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Approached Is Little Affected by the Initial Or Extra 286 ASTRONOMY: W. J. FISHER PROC. N. A. S. lower curves are derived from the present material. The general agree- ment between the two sets of curves is so close that there is good reason to suppose that the apparent existence of the two streams is in fact the outcome of the presence of the two large moving clusters. The writer wishes to express to Dr. Bart J. Bok his appreciation of the continued advice and encouragement which have made this paper possible. 1 Kapteyn, Ap. J., 40, 339 (1914); and Ap. J., 47, 104 (1918). 2 Lick Observatory Pubi., 16 (1928); and L. 0. B., 429 (1929). 3 Boss, Preliminary General Catalogue (1910). ' Anger, H. C., 363 (1931), and H. C. 372 (1932). C Rimmer, Mem. Commonw. Solar Obs., 1, No. 2 (1930). 6 Boss and Jenkins, A. J., 37, 173 (1927). 7 Oort, B. A. N., 4, No. 132 (1927). 8 KOhlschutter, Veroff. der Univ. Stern. zu Bonn, No. 22 (1930). Plaskett and Pearce, Dom. Ast. Obs. Pub., 5, 2 (1931). 10 Rasmuson, Lund Medd., Ser. 2, No. 26 (1921). 11 Kapteyn, B. A. A. Report, p. 4 (1905). 12 Eddington, Stellar Movements, 128-131 (1914). 18 Wilson and Raymond, A. J., 40, 121 (1930). THE PENETRA TION OF IRON METEORITES INTO THE GROUND By WILLARD J. FISHER HARvARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY Communicated February 7, 1933 Treatises on exterior ballistics show that objects moving under gravity in a resisting medium of uniform density ultimately descend with a velocity such that the resistance to motion balances the weight: an idea said to be traceable to Huygens. Schiaparelli extended the idea to meteors, and showed that, neglecting the attraction of the earth, the ultimate velocity approached is little affected by the initial or extra-atmospheric velocity, and little affected by the law of variation of air density with height [pro- vided only that the mass of the air immediately disturbed is large in com- parison to the mass of the object].' For large meteors the ultimate velocity does depend on the cosmic velocity. His analysis also neglected the effect of ablation by melting in the violent blast of hot air impinging on the front of the meteor. With meteorites of ordinary size the striking velocity at the ground, being independent of the extra-terrestrial velocity, should depend only on the mass and dimensions of the object and on the density of the air at the ground. For use of this principle it is necessary to take recourse to a formula for spheres2 Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 VOL. 19, 1933 ASTRONOMY: W. J. FISHER 287 v2 = P/0.014 R2 (1) in which P is the weight, R the radius and the units are meter-kilogram- second, engineenng system. Air resistance is supposed proportional to v2 and to air density. The known inaccuracy of this law of resistance in the neighborhood of the velocity of sound is regarded as unimportant for this application. In 1839 and 1840 a committee of the French artillery, consisting of Piobert, Morin and Didion, carried on a series of experiments at Metz and vicinity, part of which were devoted to determining the law of pene- tration of round shot into various materials of fortification. Beside the official, extended reports of this committee, their theoretical and practical results on penetration are presented in Didion's Traits de Balistique, Paris, 1848, Section VI, and have been copied by Crantz, from whom they are quoted in part by Borgstrom.3 The differential equation for the re- sistance of targets is based on a study of the forms and dimensions of penetration funnels and of projectiles dug out of the targets. The ex- pression for depth of penetration of cast iron round shot is E = K * 2R * log[1 + (v/u)2] (2) in which E is the penetration, R is the radius of the projectile and u and K are empirical constants, the density of the projectile being contained in K. The units are meter-kilogram-second, engineering. Tables of these constants are given for various targets. A slight modification of the constants enables the centimeter-gram- second absolute system to be used, and permits a substitution of mi/' instead of radius of the projectile. In the case of a meteorite of modest size, for which a terminal velocity is calculable, the terminal velocity in the air path is the same as the striking velocity of the penetration into the ground; hence the velocity may be eliminated between two equations, and there results bg sm /=~ b logkakd(3[11 + ak mi/]]3 in which s is the penetration into the target, m is the mass of the meteorite, g is the acceleration of gravitation, d is the density of air, k is a form factor which converts m/' into an effective resisting cross-section. k contains the density of the meteorite, b and a are empirical constants, functions of "the ground." The units supposed are c. g. s. absolute. The formula means that the penetration of a meteorite of given shape and material into. a given kind of ground is proportional to the cube toot of the mass of the meteorite multiplied by a factor which increases with the cube root Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 288 ASTRONOMY: W. J. FISHER PROC. N. A. S. of the mass, but less rapidly. But there is no assumed dependence of penetration upon cosmic velocity. As the expression consists of products and powers, the obvious way to test the rough data given by the records of meteorite falls is by plotting on logarithmic paper. If penetration were strictly proportional to cube TABLE 1 ACTUAL PENETRATIONS OF IRON METEORITES REPORTED REDUCED MBTEORITE MASS DBPTH KG. CM. NOTES Avce Hex 1.23 kg. 30 = cm. 1.2 30 Broke apple branch 5 cm. thick. Boguslavka Hex 199 kg. 130 cm. 199 130 Sandy ground. Boguslavka Hex 57 kg. 200 cm. 57 200 Clay. Braunau Hex 23.625 kg. 100 cm. 23.6 100 Vertical hole. Cabin Creek MO 107 lb. 3 ft. 48.5 91 Broke limb of a pine. Estherville MS 437 lb. 8 ft.; 6 ft. 198.0 244; 182 Passed first through 6 ft. water into clay. Estherville MS 170 lb. 4.5 ft. 77.0 137 Dry gravelly soil. Estherville MS 92.5 lb. 5 ft. 41.9 152 Hassi Jekna FO 11/4 kg. 80 cm. 1.25 80 Desert sand, by Arabs. Hraschina MO 71 lb. 3 Klafter 39.8 569 Recently plowed field. Mazapil MO 3.95 kg. 30 cm. 3.95 30 Corral. Nedagolla NPA 10 lb. 1/2 m. 4.5 50 N'Goureyma BrO 371/2 kg. 1 m. 37.5 100 Clay. Pitts 0 421/2 oz. 8 in. 1.2 20 Pitts 0 57 oz. 16 in. 1.6 41 Fresh plowed land. Pitts 0 30 oz. 7 in. 0.85 18 Quesa FO 10. 67 kg. 40 cm. 10.7 40 Obliquely. Rowton MO 73/4 lb. 18 in. 3.5 46 Turf field. Treysa MO 63 kg. 160 cm. 63 160 In a wood. Hex = hexadrite; MO = medium octahedrite; MS = mesosiderite; FO = fine octahedrite; NPA = nickel-poor ataxite; BO = brecciated octahedrite; 0 = octa- hedrite. (No nickel-rich ataxites have been known to fall.) Where there are no notes on soil, there is no information. In some cases, the masses were diminished artificially before weighing. The measure- ments of penetrations are usually rough, and sometimes they are estimates. The penetrations of Av6e, Cabin Creek and Estherville (437 lb.) must be affected slightly by the obstacles met above ground. The penetration of Estherville (437 lb.) is given diversely by C. U. Shepard and J. Lawrence Smith. Falls lacking penetration data are omitted. In plotting, masses less than 1 kg. are omitted. root of mass, the points plotted should lie on one or more straight lines, slope = 1/3, the intercept of each line depending on the kind of ground hit. The variability in form and density of meteorites, the differences in ground encountered, and the usual badness of the measurements of penetration, with occasional badness of the measurements of mass, produce a scatter of points plotted sufficient to prevent complete certainty. Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 VOL. 19, 1933 ASTRONOMY. W. J. FISHER 289 The data collected from the literature of meteorite falls are naturally grouped by density into two classes, for irons (and stony-irons) and for stones. In the present paper only the data for irons and stony-irons are tabulated. The sources are those indicated in Prior's Catalogue and his Appendix, but Farrington's Meteorites of North America, Flight's Chapter in the History of Meteorites, and Chladni's Feuermeteore, and certain encyclopedias, have been used where possible. The data for these meteorites are shown in table 1, with notes on the ground penetrated-unfortunately few-and other points of interest. The figure, somewhat reduced, shows the same data plotted on logarithmic paper. Abscissas are kilograms; ordinates, centimeters. The dash line has the slope 1/3, for comparison. The plotted points lie in a band be- tween two lines, the lower of which is nearly parallel to the comparison line. (The two highest points are plotted for completeness; they have probably little relation to facts. The measurements for Hassi Jekna are probably unreliable, and the penetration of "drei Klafter," or three fath- oms, of the Hraschina iron, is incredible.) For the purpose of extending the discussion to the great iron meteorites, the lower bounding line will be taken to represent the lower limit of the penetration of iron meteorites into the ground, and its equation will be taken to be s = 18.6 m/n'.
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