3D Printing 3D Printing

3D Printing

By: Sharon O'Malley

Pub. Date: October 29, 2018 Access Date: September 26, 2021 DOI: 10.1177/237455680432.n1 Source URL: http://businessresearcher.sagepub.com/sbr-1946-108274-2907524/20181029/3d-printing ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Will it disrupt traditional manufacturing? Executive Summary

The rapid spread of 3D printing technology promises to hold significant gains for businesses, its advocates say. The printers are enabling entrepreneurs to drastically reduce their costs for producing prototypes. They also enable small businesses to manufacture limited quantities of products, customize offerings for individual clients and introduce new products in a cost-efficient way. And the adaptation of 3D printers for materials other than plastic has opened the door to printing products ranging from human tissue to food to small buildings. But for all the promise of 3D printing, experts warn of potential downsides, including disruption of trade patterns, loss of jobs, questions about quality and the danger of unscrupulous operators counterfeiting trademarked products. Key takeaways include: The market for 3D printers has grown by 80 percent since 2016 and could quadruple over the next decade as prices fall and operational speed rises. The number of U.S. companies that use 3D printers is still a minority, although a growing one. The United States and Germany are the global leaders in the 3D printing industry. Full Report

A Colombian boy, Daniel Garavito, gives his 3D-printed prosthetic hand a try. The printers can now create a wide range of sophisticated products. (Raul Arboleda/AFP/Getty Images)

When thirtysomething parents Isabel and Trevor Hardy of Boston saw how much mess their baby, newly weaned from the bottle, was making at mealtime, they came up with a design for a spoon shaped and sized just right for solid-food beginners. They put their heads together with an entrepreneur friend, Marcel Botha, a dad to two little ones himself, and decided to make a prototype of the baby-friendly spoon. They called it Spuni, and discovered that children found its smaller, flatter shape easier to handle. That prototype, and the half dozen that followed as the team of friends repeatedly tweaked the design, cost them about $5 apiece, Botha estimates. He says the cost per unit might have been at least $50 if they had taken a traditional approach to research and development. Instead, they found a company with a 3D printer to make their models, using baby-safe plastics like the ones used for pacifiers and baby bottle nipples. Page 2 of 10 3D Printing SAGE Business Researcher ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Printing the test models, Botha says, “allow[ed] us flexibility of time and cost to produce various prototypes until we created the perfect unit.” Once the spoons were for sale, New York-based Spuni mass-produced them using traditional manufacturing methods. Entrepreneurs are turning to 3D printing – also called “additive manufacturing” – in increasing numbers to save money on prototypes and to manufacture limited quantities of their products. Small business owners are using the printers to customize their merchandise for discerning clients and to add new selections to their product lines, without shelling out thousands of dollars for a new, industrial-style mold every time they introduce or alter a design. Universities, medical labs, tech companies and hobbyists have successfully used 3D printing to create printed versions of everything from human tissue to small buildings to guns. Yet even as 3D printing enables entrepreneurs and small business owners to start and expand companies, some observers see a downside. They predict its quick adoption has the potential to cause disruptions in global trade patterns and cost jobs. While no agency tracks the number of startups adopting 3D printing, experts agree that companies of all sizes are experimenting with the technology, which builds an object layer by layer by printing over the same area again and again. In fact, according to 3D printing expert Wohlers Associates, a Colorado consulting firm, the $7.3 billion additive manufacturing industry has surged by nearly 80 percent worldwide since 2016 when measured by the number of 3D printers sold and companies making the devices. 1 The number of U.S. companies that use the technology is increasing, although it is still a minority. 2 The United States holds the lead – barely, with Germany in second place – when it comes to “the degree to which [a country’s] labor skills, industrial capabilities, governance, and economic assets support additive manufacturing,” according to the global management consulting firm A.T. Kearney. South Korea, Japan, the United Kingdom and Singapore are distant challengers, and Australia and China also are developing the technology. 3 3D Market Projected to Reach $17 Billion

Projected global 3D industry market value, in billions, 2014-20

Source: “3D Printing: A Manufacturing Revolution,” A.T. Kearney, 2015, p. 4, https://tinyurl.com/yakyj9s4

The worldwide market for 3D printer hardware, supplies and services will grow to more than $17 billion by 2020, according to a projection by a global management consulting firm.

A 3D printer works somewhat like a desktop inkjet printer, which releases ink onto a sheet of paper to print words and photos. If the printer continually reprinted the same thing onto the same spot on the paper, the ink on the letters and pictures eventually would build up. Instead of ink, a 3D printer deposits layers of molten plastic or powder, in most cases, which build up, fuse together and harden with the help of an adhesive or an ultraviolet light. The printer makes multiple two-dimensional prints that sit on top of each other, creating the 3D object. 4 The process can take minutes or hours, depending on the complexity of the design, which is created on a computer that uses design software and is connected to the printer. Some printers can work with materials other than plastic; for example, chefs are experimenting with molten chocolate and other food, and newer printers can handle metals – a use, a Wohlers report said, that is growing significantly. 5 The market for professional devices that can print with ceramic and other materials is expanding as well. 6 German manufacturing giant Siemens has forecast that the market for 3D printers could quadruple over the next 10 years, as prices dip and printing speeds quicken. 7 Printer prices range from less than $1,000 to more than $150,000, depending on the size, quality and features. 8 For a small business, a lower-end printer will suffice if the company is printing limited quantities, says John Kray, owner of a small 3D printing service, Hydra Research, in Portland, Ore. Kray bought a $2,000 printer when he was a junior in college in 2016, hoping to solve a problem with flimsy handles on the machines in the coffee shop where he worked part time while earning his physics degree. He designed a replacement handle and printed it on his 3D printer – and it worked. He started offering to print for others, for a fee, and when he graduated in 2017, he made a business out of providing that service. He also printed replacement parts for a local company that makes trench hole diggers and designed an alternative tool head for the LulzBot Mini 3D printer he owned. Then, he designed his own 3D printer and used the LulzBot Mini to produce most of the parts he needed to build it. Called the Nautilus, the printer will be for sale by the end of the year for approximately $2,500. If he had not been able to print the parts for his invention, Kray says, “it straight-up wouldn’t have happened. I wouldn’t have had the money. The [research and development] budget for this printer has been multiple orders of magnitude less than it would have been using traditional manufacturing methods.” Entrepreneurs Save Money

For small business owners, saving time and money is what drives them to experiment with 3D printing. Massachusetts-based startup Desktop Metal, for example, estimates that its new 3D printer, for which it is taking advance orders, will print metal objects 100 times faster and up to 20 times cheaper than traditional manufacturing processes. 9 The UPS Store began offering 3D printing services at six locations in 2013 and will expand the service to 100 stores by the end of 2018. Some 90 percent of UPS’s 3D customers were small business owners wanting to create prototypes, said 3D print expert Daniel Remba, who led the UPS effort for several years before moving to digital entertainment company NTN Buzztime to be its business development manager. 10 The jobs he oversaw, Remba told The Wall Street Journal, took between 20 minutes and two days to print and cost a few dollars to a few hundred. Going the 3D route saved the entrepreneurs from paying thousands for a process called injection molding, the traditional way to create prototypes. 11 The result, says Kray, is that more entrepreneurs are able to bring their ideas to market. He estimates that he would have had to pay $27,000 to tool the molds for his printer parts and another $16 per part if he had used injection molding. Using the 3D printer, he paid $3.50 per part with no tooling fee. Kray says 3D printing “will power a lot more entrepreneurs and engineers around a good product idea that is really good but previously wouldn’t have been financially feasible because the development costs would be too high.” While Kray says he is confident that his 3D-printed parts are the same quality as manufactured items would be, he says the technology might not be suitable for heavy-duty objects. For those parts, he says, an injection mold could make them stronger. Parts that are 3D-printed, because they are built layer by layer, “are weaker along the layer lines,” he says.

Plus, Kray adds, “Its biggest downside is the aesthetic quality.… You will see little layer lines when you get up close” to a 3D-printed object. “They’re not smooth.” Watch video with Dale Robertson, head of marketing at wire joiner producer Gripple, on the role of 3D printing in product development:

Erica Neely, an associate professor of philosophy at Ohio Northern University, points to another potential problem with the technology: It could allow “unscrupulous” 3D printer owners to produce counterfeit versions of trademarked products. “People are concerned what the future would bring for that kind of duplicity,” she says, but adds, “At the moment, at least, you can still tell the difference.” (See Expert Views: “Q&A: Erica Neely on 3D Legal Issues.”) After President Barack Obama said in his 2013 State of the Union address that 3D printing had the “potential to revolutionize the way we make almost everything,” business experts predicted that the technology would create jobs in a wide array of fields: for designers, computer-assisted design experts, research and development professionals, lawyers, scientists in the medical, aerospace and military fields, architects, builders and educators, as well as home-based business owners and other entrepreneurs. 12 More recently, Dutch financial services company ING reported that the technology will boost local U.S. economies in areas with auto factories as local printing of car parts becomes possible over the next 20 to 40 years. 13 But ING also warned that 3D printing is a double-edged sword that could “wipe out” almost a quarter of world trade by 2060. Sometime between 2040 and 2060, the ING report said, half of the world’s manufactured goods will be printed, localizing the production of automotive, industrial machinery and consumer products and disrupting the flow of trade between the United States and its trading partners in Mexico, Japan, Germany and Canada. 14 Some experts dispute ING’s dire findings. A study by the French Employment Policy Council, a governmental advisory body, estimated that fewer than 10 percent of jobs in France and internationally will be threatened by the rise of 3D printing and other automated technologies. But the council also concluded that fully half of existing jobs could be altered by new technologies as they create requirements for new skills. 15 And A.T. Kearney predicted that 3D printing could bring up to 5 million skilled jobs back to the United States within a decade. 16 Prototypes Easier to Create

Despite reports of dramatic growth in the 3D printing industry, 18 percent of U.S. companies used the printers in 2016, up from 12 percent two years earlier, according to a survey by Tech Pro Research, which provides information technology professionals with research and policies. Most of the companies that participated in the survey reported annual 3D printing budgets of less than $15,000 and said they used the technology mostly for testing ideas or creating prototypes and parts and for internal use. 17 Startups are a growing part of that number. New York-based SOLS Systems, for example, uses a 3D printer to produce custom-sized insoles for shoes ordered by buyers with unique sizes or foot shapes. Similarly, the startup Feetz is ramping up an app that customers can use to photograph their feet and order custom- fit shoes, which the company will produce on a 3D printer. Feetz CEO Lucy Beard predicted more shoe companies will print footwear in the future. “In 10 years,” she said, “you won’t physically try on a pair of shoes.” 18 On a larger scale, Nike has been producing components of its athletic shoes with 3D printers since 2016. Most recently, Nike became the first shoemaker to print textile uppers for athletic footwear. The company has estimated that 3D printing of prototypes is 16 times faster than other manufacturing methods. 19 Calling itself “the retailer of the future,” London-based jewelry company Banneya creates made-to-order gemstone-and-diamond jewelry by using precious metals with a 3D printer. A 2017 startup, Food Ink, has plans to open pop-up restaurants all over the world that feature 3D-printed furniture, utensils – and food. OTHR, which prints high-end knickknacks for the home, partnered with designers to create the objects, which are produced in limited quantities for collectors. 20 “Having a 3D printer separates you from the rest,” Piet Meijs, a senior associate at New York-based Rietveld Architects, said of the benefits of using the technology when “multiple architects [are] fighting for the same job. You need to give them more reasons to pick you 21 Page 5 of 10 3D Printing SAGE Business Researcher ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. from the other guy.” 21 Meijs said architects at his firm used to create models by hand, but “the timeline was so long and the investment was fairly big for a model,” especially if the firm wanted to show both large- and small-scale models to clients or offer models, each crafted from scratch, to more than one person. Making a model once took two months, while 3D printing has trimmed the time to a few hours, Meijs said. 22 “3D printing offers distinct benefits that traditional manufacturing cannot deliver,” A.T. Kearney said in a 2015 report. Aside from mass customization, the report pointed to businesses’ ability to print more complex products, cut lead time and increase the speed of production, simplify production, keep it closer to the point of demand, trim inventory and therefore storage space and reduce waste. 23 4 in 10 Say 3D Will Dominate Consumer Goods

Percentage who say 3D printers will create majority of products they buy in 20 years

Source: Monica Anderson, “What Americans expect the future of automation to look like,” Pew Research Center, Nov. 16, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/ydgshud6

More than 40 percent of U.S. adults say that in 20 years 3D printers will be used to create most of the products people buy at home.

The technology also has created enough buzz among consumers to put 3D-printed products on their shopping lists. In a survey by Massachusetts-based retail marketing company Interactions, 95 percent of shoppers said they are “eager” to buy products that are 3D- printed and almost 80 percent said they would spend more money at a store that used 3D printing to offer product customization. 24 The 3D technology also has created a cottage industry of small businesses, such as Kray’s Hydra Research, that print products for other business owners. Kray advises entrepreneurs to consider whether buying a desktop 3D printer is more cost-effective than paying another company to do the printing. “If you’re an engineer and you know what you’re doing and you want to be manufacturing your own parts, then it’s way more cost-effective to buy your own printer,” he says. But for a creative entrepreneur who wants to do the design but not the production, outsourcing is a better avenue, Kray says. Still, he advises, companies that will print 500 to 1,000 parts a year will save substantial money by investing in a printer. Kray foresees a near future in which 3D printers are standard equipment for entrepreneurs. “I can’t even begin to imagine all the different applications it could have,” he says. “People are just figuring it out.… It will be really exciting to see, as time goes on, more and more people being able to start companies and develop products because this technology is so accessible.” About the Author

Sharon O’Malley is an assistant professor of journalism at Anne Arundel Community College in Maryland. She is a freelance writer, editor, consultant and trainer who has published articles in dozens of newspapers and magazines, including USA Today, Ladies’ Home Journal, Working Woman and American Demographics. Her reports for SAGE Business Researcher include Shopping Malls, Internships, Product Recalls, the Business of Christmas, Paid Leave, Retail’s Struggles and Sexual Harassment.

1980-1989 Patents awarded for 3D printing technologies. 1980 Japanese researcher Hideo Kodama applies for a patent for a rapid prototyping technique that uses a layer-by-layer approach to manufacturing. 1984 Charles Hull invents stereolithography, a process that creates 3D objects from digital data. He later founds 3D Systems, a South Carolina-based manufacturer of 3D printers. 1986 Carl Deckard, a student at the University of Texas, patents selective laser sintering (SLS), a 3D printing technique that uses powder grains. 1989 Scott Crump, co-founder of 3D printer manufacturer Stratasys Inc., files a patent for fused deposition modeling (FDM), the most common kind of 3D printing. FDM heats plastic materials to their melting point and then extrudes them, layer by layer, to create a three-dimensional object. 1992-1999 3D enters the medical field. 1992 3D Systems produces the first stereolithographic apparatus (SLA) to make three-dimensional parts in layers. 1999 Wake Forest University’s Institute for Regenerative Medicine uses a 3D printer to build part of a human bladder. 2002-2009 3D printing spreads as machines print their own components. 2002 Scientists at the Massachusetts biotech company Advanced Cell Technology print a miniature functional kidney. 2006 The 3D printing systems company Objet introduces a printer capable of working with multiple materials. 2008 The open-source initiative RepRap Project releases Darwin, a printer that can print the majority of its own components; the breakthrough makes 3D printing widely available.… The first person walks on a 3D-printed prosthetic leg. 2009 The patent on FDM technology expires, facilitating the launch of the company MakerBot, which brings 3D printing technology to the mainstream through do-it-yourself kits. 2010-Present 3D advances in the fields of medicine and manufacturing. 2010 The San Diego-based bioprinting company Organovo prints the first human blood vessel. 2011 The University of Southampton in England designs the world’s first 3D-printed unmanned aircraft for $7,000 and flies it. … Urbee, a car with a 3D-printed body, is unveiled in Canada.… i.materialise becomes the first 3D printing company to use 14-carat gold and sterling silver as materials. 2012 Physicians in the Netherlands use a 3D printer to print a prosthetic jaw, which was implanted into an 83-year-old woman. 2013 In his State of the Union address, President Barack Obama calls 3D printing a potentially revolutionary technology. 2015 The first commercial bio-ink goes on sale for printing tissue cartilage. 2016 A zero-gravity 3D printer aboard the International Space Station prints a wrench in outer space. 2017 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology builds a robot that successfully 3D-prints a small building in just 14 hours.

Resources for Further Study Bibliography

Books

Chua, Chee Kai, and Kah Fai Leong, “3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: Principles and Applications,” World Scientific Publishing Co., 2017. Two Singaporean researchers compare the advantages and shortcomings of additive manufacturing technologies that use

Page 7 of 10 3D Printing SAGE Business Researcher ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. various materials. Gibson, Ian, David Rosen and Brent Stucker, “Additive Manufacturing Technologies: 3D Printing, Rapid Prototyping, and Direct Digital Manufacturing,” Springer, 2015. Three university researchers discuss the fundamentals of and concepts behind rapid prototyping and layered manufacturing.

Articles

“Interactions Releases ‘What Shoppers Want from Retail Technology’ Survey,” Interactions Marketing, May 18, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/y8w3pndj. In a survey by retail marketing consultant Interactions, 95 percent of consumers said they were “looking forward” to buying 3D-printed products and 80 percent said they would spend more at a store that could create unique products using 3D printing. “Less than 10% of jobs threatened by 3D printing & automation, says French employment council,” 3ders.org, Jan. 18, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/y79r4tpm. Despite economists’ warnings that 3D printing could threaten jobs, a report from France’s Employment Policy Council, a governmental advisory body, said this claim could be exaggerated. Still, the authors said, more than half of existing jobs could be significantly changed by emerging technologies. Gasparro, Annie, and Jesse Newman, “Six Technologies That Could Shake the Food World,” The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 2, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/ycd2rraw. Two technology reporters explore the use of 3D printing to “print” meals, including chicken nuggets and faux shrimp. Pultarova, Tereza, “The Strangest Things That Were 3D-Printed in 2017,” LiveScience, Dec. 18, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/yb9vvlg4. From mouse ovaries to food made from cheese to prosthetic eyes that, while nonfunctional, can make children born without eyes look normal, a journalist explores some of the most unusual items made last year with 3D printers.

Reports and Studies

“3D Printing: A Manufacturing Revolution,” A.T. Kearney, 2015, https://tinyurl.com/yakyj9s4. A global management consulting firm describes 3D printing as a “breakthrough value in product design and production.” Its report touts the technology as having “distinct benefits that traditional manufacturing cannot deliver.” “Wohlers Report 2018: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry,” Wohlers Associates, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/yb3u4cm9. The consulting firm’s 23rd annual report is a worldwide review and analysis of additive manufacturing and 3D printing, based on information from 92 service providers, 64 manufacturers and 19 producers of 3D printers and printing materials. Gupta, B.M., and S.M. Dhawan, “Three Dimensional (3D) Printing: A Scientometric Assessment of Global Publications Output during 2007-16,” Journal of Library & Information Technology, July 2018, https://tinyurl.com/y7h5dnqw. Two researchers from the India-based Council of Scientific and Industrial Research compiled studies of 3D printing from 2007 to 2016 to show the volume of scientific research on the technology by topic and geographic origin. Leering, Raoul, “3D printing: a threat to global trade,” ING, September 2017, https://tinyurl.com/y8mypys6. A report from Dutch bank ING concluded that high-speed 3D printers will make mass production with the machines economically viable, but will lead to less trade growth as the technology reduces the need for labor and imports of goods from low-wage countries. The Next Step

Food

Cecchini, Chiara, “Edible Carving: How 3D printers Could Create Your Next Meal,” The Spoon, Sept. 30, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/yc8wwpzc. The 3D food printing industry could prove revolutionary for individuals, such as pregnant women and the elderly, who have special dietary needs and require customized meals, says a food and science technology scholar. Morris, Ali, “Elzelinde van Doleweerd creates 3D-printed snacks from food waste,” Dezeen, Oct. 3, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/yb63wr93. Through a 3D-printing, bacteria-eliminating dehydration process, a Dutch scientist has created edible food from old food waste. Saunders, Sarah, “Canadian Startup is Turning Food Waste into Biodegradable, Plastic 3D Printing Filament,” 3Dprint.com, Sept. Oct. 4, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/y7wwnq6t. A Toronto-based startup has discovered a way to turn food scraps into biodegradable plastic material at 40 percent less cost than other commercial processes.

Human Tissue

Boissonneault, Tess, “After crash destroys first bioprinter bound for space, Russian company announces duplicate model,” 3D Printing

Media Network, Oct. 16, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/y8mpce9y. A Russian 3D printing company is providing the International Space Station with its first 3D bioprinter, which will print human tissue and eventually organs in space. Rogers, Shelby, “Doctors Can Finally 3D Print Human Tissue, Ligaments and Tendons,” Interesting Engineering, Oct. 17, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/yc8qvep7. University of Utah biomedical engineers have figured out how to 3D-print new ligaments and tendons by layering stem cells from a patient onto hydrogel, facilitating new cell growth. Vialva, Tia, “Toronto scientists develop handheld 3D bioprinter to treat burn victims,” 3D Printing Industry, Sept. 21, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/y85zgopr. University of Toronto and Sunnybrook Research Institute scientists have created a 3D printer capable of treating burn victims remotely, without having to use scarce human donor tissue. Organizations

3ders.org www.3ders.org A website that offers articles, price comparisons, statistics, basic printing information and user forums for individuals and businesses offering and using 3D printing. The 3D Printing Association c/o Lejeune Association Management, Postbox 85612 NL-2508 CH, The Hague +31-70-360-38-37 https://www.the3dprintingassociation.com/ A small trade association for companies in the additive manufacturing business that aims to advance the technology throughout Europe. Additive Manufacturing Consortium 1250 Arthur E. Adams Drive, Columbus, OH 43221 1-614-688-5000 www.ewi.org/additive-manufacturing-consortium An arm of manufacturer EWI, the eight-year-old consortium defines its mission as accelerating and advancing the manufacturing readiness of metal addictive manufacturing technology. The national consortium includes industry, government, academic and nonprofit research organizations. Association of 3D Printing http://associationof3dprinting.com/ [email protected] Billing itself as “the voice of the 3D printing industry,” the association is a conglomeration of marketing, Web, public relations, general management and finance executives that works with manufacturers, printing companies, designers, governments and researchers involved in 3D printing. Canada Makes 1-613-875-1674 www.Canadamakes.ca [email protected] A network of private, public, academic and nonprofit organizations, this association promotes the adoption of additive manufacturing in Canada. The Center for Design and Manufacturing Excellence 1314 Kinnear Road, Columbus, OH 43212 1-614-292-6888 https://cdme.osu.edu/ Based at Ohio State University, this research center supports university and commercial research on technology and aims to close the gap between industry needs and academic research efforts. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi-110001, India +011-23710340 www.csir.res.in One of the largest publicly funded research and development organizations in the world, the council was established by India’s government in 1942 to promote scientific knowledge and boost industrialization and economic growth. Fraunhofer Additive Manufacturing Alliance c/o Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Reichenhainer Straße 88 09126 Chemnitz, Germany +49 351 4772-2136

Page 9 of 10 3D Printing SAGE Business Researcher ©2021 SAGE Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. https://www.generativ.fraunhofer.de/en.html The organization bills itself as “an interdisciplinary European alliance of competence” and develops new technologies and processes to enhance business performance. Notes

[1] “Wohlers Report 2018: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry,” Wohlers Associates, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/yb3u4cm9. [2] “Research: 3D Printing 2017: Benefits, trends, enterprise applications,” Tech Pro Research, January 2017, http://tinyurl.com/ycvnh9uy. [3] Ben Smith, Bharat Kapoor and Rafael Angelo, “3D Printing: Disrupting the $12 Trillion Manufacturing Sector,” A.T. Kearney, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/y9d8wmfo. [4] Chris Woodford, “3D printers,” Explain That Stuff! Aug. 4, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/y7dgthub. [5] “Wohlers Report 2018: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry,” op. cit. [6] “3D Printing: Facts & Forecasts,” Siemens, accessed Oct. 18, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/ycad523e. [7] Ibid. [8] Brian Libby, “Choosing a 3D Printer for Your Firm,” Architect, Oct. 22, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/yb6lyk4s. [9] Ryan Whitwam, “Startup Plans to Make 3D Metal Printing 100 Times Faster,” ExtremeTech, July 28, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/y8l68fs5. [10] Rachael King, “UPS Helps Entrepreneurs Make 3-D Printed Prototypes,” The Wall Street Journal, March 30, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/ycskzmrs. [11] Ibid. [12] Sara Angeles, “10 3D Printing Jobs On the Rise,” Business News Daily, Sept. 18, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/y6wyjqdq; “Remarks by the President in the State of the Union Address,” The White House, Feb. 12, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/y8p2fadz. [13] Raoul Leering, “3D printing: a threat to global trade,” ING, Sept. 28, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/y8mypys6. [14] Ibid. [15] “Less than 10% of jobs threatened by 3D printing & automation, says French employment council,” 3dorders.org, Jan. 18, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/ycpu8mwq. [16] Sean Monahan, Tim Simpson and Laura Taylor-Kale, “3D Printing and the Future of the US Economy,” A.T. Kearney, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/ycsnxnkh. [17] “Research: 3D Printing 2017: Benefits, trends, enterprise applications,” op. cit. [18] “5 Amazing Ways Startups Are Using 3D-Printing Technology,” Uncubed, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/yarlhsxk. [19] “What is Nike Flyprint?” Nike News, April 17, 2018, http://tinyurl.com/ydh7ltaq. [20] Jennifer Post, “10 Amazing 3D Printing Startups,” Business News Daily, April 20, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/y8wqz76q. [21] “3D Printer a Game Changer for Architecture Design|Rietveld & Objet,” Stratasys, March 5, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/yadl3lup. [22] Ibid. [23] “3D Printing: A Manufacturing Revolution,” A.T. Kearney, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/yakyj9s4. [24] “Interactions Releases ‘What Shoppers Want from Retail Technology’ Survey,” Interactions Marketing, May 18, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/y8w3pndj.

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