Manual .,Landforms; and The1 R Interpretation From

British Columbia Forest Serviee . Research Note No. 6681974

, MANUAL .OF .,LANDFORMS; AND THE1 R INTERPRETATION

..^__ FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS "- 'iw~

WITHEMPHASIS ON FOREST LAND MANAGEMENT APPLICATIONS IN BRITISH COLUMBIA

PART I - LANDFORMS

by N. Keser PREFACE

A Landform Interpretation Manual is being prepared by Dr. Nurettin Keser as a result of the Geology-Landform Soilscourses that he has organised and presented in several Forest Districts throughoutBritish Columbia since 1969.

This is anadvance copy of Part 1 ofthe proposed manual. Part 2 will follow later in the year and will be written in co- operationwith other resource users. It will illustrate landform interpretation for forested land management practice.

The purpose of releasing a preliminary copy is to solicit yourassistance, as usersduring the 1974 fieldseason, to improve upon content and presentation before final editing and publication.

I believe this pioneering text will contribute much to our understanding. I commend theproject to youand trustthat the information will be of value to you in your work and will stimulate furthersuggestions for its improvement.

G. C. Warrack, Forester i/c , ResearchDivision. ... . INTRODUCTION

This landform handbook has been preparedprimarily for B.C. ForestService InventoryDivision personnel as an aid to their field undertakings. Thehandbook is not in its final form sincethere was an urgency to preparethe book so it could be used in the 1974 field season. Texts are presently being prepared forthe various sections although they may not be ready in time to be included in the book. Some tables and figuresare enclosed. It was thought that, having recently completed the landforms - photo interpretationcourse, the user would easily be able to utilize the information. Again, due tolack of time,critica-1 editing of theinterpretations was not possible andsome errors are anticipated.

The finalversion of the landform handbook is planned for the fall. It is hoped that persons wing it during the summer 1974 season will significantlycontribute to thefinal format. It wouldbe most appreciated if the .following information could be provided at the end of the field season: 1. Any errors in thefigures and tables. 2. Inconsistancies or errors in interpretation. Where the user is not satisfied with the interpretation, this fact should be noted . 3. The generallocation when it is notgiven, so that it may be added do airphoto descriptions. 4. Any suggestionsas to how the handbook maybe improved. 5. Photo numbers or examples that theuser maycome across this sumrrcer, or may already know from prev.ious years which can be incorporatedinto the handbook. (Seethe out1 i ne). Note: Corrections andcomments should bemade in theuser's copy. At the end of the book a blank sheet is provided forsuggestions. 4.'. It is sincerely hoped that the handbook - even in its present form - will be of some assistanceto the Inventory Division personnel in their work.

Nuretti n Keser , May 3, 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS '4

PART I A. AERIAL PHOTO INTERPRETATION Kinds and scale of photographs Elements ofairphoto interpretation

B . LANDFORMS - Basicconcepts .I Bedrock types and landforms I1 Glaciated landforms Erosional Depositional I11 Non-glaciallandforms Fluvial Col1 uvial Aeol i an Lacustrine Mar i ne Organic IV MassMovements PRACT.f.CRLS ,,AND dEXERC-ISES 'W 4. D. GLOSSARY

E. REFERENCES .

PART I1 F. INTERPRETATION OF LANDFORMS FOR FOREST LAND MANAGEMENT INBRITISH COLUMBIA Forestry Engineering Watershed management Water quality Ground water Recreation Wildlife Fisheries Mining Pollution Industrial Development Integrated resource management Impact Studies G. PRACTICALS AND EXERCISES H. GLOSSARY I. REFERENCES

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ANNULAR RECTANGULAR

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KETTLE HOLE SWALLOWHOLE BRAIDED

PINNATE DERANGED BARBED

FIGURE 2, BASIC DRAINAGE PATTERNS (Pa.rvis, 7950) v).. W P I" S m r v)

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... /- TABLE 2. GULLY ANALYSIS - SAND AND GRAVEL GULLIES p.tcr' (Keser, 7974)

Description Material Common Landforms

notalways Sand, gravgl. outwashplain present short, , appreciablegrain size Val ley train steep V-shaped non-cohesive fluvialterrace "gash" or "nick" high poros i ty fluvialfans - rarely on eskersor dunes

GULLY CHARACTER I ST I cs

LENGTH short

WIDTH . narrow

DEPTH shal low to mdderate 1 'Sharp angl e V-shaped 'I L CROSS head atanglessharp f -c SECT I ON ends. angleof repose of the Angleof materialdetermines - sha pe reposethe shape " PLAN shortsimple and direct seldom has more than one tributary Foot

..~

Steep,short PROF I LE uniformgradient sharpnickpoint at headend . . Foot' A Head

References TABLE 3. GULLY ANALYSIS - CLAY GULLIES (Keser, 1974)

Description Common Landforms Material Smoothlycurving clay Marine,glaciomarine . shallow lacustrine,glacio- small grain size "swa 1 e- 1 i ke" I Inol I frictional resistance lacustrine clay loam till "L.vL, 1ow po ros i ty plainsshale bedrock.

I GULLY CHARACTERISTICS

smoothlycurving, or at leastnon-intricate, with LAN a moderate number of I simi 1ar branches. dendriticdrainage with mode rate dens i ty .

.. I gentle,fairly uniform t"' ROF I LE gradient mergi.nij impercep, tiblyinto the terrain at1 thehead end. Foo t4Head

Ref e rences w TABLE 4. GULLY ANALYSIS - SILTGULLIES (Keser, 1974)

~~ ~ Descriotion Materia 1 Common Landforms

U-shape gull ies silt, fine sand .1 oes s "trough- 1 i ke" weaklycemented silty marine,glaciomarine

to sandy material . ' . lacustrine,glacio- I lacustrine.

GULLY CHARACTERISTICS

LENGTH 1 ong

W 1 DTH moderate

DEPTH variablebut tending to be moderate

CROSS -variably U SECTION shaped, thevariation occurringtoward the bottom Sharpangles-at head end I s i des intricate, with moderate 9ead P LAN to many branches of s imi lar nature dendriticpattern; w i tn 11 i gh dens i ty.. Foot

- gentle,uniform gradient withabrupt head end Head PROF I LE pinnacles and buttresses

Foot I

cferences TABLE 5. GULLY ANALYSIS - GRADED (TILL) GULLIES *vJ (Keser, 1974)

OESCRI PT I ON ~ MATERIAL COMMON LANDFORMS 11 V-shaped gullies but curved on plan view ''grade gull ies"

GULLY CHARACTERISTICS

LENGTH moderate

W i DTH . wide on clay, narrower on sandytiJ11

DEPTH shallow on clay but deep in sandy tills

I analesSharp CROSS similar to -granular SECT ION gullies V-shaped with sharp angles at head ends V

curving with moderate PLAN number of tributaries (less than that of clay) dendritic drainage on old tills

t Foot

steep and short PROF I LE uniform gradient sharp nickpoint at head end head A Head Foot

References rn >-f= mo

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w cr: 3 BEDROCK . GEOLOGY PZate 2

C d

Photo No. Map ref: . _-. ,-. Generallocation: Gari ba7di Park w.

. Flow marks )), leyees ttt . Volcaniccones, C (3ab) . Secondarycone, Ci (3b) Sca1e:l inch = 7/2 mile

Secondary features: A fake resulted as a lavablockage; note the absence of beaches.. Igneous intrusive rqck,G~@.(7,2, a,b). Snow sheets and talus.Radial drainage on cones. I> a b C d CENTER Photo NO* BC 7521 : 135436 Wap ref : General location: Garibaldi Park - Rubble Cr. Primary features : BEDROCK

. ?rWlaciallava flow ie (entire photo) . Flowmark ))) (labcd, 2abcd) I . Levkes H-F (lab,3abc) Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile

Secondaryfeatures: Slide, L (3,4, bl,c). Less active part of the slide has some vegetation (Zc, 3c). Note the stream (Rubble Cr.) coming through the debris, / (4c). Lake, (3,a) is drained by them. (What is the cause of the slide?).

BOTTOM Photo No* BC 51 12: 60-61 Map ref : Generallocation: Terrace - Aiyansh - Nass R. Primary features : BEDROCK . Post gfaciaI.lava.field,(bed), ib (123., bcd

. Coll apsed chambers e (1 bcd, 3b)

Scale:l inch = 1/2 mile Secondary features : F1uv-ja1 fan , Ff (2a , 3a) ; CO Cc (4ab); Aiyansh Indian Vi7 lage (Id) ; Flood plain, fP

Plate 2

C d -Ti)P Photo No. BC 2268: 26-27 Map ref: General location: Sayward forest - Campbell R. >& Primary features : BEDROCK

. Volcanic (beds), ie (lab, Zabc, 3abc,4abcd)

Scale: 7 inch = 1/2 mile

Secondary features: Glacial till - shallow over the bedrock, Tb (entire photo); Sandy deposits, F (Kc, 2c); (note gullycharacteristics); Young plantation, (1, 2, cd); Old granite D. Fir stands, (3b, 4ab). B b C d CENTER Photo No. BC 4320: 68-69 Map ref : General location: Quadra Island - Open Bay Primary features: BEDROCK

. Limestone, sl (labc, 2abc,3abc) -*/’ . Sinkholes (lb, 2bs)

Scale: 9 inch = 7/2 mile

Secondary features : Beaches, Mb (3bc) ; Del ta developments Mt (3b) ; Old logging landing (la).

e d UOTTOlll Photo No. BC 1214: 84-85 Map ref: General location: Alice Arm Primary features: BEDROCK

. Volcanic outliers, ie (Ib, .2abc, 3abc,4cd) . Sedimentary rcck (Bowser sediments) ”-- (rest of photo)

Scale: 1 inch = l/2 m-i’le Secondary features: (Cour-besy of dr. K. f?ortL-ote)

Photo No. E& 443: 46-47 Map ref: General location: Terrace - Aiyansh Primary features: BEDROCK

. vol canic cone, c (34

. Cjnder cone \e (3a)

Secondary features: Unstable slope, Q (Zab, 3ab, 4b); Colluvium, Cc (4ab); Lake developed by lavablockage, La< (46).

b c d CENTER. I

Scale: l inch = 7/2 mile

Secondary features :

Q b e d

Map ref: 1

. Incorrectillustration. 3

. VoJc.anic rock, ie. (3b, 4b)

Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile Secondary features: Fluvial fans Ff (labc, Zabcd, 3abcd) ; Flood plain Fp (.3,4, abcd) ; Terracettes , t - - (1,2, bc) .

PZate 4

C d

Photo No. BC 5178: 587-188 Map ref': General iocation: Clinton - The Chasm Primary features: BEDROCK

. Volcanic (lava beds) is(entire photo)

Secondary features: Me1 Water channel $$ (Zcd, 3bcd) ; Rotational slide Q.h(3d); Colluvium, Ct (at the bottom of chasm); Railroad *.tr (2,334,abcd); Hwnan settlement .. (3a). a e d

. Volcanic - post-glaciallava flow, ie;$s (labc, Zbc, 3abc,4ab)

Scale: 1 inch = 1/2mile

" Secondary features : Ti7 1, Tb -- (lab, 2ab , 3a, 4cd) ; Fluvial terrace, Ft (3d, 4d) ; Flood plain, Fp (2d, 3d); Logging road +t; Parkjng area made by cats :: (3~).

BOTTOM Photo SO. BC 866: 33-34 Map ref: General location: Garibaldi Park - Mamquam R. Primary features: BEDROCK

Proglaciallava flow, fe. 39 (lcd, Zcd, 3d, 4d) . Levee H+ {lcd, 2cd,3cd, 4d)

Scale: ? inch = 1/2 mile Secondary features: Old logging OL (Zc, 3c,4cd); Sub-alpine forest, SF (Za, 3a, 4a).

PZate 5

. Granitic r,ock ii (Enrire-Photo)

CENTER Photo NO. BC 5737: 187-188 Map ref:

Granl' tic rock

Scafe:l inch .= 1/4 mile (Courtesy of Dr. K. Jorthcote)

Secondaryfeatures: Til1 shallow in general, Tb (entire photo); Flood p'iain, Fp (4abc) ; Imperfectly drained up1 ands 'W(labcd , 2ab).

c d BOTTOM I Photo No. BC 5053: 147-148 Map ref : General location: Primary features : BEDROCK 2

. Post-g?acial lava flow i.e?-(-Pab,.~ Zabc, 3bcd, 4abd) 3 . Vol can-ic cones xx 4 . Cinder cones -. kt-, ." Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile Secondaryfeatures: L. PZate 6

. Granjtje rock (entire photo)

.I Secondary features : Fluvial delta, Fd (Id).

Map ref: General location: liorseshoe Bay, near Vancouver Primary features : BE~ROCK

'. Granitic 1 bedrock (entire photo) . Note texture pattern

Sca1e:I inch = 1/2 mile

Secondary features: Marine benches or raisedbeaches, Mt (2abc, 3a) ; Fluvial fan, Ff (3a) ; Fluvial delta, Fd .(3a) ; Ferryterminal and ferry (2d). Note theland use on steep mountaa'n terrain. c d ., , BOTTOM Photo '0. BC 2318: 32-33 Map ref: Generallocation: Gooseneck lake, Sayward forest Primary features ; BEDROCK . Granitic rock (entire photo)

'hJ.#' Scale: 3 inch = 1/2 mile Secondary features : Outwash, Gd (3d, 4d) ; T-il I-kame compf ex, Ta-Gk (I,2,3, cd); V shape stream channel on bedrock +++.

Photo No. tic 1034. 45-47 Map ref: General location: Big White Mountain, Vernon Primary features: BEDROCK

. Granite rock (entire photo)

Scale:: 1 inch = 1 mile (Courtesy of 2&. 3. KouaZZ)

Secondary features : Cirque basin, I c ++f (Icd , 2cd) ; Tarn, I,it :: (2c) ; Col , I1 x (2d) ; Horri,@In (2d).

Generallocation: North Nest Territories Primaryfeatures: BEDROCK

, . Granitic rock, xx (I ,234, abc) 2-” . lineament $++ (fault?) la, 2a)

” Secondary features: Marine deposi.t, M -- (1;2,3, bcd); Active solifluction xx, (lc, 2cd).

BOTTOM Photo BC 5348: 233-234 Map ref: Generallocation: Salmo Primary features: BEDROCK

PZa-te 8

C d 'IU? Photo No. BC 5136, '191-192 Map ref: - Generallocation: tric Lake, Vancouver Is. ,"-' Prima'ry features : BEDROCK

. Massive and thick bedded limestone, SI

e Thick-bedded tuffaceolts#roc1 astic rocks s

>! Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile (Courtesy of Dr, K. Nortkotd

Secondaryfeatures:

CENTER

. Sedimentary rock - moderately to steeply tipping, s, (entire photo)

. Cirque, PC 899

Secondaryfeatures: Coalescingcolluvial cone Cc (2b, 3bc, 4bcd) ; Rock still ' visible at the bottom of the cirque, R - (3b, 4bc).

b c d BOTTOM Photo NO. BC 4184: 66-67 Map ref: Generallocation: Roc kies Primaryfeatures : BEDROCK

. Sedimentary rock - flat-lying to gently dipping

Scaje: 1 inch = l/4 mile Secondaryfeatures : Cirques IC *; Tarn, It (2d) ; Rock glacier, Ir (2c); TaTus, Ct :: (4ab).

Secondaryfeatures: Glaciofluvial deposits (esker) Ge :: (lab, Zbcd, 3bcd, 4a); $1 uting on the bedrock (3bcd, 4abcd) ; Directton of ice movement 4a ts 4d.

b C d

D Generallocation: Wood Buffalo Park, Alta. Primaryfeatures : BEDROCK 2

. Limestone terrain - karst topography, S.1, (enti rephoto 1

. Sink holes (la, 3abd, 4bcd) 4 . Col I apsed trough =;. (lbs 2ab) Scale: 1 inch = 1 mile (Courtesy of Dr. D. Lacate)

Secondary features : Sand dunes -I-++ (2 $3*4, abcd) .

cl b C d EOTTOM 'hot' BC 41 08: 174-1 75 /Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features : BEDROCK

. Moderately steep lying sedimentary rock, s, (enti re photo)

'"le: 1 inch = 1/4 mile

Plate 20 c d vifi Phbto KO. BC 7288: 229-230 I ap ref: location: General “W Primary features: BEDROCK

. Limestone terrain.- Karst topograph), s I, (enti re photo)

. Sink hole e (Id, Zc, 4b)

Scale: 1 finch = 1/2 mile (Courtesy of Dr. K. Northcote) xx Secondary features: Extensive erosfsn on limestone, E, xx (labc, 3b, 4b); Fluting, (2ab); Direction,of ice movehent, 2a - 2d).

C CE~TER Photo No. BC 5374: 78-79 Flap ref: General location: North Pender Is., Gulf Islands

Primary features: BEDROCK ~

s . Sandstone - steeply dipping, s c (entire photo) *-

Scale3 inch = 7/2 rile

b c d BOTTObl Photo No. BC 5374: Map ref: General location: Active passP Maine fs.,’Gulf Islands Primary features : BEDROCK

. Steeply bedded sandstone. s c (entire photo)

“b ..&- Sca1e:l inch = 1 File Secondary features : 2 Ferries entering tile Active Pass from opposite directions (2ab).

PZate 22 d -7i.C p Photo No. BC 5309, 243-242 Nap ref:’ General location: Corein area, Rockies b,i Primary features : BEDBOCK -4 . Moderately dipping sedimentary rock - sandstone/ shale sequenc& (entit-e photb) . Para1 1el ridges of,resi stance beds (sandstone)

. Tonal differences between beds ..

Scale:l inch = 1/2 mile (Courtsoy of Dr. x. rjorthwtd

Secondary features: Cirques +b+ (234, abcd) ; Tarn ir.(3b) ;’ A7 i gned trees a7 sng beds, (3,4$ bcd) .

CENTER Photo No. Map ref: General location: Primary features : BEDROCK

. Steeply ti It& metam kic rocks tt (1,2,3,4, abcd)

Secondary features : Deeply cut lateral moraines, ## (2, cd) ; Lateral moraine TI (3,4, cd); Outwash, 0 (3.,4, cd);Fluvial fan, Ff’(3d); All.uvia7, A, (M).

a b C d BOTTOM 1 Photo NO. BC 5374: 78-79 Map ref: General location: Worth Pender Is., Gulf Islands Primary features : BEDBOCK 2

. See plate 103 centre, for comments.

4 49 Scale:l inch = 7 mile Secondary features:

'TOP

Photo NO. BC 7117: 58-59 Map ref,: General locatiori: KocltenayLake Primary features: BEDROCK . Metamorphic rock - foliated, mtf (entire photo) . Fol iation exaggerated by the, ice moving in the same direction. as the foliation. . Ice movement from la to 4c.

Secondary features:

CENTER Photo No- A 15159 41-42 Map ref: General location: Mood Buffalo Park, Alta. Primary features : BEDROCK . Ei mestone temain - karst topography, $1 (enti re photo)

. Sink holes 0.(3a, 4abd) . Dry stream channels - col lapsed channel /// - underground streams (4bc, Zbc, 3ac, 4c).

Secondary features :

U b e d BOTTOM Photo No- BC 1251 : 102-103 Map ref: General location: Round Mtn., Telegraph Cr. Primary features: BEDROCK . Sandstone - gently dipping sc1 "-- (la, Zab, 3abc,4abcd) ndstone - steeply dipping and folded, Sc2, $8 (Ibcd, 2bcd, 3cd)

Scale: 7 inch = 1/2 mile

PZate 22 Q C d -'TO 2 Photo NO. BC 7127: 58-59 Map ref.: iI General locatioa: KoOtenay Lake Primary features : BEDROCK 2 . Metamorphic rock - foliated, m,f (entire photo)

. Fo7 iation exaggerated by the, ice moving in 3 the same di rectjon. as the fo7 iation. . Ice movement from la to 4c. 4

Scale: I inch = 1/4 mile

Secondary features :

C d CENTER Photo No- A 15159 : 41-42 Map ref: Generallocation: Mood Buffalo Bark, Alta. Primaryfeatures : BEDROCK . Limestone terrain - karst topography, Sl (enti re photo)

. Sink holes 8.(3ag 4abd) . Dry streamchannels - collapsed channel /// - underground streams (4bc, 2bc, 3ac , 4c),

Secondary features :

U b e d BOTTOM Photo No- BC 1251 : 102-103 Map ref: General location: Round Mtn., Telegraph Cr. Primaryfeatures : BEDROCK

" . Sandstone - gently dipping, SC~-- (la, 2ab, 3abc, 4abcd)

ndstone - steeply dipping and folded SC~, (Ibcd, ilbcd, 3cd9

Scale: 1 inch = 1/2 mile Secondary features : Cirque, $.,+I+ (3cd., 4abcd) Col luvium;c&- (4abcd); Rock g1a,cier,i',,,(4c).

PZate 34 b c d ".!i'2

Photo '0. 6C 5069: 107-108 Map ref: General location: Salmon R., near Salmon & Fraserjunct. Primaryfeatures : FLUVIAL . Flood plain Fp, (las Zabcd, 3cd) . Oxbow lakes, Fo /// (Zbc, 2d) . F1 uvi a1 -terrace underlai n by 1acustri ne Ft/Lg (labc, 2bcd) . Fluvialterrace, Ft (3bcd) (Courke& of Mr. G. Runku) . Oldmeander scars

Secondary features: . tacustri ne deposit, Lg @ (1 cd Zacd, 3ab,4abcd) ; Eroded lacustrine Lg (Eg) : (3cd , Mic) -

CENTER Photo 30. BC 1134: 98-99 Map ref: Generallocation: Bonaparte R.- Caribou Hwy. Primary features : FLWJAL . Fan. Ff "-- (labch, Zabcd) . Flood plain, Fp (Zabcd,3abcd, 4abcd)

. Old meander (2ac, 3d, 4cd)

Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile

Secondary features :

BOTTOM Photo NO. BC 7231:26-21 Map ref: General location: Golden area (Blaeberry R. ) Primaryfeatures : FLUVIAL , Flood plain - braided stream, Fp (labs, 2abcd , 3d)

. Flyvial ' terrace, Ft (1bcd, 2b, 3c) 4 . Recent fluvialdeposits, Fr : (2abd) Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile

Photo NO. 6C 37 1 : 56-57 Mag ref: General location: Vanderhoof Primry features : FLUVIAL . Flood plain, Fp (labcd, Zabcd,3abcd) . Fluvial - recent, Fr @- (lcd, 2cd)

b C d

General location: 6owron R. Primary features : FLUVIAL . Flood plain - Fp :: (vertical accretions) (lad,2ad, 3a, 4abd) i Flood plain - Fm (lateral accreti’ons bar meander type) 1 bc, ‘Zbc, 3bcd 4b) . Ox-bow lake, Fiv (3cd,4cd) . Plug (in oxbow lake) /// (3d, 4d) . PJote meander migration Secondary features : Log jay ‘1 (43).

BOTTOM Photo No. BC 1134: 87-88 Map ref:

General POC~~~OR:Bonaparte 1. *- Caribou HWY. Primary features : FLWIAL . Fan, Ff (labcd,2abcd, 3abcd , 4ab)

. F1 ood plai n ,FX: : (complex)--(;2d, 3cd, 4ab) I I . Old meander deposits /// (3d, 4cd)

PZate 36 0 b C d -TO P C Photo NO. BC 113% 102-902 Map ref: General location: Bonaparte 1. area Primary features : FLUVIAL -.- . Fluvial fan, pf -'- (lcd, 2cd, 3bcd) . Flood plain, Fp (primarilyvertical accretion) (3abd , 4abcd) . Drainage channels on fan __ . Old channel scars

Secondary features : Ti1 1, Tb : :( 1abCd 9 2abc).

b C d CENTER Photo NO- 8C 5063, 42-43 Map ref: General location: Fraser River, near Richmond Primary features : FLUVIAL . .Flood plain, Fp (verticalaccretions) (labcd, 2abcd,3ab) . Flood plain, Fm (bar meander type} (3bcd, 4th) . Levee, Fl /// (kd9 3ab,4a) Scale: 1 inch = 7/4 mile Old sand bar, Fs : (3cd, 4bc) . (Courtesy of Mr. G. Rur,kal . Old channel scars Secondary features: organic, 0 (labcd)

BOTTOlLl Photo NO, BC 1683: 17-18 Map ref : Generallocation: FraserRiver, near Chilliwack Primaryfeatures: FLUVIAL . Flood plain, Fm (bar meander type - this is an isla in the Fraser) : (123, abcd,4cd) . Abandoned channels Fo /// (1 234, abcd) . Flood plain, Fb (verticalaccretions)(lcd) " Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile

Se'corlJan$ ir) fatbre~:b-?r F.b_ " (4a) Clearing by man xxx (2bc, 3cd).

Plate 37

" Photo NO. 5C 5275: 303-]04 Map ref: General location: Okanagan E. near Ke'lowna Primary features : FLYVIAL . Fan delta, Fd (1bc)

" Secondaryfeatures: Ti7 1, Td (2abc 3abcd 4abcd) ; Kame terrace, Gk -- (lab, 2ab); Kame terrace rhnants. /// (3abcd); Outwash delta (kettled) (lcd, 2cd); Kettle d CENTER " I Pl10~0Nod BC 5065: 7 76-177 Map ref: General location: Fraser Val1 ey, near White Rock Primary featuresPrimary : FLUVXALj 2 . Flood plain, Fp (verticalaccretion) (enti re (enti photo) 3 . Old channel scars 4

Secondaryfeatures:

I BOTTOM " Photo No. BC 5097: 75-76 Map ref: General. location: Oyster River delta, Vancouver Is. Primaryfeatures: FLUVIAL . Delta, Fd (labc, Zabcd) Fluvial terraces :: (various levels) (3b, 4ab)

Scale: 1 inch = 1/2 mile Secondary features : Outwash terrace, G t (marine washed a thin veneer Of marine/ outwash) $t (Zc, 3ac, 4b).

Plate 38

Photo NO. BC 613: 35-36 Nap ref: Generallocation: Meri tt Primary features : FLUVIAL

-L . Flodd plain, Fp -- (lab, 2ab, 3b, 4b)

. Fan, Ff . (lcd, 2cd) I

Secondaryfeatures: Til9 Td (Id, 2d, 3cd, 4d) ; Lacustrine, Lg (Za,3abc, 4abc) .

CENTER Photo 140. BC 1734: 104-105 Map ref: Generallocation: Bonaparte R. Cariboo Hwy.

Primaryfeatures: FLUVIAL I i . Fluvial fan Ff #: (2abcd, 3$bcd, 4bcd) . Flood plain, Fp z: (3a, 4ab)

Secondary features : Ti 11 , Tglahd , 4ad) ; Ta lus, Ct (lc

BOTTOPI Photo No- BC 2620: 82-83 Map ref: General location: Kamloops area

Primary features: FLUVIAL I “ . Flood plain, Fp -- (verticdl,accretions) ( lcd, Zbcd, 3bcd, 4cd) . Flood plain Fm )))) (laterai accretions) . Fluvialterrace, Ft (la, 2a, 3a, 4a) . Old meander scrolls G? Fluvial Ff (3d, Scale: 1 = l/4 mile fans, : : 44) inch ~ S6condary features: Til 1, Tb -k (lad, Zad, 3ad,4ad)/ - 1

PZate 39

__-TQp ; P~O~OSO. A 15297: 44-45 Map re€: I General location: Peace RiverValley Primary features Primary : FLUVIAL 2 ... . Flood plain, Fx (complex type - lateralaccretion is dominant) (Iabc, Zabc,4a) 3a, 3

. Meander scar X2 (1abc, 2abc, 3a, 4a) 4 . Fluvialterrace, Ft :: (sa, 4a) Scale: 1 = 1 mi . Cut banks "+ (lcd, 2bc, 3a, 4a) "inch le (Courtesy of Dr. D. Laeate)

" Secondary features : Lacustrinesands L -- (lcd, 2cd ' 3bcd,4abcd).

General location: Primaryfeatures : FLUVIAL

. F1 ood plain 1) Fp : : (verticaFaccretions on old clay bed) (lcd, 2bcd,3bcd, 4cd) . Flood plain Fp :: (lateralaccretions) (la, 2a) . Lateralplanations by the rfver on old jake bed Note theterrace remnants and slump features, Sca1e:l inch = 1/4 mile Fp zT (2cd,3bcd, 4cd) . An island made primarily by lateralaccretions $3 (4ab.) Secondary features : Slump scarps w on lacustrine bed Lg (2cd; 3d, 4d).

BOTTOM ' Photo Noi BC 7211: 31-32 Map ref: Generallocation: Golden(B1aeberiry R.) area Primaryfeatures : FLUVIAL

. F1 ood plain = presentlyactive (braided stream) Fp, (lcd, Zabcd)

. Flood" plain, older in age, 'Fp $2 (3abcd); Fp2 -- (3abcd, 4ab) I 1 . Bar deposit :: (lc) Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile Secondary features : Ti 11, Tb (labcd,3cd, 4abcd).

PZate 40 R C d 'i'L1 i' ". ". Photo No. 6C 5065: 40-41 Map ref: Generallocation: Lower FraserValley Primary features : PLUVIAL 3- . Flood plain - lateralaccretions, Fp (entire photo) . Old channels ///

Scale: 1 inch = 1/4 mile (Courtesy of Mr. G. Runka)

Secondary features:

a b C d 1 1 CENTER Photo A 14970: '109-110 Map ref : General location: Golden area. Primary features : FLUVIAL . Flood plains - braided stream, Fp --" (Id, 2cd, 3bc, 4a)

* Fluvial fan deltas, Fd :: (2c, 3bc) . Fluvialfans FF, @ (lcd) Scale: 1 inch = 1 mile . ..

Secondary features : Colluvial /// (lc 2bc) ; Bedrock - ti 11 complex, B-Tb (la,bc, Zabc); Till - bedrock - ti 11 complex (2d, 3cd,4abcd); Outwash terraces, Gt (Za, 3cd,4bc)

BOTTOM Photo No. A 15173: 23 Map ref: General location: Peace River Primary features : FLUVIAL . Flood plain mixed type, Fx, however, 1ateral accretions are dominant

. Oxbow lakes, FW (Id, 2d) Secondary features :

Photo NO. EX 5070: 1O5-107 Nap ref: General location: Prince George area " Primary features : FLUVIAL . Flood plain - braided, Fb: (lcd,2bcd3,3ab, 4a) . bote many meander cut-offs and oxbow lakes

Secondary features: Glaciofltivialdelta, Gt' (3ab, 4a);Till-ablation, Ta (Zcd, 3bc, 4b); Till-ablation with some outwash delta remnants, Ta(G) (labcd, Zab, 34; Lacustrinedeposit, Lg (2d,3cd, 4bcd).

CENTER Photo No. BC 1784: 44-45 Map ref: Generallocation: Fraser R. - lower Fraser Valley Primary features : FLUVIB . Flood plain - mixed type, (lateral and vertical accretions) FX, (enti re photo) \ . 07d channels /// (la, 2b,3abd, 4bc)

Levee fl BP (Za, 3a, 4ab)

Secondaryfeatures : Drainage ditch ++++ .

BOTTOM Photo NO. A 13247: 29-30 Map ref : Generallocation: Fraser River Primaryfeatures: FLUVIAL

" . Flood plain, Fp -? (mainly lateralaccretions) (1bed, Zbcd, 3abc, 4a) . Fan, Ff :: (Id) . Meander cut-off (oxbow lake) $! (lab, 2ab) . Islan 2 /// (lab, 2abd, 3d) . Plug It x (Zab, 3ab) . F7uvial delta, Fd (lab) Secondary features : Til 7 , Tb/B (labcd, 3cd, 4bcd) ; Outwash terrace (or kame) Gt (2a) .

Plate 42 -TOP Photo No. Map ref:

'L Generallocation: Primary features f

Scale :

Secondary features:

CENTER

Photo No. ~ Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features :

ICs

Scale :

Secondary features:

0. BOTTOM Photo No. Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features:

Scale : Secondaryfeatures:

PZa-te 46 -TOP P'noto No. Ma$ ref: e, Generallocation: Primaryfeatures: 2

Scale :

Secondaryfeatures:

CENTER Photo No. Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features :

Scale :

Secondary features:

r. BOTTOM Photo No, Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features:

Scale : Secondaryfeatures:

Plate 47

Photo Yo. 6C 623: 53- 54 Map ref: General location: Fraser River Primary features: AEOLIAN . Sand dunes on old outwash terraces As, A I (,2bc, 3bcd, 4b)

Secondary features-+” Outwash .terrace, Gt (labc, Zbc, 3bcd, 4d) ; Kame terrace - remnants, Gk $+ (2a,3a, 4a); Alluvial terrace, Ft 2; (lab, 3bc).

General location: Wood BuffaloPark, Alta. Primary features : AEOLIAN . Sand dunes 3 primarily U-shaped As (lab, Zab, 3abcd,4abcd) . Direction of wind from la to 4d

Secondary features : Kettl es , :: (lcd , 2d) .

BOTTOM Photo NO. A 15166: 102-103 Map ref: General location: Wood Buffalo Park, A1 ta. Primary features : AEOLIAN

. Sand dunes 3 longitudinal - some barchanes (labc, 2cd,3ad, 4bd)

Scale: 7 inch = 1/2 mi le Secordary features : Sink holes o (2c, 3abc). (Courtesy of Dr. D. Lacate)

PZate 48

4 I

CENTER Photo No. Map ref: Generallocation: Primary features:

Scale:

Secondary features:

BOTTOM Photo No. Map ref: General location: Primary features:

Scale : Secondary features :

GLOSSARY

ABLATIONMORAINE: Where therate of glacierablation is relatively high, englacial dkbris is exposed at theice surface. The resulting cover of,bou,lders and rock debris is called ablat'l" on till and the feature is cal'led ab1 ation moraine. In theprocess the presence of dark- colouredmaterial on theice surface reducesthe albedo and greatly raises,the rate of heat absorption. The ice becomes stagnant and the accumulation of ablation moraine on its surface becomes increas- inglyrapid, and ablation till is lowered in situ from themelting icesurface onto the top of lodgement till. (Ref. .#2)

ABLATION TILL: I Nonstratified and nonsorted to faintly stratified and poorly sortedglacial drift deposited from a superglacial posi.tion through *w melting of underlyingstagnant glacier jce. Most ablationtill is 'L. loose and characterized by partialloss of fineconstituents (si1 t, clay) and by random orientation of its clasts whereas lodgement till is generally more compact, having retained most of its fine constit- uents. Both the finematerials and boulders may preserve a preferred orientation,indicative of former ice movement.The term includes both melt-out till and flow till , as suggested by the classification be4 ow: EX I ST1NG TYPE ORIGIN CLASSTFICATION FLOW TILL(FLOWTILL) Supraglacial,also Ablation Ti 11 Superglacial MELT-OUT TILL Supragl aci a1 , a1 so Ab1 ati on Ti1 1 Superglacial LODGEMENT ' (BASAL) Subgl aci a9 Lodgement Ti 11 TILL (Ref. #2) " AEOLIAN (EoTian) : Applied todeposits arranged by the wind, as the sands and other loosematerials along shores,etc. (From Eolus,the god of winds). Sub- aerialis often used in much the same sense. 2. Applied tothe erosive action of the wind, and to deposits which are due tothe transporting action of the wind. (Ref. #l)' AGGRADATION:The deposition or building-up of sediments by stream, wave or wind action. An aggrading riveris onewhich .activelyelevates its bed,by deposition(Ref. of sediments. #2) ALLUVIAL (See A1 1 uvi um) ALLUVIAL FAN: A fan-shaped depositwith its apex pointing upstream and formed by a stream at a point where it abruptlyleaves a narrow valley or ravine and enters a largervalley or anopen plain. Fans form where a constricted Val 1 ey ceases abruptly , not solely where there is a change in gradient of thestreambed. Thus fans form where streamsissue from mountains and steep-gradienttributaries. Alluvial fans areflatter than alluvial cones and differ from deltas by being deposited mainly in a landenvironment rather than in a body of standing water.Alluvial fans reveal great diversity of size,slope, grain-size distribution of sediments and in characteristics of theirsource terrane. A greatdeal of useful information about alluvialfans can be derived from an airphotostudy of theirsource and depositionareas, slopes, environments and histories of sediment deposition. Among the complexly i nteracti.ngfactors to be assessedare the kinds of soils and rocks in thesource areas (water- sheds) ; topography, vegetative cover and hydrology of thedrainage basin contributingsediment; slope of thestream channel ; stream-discharge pattern; climatic and tectonic environment; clear!water vs viscous mudflow deposition; and geometry of the fans:.Alluvial fans are characteristic of tectonicallyactive regions. Many factorsaffect the slopes of fans. Fans produced by lower discharge$ have steeperslopes. Fans composed largely of mudflows or highly permeable openwork (sieve)deposits aresteeper than fans composed of finerfluvial deposits. Generally the coarsergrained th$ fan deposit , thesteepqr its slope. Fansformed from large volumes of sedtmentper unit'drainage-basinarea tend to be steeper than fans formed from small volumes per unit drainagebasin area. Clayey source rocks (shales,siltstones, mudstones) form largerfans having flatterslopes than coarsesource rocks (sandstones and conglomerates). Most alluvialfans in Canada, however, arederived from eroded glacial and glaciofluvialdeposits rather thanbedrock. (Ref. #2) ALLUVIAL FILL: A body of alluvium occupying a streamvalley bottom and conspic- uouslythicker than the depth of stream channel in it. (Ref. #2) ALLUVIALFLOODPLAIN SEDIMENTS: Among thechief morphologicalelements that may make up floodplainsediments are point bars, channel bars and alluvial islands, cut-off channels (oxbows) and channel fills , crevasse splays , naturallevees, and floodbasins or backswamps. In their manner of construction and in thenatpre of their constituent deposits, these elements form two fundamentally distinct groups. Point bars, channel bars and alluvialislands result from lateralaccretion of streambed 3

load dur%ng the sideways migration of channels, and these sediments are W common to a71 floodplains.After overbank flow, verticalaccretion of suspended load leads t@the construction of a topstratum of natural levees,crevasse splays and flood. basins andbackswamps on top of the substratum of genkrally coau'ser lateral-accretiondeposits. Channel fills are not easfly placed :in either category because they consist partly, and sometimes wholly, of bed-load material.Grain-size avail- ability and volume of load,stream gradient, mean annual discharge, mean annual fiooddischarge,and bankful discharge, and braided vs meandering habitare useful guides to estimating the likeiy type and stratigraphy of sediments below alluvialfloodplains. (Ref. #2) ALLUVIAL RIVER:; A'rivGr that hasformed its channel out of its own transported sed-iment. The sediment it carries, ,except for the wash load, l's s-imi7ir that to in the river bed. (Ref. #2) ALLUVIAL TERRACE: Terraces composedof Val ley-fill sediments that were originally deposited by stream actSon in former geologic time and later cut through by the stream, 1 eaving the former floodplain surface some distance -above the bed presentstream.of the , (Ref. #2) ALLUVIUM: (1): A general term fo.r all.detrital. deposits resulting from the operations df modern rivers, thus includingthe sediments laid down in river beds,flood plains, lakes, fans at the foot of mountain slopes, and estuaries. (2) : The ratherconsistent usage of the term throughout its.his.tory makes it quite clear that alluvium is intended to apply to kw+ streamdeposits of comparativelyrecent time, thatthe subaqueous deposits of seas and lakesare not intended to be included, and that permanent submergence is not a criterion. Alluvium maybecome lithified, as has >' happened frequently in the past, and then may be termed ancientalluvium. (Ref. #l) AEROSION:The wearing! away of a bank of a stream by flowingwater. (Ref. #2) BAR : An elongateridge commonlycomposed of sand or gravelsediment and built offshore by waves and currents. Its crest is usually submerged but may be exposed during low tide. T'n rivers an ovoid streamlineddeposit of sand and gravel having a steep drop-off side downstream, which is bui 1t w by currents, and may be exposed during low river stages. (Ref. #Z) 4

BARCHAN: (1 1 A dune having crescentl’c ground plan, with the convex sidefacing u the wind; the.profile is asymmetric, with thegentler slope on the convex side, and the ’ steeperslope on the concave or leeward side. (2) The crescent or barchan type is most characteristic of theinland desert regions. It presentsa gently convex surfaceto the wind, while the leeside is steep and abrupt. The horns of thecrescent mark thelateral advance of thesand. Its wide distribution and all but universalpresence in the sandy deserts of all conthents make this typethe normalone for sand hi11 s formed on,an open area.(Ref.#1) BASAL CONGLOMERATE: A coarse,usually well-sorted and lighologically homogeneous sedimentatydeposit which is found just abovC an erosionalbreak. The initial stratigraphic unit overlyihg an unconformity, formed by a rising sea 1eve1 or an encroaching sea. BASIC ROCK: Ingenous rock thatcontains a relatively low percentage (below 50 to 55 per cent) of silica and a high percentage of metal 1 ic bases (iron, calcium, magnesium, etc. 1 (Ref. #5) BEACH: A body of wave-washed sedimentextending along a coast between the landward limit of wave action and theoutermost breakers. On ocean beaches the upper beach rises to a heightcorresponding to the maximum storm swash 1 imi t of recent history (berm crest) and includes the beach face,various berms, and the backshore. The beach face is usually separated byan abrupt break in slope from the lower foreshore step or low-tide terrace (in the order of 1 :100) to the beach face (in the order of 1 :IO). The upper beach is generally marked by one or moreberms separated by abrupt beach scarps, which represe%ntthe limits of recent storms and resulting wave building.Fairly constant relationships of slope to median grainsize of sandy ocean beaches exist:a fine sand of 0.57 mm median diameter might correspond to a beach’having a 1 :40 slope,for example whereas acoarse sand of 0.65 mm mean sizeoften correspondsto a 1 :8 beach slope. Eroding beaches flatten whereas accumulating.beaches steepen. Thus protected beaches are steeper for any given sand size khan exposed beaches.(Ref. #2) BEACH LINES: See Beach Ridges. BEACH MIGRATION:Movement of beach out from originallocation such as through longshore current action. BEACH RIDGES: An essentiallycontinuous, mound of beach materialthat has been heaped up bywave or otheraction. Ridges may occursingly or as a set-tes of approximately paralleldeposits behind the beach. Each ridge marks theposition of apreexisting strandline and is a feature of prograding.(constructional) shores. Beach ridges are built where the beach faceangle appropriate to the beach material andmost significant wave type issteeper than the overallshore profile. Steeper beach faces are associated with coarsermaterial and lower waves. Multiple ridges arise through continued shall owing of the offshore profile owing to abundantsediment supply, commonly associated with a fall in sealevel’ or rise in theland surface. Some sand beach ridgescontain a high porportion of’ wi nd-blown material . (Ref. #2) 5

BEACH WIDTH (ZONE): The horizontal d-lmension-of a beachmeasured normal to the shore 1 i ne. (Ref. #2) BEACH ZONES: See beach width. BEADED ESKER: An esker with numerousbead1 i ke expansions and contractions in width, strungout along its length. Eskers may be beaded at still- stand positions(pauses in glacier retreat) or where eskerstreams dischargeinto temporary lakesor pools of standingwater.(Ref. #2) BEDDING PLANE: Tn sedimentary.orstratified rocks, the division planes which separatetheindividual layers, beds, or strata. (Ref.#l ) BEDROCK: The in-placematerfal older than Quaterharj underlying the regolith in depthsranging from zero, where the bedrock is exposed by erosion, toseveral hundred feet. While commonly taken to imply hard rock, bedrock can actually refer to any lithological characteristic. (Ref. #2) BERGSHRUND: The crevasse whi,ch occurs at the head of acirque or valley glacier andwhich separates the moving glacier ice from iceattached to the rock wall. When no ice if attached to the rock wall the gap between the wall and the glacier ice is:called the randkluft (German). (Ref. #3) BIFURCATION: Fork-1.ike:separation of a watercourse into two arms.(Ref. #Z) BIRDFOOT DELTA: A delta formed by the outgrowthof fingers or pairs of naturallevees at the mouths of river distributaries making the digitate or'"birdfoot" form typified by theMississippi delta. (Ref. #7') BOULDERCLAY: A term much used in Britain to denote ground moraine left after the retreat of ice. The term 'till I is much better,as many d,rift depositscalled boulder clay contain no boulders nor are they always composed of clay. Their compositiondepends upon their origin. (Ref. #3) BOULDER TRAIN: Boulder trains take their origin fromknobs or prominences of rock which lay in the path of glacial adyance and gaveoff boulders readily and .abundantlyto.'the overridikng lice. Such trains lie in the line'of glacial movement, but thebaulders are not carried forward in strictly para1 le1 'lines .. They may therefore appropriately be cal led boulder fans. The boulders are of a single kind, or at least of the few kinds represented by the parent knob. They usually grow smaller andmore worn astraced away from it. They mingle .with theunderlying drift and in this respectdiffer from the boulder belts. (Ref.#1) BRAIDEDFLOODPLAIN: Floodplain which has had fluvial braidedaction at some

time e (Seebraided stream). BRAIDED MELTWATER CHANNEL 'SCARS: Remnantsof me1 twater channels forming abraided stream pattern. (See braided stream). BRAIDED OUTWASH CHANNEL: Outwash channels forming a braidedstream pattern. ‘UPJ braidedstream)(See . BRAIDED STREAM: A braidedstream is one that flowsin severdl dividing and reuniting, relatively wideand shallowchannels resembling the strands of .abraid. The causeof such dividingis the continual obstruction and shifting of channels by coarse-grainedsediment deposited by the stream. Wheremore sediment is beingbrought to any part of a stream than it canremove, thebuilding of sand and gravel (and sometimes si 1 t) bars becomes excessive. The resultis that the streamdevelops an intricate network of interlacingchannels. Braided streams commonly occur a) in senliarid regions having relatively low relief , where streams receive most of theirdischarge from higher mountain areas; b) in areas of activeglacial outwash-plain and valley-train building, where the sediment-ladenmeltwater is derived from a meltingglacier; and c) in the widened beds of mature streams in mountain, piednlont and foothill areas in arid,temperate, and periglacialregions. Stream gradients maybe remarkably steep. The landscape of watershedscontributing surfacerunoff and sediment is usuallybare of vegetationor is only lightlyvegetated. High surface runoff coupled with easilyavailable and abundant materialcauses entrainment of a large sediment load. Thus theproduction of a large volume of sediment in drainagebasins contri- buting sediment is an importantfactor andany stream will braid if the bed-material loadexceeds a certain amount. There is also a close but contrastingrelationship between braiding and meandering, with the

j . gradient/dischargeratio being higherfor braided streams. Aggradation of the channel bedand thelack of lateralcontrol (ease of bank w erosion)are factors that induce braiding. With its highergradient/ dischargeratio, the transported sedimenttends to be appreciablycoarser (gravel, sand) in braidedstreams than it is in meandering stream(sand, si1 t). Moreover, the upstream ends of longitudinalbars generally containcoarser , more poorly-sortedsediment. Discontinuous horizontal stratificationis common. Forest beds and trough-fillcross- stratificationcharacterize braidedstream deposits. (Ref. $2) CALVING: Breaking off and floating away as icebergs of large masses of a glacier that reaches the sea. (Ref. sea. the reaches that F1) CARTOGRAPHY: (1) The science and art of expressinggraphically, by means of maps and charts,the visible physical features of the earth’ssurface, both natural andman-made. (2) The sc,ience and art of map construction. (Ref. #1) CHANNEL: (1) The deepest portion of a stream,bay, or strait through which the mainvolume or current of waterflows. (2) The part of a body of water deep enough to be used fornavigation through an areaotherwise ’ too shallow for navigation. (3) A largestrait, as the..English Channel. (4) Metal : A sow or runner. (5) A cut alongthe 1 ine where rock orstone is to be split. (6) Paleontol : A groove, such as the groove that winds down theco?umella war its base it1 some shells arid ternlinates in thesiphonal notch or in the canal. (Ref. ;:1) _.

CHANNELLED TILL: Till at thk end of a receding glacier(i.e. Lat. Morraine), that has been chanbeled in stages by meltwateror streams running a1 ongside of glacikr and then at the endof the ice running along the end face of theice to create channelsperpendicular to theice movement. CIRQUE: Tl:le amphitheatre shaped hollow at the head of avalley, or edge of an upland, formed by nivation and glacialscour. Cirque is French in origin but has generally superseded other terms such as cwm and corrie. (Ref. #3) CLASTICSEDIMENTS: Fragmentkd materials such as sand and gravelthat are produced by the mechanical disintegration of all types of pre-

existing rocks. existing ~ (Ref. #4) CLAY: Soilfragmental material with aparticle size below 0.002 mm in ,diameter. Also, a group of crystallineminerals, colloidal in size and composed.large1y of iron and aluminum silicates. '. ' (Ref. #5)

COL : Pass formedwhere two cirquesconverge, cutting into the same wall and thus lowering it below thelevel of ,the,remainder of thebsummit area. (Ref. #4) COLLUVIUM: A body of sedimentdeposited by any process of mass-wasting or non- channel flow of wa,ter. Colluvium mainly consists of heterogeneous "w' materialsany of $articlesize that accumulate on the lower parts, or at thebase of steepslopes. The sediment is transportedthere by gravity, soil creep,sheet erosion, rai~wash, mudflow, or solifluc ion. Along the marginsof streamvalleys, colluvium is likely to inter- finger with alluvium and it is not always easyto distinguish between the two. ;Although colluvium is characterized by nonsorted debris, some sorting and poorly developed stratification maybe seen. (Ref. #2 COMPOUND ESKER; As aresul4 of braidedglacial stream action - one esker having many i ntertwi ni ng larms . i CUfOFF (SPUR): When along {he course ofan entrenched riverlateral ero.sion becomes predominaqt,a spur projectinginto a loop may ultimately be wornaway at ttie root, so that the river breaks through at this point and, abandoning its curved course,leaves an elevationisolated from the high ground on efther bankwhich is known as a cu off s u . [Ref. !l! COLLAPSED SUPERGLACIAL TILL:The topography created by collapsedsuperglacial orenglacial till may be. referred to asdead-ice moraine, stagnation moraine, ice-disintegration features or moraine, oras collapse moraine. It formed when englacial till or, morecommonly, superglaciaj till was let down enevenly as the underlying dead ice me1 ted, 'Such ablation til 1 is generally, though not necessarily, less compact, .coarser and more w

'1 i washedand sorted than lodgement (basal) till. Dominant depositional U processes were slumping, mudflow (flow of till and,possibly, some fine- grained stratified drift) and other kinds of massmovement down ice slopes. The glacier topography was continuously changing as a result of differential me1 ting caused by the continually changing thickness of thesuperglacial' till cover. The term alsorefers to the blanket of glacialmaterials insulating stagnantice. Where this blanket happened to be thinner, the ice melted more rapidly, forming a depression. Subsequently, some of theadjacent till slumped or flowed into theresulting hollow,thickehing the blanket there and at the same time thinning it on thesurrounding ice. Accordingly, around thedepression the ice then melted faster than it did in the hollow. As a result,repetitious inversion of topography on thestagnant glacier ice surface resulted. This kind of meltingprocess gave rise to thedistinctive compositional and structural appearance of collapsed ti 11 sediment.(See ablation till). (Ref. #2) DEAD ICEMORRAINE: Collapsed superglacial and englacial till(ablation till) includingsubglacial drift thrust up into theglacier alongcompressive- flow sheerplanes. Also calledcollapsed ablation till , stagnation moraine, ice-disintegrationmoraine, stagnant-ice moraine, collapsed moraine,collapsed superglacial till, collapsedsuperglacial mudflow, hummocky moraine,knob-and-kettle nlorain. The outstandingcharacter- istic of dead-ice moraine is hummocky relief consisting of closely- spaced knobs alternating with marshy kettle-holedepressions called sloughs or prairiepotholes in Western Canada. There is an almost completelack of streams and stream-cut Val 1 eys. Thehummocky drift, which maybe several hundred feetthick in some areas,generally obscurespreexisting relief features. In some areasthe thickness of the drift has been found to be roughly five timesthe local avail- ablerelief --.that is, theheight of hummocky knobs. Characteristic- landforms associated with dead-icemorraine include ice-walled lake plains;collapsed lake-sediment plains, collapsed glaciofluvial landforms and icedisintegration ridges and trenches. The ablation till was responsiveto slight changes in superglacial topography and was continually slumping and flowing to lower areas on the rotting ice. Ice in these low! areas, insulated with a thick layer of till , me1 ted more slowlywhilb the higher, newly-exposed ice melted more rapidly. Thus, severalinversions oftopography may have takenplace during glaciermelting. The finalresult was the hummocky topography characteristic of dead-icemorraine. Domipant depositiona1,process were flowage and sliding. Contortion and disruption oT bedding in collapsed- lakesediment indicate this. Flowageand sliding of ablation till is less obyious than it is in collapsedstratified sediments. Onlywhere themelt-out till or flow till has been interbedded with stratified, washed drift is thisorigin obvious. Mudflowswere common along the sides of superglaciallakes. Where slopeangles onhummocky moraine are low (4 degrees or less), the ablation drift is relatively thin. ' Where the slopes onhummocky dead-ice moraine aresteep and the knobs are high, ablation drift tendsto be relativelythick. Fluidity and plasticity of the drift also controlled slopes on the sides of knobs and 'knolls. Higher moisturecontent and higher plasticityresulted iri lower maximum angles of slope at which the drift. could remain stable without sliding. See Ablation Moraine.andablation Till.(Ref. #2) i h

DELTA: A'body,ofsediment deposited by a stream flowing intothe standing water .-. of ,a lake or the sea. Thename is derived from the sirni lari ty of a w delta's plan view to the triangular outline of the Greek capital letter delta. As sediment is deposited in a deltaic environment , it becomes easier for theriver to divide and flow to each side. Eachnew branch forms new banks, and theseeventually divide and subdivide. In this way, the 'main delta , as we1 1 as subdel tas , grow outward , and are characterized by a branchingnework of main passes and smaller distributary channels. Small deltas maybe formedwhere meltwatersdischarge into a temporary glaciallake, wheremodern riversenter a lake,or at the confluence of two rivers -- especailly where a swift streamheavily laden with sediment joins a much slower andmore sluggish larger river. According to details of their shape and origin,various types .of deltas can be recognized , such as arcuate, bayhead , birdfoot, cuspate , digitate, esker,estuarine, fan, glacial, inwash, kame, lobate, outwash, tidal and washover deltas. Changes inthe configuration and surface morphology of deltasfall intq threecategories: 1) thoseassociated with continuing deposition of fl'uvialsediment, 2) thoserelated to shore processes on the delta margin, 3) thoseaffecting the surface of thedelta generally. Fluvialdeposition takes place at the mouths of rivers where horizontal accretiontends to prograde natural leveesoffshore as sedimentary jetties. Shoalsflanking deeper outflow distributary channels indicate, thepossible pattern of future growth of sedimentary jetties as subaerial forms. Once established,they develop as natural levees and arebuilt up and broadened by deposition from flgoduateys. Modern deltasdisplay greatvariety in size,shape, structure, composition (clay, silt, sand, orgravel), and genesis. The coarsestparticles settle out first in shallow-water channel beds and on levees, and thefinest sediments settle fartherout in slackwater and deep offshorewaters. The mingling of salt and freshdaters causes individual clay particles to cluster into largeraggregates. Some of the major factorsthat influence the character of deltasinclude 1) geologicsetting and sedimentsources in thedrainage basin, 2) climaticconditions in both thedrainage and dep- ositionalbasin, 3) tectonicstability of thesedimentary basin, 4) gradient and reiime of thestream carrying sediment to the delta, 5) depositional and erosionalprocesses and their intensities wi'thin the delta, and 6) tidal range and 0ffshor.e hydrologic conditions. Many large I deltas in lakeslandthe sea show severaldistinguishable depositional environments,yielding different textural and stratigraphicpatterns. Among these arelthe environments of channels,including main passes; subaqueous and subaerjallevees, interdistributary troughs and mudflats; marshes and swamps, freshwaterlakes .and ponds; and crevassesplays. (Ref. #2) DENDRITIC DRAINAGE: The pattern formed by insequentstreams resembling the branch pattern of a tree. Usually formed onhomogeneous rocks. (Ref. #3) DEPOSIT: Anything laid down. Formerly appliedto suspended matter left by the agency of water, but nowmade to include a1 so mineralmatter in any fornl, and precipitated by chemical or otheragencies, as theores, etc., in veins. (2) The tennmineral depositor o.re depositis arbi trdrily used to desiclnate a natural occurrence of a useful mineral or ore in w sufficient &tent and degree of concentrationto invite exploitation. (Ref. il) w DIKE (DYKE): (1) A tabular body of ingenousrock thatcuts across the structure of adjacentrocks or cuts massive rocks. Although most dikesresult from the intrusion of magma,some are the result ofmetasomatic replace- ment. (2) A wall or mound bui 1 t around a Tow-lying, area to prevent flooding. I (Ref. #l) DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS:The hydrology and relatedfeatures of streams,'lakes, swamps, marshes, and canalswithin an hrea.Includes consideration, in their seasonalaspects, of depths,widths, banks, bottom conditions, velocities,gradients, turbidity, sedimentation, temperatures, ice conditions and otqerpertinent related items. (Ref. #l) DRAINAGE PATTERN: Geometric arrangement of stream segments in a drainagesystem, generallyrelated to inequalities of slope,soil or rock type, structure, and to geologicalhistory. Among the many drainage patternsare the following: dendritic, trellis, parallel, radial, rectangular,annular, kettlehole, sinkhole or swallow-hole or karstic, ., . thermokarst,lacunate, pinnate, phantom, barbed,assymetrical , colinear, beaded, distributory or dichotomous, braided,anastomosing, oriented lake,yazoo, contorted, meandering, deranged,reticular,ditch and tile. (Ref. #2) DRIFT (GLACIAL): A collective term forall detrital material derived from a

glacier.Includes .. both till and stratified fluvioglacial material. '. (Ref. $5) " DRUMLIN: Stream1 ined , oval toelongated hi 11 composed largely ofcompact ti 11 formed beneathflowing ice and with its long axes para1 1el to the direction of ice movement.The end facingthe direction of theice front is blunter and steeper thanthe downstream tail end, which tapers inplan and profile. Drumline vary in height from 20 to 200 feet (6 to 60 meters) commonly50 to 80 feet (15to 24 meters) , and in length from a few hundred feet to severalmiles (100 meters to several ki 1 ometers) . (Ref. #2) DRUMLINIZEDTILL PLAIN: Low drumlinoidridges with' ridge t~psabove thegeneral levelsur&ounding of the ground. (Ref. #2) RUNE : (1) Geol: A low hill,or bank, of drifted sabd. (2) Mounds and ridges of wind-blown or eolian sand aredunes. Once started, a dune becomes an obstacle to blowing sand, and the lodgement $of more sand causesthe dune to grow.In this way,.mounds and ridges of sand, c res '. and sometimes even hundreds of feet high are built by the wind. ?37 A mound , ridge , or hi 11 of wi nd-blown sand , either bare or Covered With vegetation. The term has been appliedalso to subaqueous features, but unless a suitable modifier is used with theterm, an 'eolian ' denotation is assumed. (Ref. #1)

DUNE, LONGITUDINAL: See Longitudinal dune. \ .. I DUNE TRANSVERSE : See 'traqsverse dune. kdJ END MORAINE: Ridgelikeaccumulation of drift constructed at the margin of an activeglacier, u,sually around an individual,lobe during a period of relative standsti'L11. It is a comprehensive term used to designate elongatetransverse, commonly gentlycurved, ridges or groups of sub- parallelridges of drift, 10 to 200 feet (3 to 70 meters) high that mark themarg'ln'bf former valley glacier or ice sheet frontal positions. Typically,the ridges are long and narrow, oftenreveal an irregular surface, and may be locallydiscontinubus. Also called marginal morai ne, recessional moraine, or terminal moraine (end moraine at the maximum advancesheet). of an ice (Refs. f2) EOLIAN : See Aeolian ESKER: A long , narrow, commonly sinuous ridge composed of we1 1 - and partly- washed ice-contactgranular drift -- chiefly sand and gravel with minor

si1 t ,' cobbles , boulders, and ti 11 inclusions. Eskers maya1 so be composed almost wholly of sand and silt with and without a cover of boulders orablation till. Because eskersare ice-contact deposits let down after melting of thesupporting ice walls, they usually show complex irregular bedding and col lapsestructures. Eskers maybe deposi ied between ice walls by a stream flowing on (superglacial ) , within (englacial),or beneath (subglacial)stagnant glaciers; but mostly they aredeposited by sub glacialmeltwaters flowing in tunnelsnear the bottom of theglacier ice. Eskers may revealevery transition from an originin an ice tunnel to a lakedelta. Some can be seen to W go uphi 11 anddownhi 11 over minor featuresof the landscape. Eskers may exhibitreticulate, braided, branching, and dendriticpatterns; but most commonly theyoccur as a singleserpentine ridge. The higher and wider parts of eskers are often attended by el ongate troughs , kettleholes,associated kames, esker-deltabeads, and localized outwash expansions with and withoutpitted (kettled) surfaces. Their sky1 ine maybe nearly level or bumpy, passing oyer hi 11 s and through hollows. Strandlines on theirf1anks"suggest temporary ice-margin orenglacial ponding of meltwatersagainst the esker. Eskers vary in height from seferal feet to wellover 100 feet and from a hundred feet up to many, miles in length. They resemble abandoned winding railway grades. Because eskers commonly rise above thelevel of the surround- ing land surface and normally contain sections of moderately we1 1 - sortedgranular materials, they are frequently used as a source of constructionmaterial. Themean grainsize of eskersediments increasesprogressively upstream. Sorting and stratification of these deposits can vary greatly over short distances from very good to very poor. (Ref. #2) EXTRUSIVE IGjYENOUS ROCK: Applied to those.ig?enous rocks derived from magmas or magmatic materials ppured out qr ejected at the earth's surface, as distinct from theintrusive'or plutonic igneousrocks which have solidified from magmas that havebeen injectedinto older rocks at depth without reachingthe surface. Syn: Effusiverocks, volcanic rocks. (Ref. =I) FAULT: ' A fracture in the &utof theearth along which there has been dis- Pl acement of the two sidesrelative to one another.(Ref. #l) W FLOODPLAIN: 1) Flat landbordering a stream and subject to periodicflooding by the'stream. Two or more levels of flooding may be present. 2) That flat-land bordering a stream which is being constructed by thedeposit- i onal proqesses ofi thepresent stream, and is not therefore a terrace (q.v.). In thissense, a floodplain may be relatively'active -- say, flooded once every: one or two years; or virtually inactive -- say, f1ool;led only once /?very ten or twenty years -- in' which case it maybe referredto'as a lbw terrace,inactive high-level floodplain br, less commonly, a fossil!floodplain. Frequency of floodingsuggests an inter- relationship among, theheight of a floodplain,the thickness of overbank sediments, and the!,geometric and hydrauliccharacteristics of thestream that built thefloodplain. In most places,local relief of theinactive floodplainconsists ofwidely spaced channels of tributarystreams and vestigalchannel-like landforms. Relativelyflat interchannel areas are formed by repeatedflooding and overbank deposition,the increments of which commonly tend to be thin(small fractions of an inch), patchy in distribution, and relativelyfine (fine sand, silt, clay) in texture. The role of vegetationin floodplain deposition and theresulting surface configuration may also be important. In general,the texture of surface materials composing floodplainsdecreases with increasing distance from the streamchannel. Somewhat coarser-texturedmaterials tend to occur more extensivelynearer the stream channel. The proportionateextent, however, depends importantly on localconditions of flooding and thechar- acter of thesediment load. Thick floodplaindeposits show rough stratifd. .A, . : W ication of soil textures, with thecoarsest materials usually in thebase ,of thesediments (substratum) , includingcoarse sand and gravel and possibly even quite large boulders and progressing to finer soi 1 textures at and near the ground surface (topstratum) , .where clay, si 1 t , and fine sand predominate.Floodplain sediments are commonly stratified in more or lesshorizontal layers of similartextural comptis8tion. Also,-however, the?( may appear as a series of overlapping and i nterfi ngering 1enses having differenttextural characteristics. These materials may show either poor or good sorting. There is a generalrelationship.between meandering and braidedpatterns of streamchannels in floodplains and their stratified and lenticularstructures. Braidedchannel depositsare generally coarser(sand, gravel , cobbles)than the deposits of freely meandering streams, but.this also depends on streamgradient and size ofsediment availablefor transport. Coarser textures tend toconcentrate toward the base of river'bars and alluvial fills, with finer sedimentsoccurring toward thetop and toward theouter edges of theactive channel and its floodplain. The rate of channel movement is relatedto bank stability, which is partly a function of thetexture of theunderlying alluvium. Cohesionlessgranular alluvium, for example, is easily eroded and generally forms more unstable banks than uniform,cohesive, silty and clayey alluvium having a highershear strength. Stream banksand beds with a largeproportion of silt and clay,are cohesive and so tend to resist erosion. Streams with cohesive bankshave qarrower widths and higher banks than streamsflowing in cohesionlesssediments of clean sand and gravel. In other words, where the alluvium in the beds and banks of floodplainsis sandy,or composed of sand and gravel with a low content w of si 1 t and clay, stream .channels tend to forin wide and shallow cross sections and to have relativelysteep gradients. Sediment accumulation from overbank flooding and deposition seems to be a relatively minor component that adds to theheight of a floodplain -- probably seldoul accounting for more than 102% of its thickness , with 90% or more being contributed by the bedload in the bottoms of sideways-shiftingstream channels. The overbank flooddeposits are found mainly in thetopstratulll of floodplains and arereferred to asvertical-accretion deposits.. They are usually finer in grain-size than any associated lateral-accretion deposits -- forinstance, point bars. The coarserfraction of theload in,transi,t produces braidedelongate river bars and consists chiefly of bedload depositsoccurring below the active floodplain and beneat'h the finer topstratumdeposits of inactivefloodplains. Where the channel has stable banks, lateral channel movement is relatively slow and repeated additions of the overbank deposits are responsible for the development of naturallevees whose texturesvary from sand to clay, depending on regional geomorphic and hydrologic settings, but generally becoming finer

in a downstream direction. Another source of sediment$inthe.more remote I areas of wide vertical-accretionfloodplains comesfrom tributaryflooding (laterally away from thestream). In many placesthis source of sediment maybe a far more importantfactor in modifying thefloodplain surface than floods from theparent, or main, stream. The finertexture of surface deposits(topstratum) of theinactive floodplain, especially the more .remotelocations of extensivefloodplains, means that this zone has relatively poor surface and subsurfacedrainage. These regionsare variously called backswamps, slackwaterflood basins, ponded backlands, andmarshy lacustrine basins. (Ref. basins. lacustrine $2) FLOODPLAIN MEANDER SCAR: A class of scars which includes any and allfeatures on a floodplain that mark the former course of a stream meander. They may be very faintly to very stronglyexpressed in the microrelief. (Ref. #2) .. .. . ,r. . . ,',,-...,,x r, , .: , . *%,A FLUTED TILLPLAIN: or FlutedSurface of a Til 1 Sheet: Straight, closely.spaced, - , >. ,: narrow parallelridges, 5 to 30 feet (1.5 to 9 meters) high alternating with flat, evenly-bottomed furrows. The ridges have accordanttops and are mainly developed in till, but may be found less commonlyon other glacial drift sediments,called fluted drift. (Ref. #2)

FLUVIAL: Of, orpertaining to, rivers; growing or living in streams or ponds; produced by river action , as a fluvial plain.(Ref. #1)

FLUVIOGLACIAL: See Glaciofluvial. I FLUVIOMARINE: Pertainingto the combined actions of rivers and thesea. For example, deposits formed at the mouths of riversentering the ocean. (Ref. #2)

GLACIALDEPOSITS: A mass of generallyunconsolidated earth materials deposited - directly by a glacier or indirectly reworked by its meltwaters. Such material was originally picked up and carried along its path by the glacier. Generally,glacial deposits decrease progressively in thickness farther back from the edge of theice. The term is used to designate both till and stratifieddruft. Therefore, it is commonly used as a synonymdrift. for glacial (Ref. #2) 14

GLACIAL GROOVE: A largefurrow cut by theabrading action of rockfragments a glacier. (Ref. containedglacier. 3n a #1)

GLACIAL TROUGH: U-shaped valley shaped by glacialerosion. (Ref .. #2) GLACIER: A mass of ice with definiteilaterallimits, with motion in a definite direction, and originating from the compacting of snowby pressure. Moraines are notdiagnostic, and thedefinition shouldnot include those masses of arctic ice which, by reason of their low temperature,are fixed in position. In Alaska,flood-plain icing or masses of ground ice. (Ref. #l ) GLACIOFLUVIALDEPOSITS: Deposits formedfrom wateron, in, or under a,glacier as we1 1 as.beyond the glacier terminus by me1 t-water .' (Ref. #4) GLACIALTILL: See ti7 1. I GLACIAL OUTWASH: See outwash. GLACIAL LAKE: A lake fed predominantly by glacial!meltwater or a lake in a depression in part cliosed by glacialice. Includes proglacial lakes not directly adjacent 'to the glacier and lakes lying against or on a glacier and fed mainly by watersderived from melting of a glacier. Depending on.their position with respect to the glacier, glacial lakes may be classified 'as proglacial, extra-morainic, ice-dammed, glacier- margin, or superglacial(supraglacial). (Ref. #2) GRANITE: 1) A plutonic rock consistingessentially of alkalicfeldspar and quartz. Sodic plagioclase,usually oligoclase is commonly present in small amountsand muscovite, biotite , hornblende , or rarely pyroxene may be maficconstituents. 2) Seismol : A rock in which velocityof the compressional wave lies somewhat between 5.5 and 6.2 km/sec. 3) Loosely used for any light-coloured,coarse-grained igneous rock. (Ref. #1) GRANITE GNEISS: 1 ) acoarsely crystalline, banded metamorphic rockof granite composition. 2) A primary igneousgneiss of granitecomposition. GROUND MORAINE: A flat to undu:lating moraine of low re1 ief with cl osed depressions and without pronounced transverse elements but which mayshow 1ongi tud- i nal ly arranged stream1 i ned flow features oriented in the direction of glacier advance. This definitiondistinguishes ground moraine fromend moraine andfrom high-relief hummocky disintegration moraine. Ground moraine is thought to havebeen accumulated largely at the bottom of a glacier, consisting of nonsorted and nonstratified drift materials frozen in the bottom of theice andpushed along its bed -- i.e.;accumulated ' beneaththe glacier. When theglacier melts, such till material is commonly dep.osited in a relatively thin, irregular sheet over thearea formerly occupied by the glacier. Ground morai ne is ageneral term for any nearly flat or undulating accumulaticm of chiefly subglacially- deposited lodgement till. However, in many places'the lodgement till may be overlain by a continuous to discontinuous surficial layer of ablation till , commonly up to 20 feetthick. Ground moraine therefore connotesa certain topographicaspect as wellras primarily subglacial accumulation of till sediment. It shold not be used as a synonym for glacial ti 11 . (Ref. #2) GULLYING:The erosion of soi 1 resulting from theexcavation of trenchesgreater than 2 to 3 feet in(Ref. depth. #5) HANGING VALLEY: A valley having a floor higher than'thevalley or shore into which it leads. Hanging valleysare usually formed by glaciation.

I (Ref. #4) HUMMOCKY MORAINE: Area of glacial knoband kettle topography; may havebeen produced by either live or dtagnant(Ref.ice. #1) IGNEOUS ROCK: Formedby solidification ofhot mobile material termed magma. (Ref. #1) INTRUSIVE ROCK: A rock that consolidated from magma beneath thesurface of the earth. the (Ref. #1)

KAME : T) A conical hill orshort irregular ridge of gravelor sand deposited in contact with glacier ice. 2) Kames is a Scotch term appliedto assemblagesof short, conical, often steep hils, built of stratified materials and interlocking and blending'inthe most diversified manner. 3) A moundcomposed bhiefly of gravelor sand, whoseform is the result of originaldeposition modified by settling during themelting of glacierice against or upon which thesediment accumulated. 4) A hill of stratified drift deposited, usually as a steep alluvial fan, against the edge of an ice sheet by debo chingstreams ofsediment- 'ladennieltwater. 5) A low, steep-sided Y hill of stratified drift, w formed in co.ntact with glacier ice. I (Ref.#1) KARST TOPOGRAPHY: In Karst, on theeastern side of theAdriatic Sea, the lime- .stonerocks are so honeycombedby tunnels and openingsdissolved out by 'ground waters,that much of thedrainage is underground. Large sinks abound, some of them five or six hundred feet deep.Streamless Val1 eys are common, and val leys containing streams often end abruptly where the latter plunge into underground tunnels and caverns, sometimes toreappear as great springs el sewhere. Irregular topography of.this kind, developed by the solution of surface and ground waters, is known as karst topography, after the type region in Yugoslavia and north- eastern Italy eastern . (Ref. #1) KETTLE: A sharplyoutlined closed depression in glacial drift created by the meltingout of a massov underlyingice. Many kettlesare steep-sided bowl-shaped depressionsresembling a kettle drum in form. Commonly 10 to 100 feet deep and 100 to 500 feet across, theytend to bemore classically developed and thus better expressed in deep and extensive ice-contact and outwash sediments than in till, in which they commonly ' 'Occur. Kettles may be formedfrom projectingice masses, from wholly buriedsmall or extensive bodies of ice, and from floated-in or dropped- in chunks of ice.Kettleholes may be drained or undrained, and thelarger kettles may be occupied by lakes, ponds marshes or swamps. Coalescing kettles and kettlechains are quite common in some areas.Extensive outwash-plains dotted ws'th kettles are called pitted outwash plains. In many places it appears that the pitted, or kettled, outwash, sediments were deposited on top of a more or less continuoussheet of stagnanti-ce of variable thickness. Isolated blocksof icepersist longest in 16

pre-existingdepressions, as buried preglacial , interglacial, and inter- stadialvalleys. The occurrence of elongatedvalley-like kettles and long lines of kettles maybe the reflection of burieddrainage features -- valleys in which the icelasted longer thanelsewhere: (Ref; #2) LACUSTRINE: Pertainingto lakes. The sedimentary depositslaid down under water on the bed (Ref.of a lake. #2) LACUSTRINEPLAIN: Many former lakes hive become extinct. Extinct lakesare recognized by variousfeatures. If a lakebasin became extinct by having its basin filled, the former area of thelake is marked by a f?at covered with deposits such asare formed in lakes. These deposits may be of gravel or sand alongthe shores, but thematerials deposited far from shore arefine. Such a flat is a lacustrineplain. A lacustrine plain is a minor type of plain, and may 1 ie inmountains, on plateaus or on plains of a largertype. (Ref. #1) LATERAL ACCRETION: Wherever a stream meanders, it digs away its outer bank while theinner is building up the waterlevel by the-deposition of material brought there by rollingor pushing along the bottom. This is lateral accretion.If the stream is subjectto overflow, sediment must settle from suspension in beds conforming to the surface. This is vertical accretion. (Ref. #1) LATERAL MORAINE: 1) Certain aggre ations of drift which areleft by a valley glacierafter melting. 2 3 An elongate body of drift, commonly thin, ~dA lying on the surface of a glacier in a valley, at ornear the lateral margin of theglacier. 3) An end moraine built along the lateral margin of a glacier lobe occupying a valley. First used by Louis Agassiz. (Ref. #7) LAVA : Fluid rocksuch asthat which issues from a volcano or a fissure in the earth'ssurface; also the same materialsolidified by cooling. I (Ref #1) LAVA FLOW: 1 ) A stream orriver of fluid or viscousor solidified fragmented lava which issues froman individualvolcanic cone'or from a fissure in relativelyquiet fashion, with little or PO explosiveactivity. 2) The solidified, stationary mass of rock formed when thelava stream congeals. Lava flows, are generally tabular igneousbodies, thin comp- ared to their horizontal extent, and elongated in the main direction of flow., Their form and internal structure depends chiefly on thefluidity of thelava, which, in turn, i-s a function of composition. . Thus basic lavaflows, such asbasalt, are usually highly mobile, and flow for great distances, whereas silicic lavas, such asrhyolite and trachyte,are ordinarily sluggish in their flow, commonly fragmented, and remain heaped up, often in steep-sidedvolcanic domes or in short , steep- sided flowssided known as coulees. ! #1) (Ref. 17

LEVEE: I) The raised banks built by a river in time of flood. 2) Artificially bui 1 t or rai sed stop banks . , (Ref. #3) LIMESTONE: A sedimentaryrock composed predominantlyof calcium carbonate (CaC03). Ifdolomite (CaC03.MgC03) is present in appreciablequantities, it is calleddolomitic 1imes.tone. It may havean organic, chem-ical, biochemical , or mechanical origin. (Ref. #2) LOESS: A homogeneous , nonstratified,unindurated, ye1 lowish tobuff-coloured windborne deposit consisting predominantIy of si1 t-sized particles with subordinatte amounts of fine sand and clad, porous and permeable, with a rude verticalparting common in many places.Typically this uniform, silty eolian material has anopen structqre, relatively high cohesion due to cementation with clay or calcareousmaterial at graincontacts, and stands in nearlyvertical cliffs or bluffs owing to numerous tiny, vertical tubes" 1 ined with calciumcarbonqte, thought to be the casts of grass stems and rootlets. Loess is commo;nly derived from the silts of deserts, glacial outwash or glacial-lake ;deposits, and extensivefloodplains in proglacialarid environmeFts.,Three faciesof. true loess may be observed: 1) upland loess of eolian qrigin (direct wind. deposition), 2) slopeloess in which theoriginal loess has beenwashed down slopes and therefore has been reworked by col1 udial processes , and 3) 1akebed swamp or Val ley-floor 1 oess in which the ~windborne si1 t has been deposited in lakes .or swamps. Thick loessp4ckets are composed of a cyclic succession of members. The loesslayers'ithemsleves are from 1 to 5 metersthick, nonstratified or very finely stratified, alternating with layers of fossil soil (paleosols),slopedash or solifluctionmaterials, and even minor sand or gravel. In typical loess , moderatelywell -sorted , looselycoherent grains between 0.01 to .05 mm in diameter form the dom- inaqtgrain-size fraction. Between 40 a d 50% by weight representsthe mean abundance of this size. fraction. T3 ,pica1 loess contains some 5 to 30% clay-sized particles below 0.005 mm and 5 to 10% of sand-sited particles above 0.25 mm. Many loess deposits contain 80% grainsizes between0.01 mm and 0.1 mm. Typical loessis distinguished from loess- 1i ke deposits such as sandy loess , 1 oess ,loam or adobe , and clayey loess. Loess and loess-likedeposits ard fairly often classified according to their genesis in combination with 'a classification according to grain size. grain i (Ref. #2) l MARGINALMORAINE: Generally applied to present-dad glaciers and to mountain Val 1 eys occupied by a1 pine, or Val ley, gliaciers Marginal morai ne are formed at the margin of g1acier.s and incl'ude cross-Val ley, 1ateral , and. end moraines. . , ! (Ref. #2) MASS MOVEMENT: (Mass wasting)Involves the bul k tqansfer of rock debris and soi 1

down slopes under the influence of gravity.I, (Ref. #3-) MASS WASTING: See massmovement. MATURE (OLD) STREAM: A class ofstreams that have bstablishedflat gradients and thatare subject to littleif any further;downcutting. (Ref. #2) \.

MEANDER: 1 ) One of a series of somewhat regular and loop1 i ke bends in thecourse ,- of a stream, developed when thestream is flowing at grade , through bid 1ateral shifti ng of its course toward the convex sides of the original curves. 2) A land-surveytraverse. a1 ong the bank ofa permanent naturalwater. body of (Ref. #1) MEANDER SCAR: Usuallyshaliow, crescentic stream-made cuts in theinactive floodplain borderingfloodplain a stream. (Ref. #2) MEDIALMORAINE: 1) Whenevertwo mountain glaciers bearing lateral moraines unitethe lateral morai nes belonging tothe two margins which coalesce giverise to medial moraine. 2) An elongate body of drift formed by the joining 'of adjacent lateral moraines below the juncture of two valleyglaciers. First used by Louis Agassiz.(Ref.#1) MELTWATER: Water resulting from themelting of snowand glacierice. (Ref. #2) MELTWATER CHANNELS: Flow channels as a result of meltwateraction. METAMORPHIC ROCK: Includes all thoserocks whichhave formed in the solid state in responsd to' pronounced changes of temperature,pressure, and chemical environment, which take place, in general , below the she1 1s of weathering of and cementation.(Ref. #1) MORAINE: 1) An accumulation of drift of initialconstructional topography, built within a glaciated region, chiefly :by the direct action of glacier ice along its margin, and usually having anuneven surface topogyaphy w$th closeddepressions. 2) Also used for accumulations U of glacial drift,in transport on a glacier'ssurface in lateral and medial morai ne .positions on a Val ley or rnountai n glacier, or ip a general marginal position onan ice sheet, and its outlet glaciers. There are several kinds of moraine whose pattern and character of mounds, ridges, and depressionsas well astheir'inferred position relative to theice provide a means forclassifying andnaming them. Sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for ti 11 a (Ref. #2) OUTCROP: The exposure of bedrock orstrata projecting through theoverlying cover of detrj tus 'and soil. #1) (Ref. .. OUTWASH DELTA: A mass of .outwash depo'sited into a body of still waterg as a pond, lake,or the ocean. Opposite-to inwash delta, which is non- glacial in. origin. (Ref. #2) OUTWASH PLAIN: A body o.f outwash that forms a broad plain at andbeyond the margin or former margin ofa shrinking glacier andcommonly consisting of a number of coalescing outwas h fans. 'Varieties .are call edou twash terraces,fans, aprons, trains, or. sandur. Outwash sedimentsusually show cross-bedded units composed of sharply a1 ternating sand and/or

gravelgrain sizes a Typicallygravel is depositedclosest to the glacier margin and. grades downstream' into more extensive areas of sand. . !.Nonpittqd.., , (.nonkettl,,ed,)* .outwash plains are nearly level , have gentle gradients, and may or may not be channel-scarred. Blocks of ground ice,floated-in ice, and,buried sta:gnant ice masses eventuallymelt outto producea pitted outwash plain. Extreme pitting (kettlehole 19 depressions)suggests deposition over stagnantice havi,ng an irregular thickness. Many outwash plainsare also terraced. Called outwash- 3 deltas when builtlakes. into (Ref. #2) OUTWASH TERRACE: Sirhilar toriver terrace onlydeveloped- through glacial outwash material and actions. (See riverterrace) OVERBURDEN: Material ofany nature,consolidated or unconsolidated,that overlies adeposit of usefulmaterials, ores, or coal, especially those deposits thatare minedfrom the surface by open cuts. (Ref. #1) OXBOW: 1) A crescent-shapedlake formed in an abandoned river bend that has become separated from the main stream by a change in thecourse of the river,usually by thestream:.cutting through a narrow neck. 2) Any curved lake occupying acut-off meander loop. Overbank floods add clay, silt, and f,ine sand tostagnant waters in the oxbow lake, first in the limbs next tothe flooding river, ultimately filling the lake and converting it to a marsh and then intoa clay plug; a tough and resistant bodycomposed chiefly of organicfPne-grained sediment into whichany future channel of thestream commonly erodes with difficulty. (Ref. #2)

' PARENT MATERIAL: The horizbn of unconsolidated and weatheredrock material from which soil is made, (Ref. #5) PATTERNED GROUND: A term for minor and microrelief land' features, as circles , polygons, nets,steps and stripes, characteristic of but notconfined to,areas now or at soheprevious time subject to intense frost action. In some of these 'features, the finer and coarser materials are sorted intovarious polygonal forms of varyingdimensions with angularstones around theperimeter and finermaterials in thecentre. This action alsoapplies to sorted or stone circles, nets, steps and stripes. Patterned ground also includes nonsortedforms, as polygons out1 ined by vegetationzones, and step-li ke forms on 'slopes. Such features have severalpossible origins. Some investigatorsinclude earth hummocks, tussocks,a variety of solifluction lobes,, terraces and stripes and patterned fen in the term patterned ground, which is also used as a general term for polygonal fissures caused by desiccation in an aridor semi-aridclimate, Patterned ground has! thus become ageneral term, and is not confined to landform features: in areas of permafrostor the periglacial(Ref. environment. #2) PERIGLACIAL: Refersto areas, conditions , processes, and depositsadjacent to the margin of a glacier. (Ref. #1) PITTED (SALT) PLAIN: An outwash plainof gravel a.nd sand orchiefly sand with . . many kettleholes.Also, a limestone plain with numerous small orlarge closely spaced(Ref. sinkholes. #2) PLUCKING: 1) Monoliths up to many feet in diameter, bounded by structural surfaces,are lifted .from the rock by theflowing ice andremoved. This process has been termed plucking , and also quarrying. 2) The process of erosion, by glaciers and streams whereby blocks are removed from bedrock,alongjoints and stratificationsurfaces. Quarrying. , (Ref. 20

RADIALDRAINAGE: A drainagepattern in which thestreams diverge from a central e'ievated tpact. (Ref. #3) w RAISED BEACH: Sand and gravelridges elevated above thepresent level of thelake or sea in khich it was formedand indicatinga change in the relative level of land and watersurface. Raised beaches also mark theformer shoreline of extinctlakes, many of them of Pleistocene age. Also referredto as anabandoned beach. This term is preferred because it does not imply a raising of theland surface, which is notnecessarily the causethe of a beach having been abandoned. (Ref. #2) REGOLITH: The mantle of loosematerial consisting of soils, sediments, brocken rock and weathered debrisoverlying the solid rockof the earth. (Ref. #3) 'RIVER-CUT bANK: Materialcut by fluvialaction to createsteep-sided banks. RIVER TERRACE:, A river terraceconsists of aplain andan accompanying escarpment. The 'teri-ace plain is approximatelyhorizontal and usual ly slopes both with thegrade of the stream andaway from the river bed which it faces. On theside toward the stream theplain is bounded by an escarpment, the two together making the terrace; the opposite side of theplain is usually bounded bymore elevatedland, either an older and higherterrace or the truewall. Val ley (Ref.. #1) / ROCHES MOUTONNEE: A glacially molded rockoutcrop having a smooth, gentlysloping, rounded upstream side, the result of abrasion, and a steep rough 'irregular downstream side, the result of pl ucki ng . . Roches mou tonn6e may be w distinguished from crag-and-tailhills by the lack of atapering, stream1 i ned tai 1 composed of 1odgement ti 11 or of softer bedrock. (REf ..#2) ROCK GLACIER: 1) A lobatesteep-fronted mass of coarseangular rock debris extending from thefront of c1,iffs in a mountainous area. Down.slope movement of the mass is aided by interstitial water and ice. 2) A tongue1 i kebody of boulders resembling the appearance of a small Val ley glacier, which moves slowly down-valley under the influence of ice between the soil and rock papticles. (Ref. #2) SAND DUNE: See dune. SANDSTONE: A cemented orotherwise compacted detrital sediment composed Predominantly of Wrtz grains, the grades of the latter being those of sand.Mineralogical varieties such asfeldspathic and glauconitic sandstones are recognized , and al so argi 11aceous , si 1 iceous , calcareous, ferruginous, and othervarieties according to the nature of the binding . or cemenking(Ref. material. #1) SCHIST: 1) A well-foliated metamorphic rockin which the component needlelike orflaky minerals, as mica, aredistinctly visible. 2) A metamorphic crystalline'rock having a closely foliated structure that can be divided along,approximately parallel 'planes of weakness and differing from gnei sses in containing no essential feldspar and usually having; finer w lamination.Biotite and hornblende are c mmon minerals of schistose rocks . 0 (Ref. #2) 21

SCREE: A pile of rock waste at thebase of a cliff, usually, a sheet of coarse angular rock debris mantling the steep sides of a mountain slope or thebase of an. escarpment. Normally thecoarsest material is found at or nearthe bottom of scree-formingslopes. All sizes of debris may be present.Scree deposits commonly rest at an angle of about 35O, and may be remarkable uniform in size of mateu'ial. Synonymous with talus. (Ref. #2)

SEDIMENT: 1) Solidmaterial settled from suspension in a liquid. 2) Solid material , both mineral and, organic, that is insuspension, is being transported, or hasbeen moved from its site of origin by air, water, or ice, and has come to rest on the earth's surface either above or level. (Ref. below sea level. #2) SEIF DUNE: 1) The individualseif dunehas a form very like that of a sand drift behind a rock. Its length or axislies in the direction of theprevailing wind, and its long crest is aknife-edge ridge, one side of which is rounded and the other falls abruptly as a collapsing front which faces a direction at right angles to,the line of the dune and to theprevailing wind. The side on whichkithe front occurs depends on the side.to which the w'ind has temporarilyveered out of its prevailingdirection. The whole aspect of a seif( dune may therefore change within a few. days. 2) Longitudinaldunes, oriented in thedirection of wind movement, and great heightof great and length. I (Ref. #1)

'SHALE: ' 2) A laminatedsediment in which theconstituent particles are pre- dominintly of theclay grade. 2) Shaleincludes the indurated, laminated, w or fissile clay-stones and siltstones. The cleavage is that of bedding and.suchother secondary cleavage or fissility that is approximately para1 le1 to bedding. The secondarycleavage has been produced by the pressure of overlyingsediments and plastic flow.' (Ref. #1) SILT: A soi 1 texturalclass having particlesi Tes between 0.002 and 0.05 mm in diameter. (Ref. diameter. in #5). SINK HOLE: A surfacedepression in karsticlimestone terrane through which surface watersescape to the underground. The saucer-shaped to funnel-shaped depressions are created by solution of ,soluble rocks, as limestone,

dolomite, gypsum,and halite. ' Sinks areusually connected with underground solution cavities, caverns, and channels and may result from subsidencefollowing underground solution.(Ref. #2) SLIDE: A relativelydeep-seated failure of aslope. Three main types can be identified. A blockflow slideresults from internaldeformation leading to failure of a hard jointed rockmass, giving rise to the

I sliding of blocks and pulverizedmaterial to the bottom of theslope. A plane shear slide results from thepresence of a plane of weakness,as a fault, joint, foliatfm, bedding or softlayer in a criticalorient- ation withiwthe slope causing the faulted materials to move down slope or shearalong this plane. A .rotationalshear slide results from the yjelding and redistribution of shear stressesin a soil or soft rock mater.ia1,causing a more or less rotational movement or shear and a 22

circularsurface of failure.Slides are landslides for which significantshearing resistance exists along a shearsurface. Slides may involve few or many ind-ividual units or blocks , either bedrock or soilmaterials, rotational or planartypes of failure, and very little or considerablebreak up after movement develops. Ref. #2) SOLIFLUCTION: 1) The process of slow downslope flowage of unconsolidatedmaterial saturated with' water. 2) The slow downhi 11 flow of surfacedeposits saturated; with water re,leased by thawing. Mostly 1 imi ted in usage to such movements in permafrost or periglacialregions. (Ref. #2) SPILLWAY: An overflow'channelfor flood water, particularly over a dam. (Ref. #2) STEPPER BANK CUTTING: Downward cutting of single bank at differentstages, yielding 'a stepped characteristic. STRATIFICATION: A structure produced by deposition of sedimentsin beds or layers (strata), laminae,lenses, wedges, and otheressentially tabular units. The layeredarrangement of constituent particles in a soil or rock body. (Ref. #2) TALUS: 1) Coarse,.angular fragments of rock and subordinatesoil material dislodged by weathqring(temperature and moisturechanges) and collected at the foot of cliffs and other steep slopes and moved downslope primarily by thepull of gravity, 2) The apron of :coarse rockwaste sloping outward from the cliff that supplies it. ;Thus,the term may refer w either to a type of material(coarse, angdlar pieces of rock) or to the landform containingthe accumulated gravity debris. Synonymous with scree. (Ref. 62) TARN : A small mountain lake or pool , especially one occupying an i ce-gouged basin on floorthe of an abandoned cirque. (Ref. #2) TERRACE: Beaches and terracesare relatively flat, horizontal, or genkly incl- ined surfaces, sometimes longand narrow, which are bounded by a steeper ascending slope on one side and by a steeperdescending slope on the opposite side. Both forms, when typicallydeveloped,are steplike in character. (Ref.#l) THERMOKARST: A1 1 relief forms -- aslakes, ponds, pits and otherdepressions with and withoutpeat and water -- produceg by settling or caving of the ground surface as a result of themelting of ground ice in the upper part of a permafrost. Thermokarst mkans thermal solution or, more precisely , thermal me1 ti ng . (Ref. #2) TILLPLAIN: An extensive, more or less featureless,low-relief sag-and-swell morai nal deposi t. (Ref. #2) 23

i TRANSVERSE DUNE: A strongly asymmetrical dune ridgeextending transverse to the e direction of dominant sand-moving winds;the leeward slopestands at or nearthe angle of repose of sand if the dune is active, whilethe windward slope is comparatively(Ref.gentle. #1) TRELLIS DRAINAGE: A. drainagepattern in inclinedstratified rocksin which the streams trend para1 le1 to the strike for long distances and then turn sharplyto cut transversely through intervening ridges, resemblinga garden trell is. See drainagepattern.(Ref. #2) TRUNCATED SPUR: The widening of a stream Val 1 ey by a glacier results in the truncation of the spurs which extend into it from the two sides. ! (Ref .#1) UNCONSOLIDATED SOIL DEPOSIT: A depositthat is no& fullyconsolidated under its exis ti ng overburden pressure. (Ref. #2) "U" SHAPED VALLEY: A Val ley having a distinctive 1ounded profit e and a gentle gradient bottom resulting from the abrasfve and plucking action of the glacier it once contained. I (Ref. #2) VALLEY GLACIER: A glacier occupying a valley. Mountain glacier; Alpine glacier. I (Ref. #1) VALLEY TRAIN: 1.) The deposit of rockmaterial carried down,by a streamoriginating from the me1 ting ice of a glacier, and thus formed in a similar way to 4 an outwash,plain. Unlike thelatter, however, itis spreadnot over a wide area, but is confined within thewalls of a valley. 2) A long,

' narrow body of outwash confi,ned within and partly fi11 i ng a val 1ey consisting.mainly of stratifjed sand and gravel carried and deposited by me1 twater , s treams . VERTICALACCRETION: .Deposits built up vertically where a stream is subjectto overbankflow and sediment in suspension settles on the floodplain and conforms tothat surface. Compare LateralAccretion. (Ref. #2) VOLCANIC CONE: A cone-shaped eminence formed by volcanicdischarges. (Ref. #1) YAZOO RIVER: A tributarystream that flows for some distanceparallel to the main channelbecause naturallevees prevent it from enteringthe main stream. (Ref. #2) 24

GLOSSARY REFERENC,ES

1. American Geological Institute, 1962; Dict

2. Mol lard , J. D.,, 1973, Airphoto Interpretation Manual, Commercial Printers Ltd., Regina, Sask.

3. Selby, M. J., 1967, The Surface of the Earth, 02. I, Cassell & Co. Ltd. , w Toronto. r i

5. Wan Riper , J. E. , 1962', Man's PhysicaZ WorZd, McGraw, - Hi 11 Book Co. Inc ., Toronto. PHOTOGRAPHSRELATED TO LANDFORMS AND VARIOUSLAND USES

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