~~-~ . c?-~3 c37~ Review of the ~A~ Downstream Migration of Atlantic Salmon
C. P. Ruggles1
Freshwater and Anadromous Division Resource Branch Department of Fisheries and Oceans Halifax, Nova Scotia ·
Canadian Technical Report of Fisheriesand Aquatic Sciences No. 952
1 Montreal Engineering Company Limited . ·'':
Camud!iallll1f'eclmicaD Report of Ffisheries am!l Aquatfic Sdellllces These reports contain Scientific and technical information that represents an important contribution to existing knowledge but which for some reason may not be. appropriate for primary scientific (i.e. Journal) publication. Technical Reports are directed primarily towards a worldwide audience and have an internation'aJ distiibution. No restriction is placed on subject matter and the series reflects the bfo;,td interests and policies of the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, namely, fisheries. management, technology and development, ocean sciences, and aquatic environments relevant to Canada. Technical Reports may be cited asfull publications. The·correct citation appears above the abstract of each report. Eacn report will be abstracted in Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts and will be indexed annually in the Department's index to scientific and technical publications. . . Numbers 1-456 in this series were issued as Technical Reports of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. Numbers 457-714 were issued as Department of the Environment, Fisheries and Marine Service, Research and Development Directorate Technical Reports. Numbers 715-924 were issued as Department of Fisheries and the Environment, Fisheries and Marine Service Technical Reports. The current sedes name was changed with report number 925. Details on the availability of Technical Reports in hard copy may be obtained from the issuing establishment indicated on the front cover.
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··:.... . JIS Aiasm R.~so~es ·· Lib~ &i·fufoimation Servtces Anchorågt;, Alaska Canadian Technica1 Report of, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 952
Ju1y, 1980
A REVIEW OF THE DOWNSTREAM MIGRATION. OF ATLANTIC SALMON
Freshwater and Anadromous Divisiqn Resource Branch Department of Fisheries and Oceans Halifax, "Nova Scotia B3J 257
:~.Montreal Engineering Co~pany, Limited 1526 Dresden Row Halifax, Nova Scotia
,.< ., ·';
.. / ~ Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1980 Cat. No. Fs. 97-6/1980~0952 ISSN 0706-6457 iii
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ..... v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . v
FOREWORD. . . . . vii
ABSTRACT/RESUME ix
INTRODUCTION ... 1
TRANSFORMATION FROM PARR TO SMOLT 1
THE DOWNSTREAM MIGRATION. 2 Initiation of the Run. 2 Rate of Descent ...... 3 Spatial Distribution and Growth. . 4
SOURCES OF MORTALITY ... 4 Predation...... 4 Passage Over Spillways and Falls ...... 5 Passage Through Turbines ...... 8 Description of Hydraulic Turbines ...... 8 Causes of Mortality Durlng Turbine Passage. . . .. 10 Biological Factors Associated with Turbine Mortality .. 13 Surrunary of Mortality of Salmonids Passing Through Turbines ...... 14 Predictive Models of Turbine-Induced Mortality ..... 14 Passage Through Impoundments ...... 16 Atmospheric Gas Supersaturation ...... 17 Sublethal Stress ...... 18
MEASURES FOR REDUCING MORTALITIES 19 Fish Screening . • . . . . 19 Physical Barriers ...... 19 Behaviour Barriers...... 20 Bypass and Fish-Collection Systems. . .. 22 Interception and Transfer...... 22 Artificial Outlets ...... 22 Ga tewe lls...... 22 Surface Discharges Other than Spillways ..... 23 Flow Control ...... 24 Spillway Design ...... 24 Turbine Design and Operation . . . . 25
KELT PASSAGE ... 26
PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS . . 27
REFERENCES ...... 29
PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS . . . 39
v
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE l. of downstream migrants at s ( Bell and DeLacy 1972) . 6
TABLE 2. Summary data of sh pas experi- ments at Kaplan turbines (from Bell et al. 1967) ...... 15
TABLE 3. Summary data of passage experi- ments at Francis turbines (from Bell et al. 1967) ...... 15
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. 1. A typical reaction-type turbine installation ......
FIG. 2. Details of typical Francis and Kaplan turbines ...... 11
FIG. 3. Installation of bar screen in turbine intake (from Ruehle et al. 1978) ...... 21
FIG. 4. Sketch of llway deflector (adapted from Smith 1973) ...... 25
vii
FOREWORD
This review represents a portion of a study that resulted from an unsolicited pro posal by Montreal Engineering Company, Limited, to the Canadian Department of Supply and Services. The study was conducted on behalf of the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans under the direction of Mr. N.E. MacEachern, Chief, Freshwater and Anadromous Fish Division, Resource Branch, Maritimes Region.
ix
l\BS'l'f Ruggles, C.P. 1980. l\ review of the downstream migration of Atlantic salmon. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No. 952. 1x + 39 p. In order to adequately protect Atlantic salmon during their down stream migration to the sea, it is important to understand the nature of the behavioural and physiological changes that occur during this relatively brief period in the salmon's life history and to identify potential sources of mortality. This paper reviews both published and unpublished information on downstream salmonid migrations, with special reference to those species exhibiting a similar life history to the Atlantic salmon. The paper describes the transformation from parr to smolt, the downstream migration, sources of mortal1ty to downstream migrants and measures for reducing mortal1ty at hydro electric dams. Considerable emphasis is given to the problem posed by hydroelectric development to downstream migrating salmonids. Key words: Juvenile Atlantic salmon, fish passage, migration, dams, mortality, hydroelectric fac1lities, reviews. Ruggles, C.P. 1980. l\ review of the downstream migration of Atlantic salmon. Can. 'l'ech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Scl. No. 952. 1x + 39 p. Il est important de bien comprendre la nature des changements ethologiques et physiologiques qui se produisent chez le saumon atlantique au moment de sa migration vers la mer, afin de la proteger adequatement durant cette per1ode relativement breve de son cycle bio logique. Le present article fait la revue de nos connaissances, publiees et inedites, sur l'avalaison des salmonides, en particulier des especes dont le cycle biologique ressemble a celui du saumon atlantique. On y decrit la transformation des jeunes saumons en tacons migrateurs, la migration d'avalaison, les sources de mortal1te des tacons en avalaison et les mesures a prendre en vue de reduire la mortalite aux barrages hydroelectriques. Les problemes que posent les installations hydroelectriques aux salmonides se deplacant vers l'aval reyoivent une attention toute particuliere. ' Mots cles: jeune saumon atlantique, deplacements des poissons, migration, barrages, mortalite, installat1ons hydroelectr1ques, revues. INTRODUCTION and Eales 1967). Large Atlantic salmon silvery more than The downstream passage of smaller parr when held under a series of Atlantic and Pacific salmon past natura controlled temperature and phot.o-per iod and man-made obstructions has been the regimens (Johnston and Eales 1970). subject of considerable research in both North America and Europe. A review of well as readily visible changes, this extensive information represents a the transition from parr to smolt is accom- first step in the assessment of current and by biochemical and 1 future problems that the Atlantic salmon, that are not mani Salmo salar, may encounter during their appearance. There is fall in total body downstream migration to the sea. Both lipids (Hoar 1939 Fessler and Wagner 1969; published and unpublished information on Farmer et al. 1977). There are marked downstream salmonid migrations are reviewed, changes in certain enzymes and a loss of with special reference to those species from the liver 1960; exhibiting a similar life history to the 6 ; Saunders and 1970; Atlantic salmon. Of relevance and Saunders 1973) Smolts have been are studies on steelhead trout, Salmo shown to be more buoyant than non-smolts. gairdneri, whose life his and appearance The seasonal development of smolt buoyancy closely resemble those of salmon is related to and water tempera- (Clemens and Wilby 1961) . Reference is also t.ure but is not iod made to the downstream migrations of those (Saunders 1965; Pinder 1969). In species of Pacific salmon, genus both the Atlantic salmon and the steelhead Oncorli•Jnchus, which migrate to the sea i.lS trout, the change from parr to smolt is smolt after having spent at least one year and reversible. in fresh water. are well documented, significance remains specu Whether young anadromous salmonids on lative (Hoar 1976) . emerging from the gravel maintain their pos~ tion in the streams or immediately begin It seems clear, however, that these their seaward migration depends upon their changes prepare the young salmon or trout behaviour. The behaviour of Atlantic salmon for life in the sea. The transformation, (Salmo salar) has been extensively studied or metamorphosis, from a fish adapted for (Allen 1941; Kalleberg 1958; Mills 1964; life in fresh water into a fish that can Osterdahl 1969; Symons 1974; Bagliniere 1976; survive in the sea is a unique characteris Fried 1977; Solomon 1978). Such studies tic of anadromous salmonids. Several show that young Atlantic salmon rapidly be authors have demonstrated that salinity come territorial and establish a mosiac of tolerance increases in both Salmo and more or less separate territories throughout Oncorhynchus as the young fish increase in all suitable parts of the stream. As they ize (Parry 1960 Conte and Wagner 1965). grow, their territories increase in area, There is evidence that the onset of other forcing individual fish to move to fresh ter smolt characteristics is size-dependent ritories (Kalleberg 1958). Sometimes, these (Elson 1975; Johnston and Eales 1970; movements result in downstream of Chrisp and Bjoron 1978) . The transforma relatively short distances. spring, tion to smelt is also a seasonal phenomenon. however, a of the stream-dwelling Increasing day length and other environ salmon population undergoes a mental factors are required, with the result surprising transformation and begins a jour- that smolt migrations occur only during ney that involve distances of several springtime (Saunders and Henderson 1970; thousand Indeed, the transfor- Komourdjian et al. 1976). If to mation is so striking that individuals be the sea does not occur, the features ginning this seaward journey were thought to the following spring be a distinct species by Gesner who, in 155~ 7; Koch 1968; Hoar 1976) published an illustration of an Atlantic salmon smolt titled "De parvo Salmone, The of fish play an important Rondeletius" (Hoar 1976). role in maintenance of proper salt and water balance. In fresh water, fish take in water and lose salts via the gills. ln TRANSFORMATION FROM PARR TO SMOLT sea water, the situation is reversed; fish lose water across the gills and concentrate The change from stream-dwelling Atlantic salts ( 1966). To counteract this, salmon parr to migrating smolt is accom saltwater must drink sea water to pre- panied by pronow1ced changes in appearance. vent dehydration. The excess salts that Parr have characteristic "parr marks", are accumulate must be transported across the brightly coloured, and blend with their gills against. an osomotic gradient (sea background in a cryptic fashion. Smolt are water contains more salts than the body slimmer, more streamlined and silvery in fluids of fish in sea water) . This active appearance. These physical changes that transport of salts requires energy. The accompany the parr-smolt metamorphosis can energy for the transport is derived from be measured by weight-length adenosine (ATP) via the enzyme and by the amount of purine (ATPase) , or more the scales and in the dermis acent to the Na+K+ATPase (Parry 1960; Maetz muscle (Chrisp and Bjornn 1978) . Both gua nine and hypoxanthine occur in these layers, and there is an increase in the guanine: NaKATPase increases hypoxanthine ratio during smelting (Johnston when become adapted to a 2 saltwater environment and, in fact, behaviour (Northcote 1962; accompanies the parr-smolt transformation Brannon 1972) , lack of while the smolt is still in fresh water cover and (Saunders and Henderson 1978). A twofold and Narver 75), a inc-cease in activity during the parr-·smol t supply (Symons 1971; Mason 1976), changes transformation and a corresponding decrease in aggressive behaviour (Chapman 1962; in activity during the desmoltification Latta 1969 Symons 1968 and 1971), or to stage have been reported (Zaugg and Wagner spawning activity of precociously mature 1973). Zaugg (1970) demonstrated seasonal males (Buck and Youngson 1979). These changes in gill ATPase activity that cor non-smolt are not reviewed. :cesronded to normal migration times, including They usually not account for movement a drop at the termination of the migratory into the sea, or f do, such movement period for coho salmon. Saunders and is inconsequential to life history of Henderson (1978) conclude that ATPase most populations of anadromous Atlantic activity is a sensitive indicator of the salmon. These non~·smol t migrations to the Atlantic salmon's ability to osmoregulate sea probably represent fish surplus to in a hypertonic environment and hence pro the carrying capacity of the freshwater vides one parameter by which to judge a habitat. :juvenile salmon to be a smolt. Elson (1957) concluded that Atlantic review salmon parr must reach a length of 10 em migration in , point out in the fall in order to smoltify during that the seaward is discontinuous the following spring. Wagner et al. (1963) within 24-hours They conclude concluded that parr-smolt transformation of that the diel periodicity represents a steelhead trout is more dependent on size seasonal locomotor rhythm which, under than age, the critical size being 14 cm- changed behavioural and physiological cir 18 em. Atlantic salmon smolts from Canadian cumstances, results in downstream displace- rivers average between 13 em and 18 em in ment. In , seaward migration is length (Dymond 1963) . After the onset of nocturnal, most intense about two smoltification, pronounced changes in be hours after sunset during the earlier por haviour resul·t in the initiation of the tion of the migration period, to which is salmon's downstream journey to the sea added a diurnal component during the (Kalleberg 1958) . latter portion of the migration (Osterdahl 1969; Jessop 1975; Bagliniere 1976). The The precise timing of this journey duration of the smolt migration is usually appears to be a critical factor in deter about 30 days. mining subsequent survival of both wild and hatchery smolts (Durkin et al. 1970; water temperature has been cited Ebel et al. 1973; Raymond et al. 1975). as environmental stimulus trigger- The change from parr to smolt occurs over a ing migration of Atlantic salmon relatively short period during springtime, smolts from freshwater streams and rivers, and if the seaward migration is prevented, with peak migration occurring at water the smolt characteristics regress. The of l0°C or (White metamorphosis appears ·to be precisely Elson 1962 Mills Jessop 1975; timed to prepare the fish for seaward migra Bagliniere 1976 Fried 1977; Solomon 1978) tion and for adaptation to life in the sea. Similarly, seaward migrations of steelhead Thus the salmon must reach the sea through smolts {Bjornn 1971; Stauffer 1972; a time window that may remain open for a 1974) and various Oncorhynchus sp. relatively short duration. How ecological (Foerster 1937 Hoar 1965; Hartman conditions in the sea at the time of smolt et al. 1967; Churikov 1975) also occur entry affects Atlantic salmon survival is during the period of rising water tempera- unknown, although Larsson, P-O (1977) re ture in the Foerster (1937), ports that if water temperature in the sea Fontaine (19 Melnikova (1970) is much colder than in the river, smolt.s observed that smolting and migration were tend to stay in fresh water or return to it. earlier if the average water temperatures were higher than normal in the preceding months. Fried et al (1978) found that THE DOWNSTREAM MIGRATION Atlantic salmon smolts showed increased in the Penobscot River estuary river temperature rose above 5°C. INITIATION OF THE RUN of migratory behaviour, from following seaward progress In addition to downstream movement. of by means of ultrasonic telemetry, occurred smolts in the spring, many pre-smolt and at temperatures above 9°C. Other authors non-anadromous salmonids move downstream (Osterdahl 1969; Mason 1975) have concluded during the fall, winter and spring that water was not the causal (Calderwood 1906; Stuart 1957; Meister 1962; smolt migration but Bjornn and Mallet 1964; Mills 1964; Chapman idental. and Bjornn 1969; Skeesick 1970; Saunders 1976; Thorpe and Morgan 1978). Jn addition, Huntsman (1952) and Hoar (19:>3) suq some upstream movement of juvenile salmonids gested t:hat downstream movement of smolts often occurs in the spring and early summer occurred as a result of failure of the (Bjornn and Mallet 1964; Ruggles 1966; rheotactic response. This failure was Bjornn 1971) . These movements of non believed to be triggered by some environ smelts have been attributed to innate mental mechanism (Hoar suggested photo- 3 periodlsm); however, Osterdahl (l rivers enables local patterns of migratory out that such process would a behaviour to evolve and be maintained. dome-shaped migration curve. The pronounced Thus both day- and nighttime smolt migra- short-term fluctuations are occur. istic of smolt migrations, therefore, mus·t be influenced by some additional environmen- tal factor that fluctuates from to day. OF Power (1959) noted a diel rhythm oxygen consumption in Atlantic salmon smolts, peak- and laboratory observations of ing at midday and Keenleyside and Atlantic salmon indicate that dur- Hoar ( l9 54) observed rheotactic response ing the freshwater phase of seaward of juvenile Pacific salmon declined with migration, downstream movement increasing temperature. The increased de- (Jones 19 ; Stuart 1962 Fried et al. mand for oxygen at and midnight would 978), as well as active downstream move reduce the scope for accordingly ment (White and Huntsman 1938; Kalleberg and, hence, the to maintain position 1958 Stasko et al. 1973) and holding in the stream. visual acuity at position the current (White and night or increased temperature the Huntsman 38; Stasko et al. 1973), may day would increase the probability down- occur. Fried (1977) found no change in stream displacement around these times. from that in the fresh- water when smolts encountered Osterdahl (1969) concluded that smolts water of about 2~~ 0 sal the estuary migrating at night are not influenced by of the Penobscot River, environmental factors in the same way as day migrants. He believed that changes in Raymond (1968) found that migration the strength of the day was con- rates of yearling chinook salmon nected with changes in a factor, best Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) varied with the measured as radiation ( area) . From rates the Columbia and Snake laboratory experiments with 13 cm-20 em rivers the western United States. At Atlantic salmon, Richardson and ~'icCleave low , the chinook (1974) have suggested that locomotor activity 21 km/day, moderate patterns are synchronized by a light-transi- the juvenile averaged about 37 tion stimulus rather than by per km/day. Fried 77) measured the rate of se. They found that the change from of Atlantic salmon smolts through to dark was followed by a more pronounced Penobscot River estuary in the State peak of activity than that from dark to of Maine means of ultrasonic telemetry light. transmitters. He recorded t.ravel times ranging from 29.4 to 44.5 hours (mean 37.1 hours) to from head of tide to 35 km to 22 km/day, com rates for Semple km downstream the the Saint John River. using radio , found Atlantic salmon Hiver, New Hampshire, migrate at a rate of from 7.2 km to 28 km/day. Semple (1979) found smolts to move downstream at East River Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia, from 1.9 km to 2.9 Allen (1944) observed rates of of Atlantic salmon smolts in an English river of from 0.2 km to 6.0 km/day. Mills (1964) reported average rates of Atlantic salmon smolt movement of between 0. km and 2.04 km/day for dif ferent groups of fish migrating between several , in different years, in In summary, the natural downstream small Scottish river. Slower movement of smolts depends upon a gradual ion rates were observed in slower physiological development of migrating reaches of the river. Solomon readiness, involving hormonal, behavioural (1978) found the rate of downstream smolt and morphological changes, and an increas movement to be slower than the average flow ing salinity tolerance. After the trans rate of the river. In , rate of formation from parr to smolt, some environ downstream migration Atlantic salmon mental stimulus triggers the migration, smolts appears slower in small streams than the nature of the stimulus often appearing in large rivers. to differ in different rivers. Migration represents a potentially hazardous period (1979), in an in the salmon's life history, and its interesting a variety of timing is probably influenced by natural characteristics and hatchery selection. The high degree of reproductive Atlantic salmon smelts migrating in the isolation between salmon populations in Luvenga River, flowing into the White Sea, 4 found that hatchery-produced smolts migrated SOURCES OF MORTALITY rapidly downstream directly after release. Wild smolt.s migrated over a longer period 'rhe change from a stream-dwelling, and the intensity of migration, by compari territor existence to a schooling, no- son, coincided closely with favourable madic one presents downstr·eam migrating environmental conditions. Atlantic salmon with new sources of danger. Salmon smolts represent a transi tional form from one li stage to SPA'I'IAL DISTRIBUTION AND GROW'l'H another. A variety of studies attempted to isolate biotic and abiotic Kalleberg (1958) found that during the factors responsible for mortality during culmination of the normal smolt migration, this brief phase in the salmon's life Atlantic salmon smolts in an experimental, history. Variations in smolt size have an circular tank actively swam and effect on survival rather than having an with the current. The fish effect the ultimate size of nounced schooling behaviour. There is adult. Rapid in growth rate evidence that several Oncorhynchus sp. move occur in the sea and exceed losses due to downstream as discrete units. Durkin et al. mortal , so that biomass cont.inues to (1970) found that each native salmon popula increase most of the sea life of a ·tion had a characteristic age, size and time year class 1962, 1968). Since the of entry into Brownlee Reservoir, a large rate of adult return is proportional to impoundment on the Snake River. Entry into smolt abundance (Ricker 1954; Larkin 1970; the reservoir varied from year to year Royce 1973) , mortality occurring at the depending on reservoir conditions, but was smolt stage adversely affects the rate of sequential by stock. Fried (1977) found adult recruitment and hence the yield from that water current was the main factor any specific salmon stock. A review of influencing the migration routes of Atlantic the mortality factors associated with salmon smolts. Both Atlantic salmon and smolt migration is presented below. Pacific salmon species appear to follow the main channels in their downstream smolt migration, favouring areas of maximum flow. PREDATION Research by the Washington State Department of Fisheries on downstream migrant distri Although several investigators bution in the Columbia River showed steel (Tavener 1915; White 1936, 1939; Huntsman head preferred the center of the river 1941; Lindroth 1955; Godfrey 1957; Elson (Anonymous 1956) . 1962; Barr 1962; Gray 1969) have studied predation on juvenile salmon, only a The downstream salmon migrants actively relatively few have recorded predation on feed and grow during this phase of their Atlantic salmon smolts. The observed be life history. Bjornn et aL (1978) have haviour concerning seasonal and diel tim presented data which indicated that tagged ing of the smolt migration is probably steelhead smolts grew an average of 0.2 mm partly in response to predatory pressure. per day between upstream release locations Nocturnal has obvious survival and recapture at dams on the Snake and value in predators. In rivers Columbia rivers. Churikov (1975) locabod in latitudes, where young masou (Oncorhynchus masou) coho in springtime extends over most salmon fed actively during their downstream 24-hour , the shift to sea- migration. Gammaridae and winged insects ward migration periods of maximum were the major food organisms. Most trout sunlight may also be in response to anglers can attest to the voracious feeding predation (Bakshtansky et al. 1976, 1977) of Atlantic salmon smolts. Early Atlantic salmon migrants may not show summer growth Lindroth and Bergstrom (1959), in a on their scales but later migrants usually detailed study of merganser (Mergus show some summer growth. Despite this merganser) feeding behaviour in a stream late growth, early migrants are usually tank, found that mergansers had a decided larger than the later smolts. preference for bottom fishes. Observa Several authors have reported both tions in the glass-sided tank showed that size and age composition of Atlantic salmon mergansers swam near the bottom, probing smolts decrease during the migration season holes and fissures in the gravel sub (Allen 1944; Osterdahl 1969; Bagliniere strate by means of their bills. Field 1976). observations by White (1939) suggested similar feeding behaviour. Hence, surface Bakshtansky et al. (1979) observed swimming smolts may not be as vulnerable differences in spatial distribution and to merganser predation as bottom-dwelling feeding behaviour of wild and hatchery territorial parr. smolts. Hatchery-produced smolts tended to migrate closer to the bottom and preferred In a similar vein, smolts moving areas of slower current. They fed less downstream in areas of maximum current successfully than wild smolts and did not velocity may avoid certain predators such demonstrate normal fright reaction to human as pike, perch and bass that prefer slower observers. water velocities. Nonetheless, predators to reduce of smolts, determine the of salmon smolt 5 plantings in many Swedish rivers (Larsson, mon fry (Ginetz and Larkin 1976) and chum H-0 1977) . Observed differences between salmon (l 'Ibtal head Est. max. Discharge Number of fish Percent survival Place Type spill (ft) vel. (fps) (cfs) Species Size Control Test Control Test Remarks M:::Nary & Ogee & buck. 85- ±83 1,800 Fall 2 - 98 Big Cliff Bucket 90 chinook 6 in. Bonneville Ogee & buck. ±64 Chinook Fingerling Many tests 54.2 McNary Ogee & buck. 85 ±83 to Balloon tests Elwha Chute >40 98.5 Elwha Chute 100 >40 Chinook Fingerling 15,646 16,410 63 Glines Free fall 180 Tenninal Chinook Fingerling 94 Coho Yearling 13,382 17,900 92 Baker Freefall 240 >80 300- Coho Yearling 15,000 20,000 68,79 Ski-jump to chute 500 83 tests Baker Free fall 250 >80 1,850 Sockeye 36 to chute Coho 94.7 46 Capilano R. Ski jump 240 Tenninal 900 Coho & Srrolt 50 Steelhead Alder Dam Flume & 26 29-49 5, Coho 100 97 to free fall 10, 100 15 Mud Mtn. Tunnel 80- Coho Yearling 8.6 Based on oom. 120 Chinook Fingerling 97.5 puted recap. only seton Siphon 25 29 (aver.) Sockeye 70-99 rrm 100 98.8 Creek Sluiceway 142 srrolt 92.6 Sunset Good return Falls Chute 88 >70 Coho 165/lb 199,027 to fishery Ariel Still 185 Tenninal Coho 50-100 90 100 100 100 pool rrm Puyallup & Helicopter 300 Tenninal Coho 3-4 in. 299 100 99.7 Other tests Dungeness Rainbow 6-7 in. 200 98.5 made with larger fish. Tests also at 100' and 200! Ontario Air drop hand 300- Brook 15-69/lb. fing. 3.0 9-ll rro.afte;- plant as a 400 Terminal trout 4.1 planting oontrol yearl. 3.8 2-4 no. afta:- 6.7 planting. 7 ln experiments at McNary Dam (total head fish continued to accelerate in drops of 2. 7 m) , on the Columbia River, Schoenroman up to 213 m (Bell and DeLacy 1972). et al. (1961) estimated mortality of chinook salmon yearlings passing over the Subsequent experiments showed that spillway to be 2%, with a 95% confidence neither large nor small fish could sustain interval from 0% to 4%. velocity greater than 16 m/sec into a pool. When striking After the construction of the velocities exceed 16 m/sec, damage begins head Baker River Dam (total head 76 in to occur to gills and eyes, as well as to Washington State, it became evident that internal organs. (from data juvenile salmonid migrants were being presented in Bell DeLacy 1972) dropped harmed in their descent (Hamilton and rainbow trout from a helicopter at 30.5 m, Andrew 1954). Similar at the 61.0 m and 91.5 m into a hatchery pond. Cleveland Dam (total head 73 in British The results were as follows: Columbia were reported by Vernon and Hourston (1957). Under spillway passage at hiqh dams, fish may be endangered by any of the following conditions: Size of fish (em) 1. rapid pressure change, 2. rapid deceleration, 15-18 98.5 (200) 97.5 (199) 98.5 (200) 25-28 94.8 (194) 82.0 (189) 81.4 (189) ] . shearing effects, 30-38 67.0 (6) 83.4 (6) 20.0 (5) 4. turbulence 1Numbers of fish in parentheses . 5. striking force of fish on the water in free fall, and Bell and (1972) conclude that 6. scraping and abrasion. survival rates entering a pool in a column of water, decelerating with the jet and without mechanical deflection, may Unfortunately, detailed experiments equal survival under best free-fall condi have not been conducted that can elucidate tions. Shearing effects, caused by dif the relative importance of these factors in ferences in velocity flow planes causing causing smelt mortality. Factors that have rapid acceleration or deceleration, may been identified include impact against the cause similar injuries as in free-fall con base of the spillway, abrasion against the ditions. High-speed cameras have revealed rough concrete face of the spillway, and damage occurring to fish coming into con various forces associated with deceleration tact with water moving in excess of 9 m/sec after fish reach the surface of the tail (Groves 1972). Thus, inj occurs from water pool. Injuries sustained included mechanical forces due to difference in abrasions, eye damage, embolism and hemor the movement of fish, as object, rela- rhaging. tive to the velocity of t.he surrounding water mass. In uries can occur in one Concern for the passage of fish over millisecond in an area 2.5 em square. high dams led to experiments on fish under This suggests fish can be killed in any free-fall conditions. Smith (1938) and flow situation where momentary Holmes (1939) proved that 5 cm-10 em salmon points of sharp velocity differ could survive free falls of up to 56 m. ences occur. Such situations would be Studies at Glines Dam on the Elwha River, difficult to assess or pinpoint in specific Washington, where spill over the crest of field conditions and impossible for fish to the dam falls free for 55 m into a pool, detect or avoid. showed a survival of 92% for yearling coho salmon (Regenthal 1957). In these early Observations on smolt mortalities experiments, no measurement was made of the associated with impact against the base of rate of descent or terminal velocities the spi lway, abrasion t the rough achieved by the free-falling fish. concrete face of the and various forces associated with after As work progressed on free-fall sur fish reach the surface of the tailwater vival of juvenile salmonids, it became pool triggered a series of experiments evident that knowledge of the rate of fall designed to pass fish safely over high-head was required to interpret the results of dams. Schoeneman (1959) describes an open research conducted under a variety of flume made of 61-cm-diameter, half-section, experimental conditions. s·tudies conducted inzed sheet-metal pipe, 124 m long, at the University of Washington in which ined 22 degrees, at the Alder Dam on fish were air dropped, and with simulated the Nisqually River in Washington State. fish shapes in a wind tunnel, established The total drop in the flume was approxima terminal velocities of approximately 16 m/ tely 43 m, with an additional free-fall sec for fish in the 10 cm-13 em size range. drop of 8 m into a below the dam. Fish Fish in the 60-cm range had terminal velo were observed to free from discharges cities in excess of 58 mjsec. The smaller of 142, 284 and 426 L/sec, which were the fish reached their terminal velocity in discharges through the flume during the falls of approximately 30.5 m. The larger tests. Survival of 8 cm-10 em coho salmon 8 fingerlings was 97% and was not influenced the river bed and the founda- by the volume of water flowing down the tion of the dam If large quantities of flume, at least within the limits tested. water are discharged, a back-roll may be Maximum velocity in the flume was 15 m/sec. created with the possibility that down- stream migrants become trapped in this Experiments on the Baker Dam demon area of extreme and be killed. strated that fish mortality occurred when Bell and DeLacy (1972) conclude that to they entered the downstream pool with the obtain the highest survival of downstream velocity of the water column that carried migrants, should be operated for them. This bypass flow was transported minimum , back-roll and energy by means of a pipe placed diagonally on dissipation per foot of spillway-gate width. the downstream face of the dam and ending Other measures for reducing fish mortali- about 49 m above tailwater. Mortalities ties at are discussed later in were eliminated when the exit flow was the heading "Measures reduced by adjustments at the discharge Mort:alities". end of the pipeline, so that the fish were allowed to fall free into the tailwater pool (Bell and DeLacy 1972). PASSAGE THROUGH TURBINES Recent studies conducted at Anti Dam, In the early stages of hydroelectric on East River Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia, development, fi workers were pre- showed that Atlantic salmon smolts did not occupied with upstream fish suffer significant injury or delay in pas passage facilities, to ensure continued sing this five-metre-high storage dam. access to freshwater spawning and rearing It was felt that smelts would likely be grounds for anadromous and catadromous injured by the severe turbulence or by fishes. The observation of mutilated eels being dashed against the rough stone sub in Germany (Butschek and Hofbauer 1956) strate of the gorge that was cut into bed and early observations on Atlantic salmon rock immediately downstream of the spillway smolt mortalities in the United Kingdom (White, personal communication) (Calderwood 1935) identified hydroelectric turbines source of injury to down Experiments with "ski-jump" spillways stream fish. In the 1950s, a have been successful in eliminating surge of occurred on the effects injuries caused by fish striking the face of passage through turbines on Pacific sal of the dam and being scraped along its mon in the wes·tern United States and in face under normal spillway conditions British Columbia. Early investigations (Regenthal 1957; Gunsolus and Eicher 1970). were designed primarily to evaluate the If fish fall free from the column of water magnitude of mortality and not specifically from which they started the spill, condi to explore the cause of mortality. tions for survival are usually improved. On the other hand, fish that are accelerated Bell et al. (1967) provide a compre within the water column and subjected to hensive review of both published and tumbling and shearing forces within the unpublished research on turbine-induced water, usually exhibit low survival rates fish mortality conducted up to the summer (Bell and DeLacy 1972). of 1966. Since relatively little has been on the survival of fish The advantage of the ski-jump technique passing New information is that abrasion on a spillway face is will be incorporated in a study currently eliminated. No information is available, underway, that will review new research however, on the size of the cushioning pool information in relation to anticipated required for specific heights or discharges. future operating conditions at U.S. Corps High mortality of 70% at the ski-jump spill of Engineers Columbia and Snake river dams way at Cleveland Dam on the Capilano River (Bell, personal communication). was considered to be caused by the effects of excessive turbulence and abrasion in the relatively shallow pool at the base of the ic Turbines dam (Vernon and Hourston 1957) . In some instances, wind has blown migrants onto Hydraulic turbines may be broadly the face of the dam, thus increasing classified into two general groups: the mortality. It seems likely that the ski tangential or impulse type, which utilizes jump spillway provides a means of reducing the kinetic energy of a high-velocity jet but not eliminating mortalities. Whether acting at atmospheric pressure on rela this technique would have any advantages tively small buckets on the circumference over flumes or pipes for passing downst:ream of a wheel; and the reaction type (Fig. 1), migrants from by-pass collection systems to which develops power from the combined tailwater is questionable. action of water pressure and velocity on relatively large submerge0 blades or Energy in water discharged over a buckets in a turbine runner conventional spillway is dissipated mainly (Russell 1954 . in the turbulent pool formed at the base of the dam. The energy dissipation is inten Reaction-type turbines can be further tionally confined to a relatively small subdivided into the Francis type, in which volume of water at the base of the dam, water enters the outer periphery of the where the tremendous force of the water is runner and moves toward the shaft at right spent against concrete energy dissipaters. to it, changing direction while in This is done to reduce danger of scouring runner to a direction parallel to the 9 '\ I ~ \ I ' I ~. \ \ I I"'- I \ I \ I I ) \ \ \ \ I \, \ .. \ ,, "' I \ 'I I ~ I ~"\ \ \ \ \ ~' I I I ~ '\\ \ I \ I \ \ ~ \ \ I r\ ''\ . \ "I I ~ 0 ·.-I \~~ .j..l ((j \ I ,...... { r-1 ((j .j..l U) ~ ·.-I (!) ~ ·.-I ,.Q 1-l ::J .j..l QJ 0.. !>1 .j..l I ~ 0 ·.-I .j..l () ((j (!) 1-l --~ ,...... { ((j () ·.-I 0.. !>1 .j..l ~ \ ,...... { \ . C.!J H I li; 10 shaft; and the propeller in which from the turbine blades. water passes through the parallel t.o the axis of the runner. In modern In Francis turbines, with high-velo application, the Francis type is lly city flow through the guide vanes and used at heads greater than 30 m, wicket 9ates, mechanical injury to fish the propeller · is generally used where may occur when clearances between wicket heads are less 30 m. In Nova Scotia, gates and edges of the turbine however, Francis turbines are commonly used blades are in relation to fish size. at heads lower than 30 m. The Kaplan tur Because of the large clearances between of the the 4-6 blades of a Kaplan turbine, there of the little opportunity for direct is adj Essential features of within the wheel, Francis and turbines are variety of shearing forces may (Fig. 2), the rela- damage to fish as they pass of the runners, scroll case, blade edges. vanes, wicket gates and draft tube. In both Francis and propeller-type turbines, all water are enclosed and are completely with A number of studies of fish passage water under pressure. The transfer through hydraulic turbines (Calderwood energy from the water to the turbine runner 1945; Von Raben 1957; Muir 1959; Cramer is due to hydraulic pressure and to a and Oligher 1960, 1964; Schoeneman et al. change of flow direction against the blades. 1961; Von Guten 1961; Lucas 1962; Monten The setting of a large modern turbine is 1964; Bell 1974) established that a usually with the shaft in a vertical posi variety of factors produced mortality tion, although in several of the smaller during turbine passage. Of these, four plants in Nova Scotia, horizontal installa 9eneral categories are recognized: tions are found. The physical size of turbines is relative, based on l. mechanical damage, due to power output. Installations at contact with fixed or moving heads require less water to produce an equipment; equivalent amount of power, and hydraulic passages are accordingly.smaller. The num 2. pressure-induced damage, due ber of blades in a Franc1s runner var1es to exposure to low-pressure from 14 for low heads to 20 for high heads. conditions within the turbine; Kaplan turbines usually have 4-6 blades, and clearances between blades on these run 3. shearing action damage, due uers are much greater than on Francis run to passage through areas of ners. extreme turbulence or boun dary conditions; and The wicket gates are rotated about a vertical axis and act to control the amount 4. cavitation damage, due to of water entering the turbine and hence the exposure to regions of par power it produces. At the most efficient tial vacuum. opening, wicket gates constitute a continu ation of the guide vanes, which are struc tural elements that impart a whirling Although specific injuries are often motion to the water as it passes to the characteristic of each mortality factor, runner. Clearances between guide vanes, similar forms of damage can result from wicket gates and turbine blades will vary, the different sources (Bell et al. 1967). depending upon the wicket-gate opening required to supply the necessary water for In studying fish mortality in turbines, the load the turbine is carrying. it became evident that the Francis-type runners and the Kaplan-type runners should Water velocities are relatively slow be dealt with separately. The size of and pressures are positive in water passages fish was also an important variable that leading to a turbine. Velocity then was not always reported in the experiments. increases through the guide vanes and The existing data do not permit a meaning wicket gates to a maximum as it passes ful analysis of size of fish and percentage through the turbine. The turbine runner, mortality. Size is related not only to when developing power, will have its bJ.ades frequency of actual contact with structural traveling in the same direction as the flow elements of the turbine, but to strength and at an average speed which is less than and behaviour of the fish. Swin®ing per the velocity of the incoming water. Water formance, for example, is influenced appre velocities quickly decrease after passing ciably by relatively small changes in through the turbine and negative pressures length (Brett and Glass 1973) . may develop, depending on the relative elevation of the turbine to the tailwater. Because of the many problems asso Turbine runners are normally set at an ciated with recovering test and control elevation to avoid local negative pres fish at hydro stations and inter- sures that would cause cavitation. Cavi on the basis of tur tation occurs when vapour masses collapse factors, operating conditions and, by so doing, create small localized and test-fish survival, it became important areas of intense pressures violent to explore the feasibility of using model enouejh to remove 1 particles of metal turbines to determine the effects of \:l±:l:ili'~------uenerator Cover and Seals Stay Ring Scroll Case Wicket Gate Francis Runner Bottom Ring and Seals Kaplan Runner ---'~~----Draft tube------~- Wicket Gate Francis Runner Kaplan Runner FIG. 2. Details of typical Francis and Kaplan turbines. 12 various operating characteristics on fish respectively) under the most favourable mortality. If mechanical uries to fish conditions averaged 89.3%. Prototype tests were not excessive due to the high runner showed that characteristics of a Francis speed and relatively small passage areas in runner that provided maximum survival for turbine models, the use of models would fish were: prove useful for testing the effects of various operation characteristics on 1. relatively low runner speed; mortality. Both Kaplan- and Francis-type turbine models shov1ed that mortality due 2. high efficiency (efficiency to mechanical uries was of a magnitude is the ratio of power derived that left area to test effects from the turbine to the power of other operating conditions. available from hydraulic forces) ; Cramer and Oligher (1964) describe a 30.5-cm-diameter Kaplan runner (6 blades) 3. relatively deep setting of and Francis runner (15 blades) used in the turbine, so that negative model testing at the Allis-Chalmer's Hydrau pressures in the draft tube lic Laboratory in York, Pennsylvania. are minimized; and Cramer and Oligher (op. cit.) present the following results from the model-turbine 4. maximum clearance between the tests: trailing of the wicket and leading edges l. At similar net heads, normal the runner blades and be speeds, and similar turbine tween the blades. settings as related to tail water, total mortalities are not significantly different Bell et al. (1967), after reviewing between Francis and Kaplan both published and unpublished research turbine models. on the passage of fish through turbines, concluded that for Francis wheels, percent 2. Mechanical injuries increase was the most important as the runner speed increases. sigma (a measure of cavi tation) and fish length being the next 3. Total mortality increases as variables in importance. For Kaplan tur tailwater is dropped in suc bines, important variables were square root cessive stages from above to of head and sigma, whereas wicket-gate below the runner centre line, opening was not important. even though the point of general cavitation is not The determination of the importance of reached. different variables was based on regression analysis of a large number of data points, 4. Mechanical injuries sustained collected during extensive testing carried by fish passing through a out over a number of years by the U.S. model turbine can be distin Corps of Engineers. The tests were con- guished from mortality due to ducted over a of operating con- pressure changes. ditions, when factors were being varied simultaneously, Thus, a great deal 5. In the 30.5-cm-diameter model of variability remains in the data, which turbine, a small the authors attribute either to random (1-cm) increase in experimental error or to a variety of between leading edge of blades factors not measured during the tests. and trailing edge of wicket gates resulted in a signifi- Fish survival rate for both Kaplan cant decrease in mortality. and Francis turbines followed the general both types of turbine~ 6. The difficulty of scale survival occurred at effects, by having to use fish total turbine effi- as test animals in reduced ciency. losses in Francis tur- size model turbines, has been bines were related to the clearance between recognized as a function of the wicket gates and the runners, and to the changes in the individual runner size and speed. variables, rather than attempt ing to relate the absolute Eicher (1970), in his review of fish values of mortality to other passage problems, found that mortalities turbines. in turbines ranged from 5% to 100%; that of turbine or amount of head had effect; and that above a somewhat Subsequent testing at prototype fixed mechanical-injury loss of around 5%, Francis turbine installations on the North mortalities were proportional to the amount Fork Skokomish River in Washington State of cavitation which was in turn propor and on the Sacramento River in California tional to the amount of draft head below showed that, in general, survival as the turbines, governed by the runners' related to turbine characteristics was con- elevation above tailwater. He also pointed sistent in model and tests. out that cavitation was correlated to Survival of 15-cm trout at these turbine efficiency. high-head installations (137 m and 100 m, 13 Biological Factors Associated with Turbine inside the turbine. Several workers (Calderwood 1935, 1945; Rowley 1955; Muir 1959; McGrath and Twomey 1959; Schoeneman Research on the biological factors et al. 1961; 1963) have shown contributing to turbine mortality has not salmonids to be unaffected by been extensive. Brett (1958) postulated conditions of increase and that 10% mortality inflicted by turbines decrease to those experienced could be catastrophic to a salmon popula when pas through turbines. It was tion because of the way indiscriminate largely pressure-type effects that led stress might affect the surviving cohorts. Brett to postulate that turbine passage He defined stress as a "state produced by might represent an indiscriminate stress. any environmental or other factor which Brett argued logically, from experimental extends the adaptive responses of an results on other indiscriminate stresses, animal beyond the normal range, or which that a mortality of 10% from any type of disturbs the normal functioning to such indiscriminate stress represented a catas an extent that, in either case, the chances trophic level, where slight additional of survival are significantly reduced". environmental stresses could result in the total loss of the population. Unfortunate An indiscriminate stress is one which ly, several authors have repeated Brett's applies to every member of the population. warning, and the idea that turbine passage Examples of indiscriminate stress are high represents an indiscriminate stress on temperature, low oxygen, or exposure to fish populations appears entrenched in the toxic effluents. Such stresses are not literature. The present review suggests discrete in their action and spare no that, by and large, fish that survive pas individual entering or inhabiting an sage through turbines do not have their environment with such characteristics. chances for subsequent survival reduced. 'l'here are, however, differences between individuals in their ability to resist a More recent studies by Long et al. given stress, and these resistances fre (1968) showed that mortality of juvenile quently are normally distributed throughout coho salmon passing through turbines at the population. Thus, even a stress Ice Harbour and Lower Monumental dams on involving a small percentage loss means the Snake River in Idaho was as high as 30% that the balance of the population is suf when indirect mortality from predation was fering, though surviving. Brett postulated included. These results could be explained that very little additional stress could on the basis of the effects of indiscrim have a catastrophic effect on the exposed inate stress as a result of turbine passage. population. He believed that if passage Examination of test data, however, show through turbines represented an indiscrim that downstream migrants after passing inate stress, mortalities that reached through the turbines were being trapped in the state of killing 10% of the exposed a "back-roll" created by upwelling in the population were approaching the critical tailrace. A concentration of seagulls and level, where slight additional environmen squawfish (Plychocheilus oregonense) was tal stress could result in the total loss observed feeding on the juvenile coho that of the population. were used in the turbine iments. Control fish released in back-roll suf- A review of fish-mortality studies fered a loss of 32%. Thus, juvenile coho leads one to conclude that turbine-induced passing through the turbines, and control mortality does not represent an indiscrim fish released in the back-roll, experienced inate stress on the population of down similar predation mortalities, providing stream migrants. Hamilton and Andrew further evidence to support the contention (1954) found that the number of returning that turbine stresses are discriminate adults at the Baker Dam reflected the rather than indiscriminate. mortalities that were recorded on the downstream migrants at the dam. Schoeneman Little is known about the relationship et al. (1961) estimated the same turbine between different species and passage suc losses from fish-recovery samples taken at cess in field situations. Monten (1955) several stations distributed over 240 km states that adult eels, "despite their downstream of the hydroelectric dam. Bell considerable length, through in better et al. (1967), in their extensive review, shape than fish of pollack or bream report that turbine-mortality experiments families, i.e., fish with large scales". which used returning adults as a measure of Perch about 12 em long showed 35% greater the success of passage of downstream turbine losses than Atlantic salmon of the migrants, and those tests which measured same length. Monten attributes this dif immediate mortalities, showed that the ference to the increased flexibility and latter gave a good estimate of the total smoothness of salmon that allows them to mortality. If immediate turbine mortali pass the edge of a turbine blade more ties represented a measure of indiscriminate readily and thus avoid being broken up. stress, one would expect some increase in More subtle differences may exist between mortality between immediate and delayed similar salmonid species that might affect estimates. the survival of passage through turbines, but no information could be found to suggest The nature of turbine-induced injuries that this is likely, with the obvious suggests that passage through turbines exception of the size of the individual. represents primarily a discriminate stress, involving impact from runners, localized Unpublished work by Harvey, reported cavitation and various shearing forces acting by Lucas (1962), on the effects of pressure 14 on sockeye salmon smol·ts from a turbines tested that resulted in large lake in British Columbia, the deviations from the average level of mar possible importance of the location of the measured. One might conclude that migrants immediately prior to be possible to predict, within a turbine. Work in part limits, the extent of fish mortality season showed that severe pressure for any given installation. changes resulted in a mortality of 2%-3%. Rate of i.cation and release of pressure did not mortal Later in t.he Predictive Models of Turbine-Induced season, however, as high as 50% were noted. Investigations disclosed that these high mortalities were associated with Monten (1955) and Von Raben (1957) warming of the lake surface and its outlet both present equations for calculating the waters, with the result that the body fluids probability that a fish will contact one of o fish migrating from the cooler depths of the runner blades while passing through the lake were supersaturated with dissolved turbines. Monten's equation does not take qases relative to the warmer lake-outlet into account the effect of the speed at water. Dissection of killed fish showed which fish are moved the leading edge that death was caused by gas emboli in the of the runner, which cutting the water vascular system. Subsequent physiological in a collision path with the fish's line studies revealed that dissolved nitrogen of movement. Thus, this equation repre in the fish's tissues equilibrates slowly sents only a rough approximation of the with the nitrogen of the aquatic environ i:rue probab:i.li ty of cont.act. Von Haben' s ment. Thus downstream migrants that are formula, on the other hand, provides a suddenly exposed to higher water t.empe!:a component for water approaching the runner. tures and lower pressures after passing Von Raben's formula is: through a turbine utilizing a surface intake may experience gas-bubble disease. P = number of blades x cross sectional area of R x cos Q x fish length x ------K~-7--- , where: Summary of Mortality of Salmonids Passing average p the probability of contact R intake plane of the runner A recent review by the Baltic Salmon Ci. = the angle formed by the water flow Working Group (in press) summarizes a with the axial direction at the series of experiments conducted by Carlin moment of impact with the edges and published in Swedish in the Vandrings of the runner, and fiskutredn in 1951 and 1955. Based on a K an arbitrary correction factor series of experiments with salmon smelts employed by Von Raben t.o adjust and models of fish, Carlin estimated estimated probabilities of mutila survival of Atlantic salmon smelts through tions to provide better agreement Kaplan turbines to be 80%-90% and through with average observed mutilations Francis turbines to be 50%-70%. Bell (1974), of eels (average length 55 em) in a of fish passage from tests with a Kaplan turbine. bines on rivers of the Northwest, stated that fish survival Bell et al. (1967) concluded that Von through turbines at low-head installations Raben's formula was consistent with what could be 90% or greater, and through high is known of the dynamic character1stics of head installations, 85%. Menzies and turbines, and alternative methods of Pentelow (1965), in a review paper con-- derivation led to the same equation. cerned with fisheries and hydroelectric Unfortunately, the formula only purports development in Scotland, concluded that to represent the probability that the run Atlantic salmon smelts would pass through ner touches the fish. Since fish mortality Eaplan turbines with heads up to 35 m v.'i th is affected by a number of biological and out significant damage or loss. Munro hydraulic parameters not taken into account (1965b) records smolt survival of 75% at in Von Raben's formula, its application has the Clunie Power Station in northern not often been used in predicting fish Scotland, where three Francis turbines mortalities at operating turbines. Evi operate under a gross head of 53 m and dence suggests fish are not killed at the produce 61 MW. rate predicted from the striking formula. Overall results of many series of Bell et al. (1967) reported that in turbine-mortality tests are presented for regression analyses of model Francis tur Kaplan and Francis turbines (Tables 2 and bine data (blade diameters of approximately 3). The similarity of results within each 25 em), speed (rpm) could account for 69% of the two general types suggests that the of the variance in mortalities in u subset. factors responsible for turbine-inflicted of the dat.a. Although fot·mulas predicting fish mortality must be fairly uniform and contacts with runners do not appear ade predictable. It should be remembered that quate to predict total mortal.i tics in most the test results encompass a wide range of operational turbines, they may provide a turbine design and operating parameters, means to rank Francis units with similar as well as a variety of physical, chemical hydraulic parameters. and biological conditions, including the use of several different salmonid species. Bell et al. (1967) derived a series There appears to be no unusual design of regression equations to fit observed factors or operating conditions among the fish mortalities as a function of a variety 15 TABLE 2. Summary data of fish passage experiments at Kaplan turbines (from Bell et al. 1967) . Elevation Wheel Rated of runner Test fish Max and min diameter normal to tail survival survival Plant name (in.) he a C. (ft) water (ft) (%) (%) Sullivan Plant 41.6 18.6 86.7 92.3-74.1 Tusket Falls 72.75 20 -8.5 to 8 .5 81.0 93.6-57.1 'l'obique Narrows 104.00 75 -17.0 81.7 100.0-50.0 Gold Hill 81.50 20 7.0 53.9 100.0-0.0 Waterville 121.00 55.9 0.1 91.5 95.5-87.3 Model Turbine, UBC 10.00 50 0.0 to 15 75.8 77.1-75.36 McNary (1955 test) 280.00 80 0.25 to -30 92.2 96.2-87.0 Big Cliff (1957 test) 148.00 90 -5.0 86.5 91.0-79.0 Big Cliff (1964 test) 148.00 90 Variable 88.2 93.6-74.4 Big Cliff (1966 test) 148.00 90 Variable 91.4 100.3-81.7 Bonneville (1939 test) 280.00 60 -5 to -40 92.5 96.7-95.8 Bonneville (Venturi test) 97.8 100.0-92.0 Bonneville (Impact test) 99.0 99.6-97.7 'I'ABLE 3. Summary data of fish passage experiments at Francis turbines (from Bell et al. 1967). Elevation Wheel Rated of runner Test fish Max and min diameter normal to tail survival survival Plant name (in.) head (!:t) water (ft) (%) ( %) Gold Ray 20 95.57 100.0-83.3 Stayton l6 4.5 89.70 97.9-83.0 Leaburg 89.5 88.7 95.2 96.4-94.0 Cushman No. 2 (1960 test) 83.0 450.0 11.9 to 0.8 60.5 83.7-36.0 Cushman No. 2 (1961 test) 83.0 450.0 7.7 to 5.5 52.2 75.0-29.6 Shasta (Jan 1962) 183.8 409.9 2.91 70.97 82.1-55.9 409.8 2.26 89.06 149.5-70.9 409.9 2.51 59.80 77.0-40.7 Shasta (Nov 1962) 183.8 431.6 1. 97 81.97 119.9-54.8 431.7 2.01 62.80 78.3-27.2 431.5 1.77 63.15 100.4-31.5 Baker Dam 65.0 250.0 5 to 8 66.4 71.7 I,ower Elwha 58.5 104.0 14 100.0 107.0-95.0 Glines Canyon 92.0 194.0 7 67.0 77.0-63.0 Seton Creek 144.0 142.0 7 to -16 90.8 Puntledge 85.0 340.0 2 67.3 72.5-58.1 Ruskin 149.0 124.0 13 to -2 89.5 Crown Zellerbach 41.5 23.9 75.9 81.2-70.6 40.9 24.1 0.2 0.4-0.0 Publisher's Paper Company 42.5 23.4 86.8 87.9-84.5 16 of turbine-operating variables, such as: their biological clocks run out of time tailwater elevation, speed (rpm), number of allotted to make the transition from blades, sigma, draft-tube pressure, head, fresh to salt water. The sockeye salmon gate opening, wheel diameter and efficiency. population of the Snake River, Idaho, has The fitting of the observed completely adjusted to a freshwater life data was severely limited cycle, and remnants of the anadromous runs which some values were now remain as the landlocked variety known largest data sets, only as kokanee (Raleigh and Ebel 1967) . , sigma and fish were of 176 at two Francis- Even if reservoirs do not completely plants and 76 observations at one block the downstream migration of smolts, Kaplan-turbine plant indicated the variables they usually slow the rate of migration, examined explained only 15%-17% of the a delay in the time the fish variance in the data. Linear ion, enters the sea (Raymond 1968 1969; step-wise and Trefethen 1972; Chrisp and Bjornn 1978) transformed icative models This change in timing, in a fish with a were examined different life cycle precisely tuned to specific functional forms would explain more of the environmental patterns, could result in variability; however, there was little increased mortality due to a variety of change in the correlations obtained. causes. One result of the decrease in migrat.ion ra·te resulting from impoundments Examination of the regression-equation may be the delay of migration beyond the coefficients and their t-values showed that time that ATPase activity takes place, percent wicket-gate opening was the most hence reducing the srnolt's ability to important variable for Francis wheels, even adjust to salt water. Andrew and Geen though in some individual tests, either (1960) suggest that freshwater delay coul.d sigma or fish length was more important. reduce sockeye salmon smolts' ability For the Kaplan data, square root of the head to make the transition from fresh to sea and sigma were both statistically signifi water. cant (P<0.05), while percent wicket-gate opening was not. The following table from Trefethen (1972) indicates the effects of impounding The regression equations presented by the Snake and Columbia rivers on the rate Bell et al. (1967) are analytical rather of migration of juvenile chinook salmon: than predictive. The changes in absolute values of parameters under turbine mortality tests are generally applicable to the particular plant tested. For , changes in plant sigma and their relation- Section of Distance ship to critical sigma, defined ific river (km) impoundrrcnt. imp:Jundment speed, do not reflect a re tion- ship which can relate absolute values be tween different plants. This results Salrron Ri VPX to because these parameters include many Ice Harbor Dam 370 .15 25 interrelated components which model tests to fully evaluate their Ice Harbor Dam Thus, while regression analyses have to ~'JcNary Dam 68 J:l 9 identified critical parameters, their use for predicting fish mortality at different M::;Nary Dam to plants has not been possible. John Day Dam 122 52 _l33 PASSAGE THROUGH IMPOUNDMENTS iEstimated -based on rate of miqration between McNary Dam and John Day Darn sites before river was Artificial impoundments above dams may impounded. present a variety of problems to downstream 2 migrating anadromous fishes. Eicher (1970), Pre-impoundment peak of migration at ,Tc>lm Day Dam, May 2. in a review of fish passage problems, state~ "Getting downstream migrants to move 3 Post-imp:lundment peak migrat.ion at John through impoundments is just as important as Day Darn, June 3. moving them through turbines, over spill ways, or around darns." Delays in reservoirs prolong the There is often a reluctance on the exposure of smolts to predation. Mills part of downstream migrants to migrate (1964) describes a situation in a Scottish through stratified reservoirs. Delays river where only 5% of the srnolts managed while migrating through the reservoir, plus to migrate through three lochs above power warming of the surface waters, may create a dams. He attributed the loss to heavy pre "temperature blanket" that can trap smolts dation by brown trout and mergansers. In in the reservoir (Foerster 1937). In some Loch Luichart, in Scotland, it was possible cases, the smolts resume their seaward to estimate the number of Atlantic salmon migration in the next spring (Munro l965a; smolts entering the impoundments at tl1e top Raleigh and Ebel 1967), but in others, they and the number which reached the rjvcr below may spend their entire life cycle in fresh the dam. The loss was as high as S'i'!. water (Collins et al. 1975). Many (Menzies and Pentelow 196'i). Losses were appear to lose their urge to migrate attributed to heavy predation by pike, perch 17 and large brown trout. Predation of dissolved in water. gases in the fish chinook salmon fingerlings during no-spill tend to atmosphere, and periods on the Snake River impoundments can gas skin, in the fins, be as high as 33% (Long et al. 1968). tail, mouth and in the vascular system, causing gas embolism and dea-th when the fish Delays in reservoirs can prolong move to areas of lower atmospheric pressure. exposure of downstream migrants to disease Since the pressure of nitrogen in organisms and to stresses imposed by tissue is greater than that of other pollution, elevated water temperature and gases (such as oxygen), this accounts for high nitrogen supersaturation (Collins et the significant amounts of nitrogen involved al. 1975). Under natural conditions of in the of gas emboli (Nimms l95U. flow, these adverse conditions are to a of gas composition, gas-bubble greater or lesser degree alleviated. disease cannot occur unless the total dis solved-gas pressure (i.e., the sum of their Often, downstream migrants at dams individual tensions) exceeds all compression are reluctant to sound to turbine intakes forces, including the pressures of air,wate~ which are located at considerable depth blood and tissue elasticity (Webster 1955; below the headpond level. For instance, at Anon. 1973). r-1ore complete reviews of the Baker Dam, only a relatively few down history, pathology, etiology and diagnosis stream-migrant sockeye and coho salmon of gas-bubble disease in fish are given in descended through the 26-m-deep turbine Weitkamp and Katz (1973) and Wolke et al. intake when a surface spill was available. (1975). Significant numbers did sound to this depth, however, when there was no surface Nitrogen can cause gas-bubble disease exit (Hamilton and Andrew 1954). in juvenile salmonids at about 110% air Similarly, Schoeneman and Junge (1954) saturation (Harvey and Cooper 1962) . found that hatchery-reared chinook salmon Carbon dioxide does not cause gas-bubble sounded to a depth of 20 m to enter the disease, and oxygen must be at about 350% submerged tunnel at Glines Dam on the saturation before it can cause gas-bubble Elwha River, Washington State, when no disease (Rucker 1972) . Water in the surface exit was available. Farwell (1972) natural environment may become super provided data which suggested that Atlantic saturated by air entrapment, by changes in salmon smolts were migrating close to the temperature and pressure, and by biotic surface at two forebays above dams on the metabolism. In terms of inflicting Exploits River in Newfoundland. In one mortality to downstream salmon migrants, case, where a surface exit existed, smolts air entrapment is the most important were not observed to accumulate in the source of supersaturation. forebay; while at the dam not provided with a surface exit, considerable numbers Gas-bubble disease has been reported accumulated in the forebay, evidently in supersaturated river water below natural reluctant to egress by means of the sub falls with plunge basins (Lindroth 1957; merged turbine exit. 1962; Westguard 1964). , air entrapment occurs at In a five-year study of the effects , where cascading water of a large impoundment on the migration of captured air to a depth sufficient anadromous fish, Raleigh and Ebel (1967) to result in a solubility within the water present data on the physical and chemical greater than the solubility at normal factors responsible for determining the atmospheric (Ebel 1969, 1971; distribution and timing of chinook, coho Beiningen Ebel 1970; Johnsen and and sockeye salmon juveniles attempting to 1974; Meekin and Allen 1974). In migrate downstream through the 6,000-ha River system, supersaturated Brownlee Reservoir on the Snake River, water tends to remain supersaturated Idaho. These studies revealed that escape because it runs in the deeper regions of ment of juveniles from the reservoir was the river and is recharged at subsequent least successful when the reservoir was (Ebel 1969; Beiningen and Ebel full and when currents were random and slow. 70; Smith 1973) . Air entrapment may Escapement was intermediate when drawdown also occur within turbines when air is was moderate and downstream flow more allowed to enter the turbine to reduce pronounced. The best escapement (almost negative pressures associated with lowered 100%) occurred when drawdown was large and water flow (MacDonald and Hyatt 1973) . the reservoir current was well oriented Under normal operating conditions, the downstream. Mortality was high among passage of water through turbines does not ·juvenile salmonids that did not complete increase concentration of dissolved nitro their migration through the reservoir in gen (Lindroth 1957; Ebel 1969). the spring of the year of entry. Juveniles still in the reservoir in August and Dawley and Ebel (1975), in laboratory September were restricted to marginal tests with dissolved nitrogen and argon habitats between zones of high temperat-ure gas concentrations ranging from 100% to in the epllimnion and low oxygen in the 125% of saturation, found that mortality hypolimnion. in chinook salmon and steelhead trout at 115% saturation of (111% saturation of ATMOSPHERIC GAS SUPERSATURATION atmospheric gas pressure) in both species occur Fish maintained in water supersaturated than .5 days in water at 120% Hith air reach equilibrium with the gases At this concentration, all 18 iods of exposure to supersaturation can recover to normally Bio shallow tanks (25 temperature of l5°C. SUBLETHAL causing immediate environmental detrimental effects on et ( migration of Atlantic salmon. (0.25-m) tanks. The migration route may expose the to new sources pollutants not levels of encountered freshwater In addition, accompany the compensation. result in increased sensitivity to certain 100%) still occurred ;.;ublethal stresses that may not be critical deep ·tanks when the at other stages. Although con- tions exceeded 120%. siderable been conducted on studies sublethal stress as affects survival and hydrostatic growth of juvenile salmonids in fresh water, considered when estima there is not much information on how from dissolved nitrogen for environmental stress affects the parr-smolt migrating juvenile salmon. transformation, behaviour and osmoregulatory In the Columbia River system, juvenile salmonids are seriously endangered by gas- Lorz and McPherson (1976), experiment bubble disease. The of the ing with coho smolts, found that concentra- sease its on the tions of copper were sublethal in level of of fresh water reduced the chances of success exposure, water temperature, general ful migration to the ocean and adaptation condition of the migrants and the to sea water. These concentrations (5 pg- depth maintained by the fish. 20 pg/L were 10%-35% of the 96-hour LCSO Ebel et al. (1975) summarize the data pro of copper. Direct effects on ATPase acti- vided by both laboratory and field investi and to sea water began conducted over several years. The 24-7 of and were main conclusions concerning the maximized within 120-14 hours. Exposure nl~rogen supersaturation on to sublethal concentrations of zinc in downstream migrants were reached: fresh water had little effect on 1 ATPase activity or on survival sh 1. Supersaturation of atmospheric transferred to sea water. has exceeded 130% over of Lorz con- Snake rivers during the centrations cadmium (40% of of several years since the 96-hour ) in fresh water resulted in ability of coho smol ts to i.n 30 °/00 2. Juvenile salmonid migrants water. Sublethal exposure to confined to shallow water (l n:) however, not adversely affect migra- suffer substantial mortality at tory behaviour. Fish a five-day 115% total dissolved gas satur "rest" in fresh water cadmium ation after 25 days exposure. exposure and transfer to sea water exhibited sea-water survival comparable to control fish. Certain , , -D and 2, , -T herbi in cide formulations also have been shown to in field, adversely affect the downstream migratory substantial mortali'cy after behaviour of coho salmon smolts. Coho more than 20 salmon smolts exposed for 96 hours to the when saturation herbicide Tordon 101 at 0.6 mg-1.8 mg/L 120%. prior to release did not migrate as well as a control group (Lorz et al~ 1979). 4. On the basis of survival esti mates made in the Snake and Certain Columbia rivers, juvenile fish drug treatments losses from 40% to 95% inhibit tolerance to sea water. Bouck do occur, a major Johnson (1979) tested the saltwater of this mortality can tolerance of coho salmon smolts treated buted to fish exposure to super two anesthetics and 10 the:r-apeutic saturation of atmospheric gases used in salmonid fish during years of high flow. chemical was used as recom mended by the manufacturer or by fishery 5. ,Juvenile salmonids subjected l.:o investigators. l'.dverse ffects were not 19 apparent until fish were exposed to 28~00 FISH SCREENING sea water. mortalities (20%-100%) treated with copper sul In some cases, water intakes for ' hyamine 162 , potassium of water with- malachite green and doses screened to A four-day water after treat- prevent downstream sal- ment improved the tolerance of monids. However, where large are smolts to sea water. The use of these involved, no completely suitable screening chemical treatments would have a technology exists for preventing salmon more serious effect on diseased than from entering hydroelectric plant turbines on the heal'chy smol ts used in these experi or passing over spillways. ments. An increase in the rate of river-basin Berg (1977) data that indicate since World War II prompted fish-screening research to be in both North America and Europe. sal water. Long et al. Comprehensive reviews of this work are that scale loss and stress by (1961), Aitken et al. increased the likelihood subsequent 1966), U.S. Protection disease in Columbia River chinook salmon Agency (1976) and Montreal Engineering and steelhead trout smolts. Bouck and Company Limited (1979) . Smith (1979) showed that considerable sea-water mortality (50%) occurred in coho In the salmon smolts with a 10% scale loss. was highest when scales were is reviewed as it pertains to the area of the rib downstream migrating salmon Recovery of smolts in fresh water a review first covers screens that are loss of scales that would be lethal in block the entry of sea water (28~00 ) occurred rapidly; 90% of barriers, the fish regained tolerance to sea water fish around obstacles or within one day. zones a response sh species Andrew and Geen (1960) report a to be protected, are discussed. Finally, direct relationship between early ocean common problems associated with fish by survival of sockeye salmon smolts from the passes and collection systems are reviewed. Fraser River, British Columbi,a, and th<:': river discharge at the time of migration. mechanisms relating to early and river are not understood, but reductions in flows by design of screens to dams may increase the environ- prevent downstream mental stress and result in increased post- from entering water smelt Temperature and salinity be based on the swi~ning ability, size and also seemed to related to survival, but behaviour of the fish, as well as the cost these factors are, in part, a function of and reliability of the screen componen·ts. river discharge. Clay (1961) suggests that for smolt-sized salmon, wire screens with of about 2 em side and MEASURES FOR REDUCING MORTALITIES velocities of 30 em/sec are These criteria are based Considerable data and practical field applied to providing to the British Columbia and the western varied problems associated with States. Similar criteria are downstream migrating salmon from Aitken et al. (1966) for scale in the riverine environment. Atlantic salmon smolts in research began in Kingdom. earnest in Os, in to serious smolt losses associated A note of caution should be sounded large-scale hydroelectric development. concerning the use of screens to prevent Much of this research took place in fish from entering turbine intakes in western North America and is still in r.ro situations where smolts are not immediately The rapid acceleration of hydro bypassed below the dam. Recent evaluations development on the Columbia and in Scotland and Ireland have indicated that Snake rivers in the past decade has delays in the forebays of dams equipped impounded most of the free-flowing sections with smolt screens at turbine intakes of these rivers and created environmental expose smolts to predation pike and changes that threaten to deny juvenile brown trout. Losses to predation salmonids access to the sea. In the fcl to be greater than the losses lowing sections, a brief review is pre by turbine passage (Holden, pers. sented of several techniques developed to comm. and Twomey, pers. comm.). minimize losses of downstream at obstructions, with to Several types of physical barrier their applicability Atlantic screens are commonly used to exclude fish salmon smolts. from water intakes. These have been recently described and their effectiveness reviewed (Sonnichsen et al. 1975; u.s. 20 to near the ceiling They represent about one half the capital cost of a travelling of comparable size. The elimination of a large number of mov parts makes the bar screen more reli- reduces and maintenance costs. Barriers tion has Pacific and Atlantic a screeninc:; salmon's sensory response to external screened that portion of the stimuli, to guide or scare these species which contained the greatest. from water intakes. Brett and MacKinnon concentration downstream migrants. !c"arr (1953) describe and air bubbles in ( 974) describes a vertical, travellin9 this respect. (1966) screen installed the ceiling of a experimental work Harbor Dam on the Pacific State in 1969-70. A number the use of sound, intake a.n and electrical orifice into the they were safely to the tailrace. system took at behaviour' 1971, 1972 and in use - louvers - are to warrant operational Louvers exploit the fact that down Goose Dam. The same screening technique stream mig-rating salmonid species (and has been installed at the Lower Granite several others) avoid changes in Dam on the Snake River and is currently both flow direction and The being test.ed at McNary Dam on the Colum.bia louver diverter was first developed in River (Long, personal communication). All California and ins led in Dolta o these screens about one-third Mendota Canal 142-m3 /sec intake on the s,m of the entering the turbine intakes. River to protect young striped bass chinook salmon fry (U.s. Depart.ment of A fixed, inclined-bar screen has the Interior 1956) . Since then, louvers recently been developed to the have been used at several large water et a.l. intakes to various fish species. ) . The bar screens A number publications have revie\ved the , stainless-steel application design criteria of louvers, 5 mm among them of Interior presents a (1957), and Ryan (1964) and 6.5 m wide by about Ducharme ( these authors, the the bars and slots being following criteria emerge for a 'che flow of wa'cer. It deflector designed to protect was estimated to have 65% open area. Atlantic Approach velocities in front of the screens were about 1 m/sec. was 1. The louver system should be installed a turbine at Bonneville angled between 10° and 15" Dam on the Columbia River in 1977. to the direction of the flow. The bar screen was inclined at about 2. The louver slats should be 25° t.o the flow the up]Jer placed at 90" to the direction ceiling. of the flow. Previous studies (1968), at Bonneville Dam, that 50%-60% of 3. velocity the salmon were travelling em and the intake ceiling. The downstream end of the bar screen terminated 15 em from the bottom of a vertical barrier 4. Velocities at the mouth of screen, debris to be flushed off the must not be less t.he bar screen. were guided into than approach velocity the in the same manner as at the downstream end of the the vertical travelling screens. A louver This is usually concep·tual drawing of the bar screen in achieved having the bypass in a turbine intake is presented velocity 0% greater than the average approach velocity. Testing of larger bar screens is cur 5 The bypass should be rently being conducted at McNary Dam or, the at least 45 Columbia River . comm.) . The bar screens can be by raising the 6. louver bar spacing is not 21 WATER TO FLOW SCREEN GUIDING ____jrl\-\----t--:- DEVICE TURBINE INTAKE 0 2 3 4 Approximate scale, metres FIG. 3. Installation of bar screen in turbine intake (from Ruehle et al. 1978). collection River. and steelhead trout was increased, to that of juveniles that were descend seven consecutive dams downs·tream migration route. The increased survival for trans ported fish ranged from .6 to 22 times as high for control fish (Collins et a1. 975) . 'The homing ability adults fish-screeninq was not diminished nor was change in de·· ocean age or size noted 1978) . signed fish ient con sideration of problems associated with Although survival was dramatically returning diverted fish to increased compared ·to non-transported Often controls, considerable delayed mortality occurred immediately after ·truck transport. Even after streaml methods of handling or and several in truck-transport In design, delayed mortality of chinook salmon smolts continued (Long et ty 77a). These results to consider- trated in front of ation of the use of salt water to reduce successful in mortality of salmon and steelhead during be stressed in the handling and transport. resultant immediate Several had shown t:hat Bypass the addition water containing and returning fish to anadromous fish transport increased environment should be based on the numb,'!r, th~ir survival (Sykes 50; Collins and and of the fish Hulsey 1963; Chittenden 1971; 1972). Long et al. (1977a) found salt ( at between 5 and lSo/00 was effective in stress and for The latter was surface, stress (Bouck Care must be taken as to when, whe~:.·e and how diver"ced fish are returned the n,_,tural AR1'IFICIAL OUTLETS environment. Collection and transportation around a series of dams can provide a prac- In the western United States, the tical sol uti on to mort. ali ty. discharges dams f the bypass and transportation system is into simulated not designed , however, losses might or reservoir has been utilized be greater from bypaE\ varying degrees success for ing tern than from the turbines. the case of downstream past dam& water intakes, fish must be returnedto thetr A flow from m3 to 11. m3 /sec is natural environment so as to minimize the into the facility and passed through a of being zontal inclined screen or through a concern is an angle the potential for are to the flow. the concentrated at Considerable screens and transported by a bypass needed each site to determine flow into a sump or for transport to collection systems can waters downs o These devices, known as "skimmers , have captured to 75% the downstream migrants pas- s the site (Eicher 1970). INTERCEPTION AND TRANSFER One practical way of GATEWELLS juvenile downstx.·eam migration by Research at dams on the Columbia 23 River revealed that j sh-diversion works. migrants concentrate in the upper levels Observations from this study suggested that of turbine intakes and enter Atlantic salmon smelts were migrating close gatewells in large to the were attracted to the The gatewells are ins<:rt funnelling of the surface flow toward a ing a gate to seal off water to gate located inside and at the downstream the powerhouse during dewatering end of the forebay. Fish are conducted to Juvenile salmon and trout were the tailwater by means of a wooden fishway from gatewells in numbers the surface and des- designed net cending an overall of 1 in 4.5 ) • A crane lowers the net .i.n to the river below (Davis and Farewell through the slot to the 1975). The net is then slowly raised to the surface, Semple and McLeod (1976) describe a again to ease its withdrawal floating-screen deflector which guided gate opening. Gatewells appear alewives and Atlantic salmon to a natural collectors and during low river discharge through a vacant flows, when the entire river thrc)ugh Tests with marked, hatchery the powerhouse, up to 25% of seaward salmon smolts showed the deflector migrants enter the gatewells on their own to 72% of the fish released in volition. Nearly 50% of the smelts used the bypass without screening provisions. Large numbers of migrants entering the gatewells via the turbine intakes may A similar device leads downstream become trapped unless they sound and pa3s migrating Atlantic salmon to a surface out through the turbines or are collected discharge adjacent to the by means of the technique described intakes at the Malay Falls above. As a , work is in to dam on the East River Sheet Harbour, Nova determine the most effective means Scotia. An automatic-weir control gate sing fish from a turbine-intake provides about 340 L/sec flow to a semi- means of submerged orifices circular, s flume designed to adjoining trash sluiceways (Liscom fish to tailrace (Resource (personal communication) reports t.hat Branch 1975) . The device had a the dams on the Columbia River, except an average bypass efficiency of 52% for Bonneville, have orifices installed in the Atlantic salmon smolts without fish-deflec gatewells to allow fish safe downstrea:m tor screens (Semple 1979) . Use of passage by way of trash and ice sluiceways deflector screens did not improve the or by special fish-bypass systems. bypass efficiency for salmon smolts. The fish-passage efficiency of the Exact factors affecting the attraction submerged orifices in the gatewells may be of downstream migrants to outlets at reduced by the presence of a fish-guiding existing dams are not known, and it is device in the turbine intake (Long et al. difficult to about the best (1977b). The device increases location for of fish outlets. the flow of water the ; and The differs. the associated turbulence results in de- For instance, scaling of fish and reduced e coho yearlings efficiency at orifices. is con- the top 4.5 m Baker tinuing into orifice and operational Washington State. so an experiment was characteristics that increase their conducted to determine the guiding efficiency in passing downstream migrants efficiency of a webbing barrier 4.5 m deep out of gatewells and into a bypass system. and 73 m long, angled across the forebay to a surface-bypass trap. Sockeye showed On the Saint John River, New Bruni.,\·;vick, a greater tendency to sound under the downstream-migrating Atlantic salmon ha.ve barrier than did coho (Rees 1957) . been collected from the at one of the hydroelectric dams periods when Twomey (l965b) observed that only 1.9% a large of the flow was by way of of the Atlantic salmon smelts on a small the (Ruggles, in press) . Irish river left the headpond by way of the turbines. evidently were reluctant to sound to the turbine intake in SURFACE DISCHARGES OTHER THAN SPILLWAYS the 30-m-high the Borland ) describes In several instances, downstream a points out that migrating, juvenile Pacific and Atlantic many so that the top chamber salmon have been observed leaving the fore is located "where it has a reasonable chance bay areas by means of surface discharge, of attracting downstream It through trash gates or other facilities appears that if Atlantic smolts are designed for surface spills. Farwell (1972) provided with a suitable surface exit from describes two hydroelectrical installations headponds, are not likely to sound to on the River in Newfoundland, one submerged intakes. an exit and the other not. He differences in fish accumulation in the forebays between these two si te£,1 and concludes that this type of fish exit could 2 to some cases,, a individual turb1nes is used to guide migrants to a where a spillway is opened the down, thus dra\ving the the spillway. jet stream from Extreme turbul recom in the empty ColGmbia in fish favourable conditions reinforcement salmon and ateel:- contact with the bulk- 75) . Labeled stream .. took fish and et al. 1975) 1977 could be ful in reducing from an operating tur hrnnnh reservoirs in the the mortality of and increased the survival of chinook fish turbine. Place- smolts fry (Sims 1978). "Operation Fish- ment slotted in front of an believed partly responsible operating turbine would allow relatively high survival of Snake projects to extra water steelhead smolt.s during 'che 1975 unloaded turbine units during the spring period. Survival of steel not suffi- their migration from the Lower cient to fully load turbines. The Dam on the Snake River to the Dalles of perforated bulkheads, however, does Columbia River to satisfactory solution dams) on the (Raymond deflectors most practical Fork, Mayfield, Brownlee, Ox Bow, Hells Canyon, and Upper Baker (Eicher 1970) No information available however the size of the pool req~ired for specific heights Dam indicated survival was Recent emphasis on spillway des has higher through focused on attempting to reduce the flow deflectors action responsible for air entrain standard subsequent nitrogen spillway This has become a serious mended Goose, Tee Harbol-, Columbia River system, where a series and Bonneville dams (Ebe et al. dams has created large areas of river water supersaturated gases to levels that are In order to problem, early considerations the installation of additional turbines, storaqe to control in vacant turbine 25 E co Tailwater <;t ------Sti II ing Basin --- FIG. 4. Sketch of spillway deflector (adapted from Smith 1973). TURBINE DESIGN AND OPERATION tube are minimized; and Lucas (1962), in discussing certain 4. maximum clearance between the aspects of turbine design relative to the trailing edge of the wicket passage of fish, suggests that fish mortal gates and the leading edge of ity due to cavitation and mechanical the runner blades and between injury could be virtually eliminated by new the blades. design concepts, which would still be practical from the power-generation view point. The non-competitive cost of such a Bell et al. (1967), after reviewing turbine seemed to be the main deterrent. both published and unpublished research on He pointed out that in evaluating the econo the passage of salmonids through turbines, mics of a change in the design of turbines recommend that at times of maximum down to provide for safe fish passage, the cost stream fish passage Francis turbines be of alternative fish screening should be set at the point of most efficient vlicket included. Carmer and Oligher (1964) gate openings. For Kaplan turbines, the observed that it might be possible to pass blade settings should be for maximum young salmon and trout through turbines at efficiency at the general point of maximum high-head dams with much lower mortality efficiency for the turbine. For both types rates, but establishment of necessary of turbines, maximum tailwater elevations design criteria for turbine runners and should be maintained to reduce the amount for installation and operation of turbines of draft head below the turbines, and hence to achieve this purpose would require a the amount of cavitation. comprehensive research program. Unfortunately, research effort to date No such research program has been has been concentrated on the study of fish undertaken to our knowledge, and the work passage through relatively large turbines. sponsored by the U.S. Corps of Engineers' Research results cannot be extrapolated to Fisheries Engineering Research Program, the small Francis machines that are common reported on by Cramer and Oligher (1964) in Nova Scotia. The fact that small hydro remains the most comprehensive study on electric development may become more common turbine design and operation with respect in the future (Gordon 1978) underlines the to the passage of fish. These studies iraportance of understanding the design and indicated that the characteristics of a operating features of small turbines with Francis runner that will provide maximum respect to fish passage. survival for fish are: Lucas (1962) believed that the elimina 1. relatively low runner speed; tion of all cavitation and low-pressure areas in a hydraulic turbine would vastly 2. high efficiency; improve its capacity to pass fish safely. He points out that although cavitation 3. relatively deep setting of vapour pockets are formed in only a small the turbine, so that nega fraction of the turbine's discharge area, tive pressures in the draft fish do not have to pass directly through a 26 8.8% survival (Gray, pers again. Atlantic salmon observed in the North American and European Jones (1959) describes tail first, still unable to cavitation versus in mechanical inj kelts theoretically result from as Muir's suggestions. River in Newfound- land" surface spill that_ the in much same manner as smelts, leaving the forebay above Bishop Falls Dam. turbines: the design of Nortality of kelts has been attributed takes to reduce the chances to extreme loss of weight during spawning. streamlining of all water passages Belding (19 ) records losses of avoidance of projections in high-veloci from 31% 4 tJ1e Miramichi areas t;he design and manufacture of states that gate and runner surfaces to optimum di~\en found that death occurs in sions for streamline flow; the reduction of animals variety of mamnals and fowl) runner speed to lessen the chances of during starvation when the body weight is at the leading edge; the elimination reduced approximately 40%. No other areas of low pressure, studies identi mortality factors of -cion, through optimum blade kelts during downstream migration of specific speed; we£e found, except those to fresh- sigma; a reduction of unit water on the IJliraraichi operation of the turbine at ' efficiency; ; Resource Development Branch an increase in the clearance between th PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS 8. Atlantic salmon smolts will likely be in free falls of up 1. , biochemical, to at least 90 m. behavioural the transforma 9. Salmonid survival rates for both adapted for life and Francis turbines are in fresh >vater to a fish that can at the of highest survive the In Atlantic total turbine salmon, these changes are size dependent and reversible; if the 10. Turbine-induced injuries represent smolts do not reach salt wa·ter, a discriminate stress to the smolt features to exposed population, and fish that the following survive passage through turbines young salmon must reach the sea without and through a time vlindow that may remain open for a relatively short duration. 11. Atlantic salmon smolts are reluc 2. transformation from parr turbine some environmental intakes the seaward are at a nature of the st.im than 20 m. They are most apt to to differ in use surface outlets if properly different rivers. high degree located and if discharge through of reproductive isolation between the surface outlet is sufficient. salmon in rivers en- ables patterns of 12. measures has been behaviour to evolve and to to safeguard smolts from maintained. changes to their natural environment. In many instances 3. In general, seaward is have been and unre- nocturnal, being most about cases where two hours after sunset during the development earlier portion of the on a single river period, to which is a large anadromous diurnal component during the latter portion of the migration. The smolt occurs in spring- 13. Few studies focused on the time, freshwater tempera·tlires downstream passage of kelts. reach about l0°C, and extends over Available information suggests low a period of about thirty natural mort.al.i ty during their migration to the sea. Except for 4. Atlantic salmon smolts actively sport-fishing , no swim with the current, exhibit reference to was behaviour, feed, and found. the main channels, areas of maximur,1 flow, downstream migration. 5. Under natural conditions, wild downstream-migrating Atlantic sal- mon smolts do not to suffer from increased mortality at this stage in their life histor~ 6. Hatchery-produced smolts, to be more vulnerable to than do wild smolts. 7. Both wild and salmon smolts are angling and to a variety of other unnatural conditions, including: a) passage b) passage , c) passage impoundments, d) exposure to atmospheric gas supersaturation, and e) exposure to pollutants. Any one, or a combination of tbese 29 REFERENCES Baltic Salmon Working Group. (in press) . Review of salmon research. Aitken, P.L., L.H. Dickerson and .J.M Unpublished 98 p. l\1enzies. 19 6. Fish passes and screens at water power works. Proc. Instit. Barr L . 1962. life history study of Civil Eng., London. No. 35:29-57. chain pickerel, Esox niger Lesueur, (Paper no. 6928.) in Beddington Lake, Maine. M.Sc. Thesis. . of Maine. 84 p. and 3 Allen, K.R. l. Studies on the biology appen. of the early stages of salmon (S'almo salar). 3. Grow'ch in the Thurso River K.T. and W.J. Ebel. 1970. Effect J. Anim. Ecol. 0: dissolved nitrogen salmon in the 68. Trans. Amer. Fish. Allen, K.R. 1944. Studies the biology of the early stages of the salmon (Salmo salar). 4. 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Fisheries Research Centre, Abbotstown, Castleknock, County Dublin, Ireland. White, Wes J. Biologist, Freshwater and Anadromous Division, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, P.O. Box 550, Halifax, N.S. B3J 2S7.