summarised their development patterns as follows:

“Where there is only one river across the town, a belt-shaped town is formed. Where there are two or more rivers, a cross-shaped or tree-crotch-shaped town is formed (such as Wuzhen or Zhouzhuang, Figure in Section5). Where there are four or even more rivers running through the town, grid-shaped towns are formed (such as Tongli, Figure6). ”. [4] (p. 25)

Water is, therefore, the driving force in the urban development and the street network of water towns. Traditionally, waterways had a more important role than streets, as goods were shipped into the towns from the countryside and all commercial activities took place on the wharfs, where marketplaces naturally formed. Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 5 Heritage 2019, 2 2421 Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Figure 5. The “bridge–water–house” trinity, Wuzhen, 2015 (photo by the author). Figure 5. TheThe “bridge–water–house” “bridge–water–house” trinity, Wuzhen, 20152015 (photo(photo byby thethe author).author).

Figure 6. A grid-shaped water town, Tongli (re-elaborated by the author). Figure 6. AA grid-shaped water town, Tongli (re-elaborated by the author).

Figure 7. Diagram of the “one street one river” urban pattern prevailing in water towns south of the Yangtze (elaborated by Paola Brunori). Figure 7. Diagram of the “one street one river” urban pattern prevailing in water towns south of the Yangtze (elaborated by Paola Brunori). OnFigure a neighbourhood 7. Diagram of the level, “one streets street one tend river” to develop urban pattern in parallel prevailing to the in rivers, water due towns to thesouth convenience of the Yangtze (elaborated by Paola Brunori). affordedYangtzeOn bya neighbourhood access(elaborated to both by Paola waterlevel, Brunori). streets and land. tend Houses to develop are intentionallyin parallel to the built rivers, next due to the to water,the convenience with the streetafforded in front by access and the to both river water at the and back. land. The Houses pattern ar ofe intentionally one street, one built river next (Figure to the7 ),water, or one with river the On a neighbourhood level, streets tend to develop in parallel to the rivers, due to the convenience twostreet streets, in front are and the prevailingthe river at patterns the back. in The water pattern towns of south one street, of the Yangtzeone river [15 (Figure]. Streets 7), areor one aligned river afforded by access to both water and land. Houses are intentionally built next to the water, with the street in front and the river at the back. The pattern of one street, one river (Figure 7), or one river

Heritage 2019,, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 24226 two streets, are the prevailing patterns in water towns south of the Yangtze [15]. Streets are aligned with one- to two-storey, darkdark tile-roofedtile-roofed buildings with uninterrup uninterrupted,ted, wooden facades facades (Figure (Figure 88).). The ground floorfloor is often given overover to workshops,workshops, stores or shops, with houses on the shallower second floor.floor. These usually wooden-structured traditional buildings often have whitewashed brick facades, ornamented at times with with wooden wooden carvings carvings,, and and are are separated separated by by intermittent intermittent brick-stepped, brick-stepped, gabled firewallsfirewalls (Figures(Figure 5 and 9Figure). 9).

Figure 8. StreetStreet view, view, Wuzhen, 2015 (photo by the author).

Figure 9. Residential area, Xinchang, 2014 (photo by the author).

Wealthy families often occupy both sides of a str street,eet, locating the warehouses of their commercial commercial activities next next to to the the river—thus river—thus having having private private do dockscks and and direct direct access access to water to water transportation; transportation; and keepingand keeping shop shop premises premises across across the street, the street, with with residential residential rooms rooms situated situated behind behind the shops the shops (as the (as Zhenzethe Zhenze city citymodel model shows, shows, see seeFigure Figure 10). 10 Houses). Houses are areoften often arranged arranged in the in thetraditional traditional style style of siheyuanof siheyuan—that—that is, is,around around courtyards courtyards (Figure (Figure 11). 11 ).The The richer richer the the family, family, the the more more complex complex the combination ofof courtyardscourtyards and and of of private private gardens gardens [16 ],[16], with with pavilions pavilions (Figure (Figure 12) that 12) follow that follow the model the modelof the famous of the famous classic garden classic mansionsgarden mansions of the cities of the of Suzhou cities of and Suzhou Hangzhou. and Hangzhou. The wealthier The thewealthier family, 5 the family, more suites the more of rooms suites were of rooms added. wereFamily added. wealth5 Family and wealth power wasand power expressed was not expressed only in buildingnot only inimposing building mansions, imposing but mansions, also in erecting but also “spiritin erecting or screen “spirit walls” or screen [17] inwalls” front [17] of the in front houses of (Figurethe houses 13), (Figureor in toponymy 13), or in and toponymy street names, and street as the names, surviving as the stone surviving panels give stone evidence. panels give Some evidence. of the waterfront Some of thehouses, waterfront typical houses, of Wuzhen, typical (Figure of Wuzhen,5) were built(Figure on wooden5) were built stakes on or wooden stone pillars, stakes overhanging or stone pillars, the overhangingriver and therefore the river extending and therefore their private extending space their above private it. space above it.

5 5 “Wealthy businessman or important government officials had big houses lying lengthways in ‘jin’ or transversely in ‘luo’” [4] “Wealthy(p. 111). businessman or important government officials had big houses lying lengthways in ‘jin’ or transversely in ‘luo’” [4] (p. 111).

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Figure 10. AA wealthy wealthy family family disposition disposition of space, space, with with warehouses warehouses next to the river and shop premises across the street. Zhenze city mo model,del, 2017 (photo by the author).

Figure 11. AA wealthy wealthy house house arranged arranged in in the traditional style of siheyuan,, Kezhi Kezhi garden garden mansion, Zhoujiajiao, 2018 (photo by the author).

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Figure 12. PavillionPavillion in in Kezhi Kezhi gardens, gardens, Zhoujiaj Zhoujiajiao,iao, 2018 (photo by the author).

Figure 13. SpiritSpirit wall wall in in front front of wealthy mansion, Zhoujiajiao, 2015 (pho (phototo by the author).

Traditional commercial streets with their wooden, double-storey buildings, often running in parallel toto thethe river,river, were were the the core core of of city city life. life. Beidajie, Beidajie, one one of theof the oldest oldest paved paved streets streets of Zhujiajiao of Zhujiajiao that thatstill maintainsstill maintains a significant a significant number number of old of stores, old st isores, quite is representative:quite representative: with a with width a ofwidth 2–4 meters,of 2–4 meters,it has shops it has on shops both sideson both at groundsides at level, ground and level, residential and residential facilities on facilities the upper on the floor upper or at floor the rear or ofat the businessrear of the premises. business Some premises. shops Some occupy shops a space occupy of only a space one of room, only while one room, other storewhile fronts other bringstore frontstogether bring up totogether 3–4 rooms up to (Figure 3–4 rooms 14a,b). (Figure The sliding, 14a–b). removable The sliding, wooden removable planks, wooden which openplanks, the which entire openfaçade the of entire the shop façade to the of the street, shop give to the a colourful street, give view a colourful of these crowdedview of these commercial crowded places commercial during workingplaces during hours, working while athours, closing while time, at closing the repositioning time, the repositioning of the wooden of the planks wooden recreates planks the recreates street’s thecompact street’s traditional compact outline. traditional Major outline. streets Major are intersected streets are by aintersected number of by narrow a number residential of narrow lanes, residentialoften wide enoughlanes, often only wide for a enough single pedestrian. only for a sing Big stonele pedestrian. slabs pave Big these stone lanes slabs and pave whitewashed these lanes highand whitewashedbrick walls enclose high brick them walls on both enclose sides, them with almoston both no sides, window with openingsalmost no (Figure window 15 a,b).openings Only (Figure narrow 15gates a–b). interrupt Only narrow the spatial gates continuity interrupt ofthe these spatial narrow continuity residential of these lanes. narrow residential lanes.

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((aa)) ((bb))

FigureFigure 14. 14.14. ((aa)) One-roomOne-room shopshop shop (photo(photo by by the thethe author). author).author). ((b (bb)) ) ShopShop premises,premises, with with sliding sliding removable removableremovable woodenwooden planks planks,, ,occupying occupying three threethree rooms roomsrooms (p (photo(photohoto by by the the author). author).

((aa)) ((bb))

FigureFigure 15. 15.15. (((aa))) NarrowNarrow residential residentialresidential lane, lane,lane, Zhenze, Zhenze,Zhenze, 2017 20172017 (photo (photo(photo by by theby thethe author). author).author). (b) ( Narrow(bb)) NarrowNarrow residential residentialresidential lane, lane,Tongli,lane, Tongli, Tongli, 2015 (photo20152015 (pho (pho byto theto by by author). the the author). author).

AllAll the the river river river and and and canal canal canal fronts fronts fronts that that that cross cross cross the the the water water water towns towns towns have have have stone stone stone revetments, revetments, revetments, thus thus thus protecting protecting protecting the the rivertheriver river bank bank bank from from from collapsing. collapsing. collapsing. Along Along Along them them themthere there thereareare priv priv areateate private piers piers (directly piers(directly (directly serving serving serving houses houses houses or or shops), shops), or shops), while while boatswhileboats cancan boats dockdock can alongsidealongside dock alongside thethe streetstreet thess andand streets residentsresidents and residents maymay descenddescend may descend toto thethe waterwater to the levellevel water toto dodo level theirtheir to washingwashing do their onwashingon regularly-placedregularly-placed on regularly-placed flightsflights ofof stone flightsstone stairsstairs of stone (Figur(Figur stairsee 16a–b).16a–b). (Figure Traditionally,Traditionally, 16a,b). Traditionally, boatsboats werewere boats mooredmoored were alongalong moored thethe banksalongbanks on theon purpose-sculpted purpose-sculpted banks on purpose-sculpted stones stones of of different different stones offorms forms different (r (representing,epresenting, forms (representing, for for example, example, for an an example, ox ox nose, nose, twin antwin ox coins, coins, nose, palmtwinpalm leaves, coins,leaves, palm oror an an leaves, s-shaped s-shaped or anornament),ornament), s-shaped andand ornament), ma manyny still still and survive, survive, many serving stillserving survive, the the same same serving purpose.purpose. the same purpose.

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(a) (b) (a) (b) Figure 16. (a) Canal fronts have stone revetments and regularly-placed flights of stone stairs, Nanxun, Figure 16. ((aa)) Canal Canal fronts fronts have have stone stone revetments revetments and and regularly-placed regularly-placed flights flights of of stone stone stairs, stairs, Nanxun, Nanxun, 2016 (photo by the author). (b) Residents doing their washing along the canal, Nanxun, 2016 (photo 2016 (photo byby thethe author).author). (b(b)) Residents Residents doing doing their their washing washing along along the the canal, canal, Nanxun, Nanxun, 2016 2016 (photo (photo by by the author). theby the author). author).

Rivers and and canals canals may may be be flanked flanked by by streets streets on on bo bothth sides sides oror only only on on one, one, and and may may be becrossed crossed by bridgesby bridges and and overlooked overlooked by bybalconies, balconies, while while the the wa water-sideter-side streets streets may may be be covered covered by by porticoes or overhanging houses, may host trees and can open out to small public spaces, often adjacent to a bridge (Figure 17).17).

Figure 17. Diagram illustrating the different patterns of the street–building–canal interrelationship Figure 17. Diagram illustrating the different patterns of the street–building–canal interrelationship structuringFigure 17. Diagram the urban illustrating form of the the water different towns southpatterns of theof the Yangtze street–building–canal river (elaborated by interrelationship Paola Brunori). structuring the urban form of the water towns south of the Yangtze river (elaborated by Paola structuring the urban form of the water towns south of the Yangtze river (elaborated by Paola Brunori). BridgesBrunori). not only represent crossing points, but, based on this, they are also important focal points of city life. This is the case with the five-arched, 70 meter long, limestone bridge of Zhujiajiao (FigureBridges 18), crossingnot only over represent the Caogang crossing river, points, which but, was based built on in this, 1571 they [4] (p.are 109).also important In the daytime, focal pointsthe two of bridgeheads city life. This were, is the and case still with are, the noisy five-arched, business locations70 meter forlong, vendors limestone and bridge customers, of Zhujiajiao while in (Figurethe evening 18), crossing they serve over as gatheringthe Caogan placesg river, for which locals. was built in 1571 [4] (p. 109). In the daytime, the two bridgeheads were, and still are, noisy business locations for vendors and customers, while in the evening they serve as gathering places for locals.

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Figure 18. Five-arched limestone bridge, Zhujiajiao, 2015 (photo by the author).author). Figure 18. Five-arched limestone bridge, Zhujiajiao, 2015 (photo by the author). Stone oror timber,timber, flat flat or or arched, arched, with with one one or or many many more more arches, arches, covered covered or not,or not, straight straight or zig-zag, or zig- connectingzag, connectingStone two or ortwo timber, three or three flat banks, or banks, arched, processional processional with one or or commercial, manyor commercial, more arches, the the bridges covered bridges are or are thenot, the real straight real protagonists protagonists or zig- of waterof waterzag, towns connectingtowns (Figure (Figure two 19 or19a–c).a–c). three Covered, banks,Covered, processional timber timber bridges brid or commercial,ges or or “corridor “corridor the bridges bridges”, bridges”, are the werewere real quite quiteprotagonists commoncommon in old times, of water offering off townsering (Figureprotection protection 19a–c). from from Covered, bad bad weather weathertimber brid whil whilegese crossingor crossing “corridor the thebridges”, water water or were orfunctioning functioning quite common as places as in places for old times, offering protection from bad weather while crossing the water or functioning as places for fora brief a brief rest rest and and socialising socialising (Figure (Figure 20). 20 ).Most Most have have been been destroyed, destroyed, although although a a few few were recently a brief rest and socialising (Figure 20). Most have been destroyed, although a few were recently rebuilt—such asas thethe HuimingHuiming bridgebridge inin Zhujiajiao,Zhujiajiao, rebuiltrebuilt inin 19961996 [[4]4] (p.(p. 110).110). Their location was not rebuilt—such as the Huiming bridge in Zhujiajiao, rebuilt in 1996 [4] (p. 110). Their location was not only functional, but also symbolic. Thus, imposing bridges were often situated next to important only onlyfunctional, functional, but but also also symbolic. symbolic. Thus, Thus, imposingimposing bridgesbridges were were often often situated situated next next to important to important templestemplestemples oror mansionsmansions or mansions (Figure (Figure (Figure 21 21a),a), 21a), playing playing playing a central aa central role role role (similar (similar (similar to to that tothat ofthat of piazzas piazzasof piazzas in in Renaissance Renaissance in RenaissanceItaly), inItaly), publicItaly), in public and in public religious and and religious religious life, as life, in life, the as as casein in the the of casecase the Zhenzeofof thethe Zhenze Zhenze processional processional processional bridge bridge bridge (Figure (Figure (Figure 21 b).21b). 21b).

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c)

FigureFigure 19. 19.(a) ( Singlea) Single arched arched bridge, Tongli, Tongli, 2017 2017 (photo (photo by the by author). the author). (b) Bazi (bridge,b) Bazi connecting bridge, connecting three threebanks, banks, Shaoxing, Shaoxing, 2016 2016 (pho (phototo by the by author). the author). (c) Flat(c (c) )bridge, Flat bridge, Nanxun, Nanxun, 2016 (photo 2016 by (photo the author). by the author).

Figure 19. (a) Single arched bridge, Tongli, 2017 (photo by the author). (b) Bazi bridge, connecting three banks, Shaoxing, 2016 (photo by the author). (c) Flat bridge, Nanxun, 2016 (photo by the author).

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Figure 20. WoodenWooden covered or “corridor bridge” as plac placee of socialisation, Nanxun, 2016, (photo by thethe author). author).

((a)) ((b))

Figure 21. 21. ((a(a,,b,b)) )Bridge Bridge next next to to a temple, a temple, Zhenze, Zhenze, 2017. 2017. It play It playss an important an important role rolein religious in religious life, as life, a processionalas a processional bridge bridge (photos (photos by the by author). the author). 3. The Conservation of Historic Water Towns 3. The Conservation of Historic Water Towns 3.1. Urban Conservation in China 3.1. Urban Conservation in China Since the economic reform of 1978, China has been experiencing a rapid urbanisation process Since the economic reform of 1978, China has been experiencing a rapid urbanisation process accompaniedSince the byeconomic the privatisation reform of of 1978, land China use rights has b (rathereen experiencing than land ownership) a rapid urbanisation [18,19], which process has accompanied by the privatisation of land use rights (rather than land ownership) [18,19], which has greatlyaccompanied favored by the the destruction, privatisation for of redevelopment land use rights purposes, (rather than of old land city ownership) cores and small [18,19], towns which [20– has22]. greatly favored the destruction, for redevelopment purposes, of old city cores and small towns [20– greatlyIn 1982,favored6 the the first destruction, Law of the for People’s redevelopment Republic ofpurposes, China [23 of,24 old] on city the coProtectionres and small of Cultural towns Relics [20– 22]. (22].Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Wewu Baohufa), was launched by the State Council; ten years later, in 1992, In 1982,66 the first Law of the People’s Republic of China [23,24] on the Protection of Cultural Relics regulationsIn 1982, for the its first implementation Law of the People’s wereissued, Republic providing of China technical[23,24] on support the Protection [25]. Revisedof Cultural in Relics 1991 (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Wewu Baohufa), was launched by the State Council; ten years later, in and(Zhonghua 2002, thisRenmin law Gongheguo became the Wewu basis Baohufa for conservation), was launched policies by boththe State nationally Council; and ten locally. years later, In this in 1992, regulations for its implementation were issued, providing technical support [25]. Revised in context,1992, regulations conservation for its was implementation gradually extended were from issued, the providing preservation technical of individual support buildings—that [25]. Revised in is, 1991 and 2002, this law became the basis for conservation policies both nationally and locally. In this of1991 “monuments and 2002, this and law sites”—so became as the to basis encompass for conservation a broader scale policies relevant both tonationally “Historical and traditional locally. In street this context, conservation was gradually extended from the preservation of individual buildings—that is, districts”context, conservation (1985–1986), was and gradually the whole extended historic built from environment, the preservation introducing of indivi thedual category buildings—that of “Historic is, of “monuments and sites”—so as to encompass a broader scale relevant to “Historical traditional andof “monuments cultural cities, and towns sites”—so and villages” as to encompass (2003–2008) a [br26oader] (pp. scale 20–32), relevant [27]. to “Historical traditional street districts” (1985–1986), and the whole historic builtbuilt environment,environment, introducingintroducing thethe categorycategory ofof “Historic and cultural cities, towns and villages” (2003–2008) [26] (pp. 20–32), [27].

6 Awareness of the value of conservation research and legislation emerged in China in the 1920s. The Research Institute of 6 6 AwarenessArchaeology of (Kaoguxuethe value Yanjiusuo),of conservation is perhaps research the earliest and legislationlegislation organisation emergedemerged to carry outinin ChinChin researcha in onthe conservation 1920s. The ofResearch the built environment, and was established in Yanjing University in 1922. But this tradition was greatly lost with the advent of Institute of Archaeology (Kaoguxue Yanjiusuo), is perhaps the earliest organisation to carry out research on InstituteSocialist of ChinaArchaeology and more (Kaoguxue particularly withYanjiusuo), the 10 years is ofperhap the culturals the revolutionearliest organisation and the movement to carry for“destroying out research the oldon conservationfour” [23]. of the built environment, andand waswas establishedestablished inin YanjingYanjing UniverUniversity in 1922. But this tradition was greatly lost with the advent of Socialist China and more particularly with the 10 years of the cultural revolution and the movement for “destroying the old four” [23].

Heritage 2019, 2 2429

This conceptual evolution of urban conservation is clearly reflected in the List of Precious Historic Cities (Lishi Wenhua Mingcheng), introduced in 1982 by the State Council, which represents the second major urban conservation tool in China. The list initially comprised 24 cities, including Beijing, Luoyang and Xian, selected among those “ ... that have reserved abundant cultural relics ... ”[28] (p. 8). This loose definition of urban heritage as a sum of individual buildings was superseded in 1986, when a second list of 38 cities was formulated on the basis of local historical–cultural zones, and not simply historic buildings. In 1994, the Guideline for Preparing Conservation Plans for Historical–Cultural Famous Cities, prepared by the Ministry of Construction and the Bureau of Cultural Relics, which emphasised an area-based conservation plan, was mirrored in the new group of 37 cities added to the list that same year. The final step of this conceptual evolution was reached in 2008, when the State Council adopted the Regulation on the Protection of Famous Historical and Cultural Cities, Towns and Villages, promulgated in 2005 by the Ministry of Construction, in which both the content and the objective of urban conservation were clearly addressed. The Regulation identified the legal responsibilities and the procedures to be followed, the support measures and the sanctions, giving, in a nutshell, legal protection to the category of “Historic cities, towns and villages” [16]. Since 1982, therefore, a significant number of historic districts, cities and small towns have been listed and protected. As of 2014, there were 125 cities on the list [16] (p. 457). According to central government guidelines, conservation aims to “sustain and preserve traditional characteristics with appropriate urban development” [29] (p. 411), which means that conservation and development should be mutually supportive, while the decision of what represents tradition and built heritage, and how it should be preserved, interpreted or reutilised is entrusted to local authorities, architects and planners.7 In fact, while the protection of “monuments and sites” depends on the National Office of Cultural Affairs, the protection of historic cities depends on the Ministry of Construction and Urban and Rural Development (MOHURD). It is the planners’ responsibility, therefore, to define the “conservation area” boundaries and the actions to be undertaken for the conservation and development of the protected area. Practically speaking, urban planning (according to the Guideline and Regulation mentioned above) has the following roles: it is the tool that defines the perimeter of the conservation area and the way it must be protected; it identifies the relationship between conservation and development; and it protects heritage, while favouring economic and social development and aiming to better the conditions of life and work of the inhabitants. In this context, there are three major aspects urban conservation should address: “the protection of heritage buildings and ensembles; the conservation of the configurations of urban texture and their characteristics; the transmission and development of note-worthy elements of cultural tradition” [30] (p. 10). As Whitehand and Gu [23] (pp. 648–649) have already highlighted, the incorporation of urban conservation in urban planning developments in China has favoured a top down approach that often fostered land-use planning procedures as urban conservation methods. In parallel, the limited research on Chinese urban history and conservation from a methodological and theoretical viewpoint [16,31] has favored a dependency on Western methods and trends. Notwithstanding the recent increasing attention drawn to heritage conservation [32,33], Chinese urban conservation still lacks a systematic analytical approach to its traditional settlements. This paper highlights these issues, through the water towns case study and the critical assessment of Ruan Yisan’s conservation planning.

7 In fact, many academics and teaching staff from architecture and urban planning schools in China are actively involved in conservation planning practice and theoretical research, as Professor Ruan Yisan, on whose professional work this paper is focusing. Regarding his theoretical research see: Wang, J., Ruan, Y.S. Historic City Conservation Theory (in Chinese), Tongji University Press: Shanghai, China, 1999; Ruan, Y.S., Lin, L. Authenticity in Relation to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, in Urban Heritage Conservation, edited by College of Architecture & Urban Planning Tongji University, China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2010, pp. 49–61; Shao, Y., Ruan Y.S. Evolution and Character of the Historical and Cultural Heritage Preservation Law in France, in Urban Heritage Conservation, edited by College of Architecture & Urban Planning Tongji University, China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2010, pp. 143–152 [28]. Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 14 increasing attention drawn to heritage conservation [32,33], Chinese urban conservation still lacks a systematic analytical approach to its traditional settlements. This paper highlights these issues,

Heritagethrough2019 the, 2 water towns case study and the critical assessment of Ruan Yisan’s conservation2430 planning.

3.2. Water Water Towns Conservation PlanningPlanning and the RoleRole ofof RuanRuan YisanYisan Professor Ruan Yisan is one of the firstfirst (if not the first)first) planner [4,7,34], [4,7,34], to study and get involved involved with protecting and planning historic water towns by assisting local local residents, residents, as as he he himself put put it, it, “in“in renovation,renovation, and developing tourism, which help the historical value value of of ancient ancient towns towns reappear, reappear, develop the local economy and improve people’s livingliving standard” since 1986 [[4]4] (p.(p. 173). The water towns that he planned to the south of the Yangtze river,river, according to the chronological period of his involvement, are are as follows (Figure 22):22): in in the the se secondcond half half of of the the 1980s, 1980s, Zh Zhouzhuang,ouzhuang, Tongli, Tongli, Luzhi, Nanxun, Jiaxing,Jiaxing, Wuzhen Wuzhen and and Xitang; Xitang; in thein 1990s,the 1990s, Zhujiajiao, Zhujiajiao, Xinchang, Xinchang, Anchang, Anchang, Longmen, Longmen, Qianton Qiantonand Mudu. and Mudu.

Figure 22. MapMap of of the the water water towns towns south south of the of theYangtze Yangtze river river planned planned by Professor by Professor Ruan Ruan Yisan Yisan (re- (re-elaboratedelaborated by Paola by Paola Brunori Brunori from from [4] p.179). [4] p. 179).

“The large-scale conservation pl planninganning of the historic water to townswns at the mouth of the Yangtze River sets an important milestone in the protection of living cultural landscapes.” These words opened the text of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific Heritage Award of Distinction for the cultural heritage conservation work Professor Ruan and his Tongji UniversityUniversity team had undertaken in six of the water towns south of the Yangtze river—anriver—an awardaward hehe receivedreceived inin 2003200388 [ [11,35].11,35]. ItIt goesgoes on:on: “ The comprehensive approach adopted by the project allows for thorough understanding and 8 Accordinginterpretation to Maylis of Bellocq the area’s these natural six small and historic cultural wate heritager towns “had at both submitted the local a joint and application regional levels.to be listed Operating with an overall conservation masterplan, a clear policy framework, and sound methodology, as a world heritage site and were included in the first national list of historic towns and are, since 2008, subject the project restores the authentic significance and function of the towns’ waterways and historic to the Regulation for the Protection of Historic Cities, Towns and Villages (Lishi Wenhua Mingcheng).” [11] (p. 5). settlements, while accommodating modern needs and anticipated growth. Major investments by the According to Alain Marinos “La petite ville de Tongli, qui fait partie des six villes d’eau du Jiangnan pour lesquelles était projetée une demande d’inscription sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO, a été retenue.8 According Les réalisations to Maylis Bellocq entreprises these six ont small été historic primées water à troi townss reprises, “had submitted par le ministère a joint application chinois tode be la listed Construction as a world heritage site and were included in the first national list of historic towns and are, since 2008, subject to the Regulation for the en 2002Protection et par of l’UNESCO Historic Cities, dans Towns la région and VillagesAsie-Pacifique (Lishi Wenhua en 2003 Mingcheng et 2007”).” [[35]11] (p.(p. 5).19). According to Alain Marinos “La petite ville de Tongli, qui fait partie des six villes d’eau du Jiangnan pour lesquelles était projetée une demande d’inscription sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO, a été retenue. Les réalisations entreprises ont été primées à trois reprises, par le ministère chinois de la Construction en 2002 et par l’UNESCO dans la région Asie-Pacifique en 2003 et 2007” [35] (p. 19). Heritage 2019, 2 2431

government for public works and by residents for individual structures creates a commendable model of sustainable long-term public–private partnership. The ambitious scope of the project promises to have a major impact on shaping future developments in the towns as well as conservation practice throughout China.”. [4] (p. 15)

Ruan Yisan, who also pioneered the conservation of other historic cities such as Pingyao [36,37] (designated a National Historical and Cultural City by the State Council in 1986 and a UNESCO WHS in 1997 [38]), has worked on more than two hundred conservation plans for cities and heritage sites all over China, coordinating an entire pool of Chinese experts from Tongji University. He has been professor and Dean of the School of Architecture and Urban Planning of Tongji University (Shanghai) and, since 1998, as Director of the National Research Centre of Historic Cities (also based at Tongji University), has initiated a long term cooperation with France and specifically with the Observatoire de l’architecture de la Chine contemporaine, nowadays attached to the Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine [35] (p. 17). He is now chairman of the Ruan Yisan Heritage Foundation (which he founded in 2006) [39], and was recently awarded the Henry Hope Reed Award of the University of Notre Dame, USA [40]. According to Professor Ruan, five aspects are necessary for the implementation of protection and planning of water towns. They represent the synthesis of his long experience of water town conservation, as initiated in 1986 with the master plan and town protection plan of Zhouzhuang [11] (p. 6), and have been briefly summarised by him [4] (pp. 175–177) as follows:

- Raise local people’s awareness; - Focus on protection through development, putting forward the policy of “protecting ancient towns, constructing new zones, developing town’s economies, and opening up tourism” [4] (p. 175); - Proceed differently in response to different situations, which implies defining differentiated protection measures according to the different protection class that cultural heritage and sites belong to inside and outside the ancient towns; - Manage protection. Record and map existing towns in order to plan their protection, transformation, necessary reconstruction and reuse. “When planning, we should pay special attention to the inheritance and promotion of traditional culture such as traditional customs, products, handicrafts, snacks and dishes, literature and arts, etc.” [4] (p. 177) - Develop tourism accordingly. “The beautiful look with the special water town features, the plain and pure folkways and people, traditional dishes and snacks and the rich and colourful crafts the ancient towns possess are tourist sources people living long in cities crave for. On the one hand, we should enhance the ancient towns’ popularity via media’s propaganda; on the other hand, we established places in ancient towns and suitable places for serving tourists so that we could meet the tourists’ demands for ‘eating, living, walking, visiting, shopping and entertaining’”.

According to Ruan’s writings and planning: “The ancient towns would have developed tourism gradually which would have increased people’s income and also reinforced the protective potentiality more” [4] (p. 177). A closer look at three of the water towns planned by Ruan Yisan helps to provide a better understanding of the impact of his conservation planning approach, and the opportunities it offered alongside the risks that it introduced.

4. Historic Water Towns Conservation and Tourist Development

4.1. Nanxun, Tongli and Wuzhen—Three Cases Representing Different Implementations of Ruan Yisan’s Conservation Planning Approach Nanxun’s history is closely related to the silk market and industry, which started growing in the 16th century, reaching its peak in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the town had largely expanded with big mansions, fashion stores, silk shops and piers, equalling in prosperity the big cities Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 16 Heritage 2019, 2 2432 expanded with big mansions, fashion stores, silk shops and piers, equalling in prosperity the big cities of Suzhou and Hangzhou. Nanxun’s silk production and its exquisite quality were closely ofdependent Suzhou andon the Hangzhou. clear and Nanxun’s abundant silk waters production of the region and its (Figure exquisite 23) quality. The town were housed closely a dependentvery large ongroup the of clear silk and merchants, abundant who waters greatly of theinfluenced region (Figurethe economy 23). The and town society housed of the a area very up large to the group 1930s of silkcrisis, merchants, leaving evidence who greatly of their influenced wealth, culture the economy and refined and society customs: of thein their area mansions, up to the 1930ssuch as crisis, the leavingZhang Shiming evidence former of their wealth,residence culture (1871–1927), and refined combining customs: Chinese in their mansions,and European such asarchitectural the Zhang Shimingornamentation former (Figure residence 24) (1871–1927), and covering combining an area of Chinese around and 5000 European m2 with hundreds architectural of rooms; ornamentation in their 2 (Figuregardens, 24 such) and as covering the Classical an area Little of aroundLotus villa 5000 (1885 m with–1924) hundreds of 1.8 hectares of rooms; (Figure in their 25a–b); gardens, in libraries, such as theas the Classical Jiaye Library, Little Lotus occupying villa (1885–1924)an area of 13,000m of 1.8 hectares2 and now (Figure housing 25a,b); 130,000 in libraries, volumes as and the 30,000 Jiaye 2 Library,woodcut occupying editions; anand area in ofarchitectural 13,000m and urban now housingcomplexes, 130,000 such volumes as the andso called 30,000 woodcut“Hundred-Room editions; andResidence” in architectural (Figure 26). urban This complexes, continuous such uninterrupted as the so called line “Hundred-Roomof one- to two-storey, Residence” whitewashed (Figure folk 26). Thishouses continuous with arched uninterrupted porticoes, black line roof of one-tiles and to two-storey, brick-stepped, whitewashed gabled, intermittent folk houses firewalls, with arched which porticoes,stretches blackalong roofboth tiles sides and brick-stepped,of the narrow gabled, windin intermittentg river, creating firewalls, a whichharmonious stretches and along unique both sidesatmosphere, of the narrow gives windingevidence—even river, creating in folk a residences harmonious—of and an unique urban atmosphere, design intervention gives evidence—even (probably in inthe folk 16th residences—of century) [41–44]. an urban design intervention (probably in the 16th century) [41–44].

Figure 23. Design from W āang¯ng Yu ezhē¯zhen’sē¯n’s book “History of Nanxun District”,District”, 8th year of the kingdom of emperor Xianfeng, Qing dynasty.

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Figure 24. TheThe Zhang Zhang Shiming Shiming former residence ( (1871–1927),1871–1927), combining Chinese and European architectural ornamentation, Nanxun,Nanxun, 2016 (photo byby thethe author).author).

(a)

Figure 25. Cont.

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(b)

Figure 25. ((a)) Design of the Classical Littl Littlee Lotus villa (1885–1924), Nanxun. ( (bb)) Pavilion Pavilion of of the the villa, villa, Nanxun, 2016 (photo by the author).

Figure 26. TheThe urban urban complex complex known known as the “Hun “Hundred-Roomdred-Room Residence”, Nanxun, 2017.

Nanxun was one of the second group of towns added to the list of Famous Historical and Cultural Cities to be preserved in 1986, and great care has been taken in its conservationconservation plan, undertaken by Professor Ruan, which extended over fivefive years [[45]45].. Nowadays, Nowadays, although touris touristt access to the city’s historical core is by entrance ticket, with tourist attractions and creative industries, boat itineraries

Heritage 2019, 2 2435 historical core is by entrance ticket, with tourist attractions and creative industries, boat itineraries and special cultural events representing local customs and so on [46–48], the city remains relatively authentic—although only after dusk, as even the local tourist agency comments:

“Unlike some other ancient water towns, Nanxun is still inhabited. Furthermore, it is free to visit the town after 17:00 each day. Although tourist attractions and most shops will be closed after 17:00, tourists can still take a stroll through the town and observe the local people’s life. In some respects, the authentic town only emerges after 17:00 anyway.”. [49]

The old historic town of Tongli, 0.68 square kilometres in size (only 90 km away from Shanghai and about 20 km from Suzhou, to which it is nowadays linked by metro), was once famed for its achievements in the imperial examinations and has produced famous Confucians and notables, as recorded by more than 40 stone tablets around the city and the numerous streets named after officials’ titles. The town’s isolation, becoming accessible by car only in the 1980s, maintained its ancient morphology and scale intact, characterised by the traditional houses dating back to the Ming and Qing dynasties densely settled on both sides of the banks (Figure 27), the winding alleys and the unaltered street network, paved with pebble stones and interlinked by numerous bridges [50,51]. Once again, it was Professor Ruan who prepared the city’s conservation plan in the late 1980s, according to which the buildings built during the Ming and Qing dynasties covered an area of 40,000 square meters [11]. Some of these buildings were restored and opened to visitors, as was the case of the Gengle and Tuisi residences (the latter inscribed in the world heritage list along with the famous Suzhou garden residences), but most of them remained initially inhabited. The case of the Tuisi residence and its garden (Figure 28) is quite representative of how restoration interventions were implemented both in Tongli and elsewhere. The documentation collected by Maylis Bellocq shows that the residence “after being requisitioned by the local authorities in 1949, was occupied by a transistor factory, a chemical warehouse, a canteen, an infants’ school, a peasant workers’ dormitory, a cotton mill, and a union office” [52] (p. 24]. Identified as an important heritage site in which to invest efforts and money, it was “restored”, and in 1997–2000 it was nominated as a UNESCO world heritage site. However, neither does its restoration show any traces of these previous transformations, nor do the building’s guidebooks mention anything about its recent history. “Amnesia” has veiled this building’s Socialist past [52], and it is reasonable to think that all the functional changes the building has gone through would have seriously damaged it. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to use other terms, such as reconstruction and renovation, rather than “restoration”, to describe such interventions. A similar path has been followed by most of the renovation works applied to folk houses, and generally to the built fabric. In fact, hundreds of medium size residences of merchants or wealthy families with several successive courtyards, which were expropriated in the 1950s and subdivided for several poor families [7], have been “restored”, reviving the hypothetical original state of the building [16], preferably of the Qing dynasty [53], and neglecting all transformations and memories of the Socialist period. In the conservation of Tongli, Professor Ruan apparently deployed the same policy originally tried out in Zhouzhuang—that is, “to fully utilise the human, cultural and historical resources in order to reinforce the town’s cultural characteristics for tourist purposes” [30] (p. 74). Wuzhen was famous as a silk town, but also for its dye houses and wine workshops. It has a rich built heritage going back to the Song and Qing dynasties, and its waterfront houses have a special character because they are supported by log piles or stone pillars overhanging the river (Figure 29). Ruan Yisan describes in his Water Towns [4] (pp. 54–55), [54] how the town’s political leaders approached him in 1998, following the success of his planning in Zhouzhuang and Tongli, requesting his planning consultancy expertise for Wuzhen [30] (pp. 70–84). His plan was implemented in 1999, and the small town, situated along the Grand Canal, crossed by narrow waterways and adorned by numerous old stone bridges, opened to visitors in 2001. Ronald Knapp, who probably visited it in 2002–2003, described it as follows: Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 19 and special cultural events representing local customs and so on [46–48], the city remains relatively authentic—although only after dusk, as even the local tourist agency comments: “Unlike some other ancient water towns, Nanxun is still inhabited. Furthermore, it is free to visit the town after 17:00 each day. Although tourist attractions and most shops will be closed after 17:00, tourists can still take a stroll through the town and observe the local people’s life. In some respects, the authentic town only emerges after 17:00 anyway.” [49]. The old historic town of Tongli, 0.68 square kilometres in size (only 90 km away from Shanghai and about 20 km from Suzhou, to which it is nowadays linked by metro), was once famed for its achievements in the imperial examinations and has produced famous Confucians and notables, as recorded by more than 40 stone tablets around the city and the numerous streets named after officials’ titles. The town’s isolation, becoming accessible by car only in the 1980s, maintained its ancient morphology and scale intact, characterised by the traditional houses dating back to the Ming and Qing dynasties densely settled on both sides of the banks (Figure 27), the winding alleys and the unaltered street network, paved with pebble stones and interlinked by numerous bridges [50,51]. Once again, it was Professor Ruan who prepared the city’s conservation plan in the late 1980s, according to which the buildings built during the Ming and Qing dynasties covered an area of 40,000 square meters [11]. Some of these buildings were restored and opened to visitors, as was the case of the Gengle and Tuisi residences (the latter inscribed in the world heritage list along with the famous Suzhou garden residences), but most of them remained initially inhabited. The case of the Tuisi residence and its garden (Figure 28) is quite representative of how restoration interventions were implemented both in Tongli and elsewhere. The documentation collected by Maylis Bellocq shows that the residence “after being requisitioned by the local authorities in 1949, was occupied by a transistor factory, a chemical warehouse, a canteen, an infants’ school, a peasant workers’ dormitory, a cotton mill, and a union office” [52] (p. 24]. Identified as an important heritage site in which to invest efforts and money, it was “restored”, and in 1997–2000 it was nominated as a UNESCO world heritage site. However, neither does its restoration show any traces of these previous transformations, nor do the building’s guidebooks mention anything about its Heritagerecent 2019history., 2 “Amnesia” has veiled this building’s Socialist past [52], and it is reasonable to think2436 that all the functional changes the building has gone through would have seriously damaged it. Therefore,“Unlike it somemay ofbe the more better appropriate known water to towns,use othe littler terms, of Wuzhen such hasas reconstruction been restored,yet and many renovation, old ratherbuildings than “restoration”, remain in a noteworthy to describe state such of preservation.interventions. Life A in similar Wuzhen path is much has been as it was followed in the past,by most of thewith renovation remarkably works few buildingsapplied to specifically folk houses, serving and tourists. generally Walking to the alongbuilt anyfabric. of theIn fact, narrow hundreds lanes, of mediumone cansize easily residences glimpse of the merchants rhythms ofor daily wealthy life: peoplefamilies carting with freshseveral water, successive cooking meals,courtyards, tending which wereto expropriated young children, in the and 1950s playing and mah-jong. subdivided Local for workshops several poor continue families to make [7], wine have and been homespun “restored”, revivingcotton. the”. hypothetical [55] (p. 127) original state of the building [16], preferably of the Qing dynasty [53], and neglecting all transformations and memories of the Socialist period.

Figure 27. TraditionalTraditional houses houses densely densely settled settled on on both both side sidess of ofcanal canal banks, banks, Tongli, Tongli, 2017 2017 (photo (photo by the by Heritagetheauthor). 2019 author)., 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 20

FigureFigure 28. 28. TuisiTuisi residence residence and garden, UNESCO site site,, Tongli, 2017 (photo by the author).author).

InHowever, the conservation the strong localof Tongli, leadership Professor that set Ruan upthe apparently Wuzhen Protectiondeployed andthe Tourismsame policy Developments originally Administrativetried out in Zhouzhuang—that Committee [56] managed is, “to fully to turn utilise the the historic human, area cultural of Wuzhen, and 1.3 historical square kilometresresources in ordersize, “from to reinforce a quiet the and town’s unheard-of cultural village characte in theristics north for of tourist Zhejiang, purposes” into a well-renowned, [30] (p. 74). world class townWuzhen for tourists! was Sincefamous 1999 as thea silk city town, has obtainedbut also for innumerable its dye houses honors and and wine has workshops. gone through It has years a rich of prosperity”.built heritage In going these back words, to thethe localSong administrators and Qing dynasties, reported and to usits proudlywaterfront their houses achievements have a special in our characterofficial visit because in 2015 they [12]. are Through supported population by log displacementpiles or stone andpillars the overhanging musealisation the of theriver entire (Figure historic 29). Ruantown (FigureYisan describes30), the Wuzhen in his administrationWater Towns [4] has (pp. managed 54–55), to cancel[54] how any the trace town’s of Knapp’s political description. leaders approached him in 1998, following the success of his planning in Zhouzhuang and Tongli, requesting his planning consultancy expertise for Wuzhen [30] (pp. 70–84). His plan was implemented in 1999, and the small town, situated along the Grand Canal, crossed by narrow waterways and adorned by numerous old stone bridges, opened to visitors in 2001. Ronald Knapp, who probably visited it in 2002–2003, described it as follows: “Unlike some of the better known water towns, little of Wuzhen has been restored, yet many old buildings remain in a noteworthy state of preservation. Life in Wuzhen is much as it was in the past, with remarkably few buildings specifically serving tourists. Walking along any of the narrow lanes, one can easily glimpse the rhythms of daily life: people carting fresh water, cooking meals, tending to young children, and playing mah- jong. Local workshops continue to make wine and homespun cotton.” [55] (p. 127). However, the strong local leadership that set up the Wuzhen Protection and Tourism Developments Administrative Committee [56] managed to turn the historic area of Wuzhen, 1.3 square kilometres in size, “from a quiet and unheard-of village in the north of Zhejiang, into a well- renowned, world class town for tourists! Since 1999 the city has obtained innumerable honors and has gone through years of prosperity”. In these words, the local administrators reported to us proudly their achievements in our official visit in 2015 [12]. Through population displacement and the musealisation of the entire historic town (Figure 30), the Wuzhen administration has managed to cancel any trace of Knapp’s description.

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FigureFigure 29. Characteristic 29. Characteristic waterfront waterfront houses houses ofof Wuzhen, overhanging overhanging the the canals canals and and supported supported by log by log pilespiles or stone or stone pillars pillars (photo (photo by by the the author, author, 2015). 2015).

Figure 30. Wuzhen tourist map: on the right hand side, the town’s entrance gate and ticket office, next FigureFigure 30. Wuzhen30. Wuzhen tourist tourist map: map: on the the right right hand hand side, side, the town’s the town’s entrance entrance gate and gate ticket and office, ticket next o ffice, to the parking lot (photo by the author, 2015). next to the parking parking lot lot (photo (photo by bythe the author, author, 2015). 2015).

4.2. Conservation4.2. Conservation and and Tourism: Tourism: a Dia Difficultfficult Marriage Marriage It is undeniable that Ruan Yisan’s plans of the 1980s and 1990s gave a new dignity to the historic It is undeniableIt is undeniable that that Ruan Ruan Yisan’s Yisan’s plans plans of of thethe 1980s and and 1990s 1990s gave gave a new a new dignity dignity to the to historic the historic water towns, which, up to that point, had existed in a state of decay and abandonment, without waterwater towns, towns, which, which, up up to to that that point, point, had had existedexisted in a a state state of of decay decay and and abandonment, abandonment, without without appropriate infrastructure (sewage, electricity, gas or private toilets, etc.), without financial resources appropriate infrastructure (sewage, electricity, gas or private toilets, etc.), without financial resources to promote any kind of restoration and with no public appreciation for their heritage. He describes to promotethe meetings any kind he organised of restoration with academics, and with professionals, no public appreciation political and for local their authorities heritage. to Hepromote describes the meetingshis planning he organisedwork and attain with state academics, approval professionals, and financial support political for and its localimplementation, authorities and to promotethe his planningway he tried work to find and support attain stateby increasing approval local and citizens‘ financial awareness support [30] for (pp. its 110–112), implementation, [11] (pp. 6–8). and the way heIn parallel, tried to the find central support government’s by increasing decision local to citizens‘include heritage awareness tourism [30 ]as (pp. an economic 110–112), resource [11] (pp. in 6–8). In parallel,the seventh the central Five-Year government’s Plan (1986–1990) decision helped to include to overcome heritage the tourism deeply asrooted an economic belief that resource heritage in the protection was synonym of backwardness and that industrialisation was the only way to seventhprotection Five-Year was Plan synonym (1986–1990) of backwardness helped to overcome and that the industrialisation deeply rooted belief was thatthe heritageonly way protection to modernisation [7] (p. 5). was synonymmodernisation of backwardness [7] (p. 5). and that industrialisation was the only way to modernisation [7] (p. 5). By the end of the 1980s, his work had gradually started to come to fruition and he was By the end of the 1980s, his work had gradually started to come to fruition and he was commissioned commissioned to take on more plans. The 1990s was the decade in which heritage conservation at to take on more plans. The 1990s was the decade in which heritage conservation at urban scale was affirmed, and also when it was consolidated at the legal level, and the tourist industry was accepted as a new economic resource, able not only to recover the costs of new conservation interventions, but also Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 22

Heritageurban scale2019, 2was affirmed, and also when it was consolidated at the legal level, and the tourist industry2438 was accepted as a new economic resource, able not only to recover the costs of new conservation interventions, but also to increase local growth [11] (pp. 8–9). With the advent of the new millennium, however,to increase internal local growth mass tourism [11] (pp. grew 8–9). exponentiall With the adventy and the of newly the new conserved millennium, water however, towns started internal to experiencemass tourism a flux grew of exponentially tourists over andthe weekends, the newly conserved soon becoming water overcrowded towns started to(Figure experience 31). The a flux ideal of touristtourists flow, over capable the weekends, of being soon supported becoming by overcrowdedthe fragile urban (Figure fabric 31 ).ofThe a water ideal town tourist like flow, Zhouzhuang, capable of accordingbeing supported to Professor by the Ruan’s fragile urbanplanning fabric evaluation of a waters, would town likehave Zhouzhuang, been 600,000 according visitors annually; to Professor by 2002,Ruan’s however, planning the evaluations, town was wouldalready have recording been 600,000 2.63 million visitors entrance annually; tickets by 2002, annually, however, while the in town the washigh alreadyseason, up recording to 40,000 2.63 people million visited entrance it daily. tickets In 2005, annually, the tourist while flows in the in Tongli high season, reached up 2.2 to million 40,000 people(Figure visited32), and it daily.Wuzhen In 2005,also had the touristmore than flows 2 mil in Tonglilion visitors reached in 2.22007. million This (Figurenumber 32 almost), and doubled Wuzhen thealso year had moreafter, thanin 2008 2 million [30] (p. visitors 81), and in 2007. had Thisreached number 7 million almost visitors doubled by the 2014. year According after, in 2008 to [the30] (p.perspectives 81), and had of the reached 11th Five-Year 7 million visitorsPlan (2006–2010), by 2014. According tourism should to the perspectiveshave represented of the 7% 11th of Five-Yearthe GDP, withPlan the (2006–2010), number of tourism domestic should tourists have estimated represented at 1.78 7% billion of the in GDP, 2010 withand 2.6 the billion number in 2015 of domestic [57] (p. 9).tourists estimated at 1.78 billion in 2010 and 2.6 billion in 2015 [57] (p. 9).

Figure 31.31. Mass tourist flow,flow, Zhouzhuang,Zhouzhuang, 20052005 (photo(photo fromfrom [[30]30] p.p.80). 80).

Figure 32.32. CanalCanal banksbanks of of Tongli Tongli transformed transformed into into open open air restaurantsair restaurants ready ready to receive to receive the mass the tourist mass touristflux (photo flux by(photo the author,by the author, 2014). 2014).

Heritage 2019, 2 2439

5. In Conclusion: a Critical Assessment of Ruan Yisan’s Interventions as a Basis for Future Research Leaving aside more recent developments, such as those fostered by the above-mentioned 11th Five-Year Plan, which considered tourism “as a growth sector boosting internal consumption and helping to fight poverty, especially in rural areas” [11] (p. 8), I would like to conclude with a critical assessment of Ruan Yisan’s planning interventions in the water towns, set within their historical context. Professor Ruan operated in the years immediately after 1979, when China’s built heritage ceased to be a target for destruction in the name of political ideology,9 but continued to be endangered because of the country’s accelerated urbanisation and modernisation. His intervention was an attempt to save historic towns from the grip of industrialisation,10 promoting an alternative path for their development: that of tourism. The legislative framework of the 1980s and 1990s, as we saw, gave him the planning tools and conceptual support needed to proceed with his preservation interventions; this was exemplified in the case of Nanxun, which, as we have seen, had already been included in 1986 in the official List of Precious Historic Cities (Lishi Wenhua Mingcheng), giving it legal protection. However, legal support in itself was not sufficient, unless accompanied by financial resources. The central government’s understanding and guidelines, as previously discussed, were clear on this point: conservation should “sustain and preserve traditional characteristics with appropriate urban development” [29] (p. 411), which implied that conservation and development (and more specifically tourist development) had to be mutually sustaining. The government’s decision to assign the protection of historic cities to the Ministry of Construction and Urban and Rural development (MOHURD), by contrast with the protection of “monuments and sites”, which is assigned to the National Office of Cultural Affairs, clearly defined the national policy on conservation. Decisions regarding what represents tradition and built heritage, how they should be preserved, interpreted or reutilised, are thereby entrusted to local authorities, architects and planners. This has given the opportunity for farsighted and concerned planners, like Ruan Yisan, to promote and implement their conservation plans, but also gives scope for local governments more interested in the economic returns on their urban heritage interventions, to misinterpret them—as exemplified in the case of Wuzhen. Whitehand and Gu [23] (pp. 648–649) have already highlighted that the incorporation of urban conservation in urban planning developments in China favoured a top-down approach, which in recent years has often fostered land-use planning procedures as urban conservation methods. Hundreds of projects, from Xintiandi (Shanghai) [29] and Qianmen (Beijing), to Daming palace (Xian) [58] up to the rebuilding the old city of Datong [59], fall under this category, heavily criticised “for their inauthentic character, gentrification and displacement of old residents” [60] (pp. 170–171). Not only is heritage tourism characterised by a “top-down” government approach, but the formulation and implementation of urban conservation plans also show a similar tendency, “in which the independence of the heritage profession and the applicability of conservation planning principles” is doubtful [16] (p. 458) [61]. A counter-balance to this tendency might lie in furthering research on Chinese urban history and conservation from a methodological and theoretical viewpoint [16,31], including the promotion of a systematic morphological and typological analysis of urban patterns and of their historical developments [62–64]. As Whitehand and Gu put it, “conservation methods in China are largely based on descriptions of the characteristics of urban landscapes”, and not on analysis. “Vague interpretations of the historical development of urban form have been major causes of inappropriate restoration and redevelopment plans and the ineffectiveness of the implementation of planning.” [23] (p. 650). This also holds true for Ruan Yisan’s conservation planning, based as it is on inadequate analysis of urban patterns and on the identification of protected areas on a street–river basis rather than a neighbourhood

9 I am referring to the years of the cultural revolution and the movement for “destroying the old four”. 10 In the years between 1980 and 2010 Zhejiang province saw a population increase from 14% to 62%, compared to the national average increase of 50% [55]. Heritage 2019, 2 2440 basis (Figure 33)[57], resulting in a restoration process that has focused mainly on the shop–houses lining the streets (mainly commercial) or the river banks (principally for tourist use), rather than whole neighbourhood blocks (largely left to be renovated by their low-income residents). Heritage 2019, 2 FOR PEER REVIEW 24 The dearth of research on Chinese urban history from a methodological and theoretical viewpoint hasthan also a neighbourhood favoured a dependency basis (Figure on 33) Western [57], resultin methodsg in and a restoration trends. The process long-term that has cooperation focused mainly with France,on the shop–houses and specifically lining with the the streetsObservatoire (mainly commercial) de l’architecture or the de la river Chine banks contemporaine (principally, initiated for tourist by 11 Ruanuse), Yisanrather inthan 1998, whole illustrates neighbourhood this point. This blocks tradition (largely is stillleft ongoing,to be renovated with Professor by their Zhou low-income Jian —a youngerresidents). member of Ruan Yisan’s Tongji University team, now responsible for the plans of Tongli (2011) and ZhenzeThe dearth (2017)—who, of research inon orderChinese to promoteurban history a more from balanced a methodological development and theoretical approach forviewpoint Tongli, introducedhas also favoured the principle a dependency of “integrated on Western protection”, methods inspired and trends. by the The “French long-term experience cooperation of secteurs with sauvegardFrance, andés andspecifically the Zones with de the protection Observatoire du patrimoine de l’architecture architectural, de la Chine urbain contemporaine et paysager, (ZPPAUP)initiated by [Ruan... ] withYisan the in idea1998, of illustrates maintaining this Tongli point. as This a living tradition city”, asis Alainstill ongoing, Marinos, with responsible Professor for French–ChineseZhou Jian11—a cooperationyounger member in this of field, Ruan informed Yisan’s usTongji [35] (p.University 19), [11]. team, now responsible for the plans of Tongli (2011)Notwithstanding and Zhenze (2017)—who, the increasing in level order of attentionto promote recently a more attracted balanced by heritage development conservation approach [32, 33for], ChineseTongli, introduced urban conservation the principle still lacksof “integrated a systematic prot analyticalection”, inspired approach by to the its traditional“French experience settlements: of onsecteurs this basis,sauvegardés this paper and the off Zonesers as de its protection contribution du patrimoine to add further architectural, grounds urbain to theet paysager existing (ZPPAUP) evidence for[…] developing with the idea research of maintaining on Chinese Tongli urban as a historyliving city”, and conservationas Alain Marinos, from responsible a methodological for French– and theoreticalChinese cooperation viewpoint. in this field, informed us [35] (p. 19), [11] .

Figure 33. Plan of Zhouzhuang, 2002, showin showingg in red the multiplication of commercial activities along thethe street–riverstreet–river axis,axis, whichwhich waswas thethe basisbasis andand focusfocus of thethe protectionprotection planplan drafteddrafted byby ProfessorProfessor RuanRuan YisanYisan inin 19861986 (photo(photo fromfrom [[30]30] p.p.81). 81).

Acknowledgments:NotwithstandingThis the paper increasing draws onlevel the of research attentio workn recently undertaken attracted over by the heritage last six conservation years in the context[32,33], ofChinese a number urban of di ffconservationerent research still projects lacks (Bilateral a systematic Agreement analytical between approach National to Research its traditional Council settlements: on this basis, this paper offers as its contribution to add further grounds to the existing evidence for developing research on Chinese urban history and conservation from a methodological 11andProfessor theoretical Zhou viewpoint. Jian is currently also the Director of the World Heritage Institute for Training and Research for the Asia and the Pacific Region, under the auspices of UNESCO – WHITRAP. Available online http://www.whitr-ap.org/index.php? Acknowledgments:classid=1459 (accessed This on paper 30 November draws on 2018). the research work undertaken over the last six years in the context of a number of different research projects (Bilateral Agreement between National Research Council of Italy—CNR- ICVBC and the World Heritage Institute for Training and Research for the Asia and the Pacific Region under the

11 Professor Zhou Jian is currently also the Director of the World Heritage Institute for Training and Research for the Asia and the Pacific Region, under the auspices of UNESCO – WHITRAP. Available online http://www.whitr-ap.org/index.php?classid=1459 (accessed on 30 November 2018).

Heritage 2019, 2 2441

of Italy—CNR-ICVBC and the World Heritage Institute for Training and Research for the Asia and the Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO—WHITRAP since 2013; European financed IRSES-People project “Planning, Urban Management and Heritage—PUMAH” (2012–2016); Bilateral project between CNR and the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage – CACH on “Routes of culture: enhancement and management of large scale heritage sites. Via Appia—Roman Consular street—and the Grand Canal of China” from 2016 to 2018). I owe much of my understanding and knowledge of Chinese heritage planning to the colleagues I have been working with and to the help and support they offered me. An early version of this paper was presented on December 4–6, 2017 to the Conference organised by Andrew Law, Newcastle University on “Risks to life, heritage, and community on the Yangtze River”. I am very grateful for the comments received then, among others, of Yiwen Wang, Giulio Verdini and Andrew Law. The author is greatly indebted to the reviewers’ comments. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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