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“TO FIND SHELTER SHE KNOWS NOT WHERE”: FREEDOM, MOVEMENT, and GENDERED VIOLENCE AMONG FREE PEOPLE of COLOR in NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI, 1779-1865 by Nicole S

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“TO FIND SHELTER SHE KNOWS NOT WHERE”: FREEDOM, MOVEMENT, and GENDERED VIOLENCE AMONG FREE PEOPLE of COLOR in NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI, 1779-1865 by Nicole S “TO FIND SHELTER SHE KNOWS NOT WHERE”: FREEDOM, MOVEMENT, AND GENDERED VIOLENCE AMONG FREE PEOPLE OF COLOR IN NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI, 1779-1865 BY Nicole S. Ribianszky A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY History 2011 ABSTRACT “TO FIND SHELTER SHE KNOWS NOT WHERE”: FREEDOM, MOVEMENT, AND GENDERED VIOLENCE AMONG FREE PEOPLE OF COLOR IN NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI, 1779-1865 By Nicole S. Ribianszky To Find Shelter She Knows Not Where explicates how freedom, movement, and violence were inextricably linked for free people of color in Natchez, Mississippi from 1779-1865. The study considers the relevance that violence or the implicit threat of it—in the form of sexual exploitation, re-enslavement, kidnapping, deportment, poverty, and racial discrimination— exerted on this population, a phenomenon that scholars have not generally assessed. My work centers itself within the burgeoning field of violence studies, which have been useful to scholars examining war, genocide, and slavery, but seldom includes the experiences of free African Americans. By employing strategies to avoid and combat violence, they were often successful in self preservation and the safe-guarding of their families. Thus, the various methods men and women employed to adapt to these uncertain conditions included using the court system, accruing property, making strategic alliances with other people of color and whites, and even engaging in or undertaking racial passing. This dissertation demonstrates that their freedom was not necessarily a permanent condition, but one marked instead with permeable boundaries that engendered a tenuous and unstable state of purgatory between enslavement and freedom. Further, I introduce the notion of generational freedom, in which I distinguish with those who were born into slavery but later freed, the foundational generation , which could also include parents and their children, as well as grandchildren. I name the generations that follow the foundational generation the c onditional generations --those who were born free but whose continued freedom was based upon not only their compliance of a demanding and often unfair system, but their persistence within the vagaries of an ambiguous and often arbitrary freedom that was not permanently guaranteed. This dissertation also adds a new dimension to the scholarship that links North America into a larger colonial border region by including Mississippi, which largely has been missing. The historical periodization of this dissertation spans from the Spanish colonial rule from 1779-1795 through the early Mississippi Territory period (1795-1817) and culminates with statehood and the demise of slavery in 1865. This trans-generational study locates free people of color within this temporal trajectory and demonstrates how, although violence was a foundational reality of their lives, they resisted being defined by it and built rich and meaningful lives for themselves and their families. Copyright by NICOLE S. RIBIANSZKY 2011 To the memories of those free parents of color who endeavored to ensure the safety and happiness of their children, the same as my parents have always wished for me and that I desire for my own daughters. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There is a long history that has gone into the writing of this dissertation and many debts that I have incurred along the way. A multitude of people have helped me immeasurably and without their support, it would have made the journey more difficult. I feel this is only a partial listing of the people to whom I am deeply grateful and I apologize for any omissions. I owe the Michigan State University History Department, the College of Social Sciences, and the Graduate School a sincere thanks for providing the means for me to make numerous research trips to Mississippi and for conferences to present papers. I also received generous support from the award of a King-Chavez-Parks (KCP) Future Faculty Fellowship, which enabled me to spend the 2009-2010 academic year concentrating solely on research and writing. It also allowed me to spend an entire month in Natchez, Mississippi working in the Adams County Chancery Court and Historic Natchez Foundation. My deepest thanks to the people who made this possible, wrote letters of support, and communicated important information to me —Dr. Daina Ramey Berry, Dr. Keely Stauter-Halsted, Dr. Mark Kornbluh, Assistant Dean Julius Jackson, Dean Karen Klomparens, Dean M. Baba, Dr. Patrick Melia, Rosanne Marsh, and Stephanie Opatrny- Smith. In Natchez, Mimi Miller, at HNF, helped me patiently locating court cases and giving me new directions in which to follow. Also, Bill McGehee helpfully made copies of some deed records and emailed them to me after my stint in Natchez ended. In my last semester, I was a fortunate recipient of a Dissertation Completion Fellowship from the College of Social Science, which gave me the latitude to remain holed up in my apartment revising and putting the final touches on my dissertation in lieu of teaching. My thanks vi go out to Dr. Daina Ramey Berry, Dr. Pero Dagbovie, Walter Hawthorne, Associate Dean Chris Maxwell, Stephanie Opatrny-Smith, and all others I may have neglected to name. Specifically, within the Department, there have been numerous faculty members who have imprinted my project and scholarship with their own teaching and writing and served as inspirations in countless ways. Dr. David Bailey and Dr. Richard Thomas have inspired me for decades now with their commitment to arousing interest and passion for history in students. Both are amazingly creative and have shared their zeal for thinking outside the box with students and everyone else they come into contact with. And this has inspired me since I was an undergraduate and master’s student here. And Dr. Wilma King, who was my advisor through much of my master’s program, introduced me to free women of color in general and lit a spark under me to pursue reconstructing their lives. I am very grateful to these foundational scholars for their efforts. My committee members, advisor Dr. Daina Ramey Berry, Dr. Peter Beattie, Dr. Pero Dagbovie, Dr. Erica Windler, Dr. David Wheat, and Dr. NiCole Buchanan, have logged in many hours working with me in and outside class pushing me to think in meaningful ways about the people and time period I study. Dr. Berry in particular has unerringly supported me by writing letters of support, encouraging me to present at conferences, and making herself available even long-distance. She has talked me through every step of the way of the program: from classes to comps to dissertating to job market. After the University of Texas at Austin gained her, she continued to see her remaining students through. Dr. Dagbovie generously agreed to allow me to “bounce ideas off him” and provide feedback, which I gladly did. Dr. Beattie and Dr. Windler have stood by me and continued to offer valuable feedback, even after my project changed from comparing free women of color in Natchez with those in Brazil to solely focusing on Natchez. vii David Wheat became part of my committee and has offered me valuable insights about his own work on free people in Spanish America. My outside committee member, Dr. NiCole Buchanan, a welcome recent addition, has added sum and substance to my writing and thinking through her scholarship on violence against African American women. I have been fortunate to serve under many fine professors while at Michigan State who have imparted their unerring professionalism and care to me. I served as a teaching assistant to Dr. Berry, Dr. Dagbovie, Dr. Windler, Dr. Kirsten Fermaglich, Dr. Helen Veit, and Dr. Lisa Fine. Observing their teaching styles and the ways that they interact with students has taught me precious lessons that I will continue to carry with me wherever I go. On even more of a personal note, in addition to parents who shape their children, I am awed by the teachers who develop students. I know that my own daughter, Mikaila, who entered MSU as a history student this year is in the best of hands and will be the next generation who will be inspired and motivated to keep digging into the past. It is critical to get beyond the bounds of campus to disseminate one’s ideas to a larger community and present at conferences. I have been lucky to be on some panels with amazing scholars and to have benefited from comments and suggestions from them. In 2006, Sowande Mustakeem put together a panel at the University of Memphis’ Graduate Student Conference including the both of us and Talitha LeFlouria, Ernestine Jenkins, and Beverly Bond. The comments by Dr. Bond were welcomed indeed. In 2008, Sowande again exerted maximum effort to pull another panel together for the Berkshire Conference on the History of Women in Minneapolis. Both of us, including co-presenter Kali Gross, received insights from Doug Egerton and Tara Hunter. Dr. Hunter’s comments have been enormously helpful in pushing me to clearly define violence against free people of color. The 2009 Southern Association for viii Women’s History (SAWH) panel that I assembled in Columbia, South Carolina helped shape this dissertation in important ways. Loren Schweninger, who was kind enough to provide comments for Sharon Romeo, Wendy Gonaver, and myself, asked me why I was not including the experiences of men within my project. For this constructive and insightful feedback, I am thankful indeed. I have benefited enormously from friendships I have been fortunate enough to make within the History Department as well as the African and African American Studies Program. As Dr. Berry’s first student, Sowande Mustakeem made me feel welcomed and supported as a new doctoral student. Even while living in Atlanta, she made many phone calls to me to ease me into the role and for that I am very grateful.
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