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The Intersectional Identities and Cultural Logic of Bishop Alma B View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by KU ScholarWorks THE POWER OF CHRIST COMPELLED HER: THE INTERSECTIONAL IDENTITIES AND CULTURAL LOGIC OF BISHOP ALMA B. WHITE BY Nichole Kathryn Kathol Submitted to the Department of Communication Studies and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Committee: ________________________________ Chairperson* ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ Date approved:__________________________ Copyright 2010 Nichole Kathryn Kathol The Dissertation Committee for Nichole Kathol certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: THE POWER OF CHRIST COMPELLED HER: THE INTERSECTIONAL IDENTITIES AND CULTURAL LOGIC OF BISHOP ALMA B. WHITE Committee: ________________________________ Chairperson* ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ Date approved:__________________________ i ABSTRACT In a culture inhospitable to women preachers, Alma Bridwell White not only became a successful preacher, but went on to become the first female bishop in the U.S. The leader of her own religious organization, the Pillar of Fire, she simultaneously offered her proud support to the early feminist movement and the KKK. Alma White is an example of an oppressed oppressor who rhetorically maneuvers the tensions that arise amongst her various and seemingly contradictory identities. Her autobiographical work, The Story of My Life and the Pillar of Fire represents a concerted effort to not only construct a culturally palatable religious identity as divinely endorsed fundamentalist, white supremacist, feminist Christian, but to use that divinity in the service of inspiring transformation of the holy spirit and steadfast devotion in followers of her organization, the Pillar of Fire. In this project, I argue that White uses a religious pattern of thought in pursuit of her goals – demonize, forebode, self deify. ii DEDICATION For Ryan, the smartest, funniest, most patient person I know; because he loves me – contradictions and all. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The various ways Ryan Weaver helped me in my dissertation process are too numerous to name here. Let‘s just say his brain, his heart and his sense of humor all deserve the equivalent of co- author credit for this project. My sanity, the lucidity of writing and the completion of this dissertation can all be attributed to the invaluable guidance of my advisor, Dr. Beth Innocenti. She inspires me to be a better scholar, professor and person. I want to thank Dr. Robert Rowland, Dr. Donn Parson and Dr. Scott Harris for not only agreeing to be members of my committee, but for making sure my arguments were thoroughly tested. I know I am better for it. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Ann Schofield and Dr. Hannah Britton, who were both an important part of making this project the piece of feminist scholarship I hoped it could be. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1:The Need for Intersectionality ........................................................................... 1 Critical Problems ............................................................................................................. 4 Lack of Attention ......................................................................................................... 4 Lack of Critical Attention ............................................................................................ 6 Intersectional Identity Scholarship ............................................................................. 19 Method ........................................................................................................................... 26 Plan of Study ................................................................................................................. 28 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 29 Chapter 2: Alma White‘s Life and career in Rhetorical Construction ...................................................................................................................... 31 Childhood and Early Adulthood .................................................................................... 33 Early Marriage and Family ............................................................................................ 37 Early Preaching and a Break From the Church ............................................................. 39 Establishment of the Pillar of Fire Organization ........................................................... 40 Zarephath, New Jersey .................................................................................................. 41 Continuing Marriage Troubles ...................................................................................... 42 The Great War ............................................................................................................... 43 The Ku Klux Klan ......................................................................................................... 45 Women‘s Rights ............................................................................................................ 46 The Pillar of Fire Commune .......................................................................................... 47 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 48 v Chapter 3: Rhetorical Pillars of Alma White‘s Identity .................................................... 50 Rhetorical Objectives .................................................................................................... 52 Barriers and Advantages ................................................................................................ 54 Ideological Barriers and Advantages ......................................................................... 54 Religious Barriers and Advantages ............................................................................ 58 Rhetorical Barriers and Advantages ........................................................................... 61 Identity Construction ..................................................................................................... 64 Engaging Ideological Impediments ............................................................................ 64 Addressing Religious Obstacles ................................................................................. 70 Confronting Rhetorical Road Blocks ......................................................................... 76 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 78 Chapter 4: RHETORICAL PILLARS OF CONVERSION AND DEVOTION .............. 79 Inspiring Converted and Devoted Followers ................................................................. 81 Barriers and Advantages ................................................................................................ 84 Ideological Barriers .................................................................................................... 84 Religious Barriers ....................................................................................................... 87 Rhetorical Advantage ................................................................................................. 90 Rhetoric of Conversion and Devotion ........................................................................... 91 Responding to Inconvenient Ideologies ..................................................................... 92 Tackling Religious Revisions .................................................................................... 99 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 104 vi Chapter 5: Conclusion..................................................................................................... 106 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 106 The Pillar of Fire Lives On .......................................................................................... 108 Implications ................................................................................................................. 111 Limitations and Directions for Future Research .......................................................... 112 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 114 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 115 vii CHAPTER ONE THE NEED FOR INTERSECTIONALITY In a culture inhospitable to women preachers, Alma Bridwell White not only became a successful preacher, but went on to become the first female bishop in the U.S. The leader of her own religious organization, the Pillar of Fire, she simultaneously offered her proud support to the early feminist movement and the KKK. Alma White is an example of an oppressed oppressor who rhetorically maneuvers the tensions that arise amongst her various and seemingly contradictory identities. Her
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