Ethiopian Veterinary Association Proceedings of the 11th Conference

June 1997

Table of contents

Address: Sheep health management issues in north shoa: an overview i

Efficacy of panacure, rintal and deuxamine against field Editorial EVA Infections of gastro-intestinal parasites in goats 15 P.O. Box 2462 Addis Ababa Epidemiology of bovine fascioliasis in woredas of south gondar Tel: 15-83-39 administrative zone bordering lake tana 20 Effect of level of concentrate supplementation on reproductive performance of crossbred heifers 32

Disease and dogs as threats tothe endangered ethiopian wolf (canis simensis) 38

Code of veterinary ethics for veterinarians practicing in Ethiopia 51

Community based tsetse and trypanosomiasis control Pilot programme using deltamethrin in Konso, Southern Ethiopia 57 Office Location: Treatment trial of sub-clinical mastitis with a polygonaceae herb 66 Compound of region 14 Agricultural Bureaux, Early history of rinderpest epidemic : social, economical and Addis Ababa political crisis in ethiopian history 76

Veterinary services in federal states: an example 83

Lumpy skin disease at kality (bovine nodular dermatitis 89

Epizootic lymphangitis: treatment trial with topical and systemic therapy using iodides and hyperimmune serum 94 Please forward Preliminary survey of bovine gastrointestinal parasites in Diga Leka Woreda 98 Membership fee to: Commercial Bank of Prostaglandin f^ metabolite and progesterone profiles in relation to bacterial Ethiopia, Findings in post-partum cows with and without retained fetal membranes 98 Addis Ababa Branch, Production of bull Semen at Kality 99 Account no: i 600-87791 Preliminary survey of the intermediate host snails of liver flukes in Shoa Administrative Region 100

Suspected cases of hypovitaminosis a in calves, in dera and assessment of clinical sings, injectable vitamin a supplementation and management practice, as a diagnostic method of calves hypovitaminosis A 105

Ethnoveterinary knowledge in central highlands of Ethiopia community - based primary animal health care : |^far pastoral development pilot project experience 110

126 Community based primary animal health ■*care Sponsored by: High mortality of livestock associated with algae toxicity in arsi and bale zone 139 The Ethiopian Science & Technology Commission Tsetse & trypanosomiasis distribution, identification and assessment of and SSDA the socio-economic viabilities of the new vector central approaches in Arba Minch Zuria Woreda 143 Sheep Health Management Issues in North Shoa: Art overview I R 's e r • • ‘ I t t Assefa Deressa Sheno Agricultural Research Center,

Summary

Health disorders in all classes of sheep flock represent a factor that greatly affects the economics of sheep production. The occurrence of sheep disease can be traced mainly to insufficient hygiene, inappropriate feeding and husbandry, as well as specific infectious diseases. Therefore, confirmed laboratory diagnosis based on epidemiological information, prevention and therapy are yet health management issues in the central cool highlands of Ethiopia. The following presentation gives an overview of many of sheep health problems in this area that are relevant and of economic significance in North Shoa and tries to assess the status of sheep health research activities undertaken b> different institutions, research gaps and future directions.

1. Introduction

The livestock sector in North Shoa is of considerable importance to the national economy and to the subsistence of the farming population. The productivity of the sector being very low and with a broad panorama of animal disease, there is great scope for improvement. The low value of an individual animal with its present poor productivity often argues against necessary treatment and prophylactic efforts and farmer awareness of animal health is poorly developed, constraining veterinary activities. Lack of availability of drugs and inadequate utilization and evaluation of traditional medicinal plants which are abundantly available in North Shoa are also impending control measures. Like elsewhere, in the world, livestock in this zone is plagued by a host of infectious diseases. There are difficulties to control transmissible disease because of the movement of livestock herds, insufficient disease investigation and control measures. Vaccination campaigns being undertaken in the area are temporary solutions where other measures of disease control are inadequate. The production of the biological being dispatched are not supported with follow up field research to have a feed back information on their efficacy and utilization at the farm level.

Parasites are also important causes of disease and productivity losses, particularly helminth infections are among the most prevalent and widely distributed ones. Among the common health problems, bacterial and parasitic respiratory infections which are accompanied by the pre-disposing factors like shortage of feeds, inadequate veterinary service and clemency of cool weather in the area are immense. Besides ovine pasteurellosis complicated with multifactorial causative agents and verminous pneumonia which is locally known as "ENGEB" as an indication of a respiratory s>ndrome dyspnoea that has been described by all stock owners is the main cause of sheep mortality. Fascioliasis locally called "WODOMA" is complicated with black disease (Clostridium novyi), parasitic gastro enteritis (PGE), other infectious diseases like sheep pox, foot rot, contagious ophthalmia, foot and mouth disease, reproductive wastage, surgical and traumatic disease are the major ones.

Animal heakh research in North Shoa is still at an early stage of development even though a full time sheep health research activities were started since the foundation of International Livestock Centre in Africa (ILCA) station around Debre Berhan. Other institutions like Shola Regional Veterinary Laboratory, National Veterinary Institute and Sheno Agricultural Research Centre were also dealing with sheep health research whose results have been partially or fully published. However, still much has not been done on other livestock species.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 1 2. PRODUCTION SYSTEM i . _ ■< ditional fanning system of North Sh< jjonsists of crop livestock production system with itial livestock resource. At very (abijve 3000m) agricultural production is limited jcold and precipitous terrain to barli terns* Sheep are kept in large flock sizes of up to •ck sizes in the highland field crijjps, $|tem varies markedly from small flocks of 2 -10 o medium flocks of 10- 30 depending tori lg intensity.

Sheep pocks surveyed in the region consists of tii* ;§rq^itions of breeding females (60%) and young stock m % ) with a lower proportions ( ^ )io fi While the ratio of males of less th in one year old with females; of the same*** sjtoost 1:1, the ratio for older males to females of the sai ip age class appears to be 1:10 - 26 fA ? et al., 1985; Zelalem and Fletcher, 1993; SRC, 1996). This implies the heavy offtake of younjgjj |als particularly of males at an early age prior to attain* g mature body weight. Menzfc shew bi i@ype& are found in North Shoa and some exotic genot) )es like Awassi, Cooridale, Hamps ’ sen imported for crossbreeding purposes with farmer i, but crossbred sheep as yet repregen&ily i small proportion of the total population. Sheep produc ion relies on communal grazing, M ow *1j id, crop residues with no supplementary feeding and mi rimum health interventions. Maying ijs uric |lled with one to three rams run. together with the flock t iroughout the year which results ik yie )ing with a peak in certain periods. Docking the fat ail of breeding females for ease Of r j Ijfis commonly practised. Traditional castration of rams ii common among the majdrity of|a sti|tes are supplemented with grains and pulses for salt during festival periods when both d( ride increase.

As to hp the vast potential of livestock st m ^in North Shoa a holistic approach to the major constn ints is essential issue in which ?h is one important case to be given due consid ration and, hence, animal io*ild be launched towards effective disease investi #tion, diagnostic works and evaluate : It is along this line that sheep research program in Nor i Shoa was officially vested in lAR| search Centre) to give more emphasis to sheep impro\ sinent programs.

Since 995, Animal Health Division has bf Ited to execute sheep health research program, though it does not seem to have received as,., iition as it deserves. The objective of the division is to as ure the survival of the experimental j ^greventing excessive mortality in the flock which to a gr &t extent depends on the treatment lentation of vaccination programs against major disease The second remote pjbjective fot ie; improvement of the general welfare of the commilnity which can give attention tb ' health problems affecting the herd/flock and d ial animal in the mandate area.

Therefore, this paper tries to assess the status|ofshe|p health research activities undertaken by different institui MISin North Shoa, research gaps andfutureJ§tf&tions in North Shoa.t

3. Statis of Sheep Health Research in Norttii Shoa

In orde to utilise the existing sheep resource? in Nti . research work has been started by various instituti aris. Recently, Sheno sheep research has been engaged with the major health constrapits to sheep production that are p|teritii and that have not been adequately so far in the area.

3.1 1arasitic Diseases:-

Helmin h infections and diseases are among the. lost prevalent and widely distributed of all the enzooti parasitosis of the cool highlands^ of Shoa. Emaciation, anaemia, diarrhoea and »

Ethiopia) Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 2 mortalities have been reported by several workers. Agyemang et al., (1985), and Mukassa Mugerwa et al., (1986) reported that mortality rates range from 6.5 to 22.4%.

Wilson et al., (1985) reported a pre weaning mortality rate of 12.6% of all lambs bom, with death often resulting from fasciola, pneumonia, diarrhoea, starvation miss mothering exposure (SME) complex and undetermined causes. Endoparasite were the second important causes of morbidity and mortality. Njau et al., (1988 a) gave an annual sheep mortality of 13.6%, 43.3% which occurred in young lambs due to SM I. dystocia and abomasal impaction.

Mulugeta et al, (1990), reported yearly losses of Ethiopian Birr 700 million due to endoparasite including fascioliasis in Ethiopia and an annual loss of Eth. Birr 350 million due to decreased productivity alone caused by bovine fasciola and 49 million because of ovine fasciola.

Table 1. Proportional morbidity rate of on farm sheep at Debre Berhan.

Primary causes(146 cases) (%) Percentage Infectious causes Contagious ophthalmia 19.2 Enteritis 23.3 Circling disease 4.1 Pneumonia (bacterial and/or verminous) 30.1 Other (ectoparasitism, endoparasitism, foot and mouth disease, local abscess) 5.6 Nutritional and deficiency causes (enzootic ataxia, simple indigestion) 2.1 Miscellaneous causes °hysical injury 8.9 Others (foot 'Ot, hernia) 1.4 L ndertermined causes 5.5 Secondary causes (24 cases) Ectoparasitism 58.3 Endoparasitism 16.7 Others (contagious ophthalmia, foot rot, hoof deformity, local abscess, 25.1 pneumonia)

Source:-Tekelye Bekele, 1992ab.

The report discusses that there were 146 cases with primary cases of illness grouped under infectious, nutritional and miscellaneous causes on the farms. The proportional morbidity rate for pneumonia was the highest followed by enteritis, contagious ophthalmia physical injury and 16.4% had additional secondary causes of which ectoparasitism and endoparasitism were also most important.

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3.2 Gastrointestinal parasites:-

Table 2.

] Month Animals Fasciola 2 Positive Moniezia D.f. M.c . i examined riimphistoma vfay 42 - 47.6 } "5 J 42i0 23.8 0.0 7.1 fune 42 42.9 ' ; 23.6 7.1 m 19.0 • **>jCi ruly 42 26.2 ’ 29.0 4.8 14.3 11.9 Vtigust 42 26.2 I V 31.0 7.1 16,7 30.9 .;t' September 42 4 QV5 i ■=^ * 16:7 0.0 9.5 16.7 October 42 14.3 \ 23,8 11.9 9;S 9.5 November 42 m ! i f 19.0 16.7 7.1 16.7 December 42 38.1 E l i ? ; o 2.4 11.9 9.5 anuary-96 42 45.2 > 1 ■ 35.7 9.5 ^ 7.1 7.1 February 42 2$.6 3 , : i J 50*0 9.5 9:5 23.8 Vlarch 42 31.7 } ; I 9.5 7.1 21.4 Vpril 42 45.2 * . 1 26.2 16.7 7.1 7.1 dean 42 34.7 i' i '£ 2 8 ^ 9.9 9,7 15

D.f. =| Dictyocaulus filaria, M.c = Muellef !; Sourc e:- SRC, unpublished data

Table 3. Mean monthly strongyle EBGcoi at seven sites around Sheno

Anifiials 7 Month EPG (mean) EPG (range) May 1995 ■;v ^ : ! ;3 ■ 158 Or 1250 June 'f 312 0-1550 July i 394 0-1550 August ■ M r ' M * 879 0-8000 September i. ;£ V* : 358 0-1350 October m ■ !:!! . ' 411 . . . 0-2550 November m ■ a [V ’ 282 ' 0-1150 December ^ j E 193 0-650 January 1996 IE..: 183 0-850 February : :a 42 :b 277 0-800 March 42 1 f0 - 311 0-2900 April . ;i 4§t ’ . ^ | ’ 103 ’ 0-750 Mean 4? ; i f 322 0-1946

Sourc e:-SRC, unpublished data L i

Ethiop in Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 4 Table 4. Mean strongly EPG for different categories of Sheep in seven sites around Sheno May 1995-1996

Animals Mean EPG Category examined Sex: Male 120 257 Female 384 342 Age: Young(lyr) 359 350 Health Status Sick 98 893 not sick 406 184 Faecal consistency pelleted 283 296 Diarrhoeic 221 355

Source:-SRC, unpublished data

Out [of the 504 faecal samples examined Fasciola hepatica and Paramphistoma eggs, egg of , Moniezia spp., larvae of Dictyocaulus filaria and Muellerius capillarius and eggs of Strongyle were identified as the prominent internal parasites in all sites.

Maximum infection rates with Fasciola, Paramphistoma, Moniezia, Dictyocaulus.f & M.c species were at 47.6, 50, 23.8, 6.7 & 30.9% respectively (Table 1). Peak infection of lung nematodes was noted to be in August for Dictyocaulus filaria and Muellerius capiUaris was mainly diagnosed in shori; rains (February-March) and Dictyocaulus filaria was in long rains (June - August). The peak prevalence rate of Fasciola also occurred in January, April and May (short wet season).

Meah egg count of Strongyle varied from 103 to 879, ranging from 0 - 8000 egg with peak in August and (March (Table 2). The mean minimum EPG 103 was recorded in April. High mean egg of Strokgyle (1900) and (916.7) were observed at Kottu and Chacha sites with low mean EPG (425) at on-station. Indicating among the various animal characteristic categories (Table 4) remarkable differences were observed for Fasciola infection between young (44.33%) and adult (34.87%) sick (65.')4%) and not sick (18.54%), diarrheic (37.56%) and pelleted faeces (32.51%). Young sheep (15%) were more prone than adult (6.1 %) by Dictyocaulus filaria.

Appreciable differences of EPG count was also observed in health status of animals, out of 98 sick 893 jmean EPG count and from 406 not sick 184 mean EPG count was found (Table 3). Different factors influence the egg out put of GI parasites which include the age of the host, the spp. and age of the iparasite population, the overall health of the host (including the nutritional level), and physiological factors such as pregnancy and previous exposure to parasites (Tekelye, et al.y 1987).

The! relationship between mean rainfall (RF) and mean monthly strongyle egg count were positively correlated (Fig. 1). The peak mean Strongyle EPG follows the bimodal rainfall pattern in the area. Thei first peak occured during the main rainy season (August) and continues until early dry season of October. The second peak occured during the short rainy season in (February - March). Besides the proijninent internal parasites identified by faecal examination, routine necropsies were carried out on- station and revealed that cyst of Coenuris cerebralis (Multiceps multiceps), Cysticercus tenicolis, Stilezia spp., Moniezia spp., Haemonchus contortust Fasciola hepatica, Dictyocaulus filaria, Trichuris spp., were the worms frequently encountered. Infective larvae of Haemonchus contortus was; also detected by cultural development using Baerman technique on station. Although lung woiims were best recovered and quantified by the Baerman apparatus, in this study it was recovered

Ethiopian Veterinary Association J 1th Proceeding Page 5 r-i ■■ Jf - « f

i. faeces suspended in water over night atfrom faeces suspended in water over night atfrom temperature, where as faecal culture preparation was late arrival of an incubator in the centre. This folding is in agreement with Njau £t al •0) who reported that some sheep in the flock pass< 4 low number of strongyle ejgg thjfou; the year. However, the low levels presently enco uttered on the contrary to previous w£>rks au et al., (1988) caused morbidity as reflected by sick hagostomum columbinum, Bunostoikun pc^haluM and Tridhuris The i tijidy conducted to determine theprtyalen qf endoparasite of the highland sheep in Ethiopia Teke ye et al (1992 & 1993) indicated mat m< y y prevalence of positive nematode eggs varied from I& 6 up to 49.3% and 7.1 - 50i7^&^pa$ti grazing and stubble grazing sheep respectively.

3.2.2 Trematodes:

Fasci iliasis, due to F. hepatica is a serious pr< m in North Shoa. Its presence in places 1800 - 2000i i: above sea level depends on the ■ Of its intermediate host. The analysis on sheep lossei at ILCA Debre Berhan Station from 19$£ -• 86 showed Fascioliasis, neonatal mortality and coeni riasis to be the three major causes resjul |8 % mortality (Njau et a l, 1988). The mortality due t > \ fascioliasis was 45.6% of 1Q25 sheep rfie rate of transmission of this, diseases is high follow ing the heavy rains in July and Augfost di tfcthe favorable situation for the multiplication of their rttermediate hosts. The infection rates as; as the load of liver flukes gradually increase until hey reach peaks in October and jfov Scott and Goll (1977) recommended two treatn eijnts; one in November and the otherln Ji for the control of fascioliasis.

Table 5. Median liver flukes found in the li^jfe* of sheep necropsied at Debre Berhan

Season Debre Bei;haiif ait

^>ng rain 25 0 - 20 26 0 - 54 Short rain 0 -9

Sourc : Tekelye Bekele, 1992

Ethiopi n Veterinary Association 11™ Proceeding Page 6 3.2.3 Cestode:

The prevalence of Cysticercosis and Hydatidosis was 37.1% and 16.4 % of 560 sheep respectively (T

Table 6. Prevalence of Cysticercosis and Hydatidosis in sheep

Metacestode Total sheep Number infected % infected examined Taenia hydatigena 560 208 37.1 Hydatid cyst 560 92 16.4 T. hydatigena & Hydatid cyst 560 30 5.4

Source: Teke ye Bekele, 1992

A distinct seasonal pattern of infection in sheep in the central highlands shows the possibility of developing strategic drenching using effective anthelmintic. Different recommendations on strategic drenching methods were given by different studies.

Based on observed improvements in weight gains, the period of maximum infection and subsequent low worm egg count, Njau et al., (1990) recommended two treatments per year with a broad spectrum antnelmintic. The first given 1 - 2 months after the on-set of the long rains (July - August) to kill newly acquired nematodes and the second in the middle of the short rains (February - March) to kill arrested larvae resuming development.

Hailemariam et al., (1990) based on-farm drenching trials suggested three strategic treatments of all flocks with all parasite age effective flukicides (Rafozinide) and nematocide (Fenbendazole) combined or separately. The first at the end of the long rainy season (October),-the second at the end of the dry period and about a month before the short rainy season (February), and the last a month before the start of the long rainy season (May). The use of at least one tactical treatment against both trematodes and nematodes during the highest risk period (early July) to assist the most susceptible groups in the sheep flock was also suggested.

Tembely et al., (1996) determined the seasonal pattern of development' and survival of eggs to infective larvae (L3) from an on-station epidemiological study involving the use of tracer lambs and monitoring the pasture contamination levels. Number of nematode larvae on pasture increase with the on-set of the rains (June) peaked in August/September and progressively decreased to undetectable level in the dry season. Worm burden in lambs bom in the wet season followed the same patten . The critical time for preventive measures to initiate treatment for different classes of stock was recommended based on the observed distinct seasonal pattern. Treatment of breading ewes for nematode infections at the start of the rainy season (late June/early July) to reduce pasture contamination around parturition and prevent newly bom lambs from being exposed to heavily contaminated pasture. A second treatment in September/October (beginning of the dry season) to reduce the effects of any infection from residual larvae. The first treatment for fascioliasis is recommended in August to clear up adult flukes acquired during the previous grazing season. A second and third treatment in November/December and January/February should be applied to re move both developing immature and adult flukes acquired during the current grazing season. The first treatment against gastrointestinal nematodes for lambs and yearlings bom in the wet season should be ir August/September when the pasture larvae count is at maximum followed by a second treatment schedule as for adult sheep, that is in July and September of the following year.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l tn Proceeding Page 7 1<»lf

3.3 External Parasites:

Comm( ri ectoparasite of sheep in the Ethiopian ighlands are O. ovis (nasal bots), Melophagus ovinus Sheep keds), Ripicephalus cam&ri e, Mites and Lice (Damalina spp.) Njau et al., 195 ) Tekelye et al., (1992) and they mc|st qo Onlyplay a secondary role to the main causes of death, dhe study undertaken at Debre Berhap has that there were no haemo-parasite and ticks were sc arce, however, the sub normal PCV*value| wfere probably due to the effects of endoparasite particu ajrly H. contortus and F. hepatica.

3.4 nfectious Disease;

Primary pauses of infectious origin accounted! for St of the observed morbidity 88;4% on farm and mortal* y 72,9% on farm Tekelye et al., (1^92). \ infectious diseases like bacterial pneumonia, contagi' ms ophthalmia, foot and mouth $ise. others (local abscess, mastitis, postpartum septicer i a, abortion, contagious pustular |erma| >rf), foot rot, hernia, hoof deformity) were reporte( as the primary causes of proportional ini dity and mortality rates of on farm sheep around Debre I erhan Table 2.

3.4.1 Respiratory Disease:

Respiratory diseases are of great economic qonce: in sheep production in central cool highlands of Ethiopig. In North Shoa, where sheep are Smpo livestock units, out-breaks of diseases often occur a id a considerable number of sheej? die nanifesting signs of respiratory embracement. Recentlr in October, November and December of .994, an outbreak of a severe respiratory disease had ooc irred which caused a great economic lossjthorough high mortality and morbidity (MOA, 1994). The potential respiratory diseases of sheejj are: Pasteurellosis, Peste des Petis Ruminants, Maedivjfci na, pulmonary adenomatosis and' venrjmous pneumonia. Pasteurellosis is a Complex disease ntity and develops when the immunip systMi of the animal is compromised by stress factors such as crowding, transportation, exposure to -irdught and inclement weather! Intercurrent respiratt infections by Chlamydia pissat, Vims^! (Parainfluenza - 3 -, reovirus, adenovirus, and respiratc syncytial virus), Mycoplasma s|p {Mtlovipneumoniae, M. drgini, M. agalactiae and others) nd Dictyocaulus filaria can also suppress^ ie immune mechanisms of the respiratory tract, The itunistic microorganisms, pasteuretla hah olytica and rarely P. multocida (A & D) which are the ormal microflora of upper respiratory trail get a chance to come down to the lung and to cause se isr respiratory disease, pasteurellosis (Gill® r* 1987).

In Nort Shoa, despite the annual vaccination pic am against pneumonic pasteurellosis with a monova ejnt vaccine (inactivated P. multocida A|j ain; NVI product) high moralities following respiratc ry distress are noticed (Gelagay, 1996). iu£, the disease is getting a high priority at the level, due to its significant economic losis! tjirough high mortality and morbidity, lack of pleasure and high cost of treatment of si animals. According to (Gelagay, 1996) the possibletespiratory infectious agents in * * Shoa are the following:

4.1.1 Bacteria:

Pasteurella haemolytica Staphylococcus spp. Streptococcus spp. Salmonella spp. Escheria coli Corynebacterium spp (C. pseudotubei tylosis and G. pyogens) Pseudomonas spp. (P. pseudomallei)- Mycoplasma spp. *

Ethiopian1 reterinary Association 11° Proceeding Page 8

1 Chlamydia psittaci ovis Mycobacterium bovis and ovis (unusual) Actinobacillus spp.

3.4.1.2 Viruses:

Peste des petits ruminants Parainfluenza - 3 - Reovirus adeno vims sheep pox virus Respiratory syncytial virus Maedi-visna virus Blue tongue virus border disease virus

Of all the possible respiratory infectious agents in sheep P. haemolytica rarely P. multocida, PI - 3 adenovirus, reovirus, RSV, M. ovipneumoniae, M. agalactiae, M, arginini are prevalent in North Shoa (Gelagay, 1996). The prevalence of PPR virus specific antibodies%were analyzed using ELISA technique from sheep sera collected in July, August, October, December and March. Of all sera tested high sero prevalence (27.8% positive) was observed in March. Three hundred fifty one sheep sera collected from International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) station at Debre Berhan and selected fanner associations were examined for the Maedi-visina virus group 135 antigen specific antibodies by agar gel immunodiffusion test and 13 (3.7%) were found positive with development of precipitation line. Those sheep sera which gave positive results for farmer test were checked for P28 antigen specific antibodies but no one was screened positive (Gelagay, 1996). A total of 72 sheep sera, by mixing three sera of different sheep together increase the antibodies in the sera, were examined for border disease viruses specific antibodies with competitive ELISA technique and the prevalence of border disease was in the range of 7.5 - 22.5%. A total of 160 sheep sera collected in March 1996 were examined for Pasteurella haemolytica A sero types at dilutions of 1/20, 1/40 and 1/80. All sero types tested had shown hemagglutination reactions with a number of sera variations existed in the prevalence of the different sero types (see Table 7),

Those sheep sera showing hemagglutination reaction at 1/40 dilution and above were taken as positive, but 1/20 not taken as positive to minimize mistakes due to sero types cross reactions (Gelagay, 1996). The prevalence of P. haemolytica A2 and !8 were higher than the rest, 36% and 35% respectively, while sero type A5 and A6 were the least. There was highly significant variation among serotype. The level of antibody titer (geometric mean for positive) was high for A13, while the least of Al.

Table 7. Sero prevalence of Pasteurella haemolytica around Debre Berhan.

Serotype Al A2 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A ll A13 A14 20 38 15 39 9 25 19 36 3 5 35 40 14 25 7 10 15 40 3 20 20 19 80 7 32 13 11 16 26 32 11 Not tested 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 •Not positive 59 72 46 32 51 75 39 49 67 65 %p 20 37 45 29 20 32 47 24 31 42 41 %p40 13 36 4 14 16 35 2 29 33 19 Geo mean. pos. 1/20 28 47 22 44 33 39 21 55 30 31 Geo mean. pos. 1/40 50 59 40 59 54 49 40 59 61 52

Source: Gelagay, 1996

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l 10 Proceeding Page 9 3.5 M inagement of reproduction: ;ji The poor twinning rate (5%) reported for Men# shee{|jhas been found to be due partly to embryonic losses as i ; was observed in slaughter house sti|ly (I^^sa-M ugerw a and Tekelye, 1988) that 24% of the 432 mixed highland pregnant ewes carried tw w ituses. The difference between a successful conceptioi '(96%) and fertilization rates (>90%) and! subsequent lambing rates of orily 72 - 85% also impl: ss the occurrence of a moderate prenaM embryo mortality of up to 28% (Mukassa- Mugerwa and Lahlow-Kassai, 1995). Out ptttfin lit lize has been demonstrated to increase by mating ev es weighing 25kg or above (Mukalsa-MI §|wa et al., 1994) litter size could also be increased 6 1.23 -1.50 by treating ewes with 2|0 Op IU pregnant mare serum gonadotropin. In an expert ent to study the reproductive and pr^ucti^ p^rfojmance of Menz sheep at Debre Berhan (ILCA, 19 59), supplementary feeding (30Qg of’jwifer* “and 150g 1 of noug cake 1 providing .., J,? n8 'NJ TT of * DE and 1 #g of CP per head per day) inpre&ed tfltion rate compared with controlled group animals ( 5% vs 17%). Lambing rates, lamb rival and ewe milk yield betiefitted from jSupplemer tation. Increased litter size in the| trac Sal system may not be expressed in total productivi y unless accompanied by improved sheep gertient practices.

3.5.1 In< reasing lamb survival:

A positive! correlation has been found between typef fibirth and weight at birth which in trun is strongly r< lated to lamb survival in Menz a ti$ feed in the third trimester of pregnancy ignificant y increases dam weight gain, lamb|birth t and pre-weaning survival. Losses are particular! r jhigh (63%) in lambs weighing belo^ Ik tj j?irth but declining to 31.2% between 1 and Ikg and 1.1% between 2 and 3kg. In-order'to ipsure; iyal rate of 90% Menz lambs have to be )om at 2k ; or more weight which can be achieyed b; feeding ewes extra supplement in addition to gazing dt jng the last 50 days of pregnancy iM Mugerwa et al., 1994). Health problems md seasor of birth have also shown to significantly lienee lamb survival. When some improved health inte ventions were applied a lowered pre^we; ^mortality rate of 12.6% has been achieved (Wilson el al., 1985) in the traditional system! wi great variation between flocks (2.1 vs 2.9) aifferences in individual management abjtfiti season of births (4.6 vs 21.4). Higher mortality r ttjes have been observed among 3 |lty than in wet season (Mukassa-Mugerwa t al., 1994 SRC, 1996). f 4* Rei earch gap

'fhe prelim inary studies conducted recently in l|ebreij #ian area with participation of extern- ship veterinary tjidents from the Faculty of Vet M< ^ber Zeit, have assessed the role of trivalent vaccine (P | 3 adcno virus and Reovirus), evaluate NVI produce P. multocida A vaccine for $heep, assc sped serologically the distribution of P. \molytica sero types in sheep and identified Other respii ajtory pathogens. But conclusive assessm< j ojn the protection of these vaccines have not been done liie to the absence of respiratory disease oj |te:eak during their study period. Therefore, further vac jrne trial at on-station and on-farm level ling different viral and bacterial vaccines is recomraeni( able. i

ery little jvprk has been achieved in the area oj iplogy of small ruminant respiratory disease id develi ent of expensive diagnostic- methods;; ght contribute to this respect. Various hypothesis e not yet tested on ovine pastejurellosis tf i control, economics and general impact in le product ity of sheep in this agro-ecological zone. ^

Regarding /eterinary supplies there is a limitation to raCccinate village flock and for those flock which are liance full to get immunization there is no 'eed back information on the effect of mass vaccination on morbidity and mortality rate?. Health .gement interventions and extension work is also liniited to improve the efficacy of ^accin^ a vaccine against ovine

thiopian Vet rinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 10 pasteurellosis is at disposal, the existence of large antigenic diversity poses serious problems yrtth regard to medical treatment, therefore, identification of sero types of Pasteurella requires further research in order to produce a polyvalent vaccine in correlation with current respiratory diseases; due to PI-3-, PPR, Mycoplasma and lung worm.

Epidemiological information on the distribution of major small ruminant disease, seasonal incidence, animals affected by age, sex, the proportion of animals affected are not well documented, therefore, there is a gap of information in the collection and management of epidemiological data which help in properly planning disease control strategies.

Despite its likely economic importance, helminthiasis is given a low priority in the highlands of North Shoa because of its common sub clinical nature. Hence, there is a gap of information to study in detail the economic importance of helminths parasites of sheep and their contribution to low productivity, low production and high mortality.

Fetal, parturient and postnatal diseases are the frequently observed health problems of the new bom .. lambs and kids in North Shoa. The existence of a neonatal, post natal, pre natal deaths necessitates a diagnostic approach to identify and isolate the causative agents in order to device a systematic prevention/control measures. With this regard, there is a need to establish a system of recording lamb mortality and the area of management, which require improvement.

Like in all farming communities in the country, very little is done in North Shoa to improve the overall management status of livestock in general, and in sheep in particular. Lack of adequate and balanced nutrition, backward and poor housing facilities, inadequate veterinary care and disease contro and lower productivity traits of indigenous flock remain to be the major obstacles standing against improved and greater exploitation of sheep.

There was little resistance and susceptibility of the improved and productive breeds and their crosses of sheep to disease and parasites, hence, there is a gap of information to identify superior breeds and individuals within breeds for worm burden resistance.

Traditional veterinary remedies and practices are rarely documented; rather the knowledge is transmitted verbally from generation to generation, besides, except some commonly known practices much of it remains to be secret among traditional healers or not immediately available to be used by livestock owners.

5. Current Activities and Future Direction

5.1 Current research:

The current program of ILRI at Debre Berhan focuses on identifying genetic resistance of indigenous sheep against endoparasite, where as sheep research program at Sheno include:

5.1.1 Health:

Monitor on-station sheep health problems and determine the causes of sheep disease and mortality;

Productivity responses to internal parasite control;

Evaluation of traditional herbs for their anthelmintic value;

On-station and on-farm epidemiological investigation of ovine respiratory disease and vaccine trial in the cool highlands of North Shoa.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 11 5.1.2 Breei Evaluation and Improvement:

Characterize on and identifying sheep breed types in the lara region; Appraisal of kin quality produced by Awassi x Menz ssbred sheep; Selection for creased meat and, wool production Mt ie: Menz breed; On-farm moi toring and systematic characterization [local and crossbred sheep, production in North Shoa a South Wello (S&NET and UNDP Assist programs)

5.1.3 Repr duction:

Assess the present constraints on high twinning in the cool highlands and develope management o support high twinning; ;

-station e\ aluatipn of the reproductive performitnce g pure bred Menz and Awassi x Menz cross ad sheep ui der different feed management levels; 6. Futui e Direction

It ip evident at with a few exceptions, much of the ay$ [able epidemiological data and information arej of limite areas, conducted for the last decades, m there is a noticeable need in the quality, quantity and Momentum of epidemiological res h [tike future. .Disease that fall in the great economic an public health importance should fje and research directed towards their control. Thi following are diseases that fall iib ti itjegory o f' economical and public health importance ii the region of North Shoa. Bronehd-pttdt jjjiia, Fascioliasis, sheep pox, lung worm, coenurosis, F )ot and Mouth Disease (FMD), GI piu's Pack leg, Anthrax, Foot rot, Septicemia, Enteritis, Abortion, Hyperacute infection, \ ^conjuctivities, Contagious Caprine Plepropneum >nia (CCPP), Dermatophiliasis andjPesfr petis Ruminants (PPR) ate the major small rumina] .t diseases which require urgent inveftigatiBI and research priorities. •tf r Epidemiologi ;al and pathological study and rational co; >1 measures of the major small ruminant disease listed above and other livestock species are of pg lount importance to be carried out in the region. I.- -im Bailed on the information already generated in Nocth Shdj With regard to small ruminants respiratory disease the fo lowing are recommended for furtheiistudifcf :

Sinjce the can sative agents of respiratory diseases- are s | compile, further investigation is necessary witti their ord ;t of importance to seek rational control m# sures.

To formulate a multivalent pasteurella vaccine, ietejm^ a#on of various sero types of pasteurella species in di flprent parts of the region eveniw the lo u n tj^ ^ th ^ whole is of great importance. Apart from being de ected with particular frequency rate Studiediri North Shoa Al is endowed with several virulence fac i >rs and better immuno-genecity. ©wing| 0ithis criteria it can be the candidate of vaccinal straii

Besides a fie i evaluation of the efficacy of vaccines ;ainst ovine pneumonic pasteurellosis the hematologica and histopathological changes caused b$ wine respiratory infections and effect of disease on hei latological status of Menz sheep are fclso a# as of research needs.

Prevalence sti dies of tick borne haemoparasites ip low* ids of North Shoa, metabolic disorders, deficiency dis sases and reproductive wastage areialso of concern for further research in the zone.

Ethiopian Veterti try Association 11“ Proceeding Page 12 Although there are some research achievements in the area of helminthiasis in the highlands of North Shoa, still there is a need of urgent investigation in the following areas:-

The economic impact of chronic and sub clinical helminthiases, with particular reference to parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE) and Fascioliasis in traditionally reared stock; The relationship between hosts genetic variability and acquired resistance to GI nematodes. Host-parasite relation ships, with emphasis on the influence of malnutrition and concurrent infections on the immunobiological responses, health and productivity of the host.

In general, future studies should focus on multi-disciplinary, large-scale, on-farm and laboratory studies.

References

Agyemang K., Negussie A., Voorthuize A. and Anderson F.M. (1985). A rapid survey of sheep production in the traditional sector of Debre Berhan, Ethiopian highlands. Sm. Rum. Agr. pp. 175 - 185.

Blood D.C. and Radostitis O.M. (1989). Veterinary Medicine. 7th ed.: Baillier, Tindall, London, pp. 782.

Gelagay Ayelet (1986). Epidemiological and Serological Investigations on Multifactorial Ovine Respiratory Diseases and Vaccine Trials on the Highlands of Northern Shoa.

Gelmour N.J.L and Gilmour J.S. (1989). Pasteurellosis of sheep. Pasteruellosis and pasteurellosis. ed.; Adam C. and Rutter J.M. pp. 223 - 262.

Graber M.M. (1975). Helminths and helminthiasis of different domestic and wild animals of Ethiopia. Bull. Anim. Health Prod. Afr., 23: 57 - 86.

Lemma B., Gebreab F. an dTedela S. (1985), Studies on Fascioliases in four selected sites in Ethiopia. Vet. Parastiol., 18: 29 - 37,

Mamo B.} Gebereab F. and Tedela S. (1981). Observations on Dictyocaulus filaria (Rudolphi, 1809), B.

Mukasa-Mugerwa E. and Tekelye B.(1988). The reproductive performance of Ethiopian highland sheep. Anima. Reprod. Sci., 17: 95 - 102.

Mukasa-Mugerwa E., Said, A.N., and Lahlow-Kassi, A., Sherington, J. and Mutiga, E.R. (1994). Birth weight as a risk factor for potential lamb mortality and the effects of stage of pregnant ewe supplementation and gestation weight gain in Ethiopia Menz sheep. Prev. Vet. Med., 19: 45-56,

Mukasa-Mugerwa E. and Lahlou-Kassi, A. (1995). Reproductive performance and productivity of Menz sheep in the Ethiopian highlands. Small ruminant Research., 17: 167-177.

Njau B.C., Kaeisali O.B., Scholteus R.G. and Degefa M. (1988). Review of sheep mortality around ILCA Debre Berhan station, 1982 - 1986. Presented for publication to ILCA Bull.

Njau B.C., R.G Scholteus and O. Kaeisali. (1990). Peretites of sheep at the International Livestock Center for Africa. Debre Berhan. Ethiopia.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11™ Proceeding Page 13 p

Scott J.M. ai d Goll P.H. (1977). The epidemiology aii| anthelmintic control of ovine fascioliasis in the Ethiopia! Scentra! highlands. Br. Vet. J. 133: 2f3 -

SRC (Sheno Research Centre). (1996). Progress Repor^ f Sheep Production Research Division.

Tekelye Bek®le. ( 1989). Animal health constraints in^fcall ruminant production. Training manual fo t the tours ?l in small ruminant production tech^ques^B^C^ 1989. Addis Ababa. I ■ -U . . v...... Tekelye Be! , O.B. Kassali and Woldeab WolSema^irft, (1S92). Endoparasite prevalence of the highland she ip in Ethiopia.

Tekelye Be' , Mukassa-Mugerewa E. and Schdltens. fer. (1987). Seasonal changes in nematode fapcal egg c( unts of sheep in Ethiopia. ILCA No

Tekelye Bek;;le, Bruns, E., Kasali, O.B., andiMu^ai ij|;1953). The effect of endoparasites on the reproductive perrormance of on farm sheep in thf Ek n highlands. Indian J. Anim. Set, 63: 8 - 121. Tekelye Bek sle, Tadesse W., Lahalon H., an^l SI M (1?92). Factors affecting morbidity and mortality on farm and on-station in the Ethiopian] dpieep. Actatropicat 52: 99 -109.

Zelalem Alle nahyehu and Fletcher, I. 1993. Srdall it productivity in central Ethiopia. In: Proceed. 4th National Livestock Improvement^ c4 (tiLIC), 13 15 Nov. 1S!91,;A. Ababa, Ethiopia. IAi vA . Ababa. j

4 j.

li

Ethiopian Vete nary Association 1 IProceeding Page 14 EFFICACY OF PANACURE, RINTAL AND DEUXAMINE AGAINST FIELD INFECTIONS OF GASTRO-INTESTINAL PARASITES IN GOATS

Nesru Hussein, Abubeker Hassen and Zeleke Asayye*

Abstract

! The anthelmintic activity of panacure, rintal and deuxamine was investigated in goats naturally infected with gastro-intestinal parasites at Adami tulu, where illegal open market drug trading is a common practice. Twenty four goats of local breed were allotted to a control or treated group of 6 animals each, on the basis of faecal egg counts. Animals on the treated groups received oral , administration of panacure or rintal or deuxamine in accordance with the manufacturer's dosage. On the 22nd day of post-treatment, 3 animals from each group were slaughtered and the worm burdens of treated animals compared with those of non-treated controls. The effect of treatment on egg development was observed in faeces collected prior to treatment and 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 days after treatment. The efficacy of the 3 drugs was assessed by reduction in the faecal egg count. Panacure, rintal and deuxamine had an efficacy of 100%, 99.82% and 89.54% in suppressing egg output respectively. The maximum number of eggs were eliminated from the faeces by 72 hours after ■ treatment with all the anthelmintic. The efficacy of panacure was 99.94% and 98.20% against adult stages of haemonchus and oesophagostomum respectively, while that of rintal was 99.94% and 94.35% against the same parasites respectively. Deuxamine was effective 99.94% only against haemonchus adult worms. The sizes of the bunostomum and trichuris burdens in the treated group did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) from that of the control group. On testing the effectiveness of the drugs in another herd of goats about 30km away where anthelmintic treatment was rarely practiced, it was found that all of them had an efficacy greater than 99%. In view of this, it is concluded that there is a tendency of resistance being developed to deuxamine. However, the magnitude of the problem is not known.

Introduction

In livestock production the use of antiparasitic drugs to control internal and external parasites is a widespread practice through-out the world. The number of domestically available broad-spectrum anthelmintic drugs has increased since the introduction of thiabendazole in the early 1960s. The main objective of using various chemotherapeutic agents is to control the adverse effects of parasites on the productivity of the host before the worm burden reaches a high level and the resistance of the host is compromised (2). Parasites severely hamper the productivity of affected animals. A number of anthelmintics have been developed by various drug manufacturing firms. The major ones which are available on domestic markets are benzimidazoles, probenzimidazoles, imidothiazoles and salicylanilides.

According to Prichard et al (5), anthelmintic resistance is defined as a significant increase in the ability of individual worms within a strain to tolerate doses of a compound (toxicant) which would otherwise prove lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same species. There are numerous reports on anthelmintic resistance from various parts of the world and very few from Ethiopia. There is no clear cut policy on the use of drugs and anthelmintic in the country.

There is illegal drug trading in open mid-rift valley markets. Farmers in the area purchase and irrationally apply these drugs on their animals. Faecal sampling taken at Anono village in Adami tulu wereda before and after a proper dosage of deuxamine boli (tetramizole) from 7 goats revealed that faecal egg count reduction was less than 90%, an indication of drug resistance (6). The same

* Adami tulu Livestock Research Center, P.O. Box 35, Zeway, Ethiopia Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11In Proceeding Page 15 trend wa observed in goats of Adami tulu res center where fenbendazole has been used regularly it intervals of 5 months for a period The purpose of this stud]£ was therefore to determine the efficacy of 3 domestically available ,i$|mpowids namely: fenbendazole febantel and tetramiso e against naturally acquired species iifttestinal and pulmonary parasites of goats so that only .ppropriate ones could be used.

Material; nd Methods

Animal a id Treatments

Twenty f< ur goats of the local breed (9 mini selected on the basis of nematode egg per gram (EP ) counts of faeces from flock coho; |ls were ear tagged and randomly allotted to 4 s of 6 goats each. The goats! w§re fpr 2 weeks for acclimatization prior to treatment groups 1, 2 and 3 were given fe (Hpechest AG/panacure), febantel (bayer Leverku siti/Rintal) and tetramizole (GAP. S.A./d e) boli at a rate of 5 mg/kg, 5mg/kg and 40mg/kg jody weight respectively. Groi freated) served as controls. Control goats were mai tained separately from treated goatf. g^ats were held in enclosures with concrete floors unc j:it conditions to avoid further infectioii.

Samples ollection and examination

Faecal sarfiples were collected from the red als prior to treatment and 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 days al er treatment and processed of reco and larvae using Mcmaster and Baermann jmethod re ipectively. Three faecal samples w ed for each animal and the mean EPG and ilarval con it determined. On the 22 d^.y atment, 3 animals from each group were jslaughtere I; the gastro-intestinal tract (GITJ ich animal were collected separately and examined for the presence of GIT helmini worms by standard procedures (3, 7). Population distribution of infective larvae wasi e0 after faecal culture.

Statistical analysis

Efficacy df drugs was analyzed by General iLine^ KJodel (GLM) using SAS (1987). Where jlifference* existed between treatment means student/ t was employed to separate them. j lI Results ai Discussions t

IThe mean EPG count prior to treatment fqr groups 1 2, 3 and 4 was 4758.3, 4766.7, 4758.3 and 4775 (± 61 9.21 SEM) respectively. Panacure had Faecal Egg Count Reduction (FECR) of 100% £ ltd 99.82% in the third day post-treatment respectively, while Deuxamine was 89.54% effective ift j suppressing egg output, Table 1 shows the efficacy of the 3 drugs as assessed by reduction n the faecal egg count. Compare^ wit|lepntrol, EPG counts were reduced to 0 in 11 roups 1 and 2 by 7 day after treatment Ifluppression of faecal egg output corresponds with reduc ion in adult and/or larvae population in jje gastro-intestinal tract, then it appears that tetramizok s effect was low. The faecal egg count ifcr tetramizole showed significant difference Compared o the control. However, the generally ?< scepted criterion for an indication of drug resistance < n goats is the result of faecal egg count redi stion less than 90% (4).

Population distribution of infective larvae in faeces an< adult parasite counts for the 4 treatments are presented Table 2. The predominant nemktodes) •fesent, based on faecal culture and larval ijdentificati n, were haemonchus, oesophagosfomuty* i bundstomum and triehuris with some hfunostomu n and moniezia. Geometric means of th&farious adult worm burden in the treated and control gro ps, together with percentage efficacious ah I level of significance arc shown in Tables 3, and 5. ijeatment with panacure, rintal and deuxa# ine reduced haemonchus burden by 99.94%

Ethiopian Vet ilinary Association 11"1 Proceeding Page 16 l(p<0.001). A significant reduction of oesophagostomum was also observed on the treated groups of jpanacure (p < 0.01) and rintal (< 0.05). The size of the trichuris and bunostomum worms burden in jthe treated group did not differ significantly (p>0.05) from that of the control group. Poorer efficacy !(0%, 42.93% and 69.17%) were obtained against trichuris worms by rintal, panacure and tetramizol (treatment, respectively. Similar observations in relation trichuris spp. have been made in some jprevious studies (1). However, this is unlikely to be of major practical importance as trichuris is jrarely important in clinical parasitism in goats of the mid rift valley. On testing the effectiveness of jthe drugs in another herd of goats about 30km away where anthelmintic treatment was rarely jpracticed, it was found that all of them had an efficacy greater than 99%. In view of this, it is iconcluded that there is a tendency of resistance being developed to deuxamine. However the magnitude of the problem is not known. The mechanisms underlying drug resistance may involve a ireduced uptake of the drug-which is a common irrational practice of farmers obtaining drugs from jillegal open markets with little knowledge of dosage. There is no clear policy on the use of drugs jand anthelmintic in the country. A clear cut policy on this issue is imperative to avoid resistance. jThe magnitude of the problem should be assessed and remedial solutions found in order to save the farmer from economic losses attributed by drug resistance. Availability of anthelmintic in the market should be controlled so that not so many types of anthelmintic are used at one and the same jtime to avoid multiple resistance (3). Anthelmintic should be used tactically in order to reduce the irate of development of resistance. There is a need to conduct more surveys in different parts of the [country to test the effectiveness of the various anthelmintic available so that only appropriate ones icould be used.

Table 1 . The efficacy of Panacure, Rintal and Deuxamine in goats.

Faecal EPG (Mean) Days post-treatment Group Pre treatment 1 3 7 14 21 (Control 475 8.3" 4710.0a 4941.78 5033.3a Same as 3 & 7 iPanacure 4766.7a 225.0° u ii a II (9 4 .9 ) o o o o o o w w cs ^Rintal 4758.3a 341.7° 8.3° 0° Same as 7 (92.0) (99.8) (100) .S 11 11 II j D e t & a m m e 4775.0a 541.7 450.0 400.0 . (87.3) (89.5) |SEM(±) 669.21 261.61 197.47 558.07

Figures in parenthesis show post-treatment faecal egg count reduction percentage. Each group had 6 (animals. Column m^rns with different superscript letter are significantly different at p < 0.01.

v \

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 Ith Proceeding T Page 17

\ \ Table 2.

1 Pereei t based on the first 100 larvae encounter* a identified. H=Haemonchus; Oe= iphagostomum; B=Bimostpmuffi| T^Trtc! CS=Cestode.

Geometric mean of (adult woims ;-i7;rMa|id percentage efficacy (PE) of adult worms recovered following PanaQureftreait

Geo]jnetrii adult worm leu Parasite Panacure PE p-value2 group Hi emonchus 99.94 0.0001 Ox siQphagostomum 98.20 0.0114 Bt iostomum 83.71 NS ' j Ti>fdhuris 42.93 NS

1. 1 lumber of control animals harboring kdulfj fins with the given genera. 2. ignificance level of testing the null m i (Ho); NS = Non-significanj #^<0.

Table 4. Geometric mean of (adult worms + and percentage effio ^)?E )Wf adult worms recovered following Rinital trjsatmc

Geometric rffean adult woritt ^ w m n ? Parasite nv ControI?groupT|j Pani|CWerouD PE p-value2 Hi dtnonchus 3 1598.92’ f | r 99.94 o.Qppi: Oe qphagostomum 3 55.62 ' : I! 3,14 ' 94.35 0.0478 Bu iostomum 2 6-14 : M | 83,71 , NS 'Jiuris Tti 3 19.28 * ® i® a $ 0 , M:

1. is with the given genera. ■>.*. 2. ignificance level , of testing the nijfll hypp^ $); NS~Non-significant at p<0.05).

Ethiopian /eterinary Association l lm Proc Page 18 14 r Table 5. Geometric mean of (adult worms + 1) and percentage efficacy (PE) of adult worms recovered following Tetramizole treatment.

Geometric mean adult worm burden P arasite n 1 Control group Panacure group PE p-value2 Haemonchus 3 1598.92 119.89 99.94 0.0001 Oesophagostomum 3 55.62 12.37 77.76 NS Bunostomum 2 6.14 6.14 0 NS Trichuris 3 19.28 5.94 69.17 NS

1. Number of control animals harboring adult worms with the given genera. 2. Significance level of testing the null hypothesis (Ho); NS=Non-significant at p<0.05).

Reference

Eiisset, A.A.; Brusdon, R.V. and Forbes, S. (1990). Efficacy of tropical formulation of ivermectin against naturally acquired gastro-intestinal nematodes on weaner cattle. Newzealand Vet. jour. 38: 4 -6.

F'eseha Gebreab and Yilma, J. (1990). Flukicidal an dnematocidal efficacy of Pamisole Super (:losantel + Tetramizole) and Distomicida (closantel) in naturally infested Ethiopian zebu cattle. Eihiopia. J. Agric. Sci., 12: 63 - 70.

Hansen, J. and Perry, B. (1994). The epidemiology, diagnosis and control of helminth parasites of ruminants.

Kassuku, A.A. an dTibaijuka, B. (1990). Anthelmintic resistance of a Haemonchus contortus strain in sheep and goats at the Sokoine University of Agriculture. Vet. microbiology and parasitology, Morogoro., 193 - 207.

Prichard, H.K.; Hall, C.A. Kelly, G.D.; Martin, I.C.A. and Donald, A.D. (1980). The problem of anthelmintic resistance on nematodes. Aust. Vet. Journ., 56: 239 - 250.

Scherrer, A.M. (1991). Anthelmintic usage on goat farms in Newzealand. Results of a postal survey; Sewzealand Vet. Journal.

Soulsby, E.J.W. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and protozoa of domesticated animals. 7th edition, le a and febiger, Philadelphia, Bailler Tindall, London.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l tn Proceeding Page 19 1 EPIDEMIOLOGY OF BOVINE F LIASISIN WOREDASOF OUTH GONDAR ADMINIS BORDERING LAKE TANA

ABSTRACT

The stud t conducted for a period of one jyear 1994 to August 1995) in 3 woredas (libokeral em, Fogera and Derra) of South & n i .dministrative Zone bordering Lake Tana indicated that bovine fascioliasis is widespread "vyi high prevalence inducing huge economic loss to livestock production in the region. i

From a to al of 3380 indigenous Zebu (Bos itujicus !e coprologically examined during the study period, 2 08 animals were found positive M liyi Ifjke infection (fascioliasis) with an overall prevalenc rate of 83.08%. There was no s' ' rlsigpificant difference (P>0,05) in infection rates betv een male and female animals, *eetion rate on the basis of age of cattle indicated nverse (negative) correlation (r = -0. e was also significant difference (P<0.05) between c ifferent age groups.

The monihly (seasonal) prevalence of the •evealed high infection rates from May to Novembe during the wet season of the ye with the seasonal peak activity of snail populatioi in breeding and development am flukes. Prevalence rate decreases during the dry seasoi i from December to April. Preya! m fascioliasis was correlated positively with rainfall (r 0.63) and humidity (r=0.85), but sli slated negatively with temperature (i=-0.35). jlnfection ] ates in poor body condition animals was significantly higher (P<0.05) than good body comic ition animals (76.30%), and this sigmfies, fascioliasis in causing weight 'loss (ema< iiation) which is the characteristipja^n of ci$|)nic fascioliasis.

The speci > s of Fasciola involved from 189 foscioi Infected livers examined from slaughtered animals it ithe study region indicated 61.4% Jp*. gi\ ica, 11.1% F, hepatica and 27.5% mixed infections y both species.

The resuli > of the study have been discu$se< in comparison with the finding of other workers ai d in relation to the climatic and ecologies itions of the area that favour the existence of high pri valence rate of fascioliasis. Based the! i prevalence rates, and local factors, an appropriat > control strategies pertinent to the local si pn .have been designed and forwarded with other poin sj so as to reduce the disease problemfon liyi ck production,

Ley Word Bovine/F ascioliasis/prevalence/Epidemi )lbgy/Disease/South Gondar/ Libokemkem/F ogera/Derra.

[ntroduct on

Bovine faf cioliasis is an economically important pats sific disease of cattle caused by Fasciolidae •i jof the genus Fasciola, which migrate jr flbe hepatic parenchyma and establish and develop in the bile ducts. The two most important sj etpes are F, hepatica found in the temperate ireas and cooler areas of high altitude in the troijj CS and subtropics, and F gigantica which jredominafes in tropical areas (Troncy, 1989, Utquhari et al., 1994).

Amhara Re »ion Bureau of Agriculture, South Gondar Departmei t, P.O. Box 13, Debre Tabor Ethiopian Ve ejrinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 20 The snails of the genus Lymnaea are mainly involved as intermediate hosts in the life cycle of fiscioliasis. L. natalensis, aquatic snail is an important host of F. gigantica in Africa. L. truncatula, amphibious snail with a wide distribution throughout the world, is the most common intermediate host ofF. hepatica (Hall, 1986; Soulsby, 1982; Urquhart, et al., 1994). fascioliasis occurs commonly as a chronic disease in cattle and the severity sometimes depends on the nutritional status of the host (Graber, 1975). It causes a substantial economic loss which include death, loss in carcass weight, reduction in milk yield, condemnation of affected livers, decline in production and reproductive performances, predispose animals to other diseases and cost of treatment expenses.

Both F. hepatica (the highland) and F. gigantica (the lowland) types of liver flukes cause severe losses in parts of Ethiopia where suitable ecological conditions for the growth and multiplication of intermediate host snails are found. Areas with seasonally flooded pastures, grazing areas of lake shores, slowly flowing water ways and banks of rivers are among the conducive environments for breeding of snail vectors of fascioliasis.

n Ethiopia, the presence of both L truncatula and L. natalensis have been reported (Bergeon, 1968; Graber, 1975). L. truncatula is an amphibious snail living in shallow ponds, wetlands and water Toughs while L. natalensis is a true aquatic mollusc which lives in immersed clear water and slow flowing rivers.

Mixed infections by both species of Fasciola may occur in areas where the ecology is conducive for replication of snail intermediate host. In Ethiopia, F. hepatica is widespread in areas with altitude above 1800 to 2000 meters above sea level while F. gigantica appears to be the most common species in areas below 1200 meters above sea level. Both species co-exist in areas with altitude ranging between 1200 to 1800 meters above sea level (Graber, 1975). Losses from parasitic diseases including fascioliasis is expected to be high in tropical countries like Ethiopia where strategic and most effective disease control programs are lacking. Therefore, a study on the prevalence, epidemiology and economic significance of the disease is crucial before planning and instituting a control program.

Several workers have reported the presence and economic significance of fascioliasis in Ethiopia. The prevalence of the disease is known to be relatively high (Bahru and Ephraim, 1979) causing considerable economic losses in livestock production. However, few attempts have been made to study the epidemiology of this parasitic problem in various section of the country with the specific aim of determining the parasitic burdens, especially in relation to months of the year, rainfall, temperature, humidity, altitude and other related factors. These informations are very important in olanning control programs and also estimating the economic burden to the country as the result of this parasite.

The areas around Lake Tana and the Fogera plain areas are generally considered as one of the most affected and endemic areas of fascioliasis in the country/region, veterinary practitioners and animal owners complain of huge annual losses from it. However there are practically no dependable detailed studies that have been conducted on the prevalence, the monthly/seasonal variations in the prevalence rates of the disease and other related parameters so as to design relevant control strategies that can be implemented against the disease in the area.

Therefore, the major objectives of the present study are:

1. To study the prevalence rate of bovine fascioliasis in the study area. 2. To study the patterns of the disease on time factor, i.e. month/season of the year.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ‘n Proceeding Page 21 3. To study the relative abundance of Fascfe la. species involved in naturally acquired fastiioliasis in cattle. T o tecommend appropriate control and prevent ve strategies pertinent to the local situation so as 13 reduce the impacts of the disease and e production losses in the study region.

Materials md Methods

Study Are

The study jvas carried out from September 1994 to 1 1995 in three Districts/woredas of South Gondar At ministrative Zone that border Lake Tana, y Libokemkem, Fogera and Derra. South Gondar A< m. Zone is found in Amhara National oual State in the North-Western part of Ethiopia, 1< cated at 11°02° and 12°331 N Latitude, 3 ind38°431E Longitude.

The study leas are located in the Western partiof U|m. Zone along the side of Lake Tana with ^n altitude ranging from 1600 - 2200 meters afcove arlevel. Generally, most parts of the study Woredas a e plain (locally termed as the "Fog^ra p. |area") favorable for livestock raising with similar tro] ical/subtropical climatic conditions^ The, erni annual rainfalls of the area are 1000 - 1600mm, a id mean annual temperature of 15 - ^0°C. 0 area has poor drainage and there is annual over floodi ig of these areas during the rainy ieaso ying pocket of water bodies and swampy areas for lo ljg periods during the dry season. Tne soi in most parts of the low-lying plain areas is heavy da k brown clay soil.

Study Anil *als

A total o d j 80 cattle from the three Woredas were sul eeted to qualitative coproscopic examination t6 determine the overall prevalence iate ai#th^$eia^ of Fasciola infection in the study area, All animals examined were indigenous (Bos indims) •j^ofmixed age and sex groups. t Ln addition, 189 cattle slaughtered at local slaugjiterh< ie> were used to identify the Fasciola species involved in the area.

Study Desi \n

oprologic il Examination

Faecal samj iles were recollected directly from t&e r< : of each animal with strict sanitation, and placed in a r and water tight sample vial, plac in i£f l|px, and brought to the laboratory. In the laboratory, coproscopic examinations were ed to detect Fasciola e£gs using the sedimentati|n technique as described by Hamen^nd ^

Body Cond ition Evaluation

Examination i and evaluation of body conditions Were a&omplished during sample collection. They Were classi ied as "poor” or "good" relative to ave®e^body condition of zebu cattle based on subjective b isis. ! i Species Ide itiflcation ■ *4 i The species rf Fasciola involved from 189 Fasciola pOffltive livers were identified and differentiated as F. hepai lea or F. gigantica according to $oul$|| (1982) and their relative abundance was determined. I

Ethiopian Vete inary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 22 Statistical Analysis

The association of Fasciola infection rates on the basis of sex, age and body condition were compared ising test (Chi-square). Infection rates on the basis of age and the monthly variations on the prevalence of fascioliasis were also analyzed by the Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Putt, et al., 1988).

Results

Prevalence Study on Coprological Findings

From a total of 3380 faecal samples examined from indigenous zebu cattle during the study periods, 2808 samples were found positive for liver fluke infection (fascioliasis) with an overall prevalence rate of 83.03% (Table 1). Prevalence variation exists between the study Woredas, the highest being at Fogera (84.21%) followed by Derra (83.04%) and Libokemkem (82.24%).

Infection rates between male and female animals were compared. The statistical analysis 82.73% and 83.43% (Table 2) showed no significant difference (p>0.05)..

Analysis of the prevalence rates on age basis showed an inverse correlation (r=0.77) i.e., the infection decreases as age increases. Similarly, there was also statistically significant difference (p<0.05) among cattle of different age group (Table 3).

The monthly prevalence rates of bovine fascioliasis in the study area revealed high infection rates during the months of May to November that is during the wet season of the year starting from the Deginning of the rainy season to the beginning of the dry season. Prevalence rates of fascioliasis decreases during the dry periods from December to April (Table 4). The monthly prevalence rates of bovine fascioliasis is positively correlated with rainfall and relative humidity (r=0.63 and r=0.85 respectively). The average temperature is almost constant over a year and there was slight negative correlation (r=0.35) with prevalence rates of fascioliasis (Table 4 and Fig 1).

Body Condition Evaluation

On subjective basis evaluation of body condition of each sampled cattle were made in animals living under the same environmental conditions to see the effect of fascioliasis in debilitating (emaciating) infected animals. Infection rates of fascioliasis in 'poor' body condition group was significantly (P<0.05) ligher than animals with good condition group (Table 5).

Fasciola Species Identification

From a total of 189 livers found positive for liver fluke infection during postmortem examination of slaughtered animals, 21 livers (11.1%) harbored F. hepatica, 116 livers (61.4%) F. gigantica and 52 livers (27.5%) infected with both F. hepatica and F. gigantica (Table 6).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 23 Table 1 Prevalence of bovine fasciol&sis in f woredas/Districts of South Gondar Adm. zone bordering Lake Tana.

No. of Cattle ®fo. of?iositive Infection rates Woi jjda (District) examined cases J (%) Libc :bmkem 1402 1153 J 82.24 Fog< ra 1064 896 | 84.21 Derr 914 759 I 83.04 Tota 3380 2808 ;i 83.08

Table 2 Prevalence of bovine fascioliasis onji ex basis

No. of Sex samples No. of negative Infection rates examined samples 0/ Male 1726 82.73 Femj le 1654 274 83*42

X2 cal 0.41 P > 0.05 P 0.93

Table 3. Prevalence of bovine faseiolia$is on| je! basis (different age groups)

V!" i' -. W No. of I -i. i kge (Year) samples No. of I No. of Negative Infection rates examined qjj cases ro/ 0 - 2 443 72 83.74 3 - 4 650 95 85.38 5 - 6 735 111 84.89 7 - 8 m 82.42 >8 569 7 0 5

! r - 0.77 (inverse/negative/correlation) X cal = 37.27 P < 0.05 (statistically signific&it).

Ethiopian > eterinary Association 11 Proceeding Page 24

I Table 4. Monthly (seasonal) prevalence of bovine fascioliasis in 3 woredas of South Gondar Adm. Zone bordering Lake Tana (m reiaSon'tb monthly total R.F., average temp, and hum.)

Monthly Total Monthly mean Monthly mean No. of animals No. of positive cases Infection rates Month rainfall Temp. (C°) Humidity (%) Examined (%) September 185.5 19.2 73.7 484 438 90.49 October 0.0 20.0 63.3 447 383 85,68 November 0.0 19.3 60.7 453 388 85.65 December 3.2 19.2 53.7 338 251 74.26 January 0.0 19.7 47.7 277 206 74.36 February 0.0 * 20.2 44.0 222 152 68.46 March 0.0 20.0 43.3 166 128 77.10 April 0.0 20.1 42.3 155 121 78.06 May 89.3 20.71 53.0 217 185 85.25 June 178.9 19.7 68.7 233 210 90.12 July 641.5 19.2 81.3 172 157 91.27 August 471.5 19.1 80.0 216 189 87.50 r = 0.63 r = -0.35 r = 0.85 p = 0.025 p = 0.25 p = 0.001

NB. Meteorological data collected from National Meteorology Services Agency.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 25 Table 5. Prevalence of bovine fascioliasis in different body condition groups

No. of cattle No. of Negative Infection rates Bo ly condition examined cases SI Poor 1937 230: 88.13 Gooc 1443! 342 76.30

P < 0.05 (Statistically significant)

Table 6. Species of Fasciola encountered in ed livers during postmortem examination of slaughtered animals.

Species of N o0f Percentage I Fasciola. livens f F. hepatica t 21 ij 11.1 F. gigantica 116 J.'! 61.4 Mixed infection '= 1 52 Jl 27,5 Total 189 100

Discussii i

Bovine fi scioliasis exists in almost all regions of Ethiopia (Graber; 1975, Bahru and Ephraim, 1979). However the prevalence rate, epidemiology and Fagbidla species involved vary with locality. This is no attributed to the variation in the climatic a# ecological conditions such as altitude, rainfall, temperaitflre and management systems of livestock.

The resu :s of the present study conducted for a pe$ )d of one year in 3 Woredas of South Gondar Adm. Zo ie bordering Lake Tanai indicated that boj e fascioliasis is wide spread with very high prevalence rate of 83.08%.

High pren alence rates of bovine fascioliasis have h reported by other workers, such as 86% in Keffa (B i hru and Ephraim, 1979), 84.4% at Bahir bittoir (Fekadu, 1988), 80% in and around Debre Be han (Dagne, 1994), 88.57% at Debre Ber Abattoir (Dagne, 1994) and 82.5% in Western Shoa(Ya eta, 1994). Contrary to the present jEmdi ijiahru and fcphraim (1997), Yelienew (1985), Fekadu ( 988), and Yohannes (1994) have feppi prevalence rates of 61%, 52%, 62.2% and 61.97% id Gondar, around Lake Tana, around Bahir: asand at Bahir Dar abattoir respectively, these areas are he neighbor of the present study of these workers are relatively lower than the jirjesent finding and this variation might b ttributed to the differences in the infestation level of tl 4 study areas and the previous worfo w $ | conducted during the dry period of the year when infe tion rates of fascioliasis is expected to b el| iv*

The maim enance of high prevalence of fascioliasis it tie study area is strongly associated with the presence < f favorable environments for the existence, multiplication and spread of intermediate host jsnails and the parasite {Fasciola) in most pait£ Of > kudy areas, the feature of the land-scape is plain (Fog era plain area) with poor drainage, ljave ki ivy dark-brown clay soil (with slightly acidic pH) whict has high capacity of water retentio4 with trinual over flooding of these areas during the rainy seas in leaving pocket of water bodies aiid is n|< stiy marshy areas for long periods during the dry season Lake Tana, slowly flowing rivers ^nd swappy parts o f the lake and theriver borders the area, Su ecological conditions are considered favorable for breeding and survival of the

Ethiopian Ve erinary Association 11 Proceeding Page 26 intermediate host snails and the parasite (Graber, 1975; Soulsby, 1982, Troncy, 1989, Urquhairt, et al., 1994).

Infection rates of bovine fascioliasis in Fogera District was relatively higher than Libokemkem and * Derra Districts, this might be attributed to the existence of more favorable environment for both the snail intermediate host and the parasite in Fogera District and differences in sampling sites.

Prevalence rate of 82.73% and 83.43% was recorded in male and female animals respectively. There was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between the two sexes, this signifies sex seems have no impact on the infection rate and both male and female animals are equally susceptible and exposed to the disease. Similar results that support the present finding were reported by Yehenew (1985), Fekadu (1988), Rahmeto (1992), Dagne (1994). However, some workers found higher prevalence rate in the male than female, their justification is related to the management system with longer exposure of males outdoor when females are kept indoor at the beginning of lactation (Balock and Arthur, 1.985).

Statistical analysis of infection rates on the basis of age indicated an inverse/negative correlation (r = 0.77). There was also significant difference in infection rates (P>0.05) among different age groups. The decrease in infection rate (prevalence rate) as age increases is the result of acquired immunity which is manifested by humoral response and tissue reaction in bovine liver due to previous challenge (Ogunrinade, 1982). Dwinger, et al. (1982) also reported the increased resistance (low prevalence) as age increases is most likely related to the high level of tissue reaction seen in bovine liver, severe fibrosis which impedes the passage of immature flukes, acquired resistance, thickening, stenosis, and calcification of bile ducts, assumed unfavorable site for adult parasites and consequently fastens their expulsion.

Experimentally, higher infection rate occurs in young animals (Soulsby, 1982,. Radostitis, et al., 1994). Relatively lower infection rates observed in cattle of age group 0 - 2 years (83.74%) compared to 3 - 4 and 5 - 6 years of age groups (85.38% and 84.89%) might be attributed to the fact that calves are not often driven with older age groups to grazing and watering points. This practice naturally reduces the chance of exposure in this age class. In Ethiopia, similar results indicating inverse correlation of prevalence rate and age of cattle were reported by Fekadu (1988), Rahmeto (1992), Dagne (1994) and Beyazn (1995).

The mon:hly (seasonal) variation in the prevalence of fascioliasis has been studied for 12 months (one year) in the study area in relation to bionomic factors such as monthly total rainfall, average humidity and average temperature. The result of the study showed that prevalence of fascioliasis was positively correlated with rainfall (r = 0.63) and humidity (r = 0.85). The average monthly temperature is almost constant and prevalence rate of fascioliasis was slightly correlated negatively with temperature (r = -0.35).

In this study, the highest prevalence rates were observed from May to November i.e. during the wet months of the year when both rainfall and humidity were high starting from May to September with consequent wet ecological conditions during the month of October and November. Infection rates of fascioliasis decreases from December to April during the dry period of the year that predominates in these months. The lowest prevalence rate was observed in the mid of the dry season during February.

The seasonal pattern to Fasciola infection is related to the seasonal activity of the intermediate host snails. Breeding of the Lymnaea snails and development of the larval stages of the flukes within the snail are optimum during the wet months of the year which provides sufficient moisture and moderate temperatures favorable for breeding of the snails and development of the larval stage flukes within the snails as well as for the survival of the metacercariae on the herbage. During the dry

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11lh Proceeding Page 27 b i;periods b i;periods ipding of the snails and development of th< larval flukes slows down or stops completely and snails ’ergo a state of aestivation (Armqiur, 19! IjSoulsby, 1982j Urquhart, et al., 1994; FAO, 1994).

In the pre lent study, the rise in the infection fates o►| fascioliasis during the wet months of the year from Ma> to November is attributed to seasonal p ‘ of snail activity in breeding and development of the lan al stage flukes within the snails. This ing snails become active, breed and develop to maturit t and produce further breed during Wet p . The rain washes many of the eggs out of the faecal material and keeps them moist enou w toh and develop so that there are plentiful miracidia by this time and many snails become 33. After certain period of development, the infected i nails with flukes release ceifcariaf *bedome encysted on the herbage forming metacerca iae which is ingested by the animals, itfso doing animals acquire a heavy infection j and the in sidence of fascioliasis increases. * i1 •! jThe low iflfection rates observed during the study pel id'from December to April might be due to the Idry climal ic conditions, which predominates during jfe months. The dry climatic condition causes a decline n the active population of the sn^ilstsince? ercoftdition is unfavorable for the breeding of the snails because of insufficient moisture anc itures.

During th£ dry period, the majority of the eggs do i|)t have the opportunity to hatch and develop (because tl ey are trapped with the faeces mass (n arated) and there is no sufficient moisture for developm jJilt and hatching. The presence of ev< Small amount of faeces is inimical to the idevelopm ;nt of eggs. jThe survi yal of metacercariae on the herbage and the breeding of snails also depend on the javailabilit / of moisture. Because of the drying of ig ijporary water habitats during the dry period, snails are forced " to undergo aestivation deep ih ifd and only those snails in permanent water sources h ive the opportunity to shed cercaria^ $86; Radostitis, et al, 1994 Soulsby, 1982). | Therefore: there is only minimum metacercariae efbage which account for low infection rates during the dry period.

The maii^ enance of relatively high prevalence rat during the dry periods (68.46 - 78.06%) is attributed to previous infection during peak sn|il actf itjjr with consequent release of many cercariae [during th^ wet season and " the existence ' of ecc|k>gici condition - - such - as border ' * of "' lake ‘ (Lake Tana), slowly flccjwing rivers and low-lying marshy a£ea$ provide favourable condition for breeding of the sn ils and development of the larval stage f the parasite during the dry period. populatioi s of cattle are also concentrated in these ' reas for grazing since these areas stay green during the dry periods.

Infection ates of bovine fascioliasis was statistical!;: analyzed on the basis of body condition to study the mpact of the disease in debilitating/^macia in.g infected animals. The results of the study indicated hat infection rates in poor body condition ^ imals was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of go )d body condition animals. This sigiiifies^| eUmportance of fascioliasis in causing weight loss and the characteristic sign of the diseases Chronic fascioliasis is the commonest form of the disease in cattle and one of the characteristic sign is wpijght loss (emaciation) (Graber, 1975; Troncy, 1989; Ur<(juhart, et al., 1994; Radostitis, et al., 1994).: emaciation is the cause of production losses as emaciatec animals do not produce meat, milk and reproduce. Other factors such as nutrition and other bov tie pathogens should also be considered astfe cause of loss of body condition.

The sped12S of Fasciola involved in causing the djrease in the study area was studied from 189 Fasciola nfected livers during postmortem examin&jgon of slaughtered animals. The result of the study in .cated F. gigantica (61.4%), F hepatica 11.1%) and mixed infection (27.5%). Thec predomin int species involved in causing bovine fa in the study area is F. gigantica and is

Ethiopian V rierinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 28 associated to the existence of favorable ecological condition for L. natalensis (intermediate host of F. gigantica) in the study area such as borders of lake, flood-prone areas and low-lying marshes and drainage ditches such area are favorable habitat for L. natalensis (Troncy, 1989). This might have contributed to the frequent occurrence of F. gigantica in cattle. Swampy areas around the Lake and marshy areas in the low-lying plain areas and temporary shallow ponds provide favorable habitat for L. truncatula (intermediate host of F. hepatica) and this allows the existence of F. hepatica in the study area. Graber (1975) reported the co-existence of both species in areas with an altitude range of 1200 - 1800 meters above sea level, which support the present finding. Mixed infection by both species of Fasciola may occur in the liver of the same animal and this is attributed to the existence of ecological conditions conducive for replication of both species of snails and intermingling of cattle from various grazing areas. Similar results which support the present finding was reported by Graber . (1975), Fekadu (1988), Adem (1994).

Bovine fascioliasis is found widespread in the 3 Districts of the Study area. The disease is more severe in villages adjacent to Lake Tana and the Fogera plain areas where low-lying marshes and slowly flowing rivers are abundant. In the study area there occurs annual over flooding of the plain areas (grazing lands) during the rainy season and animals are driven towards the neighboring hillside (highland) areas for grazing. The flood leaves pocket of water bodies (Ponds) and swampy areas favorable for snail habitat, available even during the dry period. Animals from highland villages are d nven to plain areas around Lake Tana for grazing during the dry period, in these areas grazing land remain green for long periods during the dry season with pocket of swampy/marshy areas, and animals graze in these areas for search of good herbage (grasses) acquiring high infection of fascioliasis. Therefore, the seasonal movement of animals for search of grazing lands plays an important role in the epidemiology of the disease in the study region.

Conclusion

The present study conducted on bovine fascioliasis for a period of one year in three Woredas of South Gondar Administrative zone bordering Lake Tana conclude that fascioliasis is the most widespread and prevalent parasitic disease affecting the health and productivity of animals with an overall prevalence rate of 83.03%.

Fascioliasis is a disease of prime concern in three Woredas of South Gondar Administrative zone bordering Lake Tana and that it must be remarked in priority list in any animal control program to be envisaged in the region.

Strategic anthelminthic treatment with appropriate flukicidal drugs should be practiced two times a year; i.e. after the end of the dry season (April - May) and after the end of the rainy season (September - October) so as to eliminate the fluke burden of the host animals and minimize pasture contamination by reducing fecal egg outputs and thus interrupting the life cycle of the parasite.

Further study should be conducted on the epidemiology of the disease, biology and ecology of intermediate host snails (Lymnaea) to help avoid difficulties in planning and programming control strategies.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant from Amhara Region Bureau of Agriculture and South Gondar Department of Agriculture. I thank the management of both offices for the approval of the project and continuous financial support for the completion of the research work.

Ethiopian Veerinary Association 11® Proceeding Page 29 I wou a like to express my heart-felt thanks and appreciation to Ato Negrew W/Amlak (Senior Vet. Assist u it) for his unreserved time devotion|n sanijlexollection, laboratory examination, enthusiasm and st ong professional interest.

ice

Adem A. (1994) Prevalence of bovine an<^ ovinet agcioliasis. A preliminary survey around Ziway region DVM Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Fa£ % of Veterinary Medicine, Deber Zeit, Ethiopia. -7^ - Armo\ r, J. (1981) Disease of cattle in tte t^pics.^ptren^ topics in Veterinary Medicine and Animal Scienc ?. Vol. 6, pp. 532. ]

Bahru* G. and Ephraim, M. (1979) A preliminary n^vey of bovine fascioliasis in Ethiopia. Eth. J. Agric. Sci. 1(1): 5-12.

Balock, F.C. and Arthur, R.J. (1985) A survey * fascioliasis in beef cattle killed at abattoir in Southe ti Queenland. Aust. Vet. J. 62 (10): 320 - 3

Bergec a, P. (1968) Report to the Government of:! opia on veterinary parasitology survey: FAO, ROME pp. 105.

C. (1995) Preliminary survey of bovine s iid ovine fascioliasis in Eastern Gojjam Region. DVM Ifyesis, Addis Ababa University, Faculty of if iterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. ; ■' J "'i-; M. (1994) Survey on prevalence and ecou< mic significance of bovine fascioliasis in Debre Berhan Region. DVM Thesis, Addis Ababa Univei ity, FAculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopik

Dwing( r, R.H.; Leriche, P.D. and Kuhne, G.I. (1 ?82) Fascioliasis in beef cattle in North West Argenti la. Tropical Animal Health and Production : 167-171. ; 1 FAO (1 994) Disease of domestic animals caused b; [ flukes. Food and Agriculture Organization of the Uni ed Nations, Rome.

Fekadu R. (1988) A preliminary survey on bovU& fascioliasis around Bahir Dar. DVM Thesis, Addis a )aba University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.

Graber. M. (1975) Helminths and helminthiasis of domestic and wild animals of Ethiopia. Bulletin of Anm. tilth, and Prod. In Africa 23: 57 - 86. f I Hall, M .B. (1986) Disease and parasites o f live# jck in the tropics. 2nd Intermediate Trop. Agric. Series, I ongman. Pp. 207.

Hanson, [J. and Perry, B. (1994) A handbook of epidemiology, diagnosis and control of gastroin estinal parasites of ruminants. ILRAD,Naii bbi, Kenya. Pp. 35 - 38.

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Ethiopian ^feterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 30 Radostitis, D.M; Blood, D.C. and Gray, C.C. (1994) Veterinary Medicine. A text book o f the disease o f cattle, sheep, goat, pigs, and horses. 8th Edt. ELBS and Bailleire Tindall.

Rahmeto, A. (1992) Fascioliasis: Clinical occurrence, coprological, abattoir and snail survey in and around Wolisso. DVM Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.

Soulsby, E.J.L. (1982) Helminths, Arthropods, and Protozoa of Domestic Animals. Bailleire Tindall.

Troricy, P.M. (1989) Fasioliasis of ruminants. In: Manual o f Tropical Veterinary Parasitology. CTA. C.A.B. International. Pp. 63 - 74.

Urquhart, G.M.; Armour, J.; Dunchan, J.L; Dunn, A.M. and Jennings, F.W. (1994) Veterinary parasitology. Longman Scientific and Technical. Pp. 98 - 109.

Yadeta, B. (1994) Epidemiology of bovine and ovine fascioliasis and distribution of its intermediate host in Western Show. DVM Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.

Yehenew, M. (1985) Prevalence of fascioliasis at Gondar clinic and around Lake Tana. DVM Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.

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Ethiopian Veter nary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 31 EFFJECT OF LEVEL OF CONCENTRATE PERFORMANCE OF OSSBRED HEIFERS

Zelalem Yilma, Sendros Denieke, iu G/Wold and Sebsibie Demissie Institute of Agricultural Reseaich, rHRG, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa

Abstract

The el 'ects of concentrate supplementation on reproductive performance of 50% and 75% exotic crossb ed heifers were studied. The breeds use [Were crosses of local dam breeds of Boran and Horro sired by exotic breeds Friesian, Jersey an( >immental. A total of thirty eight six months old heifen Were allocated into four supplementjtreat il groups by stratified random sampling based on blood level, body weight and birth season^ T\ fcjjiir levels of supplement were 250g, 500g, and lOOOg per 100kg body weight and 500| concent The supplement was fed in group base and fe ding was continued until the animals, shoj first, heat. Animals in all treatment groups were allowe 1 to graze natural pasture for 7 to 8hrs p< d|y and supplemented With additional grass hay after g azing hours. ■

The o\ erall mean body weight at first heat, at fir# inception and at first calving Were 268, 280 and 284kg,i respectively. TLevel Atral Afof 0supplementationnnnlamAnffl4,jtAM iJim exotic Mblood aK H level I ^ ral Uhad n/1 not m significant effects on weight > at different reproductive stages, om during wet season were 39, 49 and 70kg heavie (p < 0.05) respectively, at first •tiception and calving than those bom during the dry sej son. Age at different reproductive ere significantly affected (p < 0,05) by level of; supple mentation and exotic blood inheritance, Animals received concentrate supplement of 1000g/100kg body weight/day reached age* at fiiy heat, first conception and first calving 245, 359 and 35) days earlier than those animals receiving 500g per day, respectively (p , 0.05), The mean age at irst heat (804 vs 854 days), at conception 00 vs 946 days) and calving (1182 vs 1226 days) were s gnificantly (p < 0.05) lower for 50% exot p 'crosses than 75% exotic crosses, respectively. Birth s jason had not marked effect (p > 0.05) on a ;es at different reproductive stages. The practical implies tion of this experiment is that crossbred ftifers requires mean weight over 270kg to start reprodi ctive cycle, but management, particularly petter feeding has significantly reduced the time needed almost by one year to reach this weight.

Introdiction

The go il of a dairy heifer management program is to for dep irting cows and surplus animals to sell (Jp 1986). The onset of puberty is affected by nutritic i, season of birth and heredity (Salisbury and Van Demark 1961, Lastey 1981). Jersey heifers are among those reaching puberty at a yoi nger age (Lastey, 1981). Our local heifers like Boran JAd Horro on the other hand, usually reaclj puberty months later than many heifers of the Europe m breeds (Mukasa - Mugeraw 1981). Rapic growth and early breeding reduce the expense of heifer 3 earing system by bringing heifers into p:reduction at an early age, Thus, early onset of pubert) is important for achieving maximum life tfa le production.

The present trend of dairy heifer management for i European breeds is to feed well so that the age at first br< eding is 14 to 16 months, the age at; first ci Ving is around 23 - 26 months and services per concep ion is < 1.75 (Etgen et al., 1987). However] fOr European x Ethiopian zebu crosses mean age of 36 45 months for first conception and calj ig, respectively were reported (Beyene 1992). This in icates that heifers in Ethiopia reach J>ub( far later than the optimum age set for European breeds, This might be attributed to the genetic pqjjj itial of the animals or to poor early management of heif&s. Generally, the relatively slow growth; heifers in tropical and sub-tropical countries is associaf ed with the use of tropical pastures, which ipport growth rates in the order of 0.25kg/day in unsupp smented calves (Moss, 1993). Thisilow iwth rate result from the high fiber content, low

Ethiopian veterinary Association l l 1** Proceeding Page 32 dry matter digestibility and low protein-energy ratio of tropical grasses (Moss, 1993). Supplementary feeding is necessary to increase this growth rate. If heifers are to achieve their potential within the herd, they need to calf at around 85% of their mature weight (Moss, 1993). This stud) was, therefore, aimed at investigating the effects of different level of concentrate supplementation, exotic genetic inheritance and season of birth on the weight and age at different reproductive stages in crossbred heifers.

Materials and Methods

Animals: A total of 38 crossbred heifers of 50% and 75% exotic genetic inheritance were used. The heifers were pooled from the crosses of Friesian, Jersey and Simmental sires by Boran and Horro local dams bom at Holetta Research Centre. Past results from IAR crossbreeding program has indi;ated that there is no significant difference between local dam breeds of Boran and Horro and exotic sire breeds of Friesian and Simmental in their reproductive performance (Beyene, 1992). Thus, for this study, Horro and Boran dams pooled as 'Local' (L) and Simmental and Friesian sires pooled as 'Large Exotic' (LE). Therefore, the number of animals pooled from each exotic genetic group allocated into different treatments are shown in Tablel.

Table 1. Distribution of animals under each treatment

Concentrate supplement groups Animal High Medium Low Control 1/2J& 1/2L 2 2 2 .. 3/4J & 1/4L 3 2 3 3 1/2LE & 1/2L 2 2 2 2 3/4LE & 1/4L 3 2 3 3 10 Total 10 8 10 -

Where LE Large Exotic (Friesian and Simmental) J Jersey L Local (Boran and Horro)

Feeding and Management: After weaning female calves (180 days old) were stratified'ftrfour supplement groups according to exotic genetic inheritance, birth season and body weight. Heat detection was undertaken by herdsmen and night guards. The heifers were mated naturally or by artificial insemination. Concentrate supplement was offered in four levels. Treatment groups were: Low = 250g, medium = 500g and high = lOOOg per 100kg body weight per day and control = 500g pei head per day. Animals in each treatment group were fed their respective concentrate supplement in group base early in the morning at 7am. Animals in all treatment groups were grazed 7 to 8 hrs pei- day and supplemented with hay after grazing hours. For the low, medium and high level supplement groups, concentrate supplement was adjusted every 15 days after the animals were we ighed. Concentrated mixture was composed of wheat bran (25%), wheat middling (25%), noug (Guizotia abyssinica) cake (45%), bone meal (4%) and salt (1%). The mixture contains approximately 20.8 per cent crude protein and 10.5 MJ energy per kg dry matter.

Data measurement and statistical analysis: Age at first heat (AFH), weight at first heat (WFH), age at fust conception (AFC), weight at first conception (WFC), age at first calving (AFCL), weight at first calving (WFCL) and number of services per conception (SPC) were calculated and measured at each reproductive stage for all experimental animals. The data were analyzed by using General Liner Model (GLM) of the statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1987).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 33 Rest It and Discussion

Wei lit at different reproductive stages;

Wei^ it at first heat, conception and calving” ere not significantly different (p > 0.05) among supp spent groups and between blood levels (T« This indicates that, there is a critical over all mean weight for reproductive activities to occur n heifers (Mukasa _ Mugerwa, 1989). Foley et al (197: )j also indicated that average body weij at the first estrus was not affected by level of nutrit bn, which suggests that heifers come intq| strus at a given skeletal size rather than at a given calen lar age. Oyedipe et al (1982) reported- similar result that weight at conception among Nigeftan zebu heifers to be 240,240,2|an<§ 248J| oil high, medium and low levels of dietary protein intak$, respectively. Though not significant w at first conception and calving were higher for heifen fed with 250g/100kg body wfci, n | 500g/head/day than the rest. This might be attribi ted to higher age both at first conception . JM ^ng of these groups of anumiis (Zelalem et al, 1996 md Mukasa - Mugerwa, 1989). Bi||h s njihad; a significant effect (p < 0*05) on weight at differ nt reproductive stages. Heifers bifrn di | the wet season weighed 39kg (15.7%), 48kg (15.7^ o) and 70kg (21.9%) more than those >ifbrs bom during the dry season at first heat, conce rtion and calving, respectively. I

Table j&L Least squares mean and st? lard # of (kg) for weight at first heat (WFH), weight at concejtion (WTC) and weight at calving i categorized by concentrate level, exotic genetic inherit ince and birth season

Source No. WTC WTCL Go icentrate level 25' g/100 kg bwt/d 10 f P j± 17,2a 310 ±16.1“ 305 ±24.3“ 501 g/100 kg bwt/d 8 255 ±21.6“ 255 ±32.6“ 10( 0 g/100 kg bwt/d 10 m M 2 .0 8 277 ±18.4“ 279 ±27.8“ 50( g/day 10 ; ; a i t p a 281 ±16.1“ 299± 24.4“ Blc od level I'"' i f

ol a! exotic 23 [ t i p 4 289 ± 11.6“ 285 ± 17.5“ 75° j exotic 15 t ^ § i 54>a 274 ± 13.7 * 283 ±21.4“ Birj l season r | Dry season .15 t 14.0a 257 ± 14.2* 249 ±21.4* We season 23 305 ±11.4° 7 319 ±17.3°

Means inder each category within the same column^ with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) di Terent.

Age at irst heat:

Except or birth season, age at first heat was significantly different among supplement groups and betweer ! blood levels. Age at first h ^ t d fj^ s e d with increasing level of concentrate supplen sntation, it amounted 679,804; 910|and idays for the heifers supplemented with high, medium (low and control concentrate, respectively This finding is consistent with other workers. Johnson (1986) reported that heifers on high nut|i io|i reached puberty at a younger age. Age at puberty was reported to be 570.4, 640.8 a^d 7 $ fedays among Nigerian zebu heifers on high, medium and low levels of dietary protein intake, t sjtectively (Oyedipe, 1982). Heifers with 50% exotic g :netic inheritance exhibited heat for'the fin t time 50 days (6.2%) younger than those with 75% e:xc tic genetic inheritance. This result is'in agQ ement with Beyene (1992). Heifers bom during the wet ! eiason exhibited their first heat slightly aty< unger age as compared to those bom during the

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l rt Proceeding Page 34 dry season (835 vs 824 days). The mean age at puberty of Jersey x Hariana (FI) heifers bom during ths dry season was higher than those bom during the wet season Pyne et al (1988). The delay in sexual maturity of heifers bom during the dry season might be attributed first to the scarcity of feed both in quality and quantity and secondly to high temperature and other stressful environmental variables that greatly affect the feed intake and metabolic functions of the cattle (Pyne et al., 1988).

Age at first conception and calving:.

Supplement groups and blood levels had significant (p < 0.05) effect on first conception and calving. Hsifers received 1000kg conc./lOOkg body weight/day conceived and calved 359 days (33%) and 3fi9 days (25%), respectively younger than those fed 500 g/day. Age at conception of Nigerian heifers on high level of dietary protein is reported to be 306.5 days lower than those on low level of dietary protein (Oyedipe, 1982).

Age at first conception and calving of heifers with 50% exotic blood inheritance were significantly (p, 0.05) lower than those with 75% exotic blood inheritance. Though not significant Beyene (1992) reported younger age at first calving for FI crosses compared to animals with 3/4 exotic inheritance. McDowell (1989) also reported that FI crossbreeds and younger age at first calving (33.8 months) than 3/4 crossbreeds (44.5 months). Contrary to this finding Kiwuwa et al (1983) reported slightly younger age at first calving for 3/4 Friesian x 1/2 Ethiopian zebu (33.7 months) than 1/2 Friesian x 1/2 Ethiopian zebu (34.2 months) crosses. Heifers bom during the wet season conceived and calved slightly at a younger age than those bom during the dry season. The age of sexual maturity (age at puberty) and age at first calving were found to be lower in wet season bom heifers (Pyne, 1988). The finding from this study suggests that designing of mating in such a way that production of large p -oportion of calves during wet season would give higher reproductive efficiency at later age.

Service per conception:

Level of concentrate supplementation had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on number of services per conception. Service requirement per conception increased with decreasing level of concentrate supplementation. The number of services per conception were 1.4, 2, 2.47 and 4.3, respectively for heifers supplemented with high, medium, low and control concentrate levels. The effect due to eKOtic genetic inheritance on number of services per conception was not apparent. Wet season bom heifers required slightly lesser services per first conception as compared to dry season bom heifers (2.2 vs 2.9). This result is in agreement with Juma et al (1988) who reported 2.39 and 1.99 services per conception in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Moderate atmospheric temperatures and abundant green fodder during the wet season were probably responsible for the improvement in SPC. E levated temperatures during the dry season which might cause deterioration of semen quality during handling could well have attributed to the increased services per conception (Juma et al, 1988).

/m attempt through a package of appropriate managerial practices to reduce the age at puberty would result in lower age at first conception and age at first calving and lesser number of services per conception and thereby increase the lifetime production of the animal.

K hiopian Veterinary Association l l Ul Proceeding Page 35 \

4

Table Least square mean and standard cr$jr for age at first heat (AFH), age at first conception (AFC), age at fiiit cal ’AFCL) in days and service pepconception (SPC) in number categorized by c;oi centraite level, exotic blood level and birth season.

Source No. AFHAFC AFCL SPC Concc itrate level I 250 g/ 00 kgbwt/d 10 910 ±41.3® 3i )1$ ± 54.4a0 1299 ±51.3" »" 2:5 ±0.66” 500 g/ 00 kg bwt/d 8 804 ± 52.1s [@±60.8°° 1147 ±68.8“ , 2.0 ±0.83° 1000 i 100 kgbwt/d 10 ; 680±4.6* ^ 4 i 68:7° 1005 ±58.7* 1.4 ±0.69“ 500 g/ *y 10 924 ± 39.2“ :s 0g3±54.5‘ 1365 ±51.5“ 4.3±d.61“ Blood evel . . ,r : h 50% ej otic 23 805 ±27.9* 39.0* 1182 ±37.0“ 2.6 ±0.44“ 75% ei ptic 15 855 ±3^.9’- ?45±47.6b 1226 ±44.5* 2.5 ±0.57* Birth i eason ■ t k. Dry se son 15 824 ± 3 4 5 ‘ $4 ±46.4* 1185 ±45.2* 2.2 ±0.53“ Wet se ison 23 835 ± 28j2 ° 11 >37 ± 48.5 “ 1219 ±36.5“ 2.9 ±0.45“

Means under each category within the same fcoliimi with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) d fferent.

Reference

Beyene Kebede, 1992. Estimation of additive and pn additive genetic effects for growth, milk yield and rep reduction traits of crosses (Bos ' * ~ ihdicus) cattle in wet and dry environments of Ethiopia Dissertaion, Cornell University.

Etgen, ] 4.W., Robbert, E.J. and Paul, M,R. 1987, ififty cattle feeding and management.

Foley, (1. Richard, Donald L. Bath, Frank Nl Dicldjsqn and H. Allen Tucker. 1973. Dairy cattleL Principle, practices, problems, profits. Lea and F<|$|fcr. Philadelphia.

JohnsoA !D. 1986. Proper growth, management imj&rtance in raising of heifers. In: feed stuffs'. 14 - 17. ' ■ ; ■

Juma. 5 .H., Loae M. Al-Ani and S T. Rasheed. ::fe88. Factors affecting number o f services per concept on in purebred Friesian and its corss: with, tjrtive Iraqi cattle. In. J. of Ahinii Sc. 58(1): 94 - 97. i : Kiwuwa J.G.H., J.C.M. Trail, M.Y. Kurtu. G.WorkttJF.M. Anderson and J. Durkin. 1983. Crossbred dairy a lie productivity in Arsi region, Ethiopia. \ILCA Research Report. No. 11, ILCA, Addis Ababa,! iihiopia.

Lastey I J. 1981. Beef cattle production. Prentice - Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey.

McDow >11, R.E. 1989. Strategies for genetic improvement of cattle in warm climates. P. 61 - 73. In proc. of the second national livestock improvemenf conference. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 24 - 26 Februarjj 1988. Inst. Agric. Res., Addis Ababa.

Moss, R J. 1993. Rearing dairy heifers in the su&ropics and tropics: nutrient requirements and supplem mtation (review: Australia). Tropical graskmnds* 27 (3): 238 - 249.

Ethiopian 'eterinary Association l l m Proceeding Page 36 Mukasa - Mugerwa E. 1989. A review of reproductive performance of female Bos indicus (zebu) cattle. ILCA Monograph, No. 6. International Livestock Centre for Africa. Addis Ababa.

Oyedipe E.O., Osori D.I.K., Akerejola O and Soror D. 1982. Effect of level of nutrition on onset of puberty and conception rates of zebu heifers. Theriogenology 18: 525 - 539.

Pyne, A.K., S.K. Misra, D.N. Maita, S.C. Majumder and S.K. Roy. 1988. Age at puberty and age at first calving of Jersey-Hariana halfbreds as influenced by the season of their birth and birth weight under humid tropical conditions. In. J. o f Anim. Sc. 4(1): 44 - 45.

Salisbury, G.W. and N.L. Van Demark. 1961. Physiology of reporduction and artifical insemination of cattle. W.H. Freeman San Francisco and London.

S A S (Statistical Analysis System). User's guide: Statistics, Version 5, edition 1987. SAS Institute, Inc. caiy, NC.

Zelalem Yilma, Sendros Demeke, Sebsibie Demissis and Alemu G/Wold. 1996. Heifer rearing: Effect of level of concentrate supplementation on grwoth rate and milk production performance of crossbred heifers. P. 169 - 175. In. Proc. o f the forth conference o f the Ethiopian Society o f Animal Production. April 18-19,1996. Addis Ababa.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11 “ Proceeding Page 37 Disease and dogs as threattitothe £ idangered Ethiopian Wolf

2I r. Fekadu Shiferaw, 3Dr. Karen L&uren|pfi, and 4Dr. Claudio Sillero Zubiri

Sui Eimary

TheI Ethio »ian Wolf, endemic to Ethiopia, is the raffi st and most endangered canid in the world. Less than 100 individuals now remain in six fisolat| populations. In this paper we outline the threat that iisease may pose to wolves in Bile Woun§ n | National Park, the largest remaining wolf population and present an assessment of the eUrre^&iluation. numbers in BMNP dropped from 400 in 1990 to 120-160 in 1996, with; a rap ^ epidemic and possibly canine distemper pnderpinni lg this decline. Thirty percent of w ^ ;sf sampled between 1988 and 1992 were seropositive to canine distemper virus(CDV);f 10%: eropositive to canine parVovirus(CPV) and 67% serop )sitive to canine adenovirus (CAV),!rhese| ssults suggest that canine adenovirus may be endemic ii the species but that epidemics of rabS ,, CDV and CPV probably spillover from domestic s that live both in and around blf range. An epidemiological survey of domestic d )gs in 1996 revealed that the incidence ies in dogs, livestock and humans in very high in the area adjacent to the BMNP (estimate! incidence of 0.83 - 2.71 humans and 940- 3160 dogs >er 100,000), and that CDV, CAV and may also be endemic in the domestic dog population, Dog populations were estimated at 15 in rural areas adjacent to the BMNP or 1.5 (Jogs per ipusehold and were male biased.; A gramme to vaccinate dogs against these pathogens n now being conducted in and around |(P to reduce the threat of disease to this Ethiopian * rolf population and to examine whether are a reservoir of these viruses. We ajre also si rveying the threat the domestic dojgs disease pose to the other remaining small Ethiopian \ olf populations. I

2. Inti induction

Disease cai play a pivotal role in the dynamics of eg angered populations. As a species becomes rarer and tl us more endangered, its remainingjindh s are likely to become confined to a few small and fragmented populations which are vuuierabj to epidemics of disease. However, virtually ty definition, small populations are unable to iuppoi species-specific pathogens in the long term that are a n ajor threat to their viability by causi rates of mortality (Dobson & Miller 1989). Thus genei ilist pathogens which can infect a wide ifig e of species, pose the greatest threat to endangered species. i ! In recent y ars it has become apparent that canid di$|ases can be a real threat to rare carnivore species. Fo ■ example rabies has caused significant itjf in the endangered African wild dogs {Lycaon pit tus; Alexander et at. 1992, Gascoyne 1993) and the Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes chna\ Mac< onald 1993). Canine distemper dtfove :-footed ferret to the very brink of extinction ( Villiams et a l, 1988) and has recently ldg d|large number of Serengeti lions (Roelke- Parker et a 1996), gray foxes in the US and* wild | in Botswana (Woodrofe, pers comm.), Wild carniv >res are also susceptible to parvoVi]|isr •virus, anthrax and a range of other canid pathogens.

2 a Head, Researc and Veterinary Service Team, Ethiopia Wildlife Conservation Organisation (MOA), P.O. Box 386 Addis Ababa 3 ('entre for Tifypicai 4 Wild CRU, I ept.

Ethiopian Vet* inary Association 11 Proceeding Page 38 The Ethiopian wolf, endemic to Ethiopia, is the world’s most endangered canid (Sillero-Zubiri & Macdonald, 1997). Less than 500 individuals now survive in only six fragmented populations in the highlands of Ethiopia. However, only two of these fragmented populations are probably viable in the long term. The species is ultimately threatened by habitat loss as expanding human populations push into afroalpine habitat. Nevertheless, disease is the most immediate threat to the largest remaining population in the Bale Mountains National Park and may also be threatening other populations. This paper briefly outlines the problem that canid diseases pose to the critically endangered Ethiopian wolf, gives an assessment of the current situation and outlines the future actions that will be taken.

3. Objectives of the Study

To identify patterns of exposure of Ethiopian wolves to canine pathogens in BMNP and possible causes of the wolf decline between 1992 and 1995.

To investigate the epidemiology of canine diseases in Bale Mountain National Park and other areas, including an assessment of the size and dynamics of the dog population in the area.

4. Materials and Methods a. Some notes on status, biology and behaviour of Ethiopian wolves

The Ethiopian wolf belongs to the order Carnivora, Family Canidae and is one of the four canis species in Africa, the others being the jackal species Canis aureus, C. mesomelas /4.and C. adustus). In Amharic the Ethiopian wolf is known as " ky kebero", in Oromigna as "jedalla farda", ‘arousaye’ in the Arsi mountains (J. Malcolm pers.comm.) and in Gojam " walgie" which means trickster.

The Ethiopian wolf is endemic to Ethiopia and confined to pockets of afroalpine habitat above 3000m asl. There are probably fewer than 400 adults remaining (Table l),and thus it is the rarest canid in the world (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997). Over half (120-180 in 1995) of the world population occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park, southeastern Ethiopia. In Menz, Northern Shoa, an area afroalpine habitat, mainly covered by Festuca grassland known as ‘guassa’, is the second biggest population and may be the only other population which may be viable in the longterm. This area has been well protected by the local people for the sustainable use of the guassa and the adult wolf population in this area has been estimated to be 50-70. Other, small populations of wolves occur in the Simen Mountans, Mount Guna and Wollo, but their status are uncertain (Table 1).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 39 Table 1. Summary of distribution and status of Ethiopian wolf. Adapted from Malcolm & Sillero- Zubiri 1997. Location Habitat available Population estimate Total Afroalpine Northwest of Rift Valley

Simien Mountains 680 180 20-440 Mount Guna 110 <25 10-20 Gojjam (Mount Choke) ? ? ? Wollo (Mt Abunie Joseph) ?? ? Shoa (Mehsl Meda etc.) 141 30? 50-75

Sub-total >930 >245 80-135

Southeast of Rift Valley

Arsi Mountains 786 20? 80-150 Bale Mountains Nat Park 1209 646 120-180 Somkaro/Kcrduro Mts 155 ? 15-20 Lajo Spur 121 0 <10 Mount Guge ?? ?

Sub-total >2270 >666 225-360

TOTAL >3200 >911 305-495

Where wolves occur, they can live at high densities (up to 1 wolf/km2) in optimal habitat, in groups of 3-13 adults, with an average group size of 5.9 (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli, 1995). Packs contain more than twice as many males as females. Wolves forage alone and prey upon the afroalpine rodents.

During the breeding season all pack members centre their social interactions around the den, occasionally chasing predators, and regurgitating rodent prey to feed pups (Sillero-Zubiri et al 1996a). The subordinate females may assist the dominant female in suckling and feeding pups. The dominant female monopolize breeding within the packs, although up to 50% of subordinate females may attempt to breed (Sillero Zubiri et al, in press).

In BMNP mating occurs between August and November (Sillero.Zubiri et al. 1996a) and females discourage mating attempts from subordinate males, whilst accepting the dominant male. However, she is receptive to males from neighboring packs and up to 70% of pups may be fathered by these males (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1996a). Gestation lasts 60 - 62 days and pups are born in a den dug in open ground, under a boulder or inside a rocky crevice. 2 - 6 pups emerge from the den after 3 weeks.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 40 Study area

The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) lies in the south-eastern highlands of Ethiopia and includes some 1000 km2 of land over 3000m and is thus the largest area of afroalpine habitat on the continent (Hillman 1986). The local communities who live around the area are Muslim ?gropastoralists who rely on cultivating barley and their herds of cattle and sheep for their livelihood. Some 2500 people live inside the park, some on a seasonal basis, and are accompanied by their domestic animals, including domestic dogs. These dogs come into contact with Ethiopian wolves and hybridisation has occurred. c. Interviews

In January 1995, in a five day visit to Bale Mountain National Park, James Malcolm, Fekadu Shiferaw and Karen Laurenson interviewed veterinarians and public health officers of Robe, Goba and Dinsho, towns and Park residents. They tried to assess wether canine diseases played a role in the population decline of Ethiopian wolf between 1992 and 1995. From January-March 1996 details of information were collected from the owners of all dogs vaccinated in Dinsho, Gojera, Robe and Goba by Karen Laurenson.

During interviews respondents were asked about wolf occurrence and human and animal rabies prevalence in the area. They were questioned about public attitudes towards wolves and other wildlife, and the health of their domestic dogs, disease symptoms and mortality they have observed.

In Menz from 15-19 April 1995 Fekadu have interviewed 6 people from Daregegne and Ghera peasant association nearby Guassa area. The nature of questions were the same as those in Bale Mountain National Park. A futher visit was made to the area in March 1997 and more extensive interviews conducted.

d. Blood and tissue sampling

From 1988-1992 30 wolves were captured for marking and collaring and blood sampled during immobilization with zolazepam and tiletamine (Sillero-Zubiri, 1996).

In April 1995 a total of 18 dog serum samples were taken from dogs in the Dinsho and Web valley, Dogs were generally immobilised for blood sampling using medetomidine hydrochloride (0.03 mg/kg, Domitor, Pfizer) and ketamine (2.2 mg/kg, Vetalar, Parke-Davis) as they were very aggressive when approached, having rarely been handled. The effects of medetomidine were reversed with Antisedan (Pfizer) at 0.15 mg/kg. Between January-March 1996, a further 148 dogs over 4 months of age were sampled.

Between October 1991 and February 1992, 41 out of 53 known adults and subadults in five adjacent Ethiopian wolf packs in Web valley died or disappeared. On December 1991, two adult male wolves of the Fincha Habera pack were found dead with in 200m of each other, probably 48h of death. Empty digestive tracts and signs of diarrhaea, for both carcasses, suggested an initial enter c disorder. Conjuctival congestion and eye discharge were also seen (Sillero-Zubiri et al 1996)

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l w Proceeding Page 41 e. Dog Den ography

Tne population size and structure of domestic dogs in uiban and rural areas around the BMNP was estimated b) conducting interviews with a sample of p&ple in Dinsho, Goba and Robe towns and rural kebele J Gojera, Karrari and Zolo. Dog populati in estimates were obtained by multiplying the number dogs per person or household by the e tiihate of human population size obtained from the lo ^1 authorities. Population age stnicturesf Vfre determined for urban and rural dog populations, >y plotting loge (proportion in age cl4s) by?| ’^class. The reciprocal slope of these plots, 17b, calculai 4 by Microstat 3, gave a measure of the$ interval, which in a population with a stable age (fstribution is equivalent to life e; Population growth was estimated from questionnaire data as follows, where N<* = present do ion size of sampled households, na = no. dogs acc tired in previous year, na= no. dogs died pit in previous year.

Change in po )ulation = na - nu7 (Nse - nn +

4. Results

a. Decline ol Ethiopian Wolves in the Bale Mountains

The BMNP 1 arbours the largestwolf population with fife two areas of prime habitat; separated by some 15 km )f lower quality habitat. This populapon ed from its apparent peak in the 1980s of some 500 individuals, to some 120-160 animats by In 1990 and again in 1991/1992, one of us (GSZ) bund that many wolves had disappeared d observed some dead or dying (Sillero- Zubiri et al., 1996, see Table 2). Clinical signs include^ alaxia, anorexia and convulsions. Within I 3 months in 990, 12 of 23 known individuals oni the §tti plateau in the north west of the park die# or disappeared. Over 5 months in 1991-19S2, 41f§f 53 known wolves in five packs died or a*k. Three of the six Web Valley packs were decimated and eventually disintegrated. Close corfelation between rates of known mortality and unaccoun ed wolf disappearance was evidencelthat s$ing wolves died of similar causes to the ones found d< ad. Rabies virus, of the dog strain,J was b ilated from three brain samples collected from wolves■ Sillero-Zubiri et a l, 1996b; Whitby £t al,*| press). Interestingly, hybrid animals that were part wolf and part dog, survived better tlm pure ^ revives, but we do not know whether this be explained by better resistance to rabies or ahowef* ;hance of exposure.can

Between 192. and 1995, the wolf population decline further. Anecdotal reports from local communities i evealed a widespread epidemic in dpmesftic dogs inside the park in 1993 which they said was defi itely not rabies, a disease they cofrid re®gnise well. The clinical signs that they described wer consistent with infection from Canine dist virus.

Ethiopian Veterin4 Ay Association 11™ Proceeding Page 42

i i Table 2. Rabies in the Ethiopian Wolf Population, Bale Mountains National Park

Meta population Year Mortality____

Web Valley 1991/92 41/61 77%

Sanetti Plateau 1990 12 /23 52%

Survivors: Wolves 1/16, Hybrids 3/3 (Fisher Exact Probability = 0.004)

Rabies virus (Serotype 1 canid origin) isolated from two wolf brains.

(Sillero-Zubiri et a l, 1996, J of Wildlife Diseases)

b. Disease occurrence from interviews

i. Bale Region

According to local people interviewed in Bale Region, rabies appears endemic, with (unconfirmed) cases reported throughout the year in recent years. During 1995 a minimum of 78 cases of rabies were reported in five different species of domestic and wild animals in three areas sampled around Bale Mountain National Park (Table 3). Estimated annual incidence rates were globally high (Table 4) Almost all people interviewed had experience of the disease, either through observation of infected animals or suffering losses in the family of livestock. Some had bites of infected dogs or deaths of family members. Apart from invterviewees in the Web Valley, few people could accurately describe any other canid disease such as canine distemper.

Table 3. Summary of rabies cases reported by interviews.

(* This town is about 12 km north of the Web Valley wolf population and 2km from wolves on the Gaysay grasslands ** Kabele between Dinsho Town and the BMNP)

Town (Kebele) Animals affected No. of rabies case * - Dinsho human 1 dogs 6 cows 5 horse 1 ** - Gojera kebele dogs 6 cows 17 horse 4 - Goba Town human 1 dog 19 cow 5 horse 1 golden jackal 1 - Robe Human 1 dogs 6 Total 78

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 43 TABLE 4. Estimated incidence of unconfirmed canine and human rabies cases, Bale Region, Ethiopia

Area Estimated incidence of canine rabies Estimated incidence of human rabies 7100,000 /year /100,000/year Most conservative Least conservative Most conservative Least conservative estimate estimate estimate estimate

Urban 2123 5613 0.87 3.51

Rural 1199 2167 2.25 45.0 ii. Menz

In 1995, five local people from Dargegne were interviewed at Asabo and one person from Ghera. Three of the six respondents had seen dead wolves in Asabo; one in 1990, " many" in 1993 and one in 1994. All six respondents owned dogs and in the past, all had lost at least one dog from disease. Ajll could accurately describe the symptoms of rabies and they reported that rabies was epidemic in 1994.

In March 1997, further interviews were carried out on some 90 respondants. The consensus of opinion was that the incidence of rabies was lower in the previous year 1996-7 than it had been previously, but that cases were still being seen. Respondants could not generally describe other canid diseases c. Serology i. Ethiopian Wolves Overall, 30% (n=30) of Ethiopian wolves sampled between 1989 and early 1992 had been exposed to CDV, 67% to CAV and 13% to CPV. Analysis of age-prevalence curves (Fig. 1) leads to estimations of Ro of 0.55, 3.16 and 0.25 respectively. As Ro must be greater than 1 for a pathogen to be capable of invading and persisting in a population (Anderson & May 1991), these results suggest that CDV and CPV were not endemic or persisting in the BMNP wolf population, but that CAV might persist. The observed pattern of age-seroprevalence to CAV is unlikely to result from a recent single epidemic as young animals were seronegative in all years sampled and older animals had seroconverted in all years sampled.

Further examination of the results, taking into account the date samples were obtained and thus when animals could have been infected, suggests that a CDV epidemic may have occurred between October 1987 and October 1988 in the Sanetti Plateau population in the eastern grasslands. The timing of CDV infection in the western Web valley is less clear cut, as one wolf was seropositive when sampled at 7 months of age in March 1990. However, all other seropositive wolves were infected before 1989 and most likely before 1987. All four CPV seropositive individuals were infected before March 1990 although it is not clear whether seroconversions resulted from sporadic infections or an epidemic.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l tn Proceeding Page 44 Oul of 15 wolf samples analysed by both ELISA and REFIT for rabies antibodies, two were found to be seropositive, with ELISA titers of 1.2 and 2.5. I.U respectively and REFIT titers for both of 60 (Mebatsion et al., 1992). ii. Dogs

Blood samples were obtained from 12 dogs (aged 0.6-5 years) living in the Web Valley of BMNP within wolf range in April 1995 and from a further 19 dogs (0.25-8 years old) in Novemberl996. AH dogs agec 2 years or less were seronegative to CDV (8 in 1995, 13 in 1996), whereas all older dogs were seropositive (4 in 1995, 6 in 1996). Several of the seropositive dogs were reported to have been sick at the time of the epidemic, with clinical signs including coughing and ocular/nasal discharge. Considering the actual age of dogs, the 1995 data suggest that an epidemic occurred be’ween April 1992 and April 1993 in this area (assuming that dogs whose owners said they were 2 v'ears old were between 2 and 3 years of age), while the 1996 data put the epidemic timing between November 1992 and November 1993.

Antibodies to CDV were also detected in a further 146 samples obtained in 1996 from domestic dogs in the local town of Dinsho and the adjacent rural area. A generalised linear model showed a significant effect of age (x2 = 56.1, df=l, P< 0.001) and an interaction between age and area sampled (x2 =7.6, df=l, p<0.05) on the likelihood of seropositivity, but dog sex and area sampled did not significantly improve the fit of the model. Seroprevalence increased with age (Fig. 2), with Ro calculated to be 1.58. Young dogs in the urban area were more likely to have been infected by CDV than young dogs in the park. d Dog Demography

The dog population (in 1996) in Dinsho, Goba and robe were estimated at 110, 2000-3000 and 2:500-3000 dogs from a sample size of 45, 70 and 96 households sampled respectively (Table 5). In the rural areas, the dog populations of Gojera, Karrari and Zollo kabeles were estimated to be approximetely 220,240 and 350 dogs from 30, 30 and 50 households sampled. Rural dog density average out at 16.0 dogs per km2. Approximately 70 - 80% of households owned dogs in rural and 60% urban areas. There were singnificantly more dogs per houshold and dogs per human in rural areas around Dinsho than in the urban centres of Dinsho, Robe and Goba, although densities of dogs in urban areas were an order of magnitude higher in urban areas. Extrapolating from the mean rural dog density, it is estimated that 4160 dog live wihin 4km of the northern boundary of the park, with a further 4606 dogs living in urban centres. In addition an estimated 100-175 dogs live inside the park in Ethiopian wolf habitat for at least part of the year. Dog populations were male biased in urban areas and in high density rural areas with an average of 3 male dogs to every female dog There is also high dog movement from place to place.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ‘n Proceeding Page 45 TABLE 5. Demographic characteristics of dog population of Bale region, Ethiopia

I^nduse Dog density Dog : Sex ratio Annual change in (km'2) human (M : F) size of dog population

Mean Mean Mean Mean (range) (range) (range) (range)

Urban 290 1: 14.3 0.83 : 0.17 +7.7

(230 - 380) (1:10.8- 1:16.7) (1: 0.22 -1: 0.16) (-17- +40)

Rural 16 1:4.6 0.63 : 0.37 + 7.5

(10.3-23.7) (1: 4.1 -1: 4.8) (1: 0.82 -1: 0.33) (+2.1 - +17.6)

The dynamics of the dog populations varied between different areas with negative population growth or no growth in urban areas such as Robe and Goba where dog control programmes had been carried out wiihin the year previous to the survey. In contrast, the dog population in Dinsho had increased markedly in the previous year and the rural populations had, on average, increased by 7.7%. This level or increase would lead to a doubling of the population in approximately 10 years.

The median age of both rural and urban dog populations was 2 years, although the turnover rate (the percentage of the population less than 1 year old) of the rural population was higher at 26% than that of the urban dog population at 18%. The average life expectancy of the rural dog population was 2.8 years, whereas that of the urban dogs was 2.7 years.

In areas where dog control by poisoning had not been carried out, disease was the most important cause of mortality in dogs, causing an estimated 42% of dog deaths in the previous year. Suspected rabies was most the commonly reported pathogen, accounting for 20% of dog deaths overall. In urban areas, most dog deaths were reported to result from strychnine poisoning as part of dog control programmes. In rural areas, although disease accounted for most dog deaths/losses approximately a quarter of dogs simply disappeared. It is likely, as some owners suggested, that these lost dogs migrated to the local town.

6. Conclusions and Future Action

Dog density in the Bale region is high in both urban and rural areas, well above the apparent threshold for rabies endemicity (Cleaveland & Dye, 1996). Rabies appears to be endemic around BMNP and anecdotal reports suggest that its prevalence has increased from epidemicity to endemicity over the last 40-50 years, with an increase in the number of people and their dogs. The human population has also expanded into areas of prime wolf habitat. Although rabies may have occurred in Ethiopia and Africa for hundreds or thousands of years, it is likely that for wildlife in the Bale region, canid diseases are a human-associated problem that is increasing. The chance of rabies entering the wolf population is not insignificant at present. This disease has spread to the Ethiopian wolf at least twice during the period of intensive monitoring (1985-1992) and has affected both the Sanetti plateau and Web Valley sub­ populations. This gives a 28.6% chance of the Ethiopian wolf population suffering from rabies in any year. Thus there is a high risk that rabies epidemics recur in this endangered species in the foreseeable future.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11* Proceeding Page 46 Other canid diseases are also prevalent in the region, although their epidemiology is less well understood. However, canine distemper, canine adenovirus and canine parvovirus are prevalent in domestic dogs and there is also evidence of historical exposure of Ethiopian wolves to these viruses. Extrapolating from mortality rates in domestic dogs, CDV is probably the major concern, although some wolves can clearly survive infection. However an epidemic of parvovirus in a relatively naive wolf population could also cause considerable mortality

The high rate of mixing of the dog population, at least on the Dinsho side of the park, and the degree of o verlap and contact between domestic dogs and wolves, means that the probability of these diseases invading the Ethiopian wolf is significant. Thus canid diseases should be perceived as a real threat to the continued existence of the Bale Mountains Ethiopian wolf population and of the species generally.

Preliminary work in Menz, north Shoa, also suggests that rabies may be a threat to this Ethiopian wolf population, but further investigations are required.

It is clear from this study that disease control must be included as an important part of any action to help conserve this endangered species. Rabies and possibly canine distemper are a major threat to the viability of the BMNP wolf population and potentially the species in general. Thus, the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation and the IUCN Canid Specialist Group decided on a short and long term strategy to ameliorate the situation (Ethiopian Wolf Action Plan 1997).

In the short term, vaccination of domestic dogs inside and immediately adjacent to Ethiopian wolf habitat was recommended to give the existing population an improved chance of recovery. In the longer term, it was recommended that both disease and dog control should be improved by

An owner education programme to encourage responsible dog ownership A large scale rabies vaccination programme that would both benefit the local community and the conservation of Ethiopian wolves. A progamme to improve dog population control.

In addition, t was recommended that the following should be investigated'

the threat that canid disease posed to other wolf populations, in particular extending the programme in Menz (North Shoa). the role of wildlife in the persistence of these generalist canid pathogens, particularly rabies and canine distemper the role of vaccination of rabies and other canid viruses on dog population dynamics.

Funds have now been obtained to initiate these programmes and we hope that this work will commence in October 1997.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful to Ato Leykun Abunie, and Ato Gebremarkos Wolde Sellassie, ex managers of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation for their support for this work. We also would like to thank Dr. Esayas Tesema and his staff of Robe Veterinary Clinic for their kind assistance and for the use of clinic facilities. We are indebted to Ato Mulat Tegegn and Dinku Degu, Dinsho veterinary staff, Dr Simon Thirgood and Kassim Biftoo for help in obtaining blood samples from dogs. Ato Fekadu Garedew and other staff of Bale Mountains National Park are also acknowledged

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 47 in fadilitating the work. We thank W/r We&nshet Negatu for typing; this manuscript. Our heartf i t thank goes to Ato Edriss Hbu fojr the ||o>nnous contribution generated by him. We also woulc like to thank the African Wildlife Foundation, the Zoological Society of London, the Peopl ;’s Trust for Endangered Species and for funds and Intervet UK for, donating a substantial numb i of vaccines.

REFI IjtENCES

Andei son, R.M. & May, R.M. 1991. Infectious diseases of humans, OUP, Oxford.

Dobsc q, A. & Miller, D. 1989. Infectious *|iseases and endangered species management. \ered Species Update. 6(9): 1-5. ;

Gascogne, S., Laurenson, M.K., Lelo, ‘S., <%|Borner, M. 1993Rabies in African wild dogs {Lycac n pictus) in the Serengeti region, J. Wild.Ws. 29:396-402.

Gottel i, D. & Sillero Zubiri ,C. 1992, The Etft opian wolf-an endangered endemic canid. Oryx 26:20f -^14.

Hillman, J.C. 1986. Bale Mountains Management Plan. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Laurei son, K., Shiferaw, F., & Sillero-Zubiri, 011997. Disease, domestic dogs and the Ethiopian wolf: t le current situation. In The Ethiopian wo\ Utis survey and conservation action plan; pp 32-42. Sillero-Zubiri, C., & Macdonald, if .W.j 5). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Macdo laid, D.W. 1993. Rabies and wildlife: a iservation problem? Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 60:351 355. Vi?;

McCal um H. & Dobson, A. 1995. Detecting <$ fcase and parasite threats to endangered species and ec< systems. TREE 10(5): 190-194.

Malcol n, J.R. & Silllero Zubiri, C. 1997. The Et liopian Wolf; distribution and population status. In The Ethiopian wolf. Status survey and cpnser§ tibn action plan; pp 12-25. Sillero-Zubiri , C., & Mao ionald, D.W.(Eds). IUCN, Gland, Switzef rnd.

Mebats on, T., Sillero-Zubiri, C., Gottelli, D & (fox, J.H. 1992. Detection of rabies antibody by ELISA and RFFIT in unvaccinated dogs and in endangered Simien jackal (Cahis simensis) of Ethiopi l. J Vet Med. Series B, 39:233-235.

Roelke Parker, M.E., Munson, L., Packer, dL Kock, R., Cleaveland, S., Carpenter, M., O’Briei S.J., and 8 others. 1996, A canine distemper virus epidemic in Serengeti lions (Panthera leo). Nmire\ 379:441-445.

Sillero-! Zubiri, C. 1996. Field immobilization of Ifhiopian wolves (Canis simensis). J. Wild. Dis. 32:147n 151.

Sillero-! Zubiri, C. & Gottelli, D. 1995, Spatial otg inisation in the Ethiopian Wolf Cams simensis: large pa ± s and small stable home ranges. JZool 237:65-81.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11 Proceeding Page 48 Sillero-Zubiri, C., Gottelli, D., & Macdonald, D.W. (1996a). Male philopatry, extra-pack copulations and inbreeding avoidance in the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis). Behav Ecol. & Sotfobiol. 38:331-340.

Sillero-Zubiri, C., King, A.A. & Macdonald, D.W. 1996b. Rabies and mortality in Ethiopian Wcjlves (Canis simensis). J. Wild. Dis. 32(1)80-86. ( Siliero-Zubiri, C. & Macdonald, D.W. 1997. The Ethiopian wolf. Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Silkero-Zubiri, C., Johnson, P., & Macdonald, D.W. In press. Breeding synchrony in Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis): a female strategy to thwart monopolistic males. J Mammalogy.

TJtiorne, E.T. & Williams, E.S. 1988. Disease and endangered species: the black-footed ferret as a recent example. Cons. Biol. 2:66-74. i Wihitby, J.E., Johnstone, P., & Sillero-Zubiri, C, In press. Detection of rabies virus in decomposed brain from an Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) by .nested reverse transcription- pplymerase chain reaction. J Wild Disease

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 49 FIGURES

Figure 1. Age seroprevalence of Ethiopian wolves sampled between 1989 and 1992 to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine adenovirus (CAV-1) and canine parvovirus (CPV-2). Standard errors are shown above the bars.

100 o > 80 ‘55 60 . LmO o 0) Q. 40 k.O Q) 20 . V) 0 . Jt t <12 12- >36 35 Age (months)

Figure 2. Age seroprevalence to CDV and CAV-1 for dogs from the town of Dinsho and its environs. The solid line is the best fit for p= 1- e^ where p is the proportion seropositive at age a and X is the force of infection.

a>

I 100 o 80 Q_ o ] CDV 60 ]GA.V S 40 -CDV c 20 -CAV 0) 0 k.o a> CL Age (months)

Ethiopian Veterinary’ Association 11“ Proceeding Page 50 CODE OF VETERINARY ETHICS FOR VETERINARIANS PRACTICING IN ETHIOPIA

Introduction

Definition of Ethics and Morality:

The word ethics is derived from the Greek word, ethos, which means custom or culture, a manner of acting or constant mode of behaviour. Thus, ethics is defined as systematic or scientific study of morality (of human acts through the medium of natural reason). It teaches us how to judge accurately the moral goodness or badness of any human action.

Rtiical behaviour: Behaviour which can be said to be morally right or morally wrong, morally praiseworthy or morally blameworthy. Anthropologists generally identify right behaviour as that demanded by the group because of its survival value. The struggle to maintain existence was carried out in groups not individually.

Survival dec sions that worked - Certain ways of doing things helped a particular group of people to survive and that these ways became "universal and imperative in that group"

Morality is the science concerned with the distinction between right and wrong. A moral act is one which is carried out with at least some degree of knowledge and freedom, proceeding from man's rational nature.

The principal purpose of the code is to protect the public and animals from unqualified or inadequate practice and to promote high standards of professional conduct. The code is applicable to all members of the veterinary profession regardless of their current engagement.

Code of Veterinary Ethics for Veterinarians Practising in Ethiopia

General Considerations

1. The veterinarian must defend the honour, dignity and noble tradition of his profession through exemplary conduct in his professional life, to achieve the highest possible esteem of society.

2. It is considered a primary obligation of a member of the Ethiopian Veterinary Association (EVA) to act in accordance with the spirit and standards of this code.

3. The code shall be a guide to the attitude of the professional veterinarian, be a guideline of rights and duties and offer basic rules to the veterinarian. Basically it shall be a guarantee of the services offered to society.

4. The following are also basic duties of the veterinarian:

To act with highest social sensibility when practising his profession.

To contribute to the development of animal production in all its aspect as long as it does not harm the welfare of the animals.

To protect the health of man against zoonoses, by supplying food and products of animal origin of :he highest quality.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 l tn Proceeding Page 51 To promote animal welfare by ensuring that the animals are living in the best possible conditions and by preventing and curing their diseases, avoiding unnecessary suffering and improving the ecological conditions.

To take part of in the progress of science, particularly in veterinary and related fields.

To divulge without restrictions his knowledge and techniques, making use of his studies, education and information in general, applying his skills particularly to the type of work carried out by him. The veterinarian is to teach his client about the prevention of diseases in animals and zoonotic diseases.

To support any measures capable of improving the quality and extent of professional service.

To belong to and support professional (national and international) associations and participate actively in scientific, technical and professional meetings.

To promote initiative in favour of moral and material interest of members of the profession, always taking into consideration the higher interests of society.

To abide by the national law governing the activities of a veterinarian.

5. The rules of code are intended for those who fulfil the following requirements:

Possess an adequate title with the professional designation of "veterinarian" (or other similar) in accordance with the standards fixed by the World Veterinary Association. Participate in any of the fields of professional activity either exclusively reserved for veterinarians or shared with other professional. Be a member of the Ethiopian Veterinary Association.

6. In line with the present code, the veterinary profession may be exercised in the following fields, either exclusively or shared with other learned professional, in accordance with the rules and regulations of the nation:

Animal production and nutrition Veterinary public health Preventive and therapeutic veterinary medicine Animal reproduction Hygiene, sanitation and control of products of animal origin Techno-industrial assistance in the production of food, products of animal origin and animal health products. Transport of animals, embryos and derived products Laboratory diagnostic techniques and evaluation Participation in the development of socioeconomic policies relating to the husbandry of production animcds and the related industry Applied genetics Animal research and biological disciplines Ecology, biology, protection of wild animals and control of contamination and pollution Pisciculture, marine biology and fishing Teaching and extension The issue of certificates and expert reports relating to the above mentioned fields. Direction, planning, administration, statistics and informatics in the above fields.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 52 Professional Conducts

7. The veterinarian shall keep himself fully abreast of the latest advances in science and the profession, whilst updating his relevant knowledge and general education; the Ethiopian Veterinary Association has also the obligation to ensure that all its members are given the opportunity of exercising their profession with competence, responsibility and application of up-to-date knowledge.

8. The veterinary specialist may only use titles which have been granted by institutions recognised by EVA.

9. The veterinarian may not support, occult or become associated with persons or procedures of doubtful commercial reputation, illegal procedures contrary to ethical standards or scientific methods which counteract animal welfare, damage animal production, the ecological balance or are subject to other interests which are not the noble ones pursued by the profession.

10. In order to derive real benefit from his work, the professional veterinarian must necessarily apply all available knowledge, the most advanced techniques and the most adequate medication possible. He shal be exempted from performing duties that may expose him to physical dangers or infection or would be detrimental to the quality of his services, or be illegal. In all circumstance he should, therefore, evaluate the correct relationship between his acts and their possible consequences,

11. The performance of the activities of the veterinarian shall be personal and direct, based on technical and scientific standards.

12. The veterinarian shall give the necessary care to animals entrusted to him for attention, custody, production, reproduction or research, using them exclusively for these purposes and shall not perform unnecessary operations.

13. The Ethiopian Veterinary Association acknowledges the right of every veterinarian to exercise his or her clinical judgement in the choice of treatment. However, the veterinarian shall prescribe only officially registered medicines, providing them in what he/she believes to be the most convenient and beneficial form and dosage. He/she shall especially take into consideration the risks to human and animal health if they are used differently or if the instruction given by him are modified. The veterinarian shall not administer unjustified treatments.

14. It is an obligation to inform the client of the prospects of success, the dangers and other circumstances that may alter the outcome of work to be carried out. An ethical responsibility exists for the results of professional errors, but not as far as the result of the operation is concerned.

15. The veterinarian must recognise the right of a client to consult another colleague or a specialist of another profession at any time in accordance with the subject matter. Equally the veterianrian has the right to accept or refuse a client with the following exceptions: a) in an emergency b) in areas where there is no other source of veterinary advice

16. Documents must be authenticated or signed in a strict ranking order and be expressed in a true, concrete, serious and impartial way. Important facts may not be omitted. The certified services must have been performed by the undersigned in his presence or under his responsibility. The veterinarian should carefully scrutinize certificates for clarity and lack of ambiguity.

17. Professional secrecy is a duty and a right basic to the very essence of the veterinary profession. Secrecy of performance, if it does not affect public property, does not violate legal regulations and

Ethiopian v eterinary Association 1 l in Proceeding Page 53 does not iiamage third parties, is a basis o f|h e to our and responsibility of the veterinarian, Technoloj ical secrecy must also be included in|he ot ajiions of the professional veterinarian. The veterinari, n shall see to it that persons worldng |wder fifc^respect professional secrecy. •ll in 18. The publ nation or presentation of scientific j apers^Jnerits a' maximum attfount of respect and professioi al interest. It is the authors obligatioj y|the attention to original work which is not his own, ^agiarism is considered to be a sejrioi ffijhent of professional ethics. It' " , 19, It is ess

20. The vet® inarian has a right to collect a fee: foj %hi& ji ^ iies :which must be honest; reasonable. The fees nust be those used in the countiyf ai legislation and the standards fixed by the Associati >ns in this respect. It is not e competitive prices in order to obtain professio lal work.

21j. It is unet liical to accept any indirect gain b on alcfinciple of dichotomy or undisclosed division of profes} ional fees such as for prescription of >rsitoiy investigations, appliance, referrals, etc., witfc a veterinary partnership publicly jfc

22. A veterii arian shall not permit unqualified p< )n s|iaeto n his behalf in the diagnosis of diseases of animus or give any surgical or medic* itmewfeo animals. The veterianrians shsdl not allow any vete ihaiy student to take direct respomib: tientcare.

23. The cunfent shortage of qualified veterianritihs n|raged auxiliary veterinary staff to engage in veterinai y activities that should have beefi y veterinarians. The EVA should list the types of veterinary activities that could be

24. Promoti >n of services with moderation afcd is allowed but the principles governing this activity nust be respected, especially as ||r k are concerned. A veterinarian should not, under ai y circumstance, canvass or tout for st personally, through a third party or otherwise,

5. In his re ationship with other professions and , the veterinarian shall respect and have the highest egard for the professional criteria of others and may expect the same from otjer professionals.

26. It is unc esirable from professional and public-point view that any veterinarian engaged in private vetenn^y practice should be subject to lay dmectibr ~ 4 control. It follows that the undertaking of a private ractice by lay person (or for that jmatter a; any) is unacceptable even if carried on by a veterinaHan as manager, director, partner or emplo

Conduct b tween the Individual Veterinarians

27. Professional relations shall be based on dignity, and respect, and be strictly ethical and scientil c. No veterinarian should speak c|rw|ite J to any $iird party. \

28. Dispute s| between members of the veterinaiy prof ;ion must be resolved quickly and amicably within; l|e profession itself. If this fails, the disputSphalliall be brought before the body administering this coi k of veterinary ethics. Within these ftaric i, colleagues must express between themselves

Ethiopian V< ertnary Association 11™ Proceeding Page 54 their mutual consideration. Esteem, willingness to cooperate professionally and give moral support. I Any document bearing the signature of a colleague should be treated with respect.

29. Any form of assistance between colleagues, including specialist assistance, consultation replacement and companionship shall be promoted in strict compliance with the code, in the spirit of ; brotherhood. | ! 30. A consulted veterinarian shall not take over the management of a patient without the knowledge of 1 the regular attending veterinarian. In cases where a client seeks a second opinion, the second veterinarian should discuss with the regular veterinarian of the treatments and tests carried out. The regular veterinarian has likewise the obligation to avail all relevant information.

Juries, Committees and Deontological Rules ) | 31. The Ethiopian Veterinary Association shall set up an Ethics Committee which shall act as a final i adjudicator in interpreting the present code. The committee shall consist of members with the highest professional and moral standards.

32. Not withstanding the present rules, the veterinarians will remain subject to the standards of the professional codes,laws, and rules effective in Ethiopia until such time as these standards have been adapted to the stipulations of the present rules.

Veterinary Education Minimum Requirements

At present, veterinarians practising in Ethiopia come from different parts of the world. The wide variety I of educational standards in the world makes the establishment of minimum requirement for veterinary education both imperative and very difficult.

1 The World Veterinary Association has set minimum requirement for veterinary education. The objectives of such requirements is to provide for the training of unskilled individuals for work in their part of the world. The WVA warns that these requirements are not to be used to classify veterinary ' teaching institutions on a hierarchic scale. The sole purpose of such requirements is to ensure a i minimum training of veterinarians throughout the world.

1 The following minimum requirements are designed to comply with the main functions of the veterinary J education institutions; they are explained as clearly and as simply as possible, in a synthetic manner, leaving room for some flexibility for the early stages of their application. These requirements will be revised periodically.

1. A veterinary education institution must be of university level and must meet the standards specified by the World Veterinary Association (WVA) in its accreditation system. The veterinary curriculum must be under the immediate and sole direction of a veterinarian. This does not exclude non- veterinarians from teaching. The institution must be adequately financed, housed, equipped and staffed.

2. The duration of the veterinary curriculum must be for a period of at least four years, not including pre-veterinary training. In each of the four years a minimum of eight months of instruction will be required.

1! The veterinary curriculum must cover in depth and provide an appropriate understanding of the ! following subject matters in relation to the various animal species and animal production systems of importance in the area:

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ll"1 Proceeding Page 55 Basic Disci dines: Macroscopic & Microscopi< iy; Physiology (mammalian and avian); Biochemistry:; Pharmacology; Parasitology; Mi< Pathology; Theriogenplogy; Diagnosis, treatment a d prevention of diseases; Surger^ Vi Economics; Animal Husbandly and Production genetics); Botany; Cell Biology; Ejivir ; Professional Ethics; Animal Welfare; Population 1 £terinary Medicine; Laboratory Aniinal e; Immunology; Epidemiology; Public Health (meal inspection and food hygiene).

Appropriate library and audiovisual facilities; as pient chnical, laboratory and practical mu* t.be provided.

Studeents mu f be properly su; the course of their studies.

1.: Theve >nstrate that research activities are perforAed on its premises, contributing to th« of knowledge, both at the applied and fundan ental levels.

Contii iiing Education: The veterinary edui n must be able to assist practising veterin irians, in their part of the country, teg veterinarian's position, to cope with rapidfy changing professional demands, i

Veterinary education institution fulfilling thejabo ements should be certified by an intemationa y organized body, i.e., the Wofld ^et sociation or the World Association of Veteriennary Educators. A system of provisional ceijtific gy also be set up.

Ethiopian Veteijqary Association 11 ^ Proceeding Page 56 COMMUNITY BASED TSETSE AND TRYPANOSOMIASIS CONTROL PILOT PROGRAMME USING DELTAMETHRIN IN KONSO, SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA

Tibebu H/Wold (DVM)

Review of Trypanosomosiasis Problem

Tsetse transmitted livestock trypanosomiasis is the main threat to the livelihood of the farmers in lowland Konso (FARM Africa, 1993). Konso is a special woreda found 80km South of Arbaminch, South Ethiopia. It is one of the Southern Region most seriously affected by Trypanosomiasis. The study carried out by FARM Africa (1993) shows that livestock tryapnosomiasis causes the greatest livestock production loss.

Although measuring the production losses due to trypanosomiasis is difficult, Trumper et al (1994) reported an annual 16% cattle mortality rate due to trypanosomiasis in this area during the years 1991 - 1993. They also reported that farmers spent 32 birr/head/year on trypanocides during this period. Interviews carried out with different groups of farmers indicated that the disease has a 25 - 35 years history in Konso. Intensification of tsetse and trypanosomiasis problems can be viewed as the problem of land tenure and the resultant changes in land use and population pressure. The area was being subjected to so many technical, economic, social and political variables that played significant roles to changes in land use (Tibebu, 1994).

Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Techniques

Trypanosome of cattle are protozoan parasites, require both a mammalian and an insect host (Glossina sp.) to complete its life cycle. Thus, there are three alternative options with which , tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programmes can be implemented: Action on the parasite, Action on the host and Action on the vector i.e. tsetse flies.

Action on the vector (Glossina sp.): Different practices have been used to control tsetse flies, although some were condemned for their destructive effects on the environment. Refined and modified techniques to control tsetse flies include:

Trapping: Traps designed to attract the flies through the simulation of their olfactory and visual senses of the fly. This method has continually been modified and is one of the best tools to control tsetse and trypanosomiasis. Odour attractants and improved design significantly increase catches of G. pallidipes at Ghibe Valley, in Ethioopia (Tikubet et al, 1988)

Using insecticides: Insecticides were used in environmentally destructive and expensive ways. Efforts were, however, made ot use cheaper and less polluting methods - e.g. baiting an artifical target technique is being further developed become more effective, easy to operate and less polluting. This is known as the 'Spot-on' or 'Pour-on' technique.

Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Using Traps and Insecticide

Traps and insecticides are the two most effective technologies developed to control tsetse population and have produced positive effects in different parts of Africa to a varying degrees. Before implementing the use of either of these techniques, one should understand the conditions and the appropriate time for using the technique at its' most efficient and cost effective method. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of two of the most popular methods, traps and insecticides, is shown in Table 2, next.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l tft Proceeding Page 57 Table 2 Comparative analysis of traps and insecticides (Spot-on/Pour-on)

Traps Insecticides (Spot-on/Pour-on) Specific to fly species (no universal trap for all flies) Kills all flies resting on baited animals Can be consiructed locally and from local materials Most African countries need to import using hard currency Most effectively used in areas with a low cattle Best used where there is a large number of population (to clear the land from tsetse for livestock (effective as tsetse fly will then feed settlement) mainly on livestock) Communities can become involved in making, Communities can be involved in cost recovery, maintaining, fixing traps in the field and monitoring applying the insecticide and providing animals for them batting Prone to thef:. This is particularly bad where there Can operate well in communities where there is a is a large number of non livestock owners and in the large number of non livestock owners, although time of the year where household income at it's cost recovery might be difficult during the time of lowest low household income The mechanism of action is easy for farmers to Also easily understood by farmers understand Requires a longer time to demonstrate its1 positive Positive effects can be seen within a short period effects to farmers of time, even in a month Requires a large amount of trained manpower until Requires a minimum amount of trained the community is skilled in the making, maintaining manpower until the community is trained in the and managing, traps application of the insecticides Requires extensive community participation, Does not compete with community labour and competing wi h time and labour to be spent on other time to be spent on other activities activities. Hence community participation may cease during peak periods when labour shortage is at critical level Community participation could decline through As it requires less community participation time, particularly if the operational sites are far (provided that livestock are the main hosts for away from residential areas tsetse flies), best used if operational sites are located far from the residential areas Difficult to use in less secured areas like in valleys Can be operated with minimal (or no) problem in bordering two hostile communities less secured areas No foreseeable: future danger for trap use Fear of development of resistant tick strains to the insecticides (pyretroids could be the new acaricide)

Comparative advantages of insectcide as tsetse control tool

The comparative cost analysis of different tsetse control techniques, indicates the two to four fold cheaper use of insecticide than the traps/targets methods of controlling tsetse flies.

Page 58 Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1101 Proceeding Table 5. Comparative cost analysis of the different tsetse control methods

Control strategy Cost (US $ per km3/year) Aerial spray 290-380 Ground spray 150-167 Targets and Trap (4 at every km2) 150-165 Cattle dipping 16 Cattle spot-on/pour-on* 70

ISurce: Thomson and Wilson, 199

Community-Based Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Operation

Community-based control operations are operations whereby the community identify their problems, ichoose methods and decide on the means to tackle the problems and plan to use them independently or less dependency of any external inputs. The community needs-proper understanding of (and free to choose among) the different alternatives: to design, develop, test and implement effective strategies and i appropriate technique to fit the specific situations of that particular community. This requires series of discussions and meetings with the community to develop initiatives and make decisions on the , introduction of any technology.

1 Community-based operations will, in most cases, show successful results if they are attached to local organisations with objectives closer to livestock issues. More permanent and whose permanent and i whose leaders are entrusted by all members of the community. For further detailed information, see | FARM Africa technical pamphlet no. 16.

Objectives of the control programme

1. To demonstrate technically simple and effective tsetse control technology for the area and to the ! country as a whole.

2. To demonstrate participatory tsetse control operation or to find the ways that communities can be i involved in identifying the problem, selecting the control techniques, planning for the operation, and their involvement in carrying out and evaluating the operation.

1 3. To demonstrate sustainable tsetse control operation through cost recovery.

4. To stimulate local organiations and NGOs that are involved in development programmes to become involved in tsetse control.

5. To bring insecticide manufacturing/distributing companies, farmers, local orgnaisations and NGOs together in the tsetse control operation.

Materials and Methods i Description of the control area:

The site is covered by thorny bushes with some taller Acacia trees. Increased agricultural activities (crop production and livestock raising) has hampered the existence of wild fauna. Only few wild animals such as dik-dik and warthog are found in considerable amount.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1101 Proceeding Page 59 Applica ,on of .the .insecticide and propPrtitfrrQfj ttle: The insecticide used was deltamethrin, commercially known as 'spot-on', that a singleistnp applied along the back of the animal from the shouldei to the point of its heap. The average rate application was 20ml per animal on a monthly basis foi three months and thereafter at a bi-mont interval a total of seven applications in a year. There w ate 5508 cattle grazing in the area. Of th< 2731 (about 50%) cattle were baited with the insectici< e. Calves under two years of age were ted as they were needed! to be challenged by ticks and tick bom diseases.

Monitor ng:

a) I d® nosomiasis and cattle productivity: There "fere 200 ear tagged cows, especially bled for parasjtacmia examinaiton. These animals Were ol ed or their tick burden and evaluated for their Jtivity. This routine activity has been camed when the cows were ready to get baited with the msec icide. During the months when the spbt-on VI IS not applied, cattle were called for vaccination again t different diseases and samples were collects Ijkom randomly selected animals.

b) Moni bring vectors: Trapping of tsese an

I Data Col eicted:

A) Trypanosomiasis Prevalence: Data were record* on the proportion of trypanosome positive I anuua s for two per control sampling months> Jam and June 1995, and ten post control sampling | month s j from July 1995 to June 1996. All thise, & were from the same herd. i I ’i; B) Packe lj Cell Volume (PCV) and body c is positively argued that tiypanosomes inflict | anaem a and emaciation in animals dete: PCV and observing the body condition of I anima s is, therefore, as equally important as trypanosomes in animal's blood. ! ; . ; |PCV%-1 lood samples were taken from the 200 rani •mly selected and ear tagged cattle that were called for examinations on parasites. Blood s I were collected with haematocrite capillary tubes by e. « vein puncture were centrifuged witti a h; crite capillary tube centrifuge. The PCV% was then ( etermined with a micro-haematocritelreadefe ^CV.data were recorded for two pre control months. Ja mary and June 1995, and for ten post control idnths. from July 1995 to June 1996. I (Body Con Ution Score- Body condition of cattle is sec >rcd using condition scoring index (Nieholson and Butter forth 1986). The scoring was conducted duri lg June 1995 (pre control period), and January knd Marchfl996 (post control period).

)) Tsetse ind biting fly survery: The number of fly* atches/day/trap were recorded during two pre control months, January and June 1995, and^elevefijpost control consecutive months starting July 1995 uj to June 1996.

D) Tick b

Ethiopian Vet rlnary Association 11th Proceeding Page 60 F) Calf moi*tality: Data on calf mortality was collected interviewing and from the records of the 200 ear tagged cows being monitored.

G) Mortality and other productivity data were collected using PRA techniques.

Data Analysis:

• Chi-square was employed to compare frequencies of data on Trypanosomiasis prevalence and tick burden (Sokal and Rohlf 1996).

• Nested ANOVA (Sokal and Rohlf 1996) was employed to compare means of fly catch and PCV% data and one factor ANOVA at PO.OOl was used to test mean body condition of pre and post control periods.

• Multiple comparison test (Tuky Test) was employed to compare group means among each other and to sort out groups with similar mean value (Sokal and Rohlf 1969). Means of fly catch and PCF% were tested by these statistics. STP, Hetrogenity test (Sokal and Rohlf 1996) to investigate the months c uring which the frequencies were higher than the others.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Trypanosomiasis Prevalence

Trypanosomiasis prevalence recorded during the pre control (baseline) surveys in the January and June 1995 were 11.5% and 16% respectively. The prevalence rate was dropped to zero after one year control operation. "Tie chi-square test revealed that the drop in trypanosomiasis prevalence after deltamethrin application is significant (p<0.001).

1. The drastic reduction of trypanosomiasis prevalence within three months time after the control and Jie heterogeneity test shows that prevalence rate during ten months of post control period are not significant.

Tliis drastic drop in the trypanosomiasis prevalence due to the application of deltamethrian is in agreement with results of similar works in Tanzania and Ethiopia (Fox, et. al. 1993; Mcrcsa, 1994; and L eak, et. al 1995) \ The slight rise in trypanosomiasis prevalence in the months of March, April and May was due to the movement of cattle out of the control site. During long dry season cattle exhaust their pasture in the area and water ponds get dried off. The herd owners, thus, move their cattle to the near by Segen river valley, a highly Glossina infested area and return back in late April. Thus, the slight rise in the prevalence rate was due to the infection of trypanosome when the cattle were out side the control area.

Biood sample analysis report of the same animals that has been carried out by SRVL, one month after tie end of pilot programme (July 1996), showed similar prevalence rate (ic. zero) to that of the p receding month.

Packed cell volume (PCV%)

Anaemia is the main syndrome, associated with trypanosomiasis infection. Mean PCV(% ) of cattle in the study area before the application of deltamethrin was below the physiological normal level, i.e 24% . "Tie PCV% showed a significant (P<0.001) improvement by about 38% after the application of

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 61 deltam in. This result agrees with the and Ghibe (Meressa 1994 and Leak, et al 1995) :er similar control operation.

A mult pie comparison test also indicate*! mean ] GV% through deltamethrin . Low mean PCV % observed in March 1996 e due to the long dry season and shortage. 1

Tesetsi ind biting Flies

Trumpfe et A3., (1994) reported that G, paltidipes} the niain vector that transmit trypanosomiasis in thestm y area. The mean Tsetse fly catchA decreased significantly ftXC^OOl), from 3.05 to 0.32 fli ?s /day/trap during pre and ppst 'del1 iplication periods respectively (Figure 3). This means hat the mean tsetse catch has dro ids after the control. The effe^of deltamethrin on the ^parent density of tsetse is in line its of similar works in Tdhzartia and Ethiopia t,ei al., 1993; Meressa,i1994 and Leak et£d.,4 frThe meantsetse fly catch/day/tr^> of June 1995 i rfys significantly (P<0,01) different

The mi an biting fly catch/day/trap during the gjp| X}ntt$l period (6.13) has significantly (p<0.Q01) dropped to none after the deltamethrin application 0 jure 4)

Body C ondition Score

The mi body condition scores of animals for % pre and post control periods were 3.24 and 4.7, respecti m\y which were significantly (P<0,(j01) feyent from each other (Figure $). Based on the condition scoring index (Nicholson and Butterw 986). The pre control scoifc (3.24) was a relative^ y low score and confirms that the ca£le w generally in poor condition. The score that has been ac lieved after implementing the cob m indicates a 46% increase in the condition of animals

Calf m< rtality and abortion

Table 4 (next) shows that the calf mortality ^teh a| by 50.5% and that of abortion rate by 18% th^ implementing the control operation, |Mo ‘ due to frypanosomiasis has also decreased by 11. 2 /o This rapid improvement in cattle p after deltamethrin application to control Glossim is in agreement with findings by Fox|l993^

Table 4, Mortality and abortion rates oQcattle « % e and after deltamethrin application

1 >ata was collected by interviewing 15farm< c aused deaths in the year 1991-1993 (il $ al., 1994), ** I >ata was collected by interviewing se^fen efc on their cows performance in the control area ( jemechu, et al 1997). f

In April 1996, a workshop on tsetse and trytiano, is control pilot programme was organized in Konso by FARM Africa. The objectives of the w w^re to review theresults and plan the future.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page"62 Post ‘evaluation and planning workshop' activities

Tse se control committee: The woreda tsetse control committee, chaired by Knoso BOA and consisting of farmers (Fcra men Association Committee Members), Konso BOA, Konso Woreda Development Association, Konso woreda administrative council and Mekane Yesus Development Project is formed). Objectives of this committe is to follow up the control operation and to pan for the expansion and the continuity of the programme to other affected PAs.

Continuity and expansion of the programme: Farmers of the original five PAs who have participated in the pilot programme and other new five nieghbouring PAs (re)-organised themselves by the respective PAs. herdsmen association, formulated by laws and contributed money on the cattle head basis (i.e. 7 Bin per 2 head of cattle owned). Two months after the workshop, a total of Birr 18,000 was contributed by farmers for the purchase of the chemical and Konso BOA in collaboration with FARM Africa facilitated the purchase of insecticide. Requests of being included in the contribution and participation in the programme has continued to come from the remaining trypanosomiasis affected PAs to Konso BOA.

Conclusion an d Recommendation

Following the previous pre control study reports produced out by FARM Africa, this paper attempted to give the brief accounts of the pre/during/post-control activities and some qualitative and quantitative results of the control programme with particular emphasis to its' community basedness'.

The quantitative and qualitative (farmers*) analysis on the results of this programme early indicates the effe:tivenes, cheapness and easiness of insecticides' application in controlling trypanosomiasis in areas like Konso:

Its effect on biting flies, ticks and other ectoparasitics is observed to have out-shined other control operation.

[ts fast and broad effects attained with minimal human labour and time have attracted an increasing attention of members of the community to actively participate in the control operation.

ts simple mechanism enabled the local community and other partners, including non-veterinarians o easily understand the rationale, application and positive impacts of the control programme. Hence, stimulated other members of the community who were not involved in the pilot programme, governmental and non-governmental organizations operating at Konso and other tesetse affected areas to use participatory methods of selecting a technique and/or combination of techniques and : nitiate tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programmes.

• Insecticides can be considered as a relatively environmental safe method of controlling tsetse flies. The total volume of insecticide applied on 2731 cattle during a one year control programme was very low. Moreover, the insecticide is observed to have a minimal contact with environment and maximum knocking down effect on insects that visit cattle.

It is hoped that, this report on approaches and outcome and the socio-economic study of this pilot program (published herewith) would motivate implementing agencies and their experts to involve local communities in almost all possible stages of development programes (i.e. in project' cycle: - Identification/prioritisation of problems and the respective best bets, planning, implementing, moritoring and evaluating the best possible solutions), as one of the best means of attaining socially acceptable and ecnomically feasible outputs.

Ethioj)ian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 63 Notwithstanding the long standing and ypt unrAolved question on the uses o f single/integrated metho (s), the outcome of this specific comUnity tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programme sugget s the use of insecticide as one of theibest to implement in tsetse infested lands where livesto jk are grazing in relatively large niu|bers le study team, however, would like to indicate a furthei research on the rate and interval of ms€ i application in relation to tsetse apparent density and ca t|e population, i It is p >sitively argued and recommended 1|y arties to use integrated tsetse control approach (using combinations of technique^ like tiiosi ’ in 'chapter two of this report) primarily aimed at effecti rely reducing the fly population and1$ | pnrevalence of trypanosomiasis. i- ■ ■ ■ ■ Whate m method are used, be it any single cjue or integrated method, the success of control operat ons depend on a number of factors: [bStputs at a reasonable shorter period of time, cost and 01 tput effectiveness, operational easin< urn demand for labour and time are the major ones tl at have emerged out of this pilot pro;

Refen nee

David R.H. 1994. Report on a Consultancy Visit FARM Africa to Advise on Tsetse Control in the Konsc Region of Ethiopia.

FARlt! Africa. 1993. Report ofDiagnostic Sjurvey* 'Gersalle village of Duraite PA inKonso: Based on the w<|rk of participants in an RRA training |ourse| rganised by FARM Africa. Addis Ababa.

Fox. SJG.R. et.al. 1993. Effect on H # M and Productivity of Controlling Tsetse and TrypTrypanosomiasis by Applying Deltametrinfc) '<& of Tropical Animal Health Production. Vol. %jpp.203-214. 1 .'J!

ERP. 996. Report for the Second Quarter of 199 *&RM Africa. Awassa. '■'I i : ; ERP. 995. Annual Report 1994/95. FARMjAfrii ^wassa.

Geme >hu Gedeno. Tibebu Habtewold and? Al Konde. 1997. Community-based Tsetse and Trypa losomiasis Control Pilot Pro Deltamethrin Insecticide in Konso. Southern Ethio] ia: Participatory Socio-Economic E: Alemayehu Konde (CD). 1997. ERP Technical Pamphlet No. 16. FARM Africa. Addis Ababa.

Jordai . A.M. 1996. Trypanosomiasis Control andi frican Rural Development, Longman printing press. P. 175

Leak. S: Wudyalew M. etal. 1995. A trialjof a: •pour-on’ insecticide to control Glossina pallid pes, G.fiuscipes fiiscipes and G3hoi!i|ia|iis orsitans ih South-west Ethiopia. In:Bulletin of Ehtoiqological Research vol. 85.pp. 241?24f.

Mere®a- K.. 1994. Trial of the Efficient of Deltfmetrin in "Spot-on" When Applied to the Back of Cattle )ln: Proceedings oflhe EthiopianVe&rin Conference, pp.6.

Nichc ion, MJ. and Butter Worth. M.H; 1986. A ffiiideto Condition Scoring of Zebu Cattle.

Sokal R.R. and Rohlf. F.G. 1969. Biometrvj W .I ^ l| eman and Company. San Francisco. USA. p. 776.

Tibeb liHabtewold. 1994. Trypanosomiasisiin Wdjiita. In: Alemayehu Konde (ED.), May 1994. Cattle probl^riis in Welaita. FRP Technical Pamphjet Ndfj :I?ARM Africa. Addis Ababa.

Ethlop b Veterinary Association 11” Proceeding Page 64 Tibebu Habtewold. 1993. Bovine Trypanosomiasis in Wolayta; Prevalence and^Assessment. q£ Drue Efficacy. DVM Thesis. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine: Debre Zeit. Ethiopia,

Tikubet. G.: Duffers. W.:Ginna. T.:Leak, S.G.A.: Mulatu. W. and Richardson. T. 1988 Odor attractants for Hlnssina pallidpes in South -Western Ethiopia, In: Proc. Livestock Production in tsetse affected areasiof Africa. 23-27 Dec. 1987: Nairobi. Kenya, pp. 125-132. I Thomson, J.W. and Wilson, A.: 1992. A Review of Developments in Tsetse Ely (Gtossma spp.XCantol by Application of Insecticide to Cattle. Bulletin of Animal Production. Vol40.ppT4.

Trumper, S. and Tibebu. H.: 1994. Report of Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Survey in Konso. FRP. FARiM Africa. Awassa. Unpublished.

/

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l a Proceeding TREATMENT TRIAL >UB-CLINICAL MASTITIS iTH A POLYGON ACEAE HERB

abaiNe h M gne (D.V.M.)

ABS HRACT

Sciei tjfic verification of the remedial effect off polygonaceae herb against infections sub-clinical masti i!s was executed usmg in vitro & in ^ivo ricrbbial tests. From the leaf three crude extracts have pben procured, these are: P - 109, P - £89 P

Aver e inhibition zones (mm) exhibited by thefc ctracts compared with reference antibiotic discs for each 5st isolate were: S. aureus (exto -1 ; p.aeruginosa (extr.-10, STR.-6); c. albicans (extr.- 2.16, )xy.- 0); c. bovis (extr,-10.3, PEN.- * **

Gross minimum inhibition concentration forS. auft us and c. bovis was below 15 g in all the extracts; c.albijansc.albi & coagulase negative staphylococcus* ^ ;g by p-189 and p-239; E.coli, 60 g by p-109 & p-189 only.

The ii vivo test hasn't showed between the experimental and the control groups with t le initial 1 and 1.5 kg dose. The sub-clini£jl mastitis incidence were : 41.1, 51.6 & 47.5% in Repi, )/Zeit and Mojjo farms respectively, ^ficro^ H&i,&i, coagulase negativenegal staphylococci, s. aureus, c. pyoge is & c. bovis were isolated from sut ^Aastitis in Repi farm.

INTR 3DUCTION

1. Vlastiitis

Mastit s can be infectious (contagious), traumatic >xic. Infectious mastitis is an inflammation of the udder uvolving microorganisms with differing ^eristics and a host with varying resistance to the disease.1 Exposure to bacteria is a prerequisit| hi development of infection and mastitis is a balance betwtt i the natural defence mechanisms pf % and mammary gland and the numbers and pathog aiicity of the microorganisms in contact wit ie entrance tp the teat canal. External factors may disturb this balance and predispose or contribute to itis. In short mastitis is a multi-factorial disease (IDF-n >. 217,1987). Most mastitis is sub-clinical* i is the inflammation spears relatively slight and can't bi detected by the milker. Nevertheless IQ is a cummulative and on average the yield of an infe ;ied quarter is 30% less than the unfinfe ids. Sooner or latter mosfcipastitis become clinicaj j At this time the inflammation increafr §s gross abnormality of the milk and the udder is inflame a and tender (IDF. no. 221,1987). ^

1.2 I n djtLooaiMofeig

It is de ined by the World Health Oiganjzat|>n.{ 10, 1976) as the sum total of all knowledge and practice sswhether explicable or not, used ik di|gnos [prevention aiid elimination ofphysical, mental, or social i nbalance and relying exclusively onpractic experience and observations handed down from generat mi to generation whether verbally -or i |

i i In most developing countries (especially |a s^ase^remains one of the principaicauses of poor livestoc: performance, leading to an ever 5£gap between the supply and the demand for livestoc [ products. The ever declining provision ' ‘^health service has resulted in the resurgence of a nu nber of epizootic diseases, undepii|mg momic efficiency of livestock production in Africa. Ut is only recently that Orthodox Vc 4nd other scientists Jiijve begun to recognize the

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11 Proceeding Page 66 fact that livestock owners have a holistic understanding and approach in dealing with disease and other problems theX plague livestock production. The indigenous knowledge of livestock owners forms the foundation for and complements the success of all sustainable animal health care programs in developing countries (Toyang et al, 1995 b.).

Ir Cameroon livestock owners have used traditional animal health practices for a long time and are convinced for their efficacy. In a recent study conducted by Nuwonyakapa and associated (1995 a) termers claimed that 33 out of 55 cattle diseases and ailments (60%) prevalent in the north west province of Cameroon are treatable or preventable solely by traditional medicine. Some 9% of these diseases (Anthrax, Black quarter, Bovine Tuberculosis, CBPP, and Rinderpest) can only be treated using orthocox methods, while the remaining 31% are dealt with by the complementary use of ethno veterinary and orthodox veterinary medicines. In the latter, case, the livestock owners stressed that orthodox practices should be used only after the traditional ones have failed; they claim that about 91% of their animal health problems can be solved by means of traditional medicines even where orthodox drugs are available (Marcus, 1992-2).

2. BACKGROUND

2.1 Profile of Mastitis in Ethiopia

Mastitis is a disease, that has received little attention in Ethiopia, especially the sub-clinical form. E fforts have only been concentrated on the treatment of clinical cases.

Geressu (1989), carried out bacteriological examination of milk samples from both clinical & sub- clinical mastitis and found in 67.4% of the animals examined. Major bacteria incriminated were staphylococci & corynebacteria. There were varying degree of antibiotic resistance up to 51.9% to oxacillin. Mastitis prevalence between pure Holestein & cross bred animals wasn't significantly different.

In another study an average of 5.3% cows and 1.9% quarters were clinically infected and 19% cows and 7.4% quarters sub-clinically infected. The local breeds were found to be less susceptible to mastitis than die crosses. Animals of Friesian cross breed had the highest mastitis incidence followed by the simmental cross breed. Staphylococci, streptococci, Conynebacteria, Pasteurella and Nocardia were isolated as a causative agents (Nesru etal, 1991).

2.2 Traditional Medicine In Ethiopia

Ethiopia covers several ecological zones and has a wide variety of natural resources, many of which are conducive to various flora & fauna, unfortunately a large number of animal diseases also exist in the country limiting livestock production like many African countries, the people of Ethiopia have used traditional methods to treat both human and animal diseases for generations.

It is still widely practised in rural areas where modem public health and vet. services are limited. This indigenous knowledge passed from generation to generation as a lore, with great secrecy only to those who have profound proximity. This secrecy is increasingly being considered as causing a loss to the country as a whole because such apothecaries are becoming fewer and fewer.

Dawit (1993) in his gathering of information on medicinal plants and health practices in Northern Ethiopia disclosed that over 240 species of plants and 29 species of wild animals and more than 6 kinds of mineral substances are employed in the treatment or prevention of various diseases and other problems. 87% of the remedies prepared are of plant origin, while 11 and about 2% are of animal and mineral origin respectively combined drugs involving plant and animal; plant and mineral; animal and mineral; plant, animal and mineral is respectively, 9.3%; 4% ; 0.13% ; and 1.3%. 51% out of all

Ethiopian V eterinary Association 11® Proceeding Page 67 m m -

preparations were drawn from single plant originates from two or more than two species

2.3 Impetus of the Study

In 199^ la questionnaire on the traditional $ray offtreating and preventing of animal ailments was present* dto farmers in and around Buta-Jira (| chernic: Is and animal parts, were reported; m m most of them were common knowledge of the public s iid reported in ethnopharmacology lit$ iihe singular case was that of the polygonaceae herb da medto have remedy for bovine niasti^s, led placenta and as antiseptics for women genitals after deanery.

Taking (is as a domain, the reconnaissance study enced on that year. Those cows with acute mastitis nought to Buta-Jira Vet clinic were s^bj t$ the treatment as prescribed^ by the fanner: One "festal" ►f the polygon-aceae herb leaf was cooked 7 iter and a cup of table salt add&L The cooking waited It the leaves colour changed to that of cooj Cabbage. After cooking cows were allowed to feed on and feeding continued till those cardjnal si pf inflammation of the udder w&e subsided, in the obsi ration a "festal" of polygon-aceae herb 1| lyeigbs aronnd 1 kg and the treatment course ranged im five to seven days. From Deceniper to September 1995 a total of 12 mastitic cows, 10 of wl lich zebu X friesian and 2 local zebuj were|j in the observation. After completion of the treatnn eight of the ten cross bred cows show* lion of inflammatory signs< andlcolour change of the [ilk were vanished. There was no micro! ogical examination to isolate and identify the etiology if each case. Hence inorder to accompli! e arrears this project was designed with the followim objectives. ^

1. verify the medicinal effect of polygc ifrb against sub-clinical mastitis,

To isolati and identify the etiology of sub-clinipal is.

3. lTERIALS & METHODS

This woii has been conducted in the National^ sease Research Center using 1996/97 ESTC research grant and under the auspices of Agricultural Office. It is a year program commented from September 1996. The resee ighed to execute in vitro and in vivo tests. The in vitro conducted using crude extracts and mi( lates of sub-clinical mastitis from Repi, D/zeit and Mojjp, farms, whereas the in vivo in thi: i emanated only from Repi farm of the Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE). I 3.1 Experimental Herd

This herd comprises of 124 lactating cows andhasrel [v0ly better hygienic standard than others, cows with infections subclinical mastitis were taken! as a population. The experimental unit was a lactating <»w with infections sub-clinical mastitis. II " I 3.2 Plant Material & Preparation of tlie Ettrt j 1 | '* jVoucher Specimens of the test plant were cbllect { the investigator around Akaki town and submitted lb Science Faculty, Department ofBi<|ogy >tanical identification.

'A fresh leives of the herb were air dried under: je size of the leaves were reduced by mortar and pestle ollowed by pulverizer in to fine pow| jjtal of 300 g, powdered leaves were collected and divide i in to three equal parts of 100 g .; The ' parts weie macerated separately by 99%

Ethiopian Ve erinaiy Association 11“ Proceeding Page 68 petroleum ether, 95% acetone, and 99.5% methanol respectively for over six days in a large round bottle flask.

Bach extract was filtered by chromatographic filter paper and transferred to three evaporating dishes then concentrated on water bath. The quantities of extracts from petroleum ether, acetone and methanol were 6g, 38g and 41 g respectively. The extracts were denoted as P-109, P-189, and P-239 the figures correspond to the extension of their extraction polarity.

3.3 Diagnosis

The diagnosis of sub-clinical mastitis was based up on i. Chemical test - CMT used in the initial screening of the herd and after completion of the in vivo test Postmilking sample was used. ii. Culture - isolation and identification of a specific microorganism from aseptically taken milk samples. Samples were transported in an ice box to the laboratory and inoculated on to 7.5% sheep blood agar. These were aerobically incubated at 37°c for 24 -48h. All colonies were gram stained, morphology recorded and subjected to biochemical tests for further identification as described by carter (1984).

3.4 Response Variables

For the in vitro test, the presence or absence of growth of isolates in a nutrient medium in to which extracts of polygonaceae herb are incorporated. Cure or no cure for the in vivo test, cure is interpreted as failure to isolate the initial microbe after completion of the treatment course, and no cure, the vice versa.

3.5 In Vitro Antimicrobial Test

Plate diffusion method was used to test the plant extracts and antibiotic discs, the latter were used as a reference Those bacterial and yeast isolates (Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Pseudomonas, & Candida spp) were maintained at 4°c on nutrient agar. The agar was sterilized by autoclaving and 20ml portions were dispensed in sterilized petridishes (9 cm in diameter). 4-5 colonies of the test organism were suspended in 5 ml of saline water and the agar plates were homogeneously flooded with an inoculum. 5mm cores of agar were removed from four portions on seeded agar dish. The three wells were filled with 0.074 ml (820 g)of each plant extract and the remaining one with ethanol. Discs of penicillin, streptomycin and oxytetracycline were placed on the same plate. For the estimation of gross inhibition concentrations of the active constituent in the extract, taking the assumption that the active principle constitutes 3% of the leaf dry matter. 0.2g each crude extract was taken and dissolved in 4 ml ethanol resulting in 6000mg active principle in 4ml as a stock solution. Those test organisms used in the primary test were used except pseudomonas which was superseded by E.coli. In this test for one organism, three agar plates were used, one plate for each extract and on each plate six wells were carved, five of them having 5mm and one with 10mm diameter. In one group 40ml (60 g), 80 ml (120 g ), 160 ml (240 g), 320(480 g) and the other 20 ml (30 g), and 10 ml (15 g ) of the stock solution were filled on each plate. Control plates containing similar volume of ethanol in six wells were placed. After ho ding at 4°c for one hour and incubation for one day at 37°c, zones of inhibition were measured in mm.

3.6 ltt Vivo Test (Treatment Trial)

In this trial there were one experimental and two control groups. The experimental group comprises 19 cows which divided in to two sub- groups with 10 and 9 cows each and fed with 1 and 1.5 kg

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 69 ■p

na seae leaves respectively for five consqfcutiv< p . The first control group having 9 cows was taken as i negative control without any ta&1xti£nt» he second group with the same number of cows wasltkeated with interject intramamm^y j fthree consecutive days. ,:f f '

Allocation l of each experimental unit (a cow) to^tite*! ilpwas conducted on the pretreqiuition to feed on the

Every da; 25Kg of fresh leaves were collected* in m te bag and brought to the faim. Leaves were immersed in a large metal vat filled with water in tb i 15 cups of table salt were added. Cooking took plaa in an open fire for 20 minutes ahd apRes Ii|ig I> or 1.5 kg of the cooked leaves with the respective proportion of cooking water are transfi in a plastic container to which molasses was trickled h drder to increase palatability. Both tom gftugjs were also supplemented with salt and molasses.

14. R 'SULTS & DISCUSSION

California mastitis test (CMT) ofpost milkmg sampl? from Repi, D/zeit, and Mojjo dairy farms has revealed ije incidence of sub-clinical mastitis 41? 51.6 and 47.5% respectively (table -1). The highest in >:idence was seen in D/zeit which could ft related to the mean housing and sanitation conditions prevailing. In general the incidejicfclwas inin all farms compared with Nesru's finding 19% on th *different farms of the Institute of Agfic Research in 1991. This could be attributed to )ithe lack o. : regular detection & treatment o i, dry cow therapy, teat dij$Qg, proper hygienic condition, and swift treatment intervention e mastitis; Erskin (1992) has showed that ithe use o postmilking test dipping arid total as a means of achieving, sub-clinical mastitis co itrol.

Table 1. I] Cidence of Sub-Clinical Mastitis

Farms No. oflactating [ ^.jpfsub- Incidence 1 cows rate (%) | Repi 124 t ^ 51 41.11 D/zeit 62 I 32 51,6 | Mojjo 80 I J , 3S 47.5 |

In Repi fai tn out of 51 quarters CMT score 2 and above (a quarter from a cow) 43 have harboured microorgar isms on culturing. Isolated microofrganisp s Were: Micrococci spp (41.8%), coagulase ;atives/< phylococci (27.9%), S. aureus (11.6%), C. tk >is (11.6%), C. pyogens (6.9%) (tdible - 2).

able 2. 1; pes of Pathogens isolated from Repi Barm.

1 - ■ ' m o f l 5 Sample Pathogen Pathogens Isolate! r O b t M (%) (%) Micro iocci spp '-"'.J. 35.2 41.8 Coagi l&se negative staphylococci - r 23.5 27.9 S. aur np i: : I P i 9.8 11.6 Cbo ^is t m 9.8 11.6 C.pyi %ens 5.8 6.9

**, - Ward and S ihultz (1972) stated that organisms co mammary gland may be divided in to one group, referjed to either as minor pathogens <^r coi 59I (eg. C. bovis or coagulase negative s taphylococ H) and a second group containing this iibgens (streptococci spp,, S. aureus, and

Page 70 colifomi being the most common). Nesru, et.al., (1991) in their study on different local and exotic breeds in Ethiopia, reported C. bovis, S. epidermidis, and micrococci were found as a constant inhabitants of mammary glands.

CMT v. as interpreted as negative for scores 0, trace and 1 or positive for scores 2, 3 or 4. The exclusion of score 1 was to increase the chance of bacterial isolation and avoid spontaneous cure in pursuing treatment trial.

The in vitro antimicrobial potency test of the crude extracts using S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans and C. bovis all were isolated from sub-clinical and clinical cases in Repi, D/Zeit and Mojjo farms. In general the size of growth inhibition zones incured by the extracts was far better than those of noble antibiotics disc (Table - 3).

Table-2 Antimicrobial Potency Test of Polygonaceae Leaf Extracts (P-109. P-189, P-239).

Average Inhibition Zone (mm) No. Test Isolate P-109 P-189 P-239 PEN/STR/OXY Ethanol 1 S-8 (S.aureus) 4 7 8 2 (OXY) 0 2 H-19(P. aeruginosa) 5.5 6 8.5 6 (STR) 0 3 M-22(Candida lbicans) 1.5 2 3 0 (OXY) 0 4 D.12 (C.bovis) 8 9.5 13.5 7.5 (PEN) 0

The highest inhibition zone was exhibited by P-239 which is 13.5 mm, in contrast to 7.5 mm by the reference penicillin disc on Corynebacterium bovis culture. Three of the extracts showed their effect on gram positive, negative bacteria and the yeast c. albicans. The latter wasn't inhibited by oxytetracycline. The inhibition zone size on S. aureus culture using OXY-tetracycline was 2 mm which is by half lower than the least potent extract, P-109, which was 4 mm, P-239 showed 8 mm. The zone size on P. aeruginosa by the extracts ranged from 5.5 to 8.5 mm, streptomycin gave 6 mm which is equivalent to that of P-189.

The gross minimum inhibition concentrations of the three extracts were observed (table 4). Owing to the lack of (Micropipette) the least concentration tested was 15 g .S. aureus and C. bovis have showed inhibition by this concentration of the three extracts, C. albicans and coagulase negative staphylococcus by P-189 and P-239, whereas the least concentration for E. coli was 60 g exhibited by P-109 and P- 189 only, P-239 showed no inhibition by all concentrations. Similarly M-22 (C.albicans) was not inhibited by all concentrations of P-109. Ethanol hasn't showed any inhibition against all test organisms which substantiates that the inhibition observed was exclusively by the crude extracts.

The in vivo treatment trial in the experimental group at the incipient doses showed 4 (21.05%) and 11(57.89%) of the cows with sub-clinical mastitis have become negative for CMT and bacterial isolation on the 7th and 14th days after completion of the treatment course (table - 5).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 71 Table-4 Gross Minimum THhibition Concentrations of fee Extracts ftngl haseri nn Tnhihititm 7ime Size m nrni. . M No. Test Organism P 3 P- 189 P-239 E fhand 15 30 60 120 240 480 15 30 60 120 J * S r , -A5L. mM~ .2 4 0 . -480- •f J • . - •?; • - — /— ... . jy------Iv — 3 - ;4-- —4- - ~4 7 9 3 3 3 4 5 6 0 2 D -12 C bovis 3 3 4 6 5 5 3 3 3 5 7 8 0 3 3 4 6 8 0 3 M -22 C albicans 0 9 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 3 3 4 4 4 0 4 S-Fis. coli 0 0 5 5 6 8 0 0 4 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 S -8 Coagulase negative 0 0 2 4 5 5 4 4 6 9 11 11 3 4 6 9 9 11 : r staphylococcus

mm " ill*

*iS

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11A Proceeding Pa«e 72 T&ble - 5 Results of in Vivo Treatment Trial in the Experimental Group,

CMT Score Microbe isolation Before After Rx Before After Rx No. Ear Tag Affected Rx Rs No. Quarter 7 d. 14 d. 7in d. 14 d. 1 608 LH 3 3 0 + + - 2 601 LF 3 4 2 + + - 3 57 LH 2 2 0 + + - 4 620 LF 3 3 1 + + + 5 869 LF 2 2 0 + + - 6 634 RH 4 2 2 + + + 7 5 LF 3 0 0 + - - 8 409 LH 3 3 0 + + - 9 919 RF 4 1 1 + + + 10 639 LH 3 0 1 + - + 11 128 RH 4 3 2 + + + 12 858 LF 4 3 3 + - + 13 137 LH 2 2 1 •W + + + 14 37 LH 2 2 3 + + - 15 924 RH 3 3 0 + + - 16 53 LH 3 2 2 + + - 17 427 LF 3 2 0 + - - 18 62 RF 2 4 3 + + - 19 870 LF 2 2 2 + + +

The doses were given regardless of their body weight out of nine cows in the negative control group 2 and 5 of them have become negative for original bacterial isolate on the 7th and 14th day respectively (Table - 6).

Table 6 Results of the Negative Control Group

CMT Score Microbe isolation No Ear Tag Affected Initial T ° d. 14tnd. Initial 7tnd. 14tnd. No. Quarter 1 712 LH 2 1 0 + + - 2 416 LH 2 0 1 + -- 3 605 RF 2 2 2 + + + 4 658 LH 2 1 2 + + + 5 917 LF 3 3 3 + + + 6 16 LF 2 3 2 + + - 7 981 LF 2 2 0 + -- 8 835 RH 3 4 1 + + + 9 864 LF 2 4 0 + + -

Those :ows negative for bacterial isolation on the 7th and 14th day in this group had CMT score of 2. The positive control group comprises of nine cows and after interject intrammary infusion for three consecutive days, all become negative for bacterial isolation on day 7 and seven out of nine on day 14 (Table-7).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 73 Table - 7 Results of in Vivo Treatment Trial in the Positive Control Group.

CMT score Microbe isolation Before After Rx Before After Rx No. Ear Tag Affected Rx Rx No. Quarter 7ind. 14ind. 7ind. 14lDd. 1 900 Lh 3 0 0 + -- 2 799 RH 2 0 0 + - - 3 85 RF 3 3 1 + - + 4 901 RF 2 0 1 + - + 5 987 RF 3 2 1 + - - 6 943 LH 2 0 0 + -- 7 61 RH 2 0 0 + - - 8 617 LF 2 0 1 + --

9 731 RF 3 0 0 + - -

The positiveness of those cases which were negative on day 7 when samples were retaken on day 14 was clearly due to reinfection, where as the reverse might been from slow detrimental effect of the herb as well as bacteriostatic effect of the active constituent, or else due to spontaneous cure. The failurity to isolate original microbe in the negative control group on day 7 and 14 was merely from spontaneous cure. The positiveness of cow number 85 & 901 on the 14th day was an overt reinfection.

The chance of reinfection in Repi farm was considerable since milkers didn't wash their hands before and after milking and there was no post milking teat dipping which favour those microbes like staphylococci easily transmissible by contact from diseased to healthy udder. The sprinkling negative response in the experimental group could be due to underdose, as the route of administration was per os and udder was the organ on which the active constituent anticipated to exhibit its action.

5. CONCLUSION

The in vitro sensitivity test using the crude leaf extracts of polygonaceae herb indeed has revealed the antimicrobial property of the herb, even though the quantity of pharmacologically active constituent and the inoculum were not precisely known and also the extracts weren't sterile.

All the three extracts have showed better antimicrobial effect than those commercial antibiotics used in the test. The common gross minimum inhibition concentration for all test strains was 60 g, meanwhile S. aureus and C. bovis had below 15 g .

The in vivo test with 1 & 1.5 Kg doses in the experimental group wasn't significant compared with the control groups, hence pursuing of bioassay test and formulating of appropriate dose in conjunction with isolation and identification of pharmacologically active principle in the herb are in valuable arrears.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my profound appreciation to the Gurage Zone Agricultural Bureau for the sanction and sponsorship.

My keen gratitude is due to the National Animal Disease Research Center and its Director Dr. Sintayehu Abdicho for the all rounded and in effable support.

My thanks also conveyed to the Department of Chemistry (A.A.U.) and ESTC for their crude extraction and the research grant assistance respectively.

Ethiopian Veter nary Association 11th Proceeding Page 74 Finally my thanks goes to all the staff in the Food Hygiene, Bacteriology and Mycology Team as well as W/o Ateenesh W/Giorgis who got me the manuscript typed.

REFERENCES

Anonymous. 1987. Bovine Mastitis. Bulleting of International Dairy Federation 211. 3-15.

Anonymous. 1994. Indigenous Medicines for the treatment of simple diseases of ruminants. Heifer Project India. 1-4.

Carter, G R. 1984. Diagnostic procedures in Veterinary Bacteriology &_My.c.olflgY. Thomas publisher, U.S.A.

Dawit Abebe, Ahadu Ayehu. 1993. Medicinal plants and Enigmatic Health Practices__pf Northern Ethiopia. 1-31.

Geressu Birru. 1989. Major Bacteria Causing Bovine Mastitis and their Sensitivity to common antibiotics. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 11.2.

Nesru Hussen, Teshome Yehualashet & Getachew Tilahun. 1991 Prevalence of Mastitis in Different local and Exotic Breeds of Milking cows. IAR Proceedings 4. 256-262.

Ngeh J.Toyang, Mapoi Nuwanyakapa, Christopher Ndi, Sali Diango, Wirmum C.Kinyuy. 1995. Ethnoveterinary Medicine practices in the North West Province of Cameroon. Indigenous knowledge & Development Monitor 3:3.

Okapako, D.J. 1991. Traditional African Medicine. Principles of pharmacology, 3-31.

Valietinck, A.J. 1995. Screening of hundred Rwandese medicinal plants for antimicrobial properties. Journal o rEthnopharmacology. 46. 31-47.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11tn Proceeding Page 75 EARLY HISTORY OF RINDERPEST EPIDEMIC : social, economical and political crisis in Ethiopian History

ABSTRACT

The great Ethiopian famine of 1888-92 was the most disastrous event in Ethiopian history which was the major cause, the death of cattle due to the introduction of rinderpest affected cattle from India. This event is well documented by historians, authors and by the memory of elders. The aim of this paper is not to rev/rite this history, but to examine the event in the view of veterinary knowledge. Numerous documents on the history of the famine were investigated.

The introduction, extent and intensity of the outbreak is discussed. Consideration is given to the social, economical and political crisis inflicted by the epidemic. Measures taken by the Emperor Menelik II during and after the outbreak is also discussed. Vernacular names of rinderpest in different languages is listed.

INTRODUCTION

The great Ethiopian famine of 1888-1892 which was leading a great historical consequence in Ethiopian history. It was the worst devastating event which swept across the country decimating a large number of cattle and human. The immediate cause for the famine was a rinderpest epidemic which loss of cattle disrupt the farming process, drought and locusts raids complicated the problem.

Rinderpes: is a lethal, contagious and deadly disease of a cloven hoofed animal. It is a disease producing a path breaking changes in veterinary development in the world. The establishment of Office of International Epizootic (OEE) in 1924 was initiated by the rinderpest outbreak in Central Europe. In Ethiopia, the introduction of modem veterinary service in Northern part of the country by Italians is the effect of rinderpest outbreak.

This paper is a part of my study on history of veterinary medicine. The objective of this paper is not to rewrite history but to see the event on the perspective of veterinary knowledge. Rinderpest is still found in pockets of some areas of the country bordering Southern Sudan and in the Afar Region. There can be a risk of epidemic in free areas. So documenting and reviewing the past is significant to evoke professionals and government officials. Literature available in the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University were investigated to obtain information on the topic. The documents were written by historians of Ethiopian and foreign origins which they depend on their personal observation, reports of travellers, missionary and advisors of rulers and people communication.

Historical background of Italian Invasion

Italy seized the port of Massawa in February, 1885. During January 7, 1887 there was a Dogali war which the invading force was annihilated by the Ethiopian commander of the North, Ras Alula. Undeterred by this event a new Italian expedition led by General San Marzano landed at Massawa on November 8, 1887 bringing it with 800 horses and 100 mules, esp. shipped from Naples. At this time of expedition, cattle imported from India by an Italian called Lambert Andreoli who was contemporary Italian work as a contractor, purveyor and ship owner. Rinderpest was introduced to the country with infected cattle at this occasion1'9

The disease was introduced to the country not deliberately but the contemporary Ethiopian scholar Aleqa Lemma Hailu who personally communicated by Richard Pankhurst said that the Italians did deliberately by saying that “ The Italians brought in the cattle disease by inoculating three cattle with the disease”(Richard Pankhurst., 1964&1985).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 76 Epidemology of the disease

1. Species affected

Cattle were the majority affected . Wild animals like buffaloes and antelopes also affected. Gazelles, sheep and goats are the remaining one. This one asserted by a British traveller and official Baird who travel to western part of the country said “ during the whole of the latter part of the march we passed quantities of bones of cattle which had been killed by the rinderpest, Each village had its cattle pen of sjtrong timber, but they were nearly all empty. “

2 .Clinical symptoms

Th0re is a variation among documents on the expression of clinical symptoms of the disease. Some said that all the cattle were paralysed and then refused to graze and finally died. In majority cases, theV expressed that a disease came over the cattle and it made them sick ; it made their hair look singed , their ears hang down , their eyes water, and their mouth drivel, finally they died of it. This could coincide with the peracute and acute case of rinderpest.

3. Morbidity and mortality rates

Afework Gabreyesus in his book wrote that 90% of the cattle of Ethiopia perished with the expression the owner of a Thousand head being left with only one or two. According Richard Pankhurst with personal communication to Aleqa Lemma said that his father owned some three hutidred of cattle but only one heifer survived. Richard pankhurst (. 1965 & 1991 ) and Paulos Gnogno (1984 Eth. Cal.) expressed that from Menilek’s herd several thousand died with out a single one survived which Menilek lost around 250000 head of cattle. Some of the richer Rooms, each lost as many as 10000-12000 head.

4. Severity and intensity

Ri'phard Pankhurst ( 1965&1991) and Paulos Gnogno (1984 Eth. Cal.) wrote that at Bulge(North Shoa) all the cattle died with in eight days and the carnage was overwhelming indeed impossible to describe, entire herds of 500 or 1000 head having perished in a matter of one or two days.

5. {Disease distribution

The epidemic started in the North and advanced South wards. Hamasien was the first province to be afjfected then spread to Tigre, Begemeder and Lasta to Gojam and then to Shoa. According Dr. R, Wurtz the epidemic took four months to spread from Tigre to Shoa. Apcording to travellers and missionary from various sources all the cattle around the great Eastern trading centre of Harar died vast number of cattle perished in the Danakil desert all the Oromo lands of the Southern and Western areas suffered Ethiopian bordering areas of Somalia ( Juba and Genale areas) almost all parts of the country suffered

Spme local chroniclers and authors ( Afework G.Y., 1901& Paulos Gnogno., 1984 Eth .-cal.) wrote the Southern and Eastern parts of the country weren’t suffered from the epidemic. 1 6. Agro-ecological condition i According to Richard Pankhurst (1964&1985) the outbreak was less intense at an altitude of 3000 meters or above and cattle were survived while in the lowlands, the extermination was complete.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11* Proceeding " Page 77 This can be attributed to the density of cattle which could be higher in the lowlands than in the highlands so contact rate would be minimal in the later.

People and Nobles perception

The epidemic event was known as “kefii qan ” which means evil days. The following perceptions are documented

The event was considered as an act of God which historically coincide with the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 with a war against Dervishes at Metemma. It being popularly believed that natural calamities accompanied with the death of great rulers. So people and nobles devoted to praying “egzio”.

Among the Oromo people considered as an act o fw a q q a ” which is God.

There were popular contemporary Amharic couplets and songs by the people to indicate the suffering of people and cattle. Among which almost documented by the authors express the death of oxen and farming failure leading to famine. The following Amharic poems run as follows

oo "lib h t t f M hiLu

It run as follows, mota and qaranyo (two regions), why are they not ploughed? dembecha and debra worq (two other places), why are they not ploughed? I came from there without seeing an ox.

The third line also has a double meaning which may be translated. I, came from there to here over dead bodies ( Richard Pankhurst 1964& 1985).

rIA,* rtrffi fl£ rU^CC lhfr9° mf- JiA* *nC«« *UA hflAA £ £ (W ifi 1'h 't'A a (\

This crying poem express “grain runs followed by the ox and finally both were disappeared from the country” ( Paulos Gnogno, 1984 Eth.cal.)

The rinderpest epidemic left its impact on social, economical and political developments on the country(Richard Pankhurst 1964&1985., Afework G/S 1901 Eth.cal., G/Sellase W/A 1959 Eth.cal., M/Sellase W/ M 1962 Eth.cal., Paulos Gnogno 1984 Eth.cal. & Bahru Z 1991).

I Social: people were descended to the level of a total breakdown of social and moral order.

A. Feeding habit eating of taboo foods(dogs, equine and dead carcasses) eating of the roots of wild plants eating of leaves of all kinds with out exception eating of impure and decayed foods eating of diet consisting of old cow hides

B. Abandonment or sale of children by their parents

C. Self enslavement ( Christians to Moslem traders )

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 78 D. Cannibalism, suicide and murder of people

E. Banditry and robbery

F. Migration of the people from the North to the South (from Gojam to Keffa and Tigre to West and coastal place)

II. Economical: The cattle plague and harvest failure combined to produce a sudden and considerable rise in the price of all items of food.

A. 1 he price of grain is soared due to concealing of grain by the speculation that cattle would never be replaced Russian traveller Mashkov stated that the cost of grain rose between 1889 and 1890 one or two hundred times. B. The cost of cattle rose five to seven times specifically for ox which worth two dollars before then became value for twenty to thirty dollars, and a cow sold perhaps as much as forty dollars. C. The price of sheep was also rose. Mashikov said that where as a dollar might brought one to six sheep in 1889 a single animal cost any thing between two and four dollars in 1890, an eight to twelve fold increase in price having occurred in the year.

D. "The export of hides entirely came to an end.

E. The value of amole chew salt bar traditionally used instead of money was increased because of the shortage of beasts of burden increased transport costs. Mashkov confirmed the great increase in the value of salt, observing that where a dollar would buy eight to twelve bars in 1889 a year later it obtained only two to two and a half bars while the value of maria theresa dollar had ::allen to half.

III. Political : The outbreak had a great effect on Ethiopian history with a path break changes in the ntemal and external politics. The changes were documented by historians. a) The outbreak initiate Menilek’s campaign of expansion to the south for the search of northerners for better resources in the relatively less affected regions. The southern Arusie country which stricken by the epidemic they take the invasion as the God declared wished to destroy them.” It is waga (God )who has made us to submit to the Amhara” they said. b) It facilitated Italian advance in to the highlands of the Eritrea, the occupation of Asmera in 1889. The dislocation and demoralisation brought by the famine inevitably weekend the Ethiopians and thus facilitated Italian expansion. c) The scarcity of resources severely handicapped Menilek’s force during the campaign of Adwa which they weren’t able to follow up their historic victory by liberating Eritrea as well. d) It favoured for the religious propagation by the Protestants and catholic missionaries in the western and southern parts of the country.

The interesting effects of the disaster were the adoption and wide cultivation of potato by the people, extensive cultivation and adoption of ensete (Musa ensete) false banana among the Oromo people and the complete eradication of tsetse flies from terrain and valleys.

Measures taken by Emperor Menilek

The measures taken were technically inadequate to contain or alleviate the outbreak but the reaction of Emperor Menilek and his Empress Taitu are as follows

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 79 1. They devoted themselves to prayer and charity and also made prophetic proclamation with bush telegraph to the people of Shoa utter to God , the cry of egzio (a prayer). He opened his granaries to the destitute and personally distributed injera (pan cake like bread).

2. Menilek decided up on a policy of austerity at court to forbade the eating of beef and himself also abstained.

3. He encouraged the people to till’the land without oxen and by himself setting the example. He prepared a pick axe to dig the soil and a hatchet to cut the wood. He dispatched the implements to the provincial rulers with the message “imitate me”.

4. He took steps to prevent speculation in grain which exaggerated the shortage and sent his officials in to every land with institutions to confiscate all concealed grain and to allow the proprietors only sufficient to meet the requirements of themselves and their families for one year.

5. He took steps to replenish the country’s stock of cattle began in the early nineties. Ras Mokonen in 1892 , the governor of Harar gave to Menilek’s aid which comprising 5000 bulls and 5000 cows and then distributed to the nobles. Ras Darge’s son from Bale sent cattle and then distributed to churches and from this Consort Taitu sent 300 cattle to the stricken province together with men to cultivate the soil.

Meniiek was endeavoured with out success, to import grain from abroad. There was pillaged by the Somalis and Danakils were themselves also suffering from famine. No supplies therefore reached famine stricken Shoa.

According to Paulos Gnogno, Menilek in 1900 (Eth.cal.) had the first animal health proclamation which was publicly read out at the market days by heralds. It gave emphasis to notify diseased animals to the local officials and to bury dead animals by the owner otherwise his properties would be confiscated.

Diplomatic support

French sent Dr. R. Warts in January 1898, to do research and experiment with the control of “ bovine pest “ . He brought large quantities of fresh Jennifer vaccine for small pox and gave vaccination to the people of Addis Ababa (Rosin fled, C.P., 1978). Paulos Gnogno wrote in his book that he was a veterinarian but Richard Pankhurst as he was a French authority on tropical medicine. Dr. R. Worth wrote a lot about the epidemic.

The Italians tried to take measures against rinderpest by sending veterinary team in 1889 to have a study on rinderpest to Northern part of the country. Later on in 1903 the first veterinary laboratory was established in Asmera for controlling disease outbreaks in particular rinderpest, African horse sickness, trypanosomiasis and anthrax. Clinics also established in some Awards of Eritrea : Brace, Gashari setit, Karen and Akale guzaye.

Historical and vernacular names of rinderpest

Rinderpest has got many local names in different ethnic groups and communities and also with in the same ethnic group in different areas (refer table 1).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ll"1 Proceeding Page 80 1. Mostly the name of rinderpest refer to favouring or cajoling the disease to convince the severity of the disease like "wetete” which literally meaning “my milk” and “ desta” means ’’happiness” in Amharic and “ dhaadhi” means the favourite local honey beer in Oromigna.

2. Some lames express the severity of the disease like” gumedew” and “abba tireg" which means complete eradication of cattle in Amharic.

3. Some names refer to the species affected like “dhucuba gudaai” and “ dhukuba horii” which literally to mean great disease and disease of cattle, respectively in Oromigna and also “yekebt beshita ” in Amharic means disease of cattle.

4. Clinical signs are used also to name rinderpest, In Somaligna It is called “debekeruu ” which means bloody diarrhoea

Table 1. Historical and vernacular names of Rinderpest

No. Languages Names 1 Amharic desta, mariye, aba biye, yekebt beshita, aba tireg, wetete, gumedew, medehene 2 Oromigna dhukuba gudaa, dhukuba horrii, shakie, waraan debisii, dhadii, waraan dhomesii 3 Tigrigna gulehaye, beyene, degehabi 4 Guragigna fezhia, kubero 5 Afarigna degihabi, endugule, beyene 6 Somaligna debekerru 7 Kembatigna kateba 8 Hadigna kateba 9 Alabigna fubusaa 10 Gelebegna aguagno 11 Sidamigna furetu

Source:

PARC, MOA office (personal communication with Ato Gebeyehu Afework) Alemwork Beyen (1944 Eth. Cal.) Animal breeding and veterinary method Vol. I&II Berhane and Selam H.S.I Printing press Addis Ababa (In Amharic) Paulos Gnogno (1984 Eth. Cal.) Emperor Menilek II 1st edition Bole printing press Addis Ababa Aya.ew Tolossa (1996) Ethnoveterinary knowledge in central Highlands of Ethiopia. A paper presented at the Tenth Annual Conference of Ethiopian Veterinary Association June 6-7, 1996 Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

REFERENCES

Vflth.rfrh (V^£^rt) -STTP hm, 1901 *}.9°

>iA<7J0)C* m JM1* rfih7°) fh'flib CO*? h^A 1 2 (\9°* ai+aiy at mo *na 1944

(X+A fanil) tlavl hW M O 'flcy? ‘7 + .2 ./" al't cT f a * 1959 °i.9°

(DA& ow M ’A ('fl'Vfr'J ^ ^ ) nh<: Vic 2 ? h^h9° fcC'trA'th al't'°xLf (I't 1962 9°

h

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceed!*! Page 81 Bahru Zewede (1991) A History of Modem Ethiopia 1855-1974, Addis Ababa & London

Richard Pankhurst (1964) The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888- 1892, A New Assessment. Haile sellasie I University, Addis Ababa

Richard Pankhurst (1985) The History of Famine and Epidemics in Ethiopia, prior to the Twentieth Centuiy, Relief and Rehabilitation Commission, Addis Ababa & London

Rosen feld, Chris Prouty (1978) The Medical History of Menilek II Emperor of Ethiopia (1844-1913). A Case of Medical Diplomacy, California Institute of Technology

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11* Proceeding Page 82 Veterinary Services in Federal States: An Example

Jeffrey C. Mariner^

Introduction:

There are as many approaches to veterinary service delivery in federal states as there are countries with federal constitutions. If one judges by the results over time, clearly some approaches work better than others. Any attempt to compare different approaches to the delivery of veterinary services in federal states would require considerable time and necessarily introduce a large element of personal opinion. As a result, today’s presentation will focus on the Veterinary Services of the Un ted States, a system w'ith which the author has direct experience.

At the outset, one recognizes that conditions in the US and Ethiopia are quite distinct in terms of his :ory, culture and economics. The animal health care system of the US is not presented as a model for Ethiopia, rather, it is presented as one example of what one country has developed after roughly 200 hundred years of experimentation in federal systems. The participants are encouraged to listen criiically and decide for themselves which parts, if any, may be of interest to Ethiopia.

Background:

In considering federal systems of government, one issue that always takes the foreground is the question of state rights or state vs. Federal powers and obligations. A number of principles guide this debate and the outcome is usually a delicate balance between the preservation of local rights and the need for a dynamic national entity - the nation. In general, federal systems strive to implement the principle of local rule’ or as it is now called in Europe ‘subsidiarity.’ Simply stated this concept means that decisions should be made at the lowest possible level consistent with the implications of the activity in question. Some questions are clearly of local interest and others are clearly national, however many areas involve both local and national interests. It is these areas of mixed importance th at generally spark the debate. Normally, areas of mixed importance are regulated by both state and federal regulations which seek to clearly define the extent of state and federal involvement with the ai:n of providing a practical, efficient but fair system of regulation.

In the history of the United States, this dividing line between state and federal powers has shifted, scmetimes slowly, sometimes dramatically. During approximately the first five years of the country’s history, there was in fact no federal government. Over the years, the United States has fcund it necessary to establish a relatively strong system of federal government in order to assure the survival of the nation in the face of both internal and external challenges. Many of these challenges were economic in nature. Today, many citizens and legislators are questioning if the federal government has become too powerful and the coming years may see a trend towards a renewal of state rights. The voters will decide. Although, the dividing line between federal, state, local and private righ.s has shifted during the history of the nation, it has always been defined by law and is a reflection o ’the public will.

In the United States at present, the area of animal health is seen as an area of both national and local interest. The livestock industry is viewed as an important component of the national economy and assurance of adequate food security is viewed as a component of national security. Many of the highly contagious diseases such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), rinderpest (RP), and contagious bovine plueropnuemonia (CBPP) are exotic to the United States. The fact that they are exotic, and

5 Technical Assistance Team Leader to the Pan African Rinderpest Campaign. The opinions and views expressed in this paper are the authors and no part of this document should be construed as an official publication of any institution.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association II"1 Proceeding Page 83 that a .^ry dynamic interstate response is requife 1 In case of an outbreak, lias made the control of cxotic liscase outbreaks a federally-coordiriated tivity.

On the other hand, most endemic diseases in t|jp United States are viewed as the concern of the states, he producers and private veterinary! pract| orlers. As the private sector is so well developed, most ii tervcntions are carried out by private veteimarians. The state veterinary services are generally small I lit this varies from state to state. St^te sejffiices are often concerned with public health - the monito 'uig and control of endemic zoonotiic dis^ies such as rabies. In certain cases, federal, state, private Veterinarians and producers agree-to collaborate in national eradication programmes for endemi ^ diseases (at present, brucellosis, ttibercuijsis and psuedorabies), In these instances, special legislat on is enacted and the federal government coordinates the prdgrammes.

Structure and Functions of the Federal Veterini ry Services

The Fd eral Veterinary Services (VS) is located Wghin the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA,, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Sen? ;e (APHIS). State veterinary services, if the state chooses to maintain a service, is structured at states discretion. The USDA is headed by the politica ly-appointed Secretary of Agriculture toge lir with a number of Under-Secretaries. APHIS is head* d by the Administrator, who is a member oithe civil services.

The foil >wing sections give the mission statement# and paraphrase the main activities of APHIS and the Fed< ral VS. The sources for the mission:and ivities statements are official publications of the i services concerned, available in Ethiopia through thl Internet. 1 - ‘V, ■ ‘ Animal nd Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIq):

Mission ‘Protecting American Agriculture*

Providiife leadership in ensuring the health and caaf of animals and plants, to improve agricultural product! dty and competitiveness, and to contribute): > the: national economy and public health.

A& m iisu

Guarding borders against foreign pests and disease Detectin,; and monitoring plant and animal disease y thin the country Carrying out emergency operations ^ ■ J Combatii ig certain domestic pests and diseases Facilitati ig exports ' ! Enhancir ? the care of animals Ensuring safety of biological products (vaccines, & and toxins)

Veterina?) Services

Mission; Veterinary Services leads the nation’s al health community in protecting, sustaining, and imprc Ajing the health, quality, and productivity iS livestock and poultry so as to contribute to the natior economy, environment, public he&th, Safe food supply.

Activities

Control ind eradication of certain animal diseas is (currently psuedorabies, tuberculosis and brucellosi Licensing of veterinary biologicals j National i jiimal Health Monitoring System (NAHMjf)

Ethiopian Vi Urinary Association 11m Proceeding Page 84 Regulation of animal imports, interstate transport (including quarantine) and international quarantine Emergency response to introduction of exotic disease

It is important to note that the mission statement for both these organizations uses the verb ‘to lead.’ APHIS and VS are much more concerned with coordination and regulation of on-going activities, rather than the direct implementation of activities. Where they do implement, it is mainly in the under the headings of emergency response, testing and inspection.

It should be remembered that most of the diseases that are of a high priority to Ethiopia (Office International des Epizooties List A Diseases) at present are ‘exotic’ or ‘foreign’ to the United States. Thus, the present US legislation and regulations dealing with exotic or foreign disease should perhaps be interpreted as OIE List A Diseases by international readers.

These diseases have not always been exotic to the US. In fact, it was the desire to eradicate CBPP from the nation that lead to the precursor of the federal veterinary service, the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI), in the US in 1883-84. In 1890, the US Congress gave the BAI powers for domestic and international quarantine. By 1892, CBPP was eradicated - without a diagnostic test and without a vaccine.

The federal service was created as a direct result of the perception of the need for national coordination of highly contagious disease control. It is perhaps noteworthy that it required more than one hundred years for the country to arrive at this conclusion. Let us now look at some of the Federal Domestic Animal Health Programmes and Emergency Programmes carried out under the ‘leadership’ of the Federal VS.

Federal Domestic Animal Health Programmes

This component of the Federal Veterinary Services activities has eradicated some 13 livestock diseases from the US since 1884. Some highlights are:

CBPP (1892) Foot and Mouth (1929) Screwworm (1966) Exotic Newcastle Disease (1974) Hog Cholera (1978)

Presently 3 long-term disease eradication programmes are underway. These are bovine tuberculosis, swine and bovine brucellosis and psuedorabies. In each case, special legislation is enacted to empower the activities of the federal veterinary services. All domestic disease control programmes are can- ed out as partnerships between federal, state, accredited private practitioners and producers. In these programmes the federal and state services are responsible for the coordination and epidem:ological analysis. It is mainly the private practitioners who actually carry-out interventions on the ground.

In orde- for private practitioners to participate in disease control activities they must be ‘federally accredited.’ Until recently, this meant that the practitioners had to study a small pamphlet on animal health regulations and passed a short test. The system has been changed and practitioners are now required to attend a brief training seminar and then simply sign to the fact that they are aware and will abide by the federal animal health regulations.

Today, eradication will only be undertaken when there is overwhelming demand and support from the industry. Financing is shared by government, producer groups and individual livestock owners.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l tn Proceeding Page 85 Strategies ;ire defined in consultative meetings between government and industry and later enacted as legislation.

Emergency Programmes

Mission: To prevent the destructive and harmful effects on the health of animal and human populations in the U.S from epizootics of foreign and emerging animal diseases and from technological disasters.

Please note that the mission statement of the Emergency Programmes section of the VS is much more actioi oriented. It is emergency programmes that is entrusted with protecting US agriculture from exotic OIE List A Disease. Emergency Programmes undertakes the following activities: monitoring foreign animal health and determining the risk of disease introductions to the US. conducting intensive domestic surveillance for exotic disease maintains :he Regional Emergency Disease Eradication Organization (READEO) - task forces consisting of APHIS-VS staff, state veterinarians, military support personnel, industry liaisons among others rapid investigation and diagnosis of any suspicious sign - reporting of suspicious signs to state and federal authorities is the law! Should an exotic disease outbreak be detected, declaration of ‘emergency’ or ‘extraordinary emergency can be made. This allows the USDA to take special actions and organize a task force for the eradication of the outbreak. Declaration of an emergency provides: funds for eiadication emergency quarantine powers authorizes the use slaughter with compensation or other appropriate measures

Emergencies may be declared to assist a neighboring foreign country, if they so request. The eradication of African Swine Fever from Haiti is an example. In these cases, the United States is acting to reduce the threat of exotic disease along its borders. The animal health emergency powers of the federal government are designed to provide a rapid and coordinated response. The US has found that this is essential in order to control a highly communicable disease and to limit the severe consequences to trade resulting from the occurrence of such diseases. Below are .1 few of the powers granted by Federal Regulations to the Secretary of Agriculture in order to assure a rapid and coordinated response:

emergencies can be declared for RP, FMD, CBPP or anv other communicable disease which the Secretary deems an emergency Secretary can quarantine a State Secretary can ‘invite’ the State to participate in Emergency response

Identification of infected premises and local quarantines should be done jointly by Federal and State authorities unless the State authorizes Federal authorities to act alone In the event of outbreak, states generally welcome the declaration of emergency. This is due to the fact that a significant amount of federal funds are made available to eliminate the disease.

Activities Not Regulated by the Federal Veterinary Service

The constitution provides that any powers not specifically assigned to the federal government are reserved for the states of private individuals. Thus, if it there is no federal law or regulation on a matter, it is ap to the states to decide. If the states do not specifically provide regulations on a matter, then private individuals may act as they see fit. This is sometimes described as ‘the rule of law.’

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l

In regard to the regulation of private veterinary practice, this matter has been left largely to the States. In most cases, the states have empowered the State Veterinary Associations to oversee licensing and enforce a code of ethics. This is called self-regulation by the profession and it is practiced in the veterinary, medical, legal and dental fields. It is a privilege granted to the professions which can be revoked. Thus, the legal situation regarding veterinary practice is that private practitioners must conform to the standards of their own Veterinary Association. Private veterinarians are not required to be members of the association, however to practice legally they do have to obtain a license according to the standards set by the State and the State Veterinary Association. There is no national license for the practice of veterinary medicine however as was mentioned above, private practitioners must be federally accredited to participate in national programmes.

Conclusion:

The history of animal health in the United States points towards the need for strong national coordination of highly infectious disease control. The system in regard to implementation of animal disease control has evolved to depend on task forces of federal, state and private veterinary practit:oners. The cornerstone of all disease control activities in the United States is a robust and informed private sector as a first line of defense for recognition of disease outbreaks and a sustainable means of intervening to eradicate disease where it is deemed economically advisable.

Further Reading:

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service maintains and extensive home page on the Internet. Articles are available on many of the activities conducted by APHIS and extensive reports of the National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) can be down loaded.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l in Proceeding Page 87 LUMPY SKIN DISEASE AT KALITY (BOVINE NODULAR DERMATITIS

KINFE TADESSE, DVM KIFSAM PRIVATE VETERINARY CLINIC P.O. BOX 13084, TEL. 34 11 92, 51 37 50, ADDIS ABABA

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is known by its livestock population. This big resource have a great role in the socio- economical activities of the country and above 85% of the population of the country is based on a mixed farming practices in which the importance of the farm animals is very high. From this important resource it was expected an important products such as supply of meat, milk, eggs which are a good sources of protein; beside this the byproducts hides and skin, wool etc have an important role in getting foreign currencies. The country is not agriculturally mechanized so we are in a primitive type of agricultural development, which is dependent on animal power. From this one understands that livestock plays an important role in the economy.

But besides the mechanization of agriculture, improvement of the breed the farmer who is feeding 1 the wl ole country have a great problems to his livestock such as contagious diseases, internal and external parasitic diseases, back-ward breeding system etc. in which the government could not cop- I up even the private practitioners could not satisfy the needed services.

To cop-up these complicated problems on the behalf of government the private sector have a significant role in controlling the infectious and non-infectious diseases of the livestock, participate in giving routine vaccinations, giving good Veterinary Services, and participate in Veterinary extens on services. So this is the main point for the departure of this paper from which one of the infectious disease which had been an out break in Kality in 1996, which have an economical significance first of all to the farmer.

Lumpy skin disease was observed in 1929 in Zambia by MaCdonald and Morris and they call it pseudo nettle. Backstorm proved in 1943 - 1945 its contagious character. In 1944 1st outbreak occurred in Republic of South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland, Mozambique, Namibia and Malawi. By this outbreak, 8 million cattle's are affected. From the report of International Epizootological Beaurou from 1976 - 1980 lumpy skin disease was registered in 29 countries of Africa.

DEFINITION

Lumpy skin disease (Synonym - Bovine Nodular Dermatitis), is an infectious disease of cattle which is characterized by a formation of nodules on the skin and visible mucous membranes, generalized lymphadenitis, with a high body temperature, lameness and edema of the facial, subcutaneous tissues and legs.

AETHIOLOGY: The causative agent is virus. This virus was isolated by its cytopathological effect and was grouped in three groups.

Orpheling Allerton Neethling

Orpheling - is a virus presenting to Herpes virus strains, which cause cytopatogenical effects in a tissue culture within 40 - 60hrs, but it is not pathogenic to -cattle. Pure strain of the causative agent does not cause specific clinical signs or form specific antibody formation.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ,n Proceeding Page 89 Allerton - is a virus presenting to Herpes Virus. This Virus multiply very fast in a monolayer cellular culture causing cytopathological changes in 24hrs, and have a circle or oval form openings with exact boundary - moth - eaten form. Subcutaneous injections after 2 - 5 days it cause high fever and generalized nodular formation of the skin.

Neethling - is a virus presenting to the Poxviridae family Capripoxvirus by its pathogenically effect it is said to be basic causative agent.

Economic Significance in Milk Cows

Milk Production in Liter per day Sick animal Before inf. During inf. Difference Cow No. 1 6 3 3 2 17 12 5 3 14 10 4 4 22 16 6 5 5 2 3 6 4 2 2 7 18 15 3 8 8 5 3 9 16 9 7 10 15 9 6

Generally in our clinic 18 cases have been treated from these for comparative analysis we take 10 cows having different milk production, the rest 4 pregnant and 4 bulls. So the economical significance lot us take such sample - in the site where third outbreak happen a minimum cost for 1 litter milk is 1.50 Birr, so from one cow if she decreases 6 liter/day this is a great loss for one farmer dealing with t lis business.

Milk Production in Liter per day Sick animal Before inf. During inf. Difference Cow No. 1 9.00 4.50 4.50 2 25.50 18.00 7.50 3 2100 15.00 6.00 4 33.00 24.00 9.00 5 7.50 3.30 4.50 6 6.00 3.00 3.00 7 27.00 22.50 4.50 8 12.00 7.50 4.50 9 24.00 13.50 10.50 10 22.50 13.50 9.00

The Neethling virus has cultural similarities in tissue culture to sheep pox and goat pox virus and all three are classified as capripox viruses. Prior infection with sheep pox virus confirms immunity against the neothling virus infection, it is not considered that the two viruses are identical, at least no cases of pox occur in mingled sheep during lumpy skin disease outbreaks in cattle and vice-versa.

EPIDEMIOLOGY - Lumpy skin disease is widely spread in South and Equatorial Africa. The disease used to be confined to South Africa and Kenya. Now on the movement to the North and West so that Sudan, Chad, Niger and the Central Africa Republic are now infected.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 ltn Proceeding Page 90 In our case the disease was registered specially concerning to our site had been outbreak of lumpy skin disease 9 years ago. This year the outbreak started in K.10 Wereda 27 in a crossbreed cow. After the report from the owner directly we took blood sample to Debre-Zeit National Laboratory (it was 22/IX'96) for diagnosis.

Other type of species and human are not susceptible to this virus naturally. In a wild life stock this disease is not registered, even though giraffe and antelope experimentally can be affected.

The mortality rate is low below 10%, the economic loss caused by this disease is high due to the loss of milk production, (Table 1), and damage to hides and skins loss of body condition during the long course of the disease. All ages and types of cattle are susceptible but mostly exotic breeds are highly susceptible to the causative agent except animals recently recovered from an attack in which case there is a solid immunity lasting for about 3 months. If there is no secondary complication sick animals recover with in 30 days.

In this case just after the day of the presentation of the sick animals we started treatment for secondary complications using broad spectrum long acting antibiotics for consecutive 3 - 5 days (depending on the severity) and antiseptics for the opened nodules (ulcerative wound). Source of infection is basically sick animals and carriers (after recovery). The virus is found in blood after 1st clinical signs are observed. The virus can be excreted with sloughed out of the skin, saliva, and sperm. This virus can be excreted with sperm for 60 days after clinical recovery. Reservoirs for this causative agent still unknown.

Neethling virus in an affected part of the skin preserves for about 33 days, in spenn 22 days, in saliva 11 days, in blood and internal organs 4 days, in cold condition under 4 °C 6 months, in a thoroughly boiled liquid under 37 °c 5 days, in a liquid with 6.6 - 6.8 pH it reserves its virulent for a long period. Mechanism of transmission under natural condition is not known, but the rapid spread of the disease and the case with which it transverses for long distance suggested that an insect vectors. Some observers say that birds also have a role in spreading out the disease. For the transmission direct contact of sick animal with healthy once, congenital way, through milk calves can be affected.

PATHOGENESIS - Lumpy skin disease have similarity with pox disease, except the phase of development of the nodules in pox disease. After an initial viremia accompanied by temperature erection, localization in the skin occurs with development of inflammatory nodules. Subcutaneous infection appear after productive inflammatory reaction, including all layers of skin, muscles and under generalized process all internal organs are affected. In the fanned nodules contains excudate which result thrombosis of blood vessels develops necrosis of the area. In the blood the virus is found after the rising of temperature and mass formation of nodules, inflammation of lymph vessels and lymph nodes. Formation of ulcerative wound, septic complication can appear by the result of secondary infection. Septicemia and intoxication of the organism leads to progressive emaciation and death of animal.

CLINICAL SINGNS: - Incubation period varies 3-13 days 2 - 3 weeks is common in field outbreaks. This duration depends on the susceptibility and physiological resistance of animals, type and virulent of the causative agent and means of entrance to the organism.

In a severe case there is an initial rise of temperature accompanied by lacrimation, nasal discharge, salivation and lameness.

In this case the presented sick animals the average body temperature varies from 40-41 degree centigrade, the visible mucous membrane of the eye, nasal & mouth cavities are hyperemic and swollen, have waterish mucous discharge. Superficial lymph nodes are enlarged, udder, the legs, dewlap are swollen. The animals are off-food, have progressive emaciation, have lameness, urge to

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11"1 Proceeding Page 91 lie, staggered during movement, skin cover become disheveled and is not shiny, the milking cows reduce up to 50% of their milk yield, in some of the cows completely stop giving milk.

Few days later after a high temperature, on different parts of the body appear circular and elongated nodular eiuption with smooth surface having 0.3 - 0.5cm diameter and 0.5cm height. The number of the nodular formation varies from 10 even hundreds. In severe cases the lesion may also be present on the respiratory tract which could cause respiratory obstruction and cause snoring. In this case, we observed some of the affected cows with secondary complications, and the discharge from the mouth cavity become thick and viscous, from the nasal cavity it has muco-purulent character and pungent odor. The superficial nodules are closely attached with the bases of the skin and on the early stage they are painful, easily can be felled mostly observed in animals with smooth skin.

Nodular formation observed in a latter time. But most of the cases we have after the appearance of nodules by its edge start to detach from the base and on the center forms a typical characteristically depression which is formed by a hard narcotized tissue. This deep ulcer area normally can heal by itself but in this case because of the secondary infection (bacterial, larva of flies, dirts) the course of the disease takes long period and healing process of the formed ulcer delayed. Lymph nodes draining the affected area become enlarged and there may be local edema. If there is no any complication of secondary infection then healing process is very short and on the place grows hair with different color.

Lactating :ows are mostly affected on their udder forming nodules. Beyond the decreasing of milk production the milk becomes thick with tints of rose, the cows are milked drops and when boiled thoroughly the milk becomes staled and changes to jelly form. Pregnant cows can abort. In cows the Easters cyde can stop for 4 - 6 months.

PATHOANATOMICAL CHANGES: - Nodules are found in all layers of skin, lungs, liver, kidney, ori the mucous membranes of the GIT, respiratory tract genital organs lymph nodes are enlarged.

DIAGNOSIS:- Diagnosis is based on epizootological investigations results pathoanatomical examination, clinical signs and result of laboratory examination. In our case we tentatively diagnosed a lumpy skin disease. To confirm our tentative diagnosis we send blood sample to Debre - Zeit National Laboratory.

Differential Diagnosis

Type of disease Susceptible spp. Causative agent Symptom Lumpy skin disease Bovine Virus Enlarged superficial L. nodes, generalized nodular formation on the skin, edema Pos All mammals and Virus Nodular formation have 4 steps birds FMD Domestic and wild Virus Aphthae localized on the mouth cloven animals cavity and hooves, frothy salivation, smacking of the lips. TB All mammals and Bacteria Chronic, and have different type birds by its localization

TREATMENT: - For lumpy skin disease there is no specific chemotheraputical treatment. Treatment was done symptomatically beside this good result can give keeping animal in good condition, 'eeding best quality concentrated nutrition. For secondary bacterial infection in our case

Ethiopian Veterinary'Association 11lh Proceeding Page 92 we used Oxvtetracycline 10% consecutive recommended treatment for the opened nodules forming uberative wound we use topical antiseptic and disinfectants.

CONTROL - We use a vaccine sheep poxvirus for cattle attenuated by passage through tissue culture and it is effective in preventing lumpy skin disease.

RECOMMENDATION

Sick and suspect animals must be isolated. There must be strict quarantine system There must be routine vaccination. Keep animals from blood sucking insects. Infected bull must be killed.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 l lh Proceeding Page 93 Epizootic Lymphagitis: - Treatmtfit with Topficaland Systemic Therapy usinglodid^s |n() pijmmufie serum

E. Bojii/an tFtiacois*

A bstra;

Treatm >ht trial of epizootic lymphangitis w }ed with the aim of testing iodides and iodides mixed yith hyperimmune serum for tfieir Sresp; efficacy as well as for determining dosage, naturalw hostoplasma infected equines (47 nors lone mule) of willing owners were subjected to the treg :ment. Prior to the application of tila $ick horses were characterized and categorised into foi r groups based on the stage of s$ve||ty ms* Three were mild cases, 7 moderate and 8 severe linical cases. Sodium iodide of 10°; mixed with hyperimmune serum administered intrave; ously (IV) and Potassium iodide (l|l) g |draily was used. A gross clinical change and white I lood cell picture were used as & treatment response. There was a significant differet qe in treatment responses between cal stages. The response was exponential for the severe and logarithmic for the mr the .earlier stage. Both the oral and IV adm i nil tration of the drugs showed logarit ^ however, the evolution viza IV means was faster, Barlier clinical cases gave better re§forist there by than oral dosing and chronic cases responc ed in nearly the reverse order, $esp|n$.e fferential leucocyte count was parallel with the gross c iiiical response, indicating the degiie o; iciation. Inclusion of hyperimmune serum in treating earlier cases was found to be useful. I! >etence which led to exhaustion at work and emacia ion, and refusal at oral dosing and tne exl >fd duration of therapy were the complaints by the owi ers. Cluster analysis was used to seject tl combination of values of different variables involve i in the treatment. The variablesvwetf duration, routes, age, severity and serum inclusic ri. . '.a

Key wcyds: Epizootic lymphangitis, Hist|oplas&p farciminosum, Iodides, Hyperimmune serum, equine.

Introduction r l ' There aj e a number of diseases that affect ednine. j piding the optimum service they could naturally provide Epizootic lymphangitis (EL) is one of th' n0st important health problems in equine. It is a chronic disease of soliped characterized by supputi Jive inflammation of cutaneous lymphatic vessels and adj cent skin tissues, with extension to the regj ifial draining lymph nodes. It is identified by the suppun live lymphangitis, lymphadenitis, Ulbers p| the skins & regional lymph nodes, keratitis and often p I'eumonia. The disease is caused by dimorphic fungus Histoplasma farciminosuni (Radios itis et. al., 1994). !

Treatment and strict control measures (fha the best alternative solution of minimi: ing the problem in such endemic ari|as, t flatment accorded is insignificant leaving many infectec outdoor horses and mules Hyperimmune , 10 - 20ml per animal has been indicated as a suppl tfnent to other chemotherapeutics fHai lf84 unpublished). Former trials and control means ’ 4re chemotherapy, radiotherapy antjgen vaccination etc, all of which were with no satisfactory results (Euzeby, 1992). * &

*Algje :hii. P.O.Box 99. Ulubabor Zone. Tel. 01* 66- 06- 2 Cirad, l MVT, National Veterinary Institute. P.O.Box 19. i>re Zeit. EUhiqpiar veterinary Association I f Proceeding Page 9,4 This work was conducted with the aim of testing iodides and iodides mixed with hyperimmune serum for their respective efficacy and for determining dosage, frequency and duration of their app ication. As an ancillary some common treatments were also applied to all forms of treatment groups: Incision of all visible nodules and topical application of tincture of iodine on ulcerating surfaces. To evaluate efficacy as well as economics of use of these drugs different variable (cost, severity stage, serum inclusion, age, route, duration) were considered each best values of which were to be compounded and recommended for local consumption.

Ma terials and Methods

A total of 18 squines (17 horses and one mule) of willing owners was subjected to the treatment. Three were mild, 7 moderate and 8 severe clinical cases. Prior to application of treatment, sick horses were characterized and categorized in to four groups (coded as 01, 02, 03 and 04) based on the stage of severity of lesions.

Sodium Iodide (Nal) and Potassium Iodide (KI) were used. Maximum dosage administrated per day and duration of treatment indicated in the work of Broin, 1966 were used as a start in the process of treatment. Twenty - 25ml of hyperimmune serum was mixed with 200ml of 10% Nal solution and was administered IV every other day at a rate of 100ml over 3 - 4 minutes. The titer of the serum was determined using passive hemagglutination technique (Gabal et al., 1983). Potassium iodide was administered orally at a dose of 15g per animal every other day.

Response to treatment: Gross clinical response - for ease of handling the cases under treatment, the clinical responses to treatment were arbitrarily graded in to stages apparently seen during the whole period of observation through recovery. White cell picture: - differential leukocyte count based on a 100 cell coun :s was done weekly for equine under treatment in a trial to correlate it with clinical recovery. An average white cell differential counts of three apparently normal horses which came to the FVM clinic for castration and three from the National Veterinary Institute kept under controlled environment were done and an average was compared with the results of each of the fotir horses sampled.

Dat a Analysis

Clustering method and coefficient of determination R2 were used as required. The clustering method usei was a procedure from SPSS/+TM (Norusis, 1992). Quick cluster (professional statistics based on 'lie nearest centeriod sorting (Anderberg, 1973: Cited in Norusis, 1992). A case was assigned to the cluster with the smallest distance between the case and the center of the cluster (centeriod). The case were considered as of three groups of clusters and categorized as “good, intermediate or bad” regarding the whole variables.

Results

The 18 equine under treatment showed apparently different responses. There was a significant difference in treatment responses between the three clinical stages. The responses were exponential for the severe and logarithmic for the moderate clinical stages beyond the required time (6 weeks) and dosage (300gm) against which all were compared. Both oral and intravenous administration of the drugs showed logarithmic response; however, the evolution via IV means was faster than the oral one. Inclusion of hyperimmune serum (HIS) in treating earlier (01-, 02) cases was found to be useful. (Fig 1 and 2 and table 1 and 2). There was no significant difference in treating mild and moderate clinical stages, however, the sum of the responses of both (01+ 02) was significantly different (P < 0.01) from severe (03) clinical stages. Responses of mild (01) versus severe (03) and moderate versus severe clinical stages also differed significantly (P < 0.05) (Table 2, 3and 4).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l m Proceeding Page 95 Diffi rentially leukocyte count showed mcfl neutrophils and decreased lymphocytes before treat lent and the reversal during tr^timei|t uni t,|omes to a relatively normdl stSte as compared to thee ntrol ones (see figs. 3 ,4'and 5) v

Tab! 1. Final clusters and value* o|thd t variables

Clusterg(flBedet Varii&les Cluster 1 .uster 2 Clusters Sever ty a a i Age 10 m Serm) (1 — 2) 1-2 IS-2 Route 0 - 3 ) 2 - 3 Interr ediate Result (1» 3) Cost*' iteimedlate (birrs) 65 24 Rinal Result (1 -2 ) 1-2 W 2 Cost-1 ifial (birrs) 66 25 Durat >n (wks) « r “good”

Code| used: I i i Serui l? 1 - No 2 = Yes ■*

Inten lediate result: 1 =no recovery ■ 3 -recoveiy i f. i '■$ Final esult 1 - not recovery' 2 = recovery ,

Route 3 = IV 1 = Oral

Table 2,3 and 4

Treatt lent Responses of different Clinical

Mild ( )1) versus moderate (02)

Severity NR R Total 01 0 i 3 3 02 2 ^ 5 7 Total 2 8 10

X2 (Yjt is Corrected) = 0.03, df — 1 p *= 0.86 ! * Mild 01) + moderate (02)] against severe

Severity Nfc i R Total (01 + 02) w 10 03 8 ^ 0 8 Total 10’ '] 8 18

X2 (Yj tes corrected) - 8.51, p < 0.01

EthiopU ijVeterioary Association l l ,h Proceeding Page 96 Mild (01) compared with severe (03)

Severity NR R Total 01 0 3 3 02 8 0 8 Total 8 3 11

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to extend their thanks and sincere appreciation to Dr. Fisseha Tareke, Assistant Professor of veterinary virology and Dr. Fisseha Gebre-Ab, associate, professor of veterinary parasitology, FVM, AAU, for their encouragement and steady guidance during the study period.

Much of the acknowledgement go to Dr. Sintayehu Abdicho, Head Sebeta National Disease Investigation Centre and W/ro Senait Atlaw a Senior Lab. Technician at the department of veterinary microbiology, FVM, AAU, for their material support and encouragement. The authors also extend their appreciation to the staff of NVI and FVM, AAU, Debre-Zeit for their cooperation in realizing this study.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association Il'n Proceeding Page 97 Preliminary Survey of|Bovii (Gastrointestinal Parasites ft DilaLel

wuin(Dr.)

Abstr ict

Bovin 'gastrointestinal parasite survey wi ojed in Muleta Peasant Association, Diga Leka wored , for a period of 3 months (March — Thirty-six cattle were examined out of which 38.8% were found to be infested with g* Iftfial parasites. The main parasites found were Oesop lagostomum (25%), Strongylus ($0% jckus, Strongyloides and €o(>peria (15% each) and 0 sieriagia (5%). Mixed mfestatftnsjj u In ijlis study, age and body condition of the an mals were evaluated. Accordingly efnaciated animals were more susceptible to parasit >s when compared to a 1§. In addition to fasciolosis, gastrointestinal parasit is can cause serious economic pfbbj^ lpy areas.

Pros aglandin F2a Metabolite and stei j|»rofiles in relation to Bacterial Findings in Post-partum Cows wii I t Retained Fetal Membranes

Merga Bekana tD, FRVCS) ■ ■ & ; ^jddis Ababa University, Faculty of V|tei ^Medicine, Department of Clinical Studies, P.O. Box 31 5bre Zeit

Introd lotion ■ The po t-partum (pp) period is a crucial evf [ejife of the dairy cow, during which the animal should jlear possible intrauterine infectioi 3tablish normal uterine and ovarian activities. The air t$ of this study were, to determine |of PGF2a by measuring its main metabolite as an indi ator of uterine infection, and toldc >gefcterone to monitor the ovarian activities in relatior to the presence of facultative ttid 0! obic intrauterine bacteria in PP dairy cows. Basical % the cows were of two groups} wit )Ut retainQi fetal membranes (RFM).

Materi il and Methods s

Prostag idin release and resumption < rian activities were studied from twice daily blood nples in combination with se oi pci* weekly transrectal examination of the reprodu ;tive tract and endometrial biopsies durin ferst 8 weeks PP in 19 Swedish dairy cows, 10 with an 19 without RFM. The RFM was. ^echatiically nor chemically treated. Based on clinical and bacteriological examinations, the ils were assigned to 3 groups: ■■ Group I (n=10) with RI Sil and subsequent intrauterine iiifecjions,^ |up II (n=2) without RFM, but with infections, and Grc ip III (n=7) with an uncomplicated /period.

Results and Discussion

A total t f 294 biopsies, 151 from Group 1,28 up, II and 115 from Group III were collected; 54.3% ( »j= 82) and 21.4% (n = 6) of wtjich' ad to be bacteriologically positive in Groups I and II, i JSpectively. Most of the positive W %) showed mixed infections which contained most £ ejquently Actinomyces pyogenes lth: Bacteroides spp. and Fusobacterium necroph >mm suggesting a possible synetgistfi

orgamsrj s. Generally, the bacteria were n inated and disappeared completely from the uteri be]) e the end of Week 5 and 3 in bo I and II. In Group in , all of the 115 biopsies

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1101 Proceeding Page 98 were found to be bacteriologically negative indicating that intrauterine infections are not commonly found in cows with normal calving. These taken together show that the employed sampling technique, uterine biopsy, is a very accurate method for investigating the intrauterine bacterial status and that no contamination of cows or samples occurred. The clearance of bacteria is very rapid and no treatments are required.

The plasma levels of the PGF2tt metabolite were significantly elevated during 6-27 days PP in Groups I and II, and 12-18 days in Group III. Prior to a final decrease below the line of significance, pronounced sustained and pulsatile release of PGF2a occurred again in Groups I and II in relation to the increased frequency of bacterial findings. These additional periods of PGF2Q release, described as the “total” duration, were found to be positively correlated with the time required for the completion of uterine involution (p<0.05). Progesterone analysis showed resumption o 'ovarian activity and subsequent ovulation in 70, 50 and 43% of the cows in Groups I - III. respectively.

Thus, leaving the RFM untreated and/or the resultant intrauterine infections do not prolong the duration of the immediate PP release of PGF2a or the early resumption of cyclical ovarian activities as compared to normal animals in which uterine infections are not commonly found. Nevertheless, the sustained duration of the PGF2a release recorded in Groups I and II are related to the increased frequency of intrauterine infections, indicating that PGF2a may play a role for the early elimination of the infections.

PRODUCTION OF BULL SEMEN AT KALITY

Emiru Zewdie and Mulugeta Sinegiorgis

ABSTRACT

Efforts are being made to improve the dairy development program of the country. Along this line the National .Artificial Insemination Center, which was established at Kality in 1981 has been regularly recruiting growing AI bulls for the production of deep frozen semen.

Bulls joining the AI center are subjected to different procedures of technical screening, and only these, which fulfil the requirement, and those, which are considered to be potential breeders, are maintained for semen production.

The main objective of this paper is to highlight the technical procedures adapted by the center in the selection, production and utilization of bulls semen at a national level. The bulls are evaluated for their physica. body condition, sexual performance, condition of the reproductive organs and the quality of the semen. The bulls are also checked for other diseases of environmental origins that can influence the reproductive performance of the bulls. For this purpose the records of 131 bulls of 6 different breed groups are analyzed and discussed.

The results showed that 70% of the total domestic production and 88% of the total distribution accounts for Friesian bull semen. Among the 131 bulls, 45 were culled from the herd due to various reasons: of which 16 bulls for low semen quality, 7 for their poor sexual performance and 4 for abnormalities in their reproductive organs. The variation in semen quality within the same breed groups. The lowest motility, highest death and morphological abnormality rates of sperm cells were observed in 50 and 75% cross-bred bulls.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 lm Proceeding Page 99 ”

PRELIMINARY SUI|YEYM®THE INTERMEDIATE HOST SNAILS QF LiSlRfFLlJKES IN SHOA ADMINISTRA I YE REGION

BY KlfleAl ayv (DVM) 1 f' ' 1 Abstrac

A surv< y of Lymnaea natalensis and Lymnffeaty was conducted in 15 different habitats. A half-yei r small scale follow-up ^ f ^ p iiliti^ d; s and pattern of carcarial shedding was carried out in if iur different habitats. j Lymnaep natalensis was identifled as the sfiai! h|»t :of Fasciola gigantica. The snails were found widely distributed in lowlands (&oiia), in irng$i ^f caiials and pockets of water with vegetation, During the study period, the population 0f|£. Ifytsis steadily increased from January to May. Tempoi ary drop in number observed in Apri|. (5 Jus per persqn per 20 min).

Examir ition of L. natalensis for cercarial emer; ce showed that the snails release the cercarial stage o the parasite throughout the study pejriod' - May). Percent of snails that shed cercarial ranged rjom 6.4% (May) to 43% (April)

Lymnae % truncatula, the snail host of FafciolaWiepatica was encountered in medium altitudes (Woina Dega) and highlands (Dega), The snails \ r | found in small ponds, border of slow flowing rivers a id shallow streams. The population! of Li caiula gradually decreases from December - March. The population began to increase m Ap th peak in May, L, truncatula was found free from ce cariae in the first four months (Dec | ) f The first cercariae were detected in April.

Introdi ction

Fascioli isis is one of the oldest disease known to nd. In Ethiopia general isolated accounts on the dis< ase are reported by different authors , 1978, 1979; Goll and Scott, 1974; Haile Mariam 1978; Gemetchu 1979 and Brook, 19

This sni il-bome trematode infection is one of the! r diseases contributing to loss in productivity of lives ock industry in Ethiopia (Goll and|Scori 1$77; Gemetchu et,alr 1979; Baharu, G. 1979; Jackob, L. 1979; Tilahun, G. et.al; 1988). fhe and suitable snail habitats exist in different areas of the country. Previous study on thefinte ate hosts of parasite in Ethiopia is very scant except t le work of Goll and Scott, 1974;G r$er,1| % E$ch, 19&3 and Yilma, 1985,

The spr ad of hepatic fascioliasis to new areas dc nds upon the spread of host snails and infested animals The snails themselves can be infected ant 5iji spread the disease without the movement the host. T lerefore location of the snail habitatlis an important factor in the control program (Soulsby, 1982).

It is also important to note that outbreak of fasjioliasis does not occur in the absence of the interme< iate host. TI Hence ii instigations are necessary on the vector si S: as the available information is not complete,

The mai i interest of this study is to collect some p ormation on the snail intermediate host of liver fluke in selected area of Shoa AdministrativetR6gi$

Ethiopian eterinary Association l l ” Proceeding Page 100 Materials and Methods

1. Selection and Description of Study Areas

The study areas were chosen based on accessibility, latitudinal variation and presence of suitable snail habitats.

Irrigated Farms Rift Valley takes High-lands of Shoa

2. Identification of Snail Species

For identification of snails the key illustrated by Frandsen and Me Cullough (1980) was adopted.

3. Snail Sampling Method

In this study snail sampling method, which is employed by Olivier and Uemura' (1973), was followed.

4. Analysis of Snail Samples

The snail species incriminated as intermediate hosts were examined using the methods described by Frander and Ombjerg, 1984.

Examination of snails for cercarial emergence: The method adopted was isolation method using artificial light. Identification of cercaria: The cerearia of Fasciola was identified based on the key given by Franden and Ombjerg, 1984. Cercarial samples were also submitted to Institute of Pathobiology for confirmation of identification. Experimental infection of laboratory animal: The second approach was testing Fasciola metacercariae from Lymnaea natalensis by infecting laboratory animals. The adult parasite could be recognized by their morphology.

Animals: two female rabbits were used for experiment. Animals were examined clinically, faecal examinations were carried out 3 times at weekly interval before the start of the experiment.

Results and Discussions

1. Survey of vector snails

Survey of Lymnaea natalensis and Lymnaea truncatula was done during the beginning of the dry season 988/1989 E.C. The altitude of each area was recorded using altimeter. The result of the survey is summarized in table 1.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ,n Proceeding Page 101 Table 1.

Survey site Region Altitude Snail species Collection time No. Wonji E. Shoa 1.525M L. nata. 20 min 5 Merti E. Shoa 1,050M L. nata. 20 min 9 Lake Ziway S. Shoa 1.650M L. nata. 20 min 37 Neura E ri E. Shoa 1.050M L. nata. 20 min 10 Mukituri N. Shoa 2,000 L. trun. 20 min 7 Megenagna Addis 2,300M L. trun 20 min 36 Chacha N. Shoa 2.780M L. trun 20 min 53 Guraferdi N. Shoa 2,750M L. trun 1 hr. 3 Giesa N. Shoa 2.750M L. trun 30min/2p 78

Table 1 shows that L. natalensis was found in lowlands (Kolia) below 1800M. L. truncatula was encountered in medium altitude (Wionadega) and highlands (Dega) in altitudes 1800 - 2400 and 2400m respectively.

Monthly population dynamics

Table 2. Fluctuation in population of L. natalensis

No of Snails collected per/20min N ame of place Dec Jan Feb M ar A pr M ay Lake Ziway Shore N.R 37 82 136 51 110

The population of L. natalensis reached peak during March. Due to flooding there was a temporary drop in April.

Table 3. Fluctuation in population of L. truncatula

Number of snail collected per person per 20 min. Name of place Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. A pr. M ay Angollela 71 53 45 26 68 89 Giesa 54 41 39 28 134 176 Chacha 60 47 36 31 118 204

Table 3 shows that the population of L. truncatula decreases during the dry seasons (Dec — March) and no juvenile snail sand egg masses were detected. It is suggested that in the Ethiopian highlands rainfall does not exceed evapo-transpiration in the dry season. Thus, insufficient humidity limits the activity of L. truncatula in Ethiopia highlands. Under dry conditions, most snails experience a period of rest called aestivation; rapidly enough to escape sampling.

On the other hand, in the Ethiopian highlands the temperature may fall very low during the night. However, the average daily temperature is quite constant over the year. Interruption of life cycle of Fasciola hepatica for successive days or weeks will not result from a temporary drop of each night. So low temperature may not totally determine the activity of L. Truncatula in Ethiopia highlands.

Examination of the Snails for Cercarial Emergence

Snails samples which were collected every month from Four sites were examined for the emergence of cercariae.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 102 Table IV. The percentage and numbers of Lymnaea natalensis found carrying cercariae.

Month Total number of Infected Non Infected Snails Jan 37 3(8.1%) 34(91.9%) February 82 8(9.8%) 74(90.2%) March 136 11(8.0%) 125(92.0%) April 51 22(43.1%) 29(56.91%) May 110 7(6.4%) 103(93.6%)

From :able IV it can be seen that Fasciola gigantica cercariae were released from L. natalensis during the dry period and small rainy season (Jan - May). Peak cercarial emergence observed in April (43%). Incase of L. natalensis the cercarial stage (infective stage to the final host) is released throughout the dry season and also during the small rainy season. As soon as the small rainy season starts at the end of March the grass becomes available and the animals do not concentrate at these sites.

Lymnaea truncatula was found free from infections during the first four months of survey. The first cercariae were encountered from Giesa sample in April. From Giesa one snails was found carrying cercariae in April and 3 in May. Two snails from Chacha were also shed cercariae during May. The absence of cercariae shedding during the dry season might be explained by the fact that, Boray (1963) found that at temperatures above 20°C there was an increased mortality of infected snails and also the infectivity of metacercariae fell markedly above this temperature.

Expen mental Infections, of Laboratory Animal?

One of the rabbits dies 74 days after it was exposed to metacercariae. The other rabbit survived and killed at 119 days after it was infected with the metacercariae. Examination of internal and external body did not reveal any abnormal change.

After carefully opening of both animals the bile ducts dissected and four mature Fasciola gigantica from former rabbit and two from latter rabbit were recovered. This confirms that the cercariae which were shed from L. natalensis as that of F. gigantica.

Conclusion

Both Fasciola gigantica and Fasciola hepatica were identified in Ethiopia (Graber, 1973). These parasites require definitive and intermediate hosts for the completion of their life cycles. Ruminants are known to be definitive host. This investigation has shown that L. truncatula the intermediate host of F. hepatica, L. natalensis the intermediate host of F.gigantica in Ethiopia.

L. natalensis and L. truncatula are widely distributed throughout Shoa Administrative Region. L. natalensis were found in the lowlands (kolla) below 1800M. The snails (L. natalensis) breed rapidly from January - May in slow moving water and water packets. The snails are also common in irrigated farms of Showa. L. natalensis live on or just under the surface of water during the day time. This may make them susceptible to surface spraying molluscides.

Cercar.ae of Fasciola gigantica are liberated during the whole period of the dry season. Therefore, ruminants are often infected during this period.

L. truncatula were encountered in medium altitude (Woinadega) and highlands (Dega) in altitude range of 1800 - 2400m and above 2400m respectively. The snails decrease in number during the dry

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 1th Proceeding Page 103 season. The population of L. truncatula starts to increase during the small rainy season till the end of August early September. L. truncatula is mostly seen in shallow ponds, at the border of slpw flowing rivers, water plants.

The snails (L. truncatula were concentrated on moist soil along the water. Low humidity during the dry season limits the activity of L. truncatula in Ethiopian highlands. Under dry conditions the snail experience aestivation.

L. truncatula, starts to release the cercariae in April when the snail population comes out from dry season dormancy.

Reference:

Baharu, G., Epheriam, M. (1979). A preliminary survey of Bovine Fascioliasis in Ethiopia. Eth. J. agr. 1, 5 - 12.

Blood, D.C. (1985). A Text Book of Disease of Cattle, Sheep, Goat and Horses. 6th edition, Baillere Tindall, East Boume 894 - 908.

Brook, L., etal (1988) studies on Fascioliasis in four selected sites in Ethiopia. Vet. Par, 1£, 29 - 37 Erich, J. (1983). Investigation of Fascioliasis in the Ethiopian Highlands. (MSC thesis, University of Leiden the Netherlands) 1 -2 9 .

Tilahun, G., Worku, M. (1988). A survey of Liver fluke and Lung worm infection sin Shoa, Sidamo, Bale and Gamo Administrative Regions of Ethiopia (IPB Research report, A.A.U.)

Yilma, (1985) study on ovine Fascioliasis and other Helminthes parasite at Holotta. (DVM thesis, University of Addis Ababa, Faculty of Vet. Medicine, Ethiopia) 2 1 -2 6 .

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l in Proceeding Page 104 Suspected Cases of Hypovitaminosis A in Calves, in Dera and Assessment of Clinical Sings, injectable Vitamin A Supplementation and Management Practice, as a Diagnostic Method of Calves Hypovitaminosis A

Deneke Hailemariam (DVM) Dodota - Sire MOA P.O. Box 1665, Nazareth, Ethiopia

Abstract

From a total of 885 animals examined at Dera town, 87 (9.8%) cattle were found affected with hypovitaminosis A at Dera town. In this report are described prevalence of suspected cases of hypovitaminosis A, and assessment of clinical signs, injectable vitamin A supplementation and management practice, as diagnostic method. For this purpose all cattle that randomly selected from Dera town were examined visually and by palpation for any clinical signs of hypovitaminosis A. Suspected cases of vitamin A deficiency symptoms included, convulsion, vision and pupillary reflex were registered by specifying the type of breed, age, sex and type of blindness. Different types of blindness as night blindness, narrowing of the optic canal and degenerative changes were recorded before and after injectable vitamin A supplement. An interview was made for 80 small dairy holders and fattening owners. The distribution of the disease arhong 537 indigenous Arsi and 348 Holstein cross breed cattle was considered and 29 animals (5.4%) of the local and 58 (1.6%) of the cross breed were positive for hypovitaminosis A. Analysis of the data revealed a significant difference (P <0.01) in susceptibility between the two breeds. Rate of infection of the different age groups were 23%, 9% and 4.3% for animals aged below 1 year., 1 - 3 years and above 3 years respectively. There is a significant difference (P < 0.01) in susceptibility among the above age groups. The clinical examination revealed 58.6% of the affected calves were dull. Partial loss of vision and convulsions were evident in 25.28% of the cases where as staggery gait and inappetance was observed in 4.59% of the cases. Pupillary reflex to hand movement was absent either partially or completely in 78.16% of the cases. Color of the eye blue to light blue in 5.74% and bleached out in 5.74% of the cases. Among the different types of blindness 98.66% recovery was observed in animals with night blindness while 85.7% in calves with abnormal bone growth changes and no recovery in calves with degenerative changes. An interview of 80 small dairy holders and fattening owners in Dera town revealed the management practice consisted of mostly stall feeding (93.75%) while only 6.25%) case had history of grazing. Thus, it may be concluded that assessment of clinical signs, injectable vitamin A supplementation and management practice are important aids for the diagnosis of bovine hypovitaminosis A for field practitioners.

Introduction

Current estimate has put the ruminant Livestock population of the country at 31 million cattle, 23.5 million sheep, and 175 million goats. This huge livestock resource contributes 19% to the export earnings of the country and over 30% to the agricultural gross domestic product (4).

Despite the country’s huge ruminant livestock population, the production of both milk and meat is very low. There could be many underlying causes which are responsible for this low livestock productivity, but prevailing animal diseases, poor management system and poor genetic potential of the animals are recognized to be among the major constraints (4).

There are so many diseases, which affect the health of animals, reduce their production and have great economic importance. Some of these diseases are caused by nutritional deficiencies out of which vitamin A deficiency is the one. Vitamin A deficiency is of major economic importance in groups of animals on pasture or diets deficient in the vitamin or its precursors/5/.

Ethiop an Veterinary Association l l tn Proceeding Page 105 In Arsi zone cross breeding of dairy cattle is extensively practiced with artificial insemination extension service under taken in most parts of the zone. Apart from this, there are government owned farms like the Gobe cattle breeding ranch and the Asela livestock research farm. To these effects a number of small dairy farms have been established.

However, inspite of an increasing population in cross breed animals, a number of veterinary problems are encountered.

Suspected cases of hypovitaminosis A has been observed in veterinary clinics. However, diagnosis of vitamin A requires the use of sophisticated laboratory instruments and technique, which are time consuming and costly/9/. Due to this reason, the disease in cattle is rarely recognized in Ethiopia. The prevalence and distribution of the disease has not been studied systematically and thus information related to predisposing factors, the overall prevalence and economic loss of the disease is inadequate.

The purpose of this study is therefore to report suspected cases of bovine hypovitaminosis A and to assess the importance of clinical signs, injectable vitamin A supplementation and management practice for diagnosis of the disease.

Materials and Methods

Study Area i The study was conducted in Dera, the capital of Dodota - Sire woreda in the Oromiya Regional State. It is situated about 124km South East of Addis Ababa.

Dera is characterized by moist Kola weather with maximum temperature of 29.4°C and a minimum of+5.8°C. The altitude of the town ranges from 1750 - 1800 meters above sea level.

The area has an average annual rainfall of 500 - 1200mm. The long rain season covers the period from July to September while the short one extends from May to June.

Study Animals

The study was conducted on 348 crosses of Zebu and Holstein and 537 local zebu breeds adding up to 885 animals. The study focused on these two breeds owned by small dairy holders. The feeding system included grazing on natural pasture and crop residues, and house feeding with concentrate mixtures and roughage.

Study design

Prevalence study

The study of the prevalence of bovine hypovitaminosis A was undertaken in the Dera town starting from September 1995 to March 1997. All cattle selected randomly were examined for clinical signs of hypovitaminosis A.

Physical clinical examination

Randomly selected animals were examined visually for any clinical signs of hypovitaminosis A. | Those with signs of vitamin A deficiency were characterized by xerophthalmia, night blindness, convulsion, blindness, in- coordination were registered.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ,h Proceeding Page 106 The type of blindness which shows the extent of the lesion in all animals were categorized, as night blindness, degenerative changes and narrowing of the optic canal.

Treatment trail

A treatment trial aimed at assessing the efficiency of vitamin A supplement (injectable multi vitamin A, D & E) in the treatment of borne hypovitaminois A.

A total of 87 animals all naturally infected were used in the study. The extent of the lesions in the study group of animals was expressed as above.

The animals were treated with multivitamin A, D, E twice (contain 15,000 IU per ml; Norborook laboratory Limited, UK) at a dose rate of 400 IU/kg.

A week y follow up was made by examining the affected animals for evidence of recovery from the clinical signs.

Management analysis

An interview for 60 small dairy holders and 20 fattening owners in Dera town was made to determine the type of management /stall feeding or grazing/ practiced in their farms.

Results

The result of prevalence of hypovitaminosis A, physical clinical examination, treatment trial and management analysis were summarized under their respective sup-topics.

Prevalence of hypovitaminois A

From a total of 885 animals examined 87 (9.8%) cattle were found suffering from hypovitaminosis. The distribution of the disease among 537 indigenous Arsi and 34% Arsi Holstein cross breed cattle was considered and 29 animals (5.4%) of the local and 58 (16.6%) of the crossbred were positive for hypovitaminosis A (table 1). Analysis of the data revealed a significant difference (p < 0.01) in susceptibility between the tw'o breeds.

Of the total number of crossbreed animals examined and exhibiting signs of hypovitaminosis, 37 (18.8%) were female and 21 (13.8%) (Table 1 & 3).

There was no significant difference in susceptibility between both sex groups (p > 0.05) Rate of deficiency for the different age groups of Arsi-Holstein below 1 year, 1 - 3 years and above 3 years was 23%, 9% and 4.3% respectively (Table 2). There is a significant difference (p < 0.01) in deficiency rate between the above age groups.

Table 1: Prevalence of Bovine hypovitaminosis A in calves on basis of breed, age and sex.

No. of animals Risk factors Exam ined Positive % Prevalence X 2 Breed X2 cal = 30.21 Indigenous Arsi 537 29 5.4 D f = 1 Friesian cross 348 58 16.6 P < 0 .0 1 Age Below 1 year 184 43 23 X2 cal = 52.19 1 - 3 years 289 26 9 D f = 2 above 3 years 412 18 4.3 P < 0 .0 1

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 107 No. of animals Risk factors Exam ined Positive % Prevalence X2 Sex X" cal = 1.56 Female 196 37 18.8 D f = 1 Male 152 21 13.8 P > 0.05

Physical clinical examination results

The clinical examination revealed 58.6% of the affected calves were dull. Partial loss of vision and convulsions were evident in 25.28% of the case where as staggery gait and inappetance was observed in 4.59% of the cases. Pupillary reflex was absent either partially or completely in 78.16% of the case. Color of the eye blue to light blue in 5.75% and bleached out in 5.74% of the cases.

Table 2. Clinical signs observed at physical examination of bovine hypovitaminosis A

Clinical symptoms No. of animals Affected Dullness 51 58.6% Partial loss of vision & convulsion 22 25.28% Staggery gait & Inappatence 4 4.59% Absence of pupillary reflex 68 78.16% Change of colour 5 5.74% Bleaching of eye 5 5.74%

Result of Treatment Trial

From the otal of 87 animals treated with a high dose of multivitamin A, D and E, 80 (91.95%) animals recovered from the disease. Among the different grades, recovery was observed in 74 (98.66%) of animals with night blindness and 85.7% calves with bone growth changes and no recovery was observed in calves with degenerative changes (Table 3).

Testimonial evidence from attendants and clinical finding results of treated animals during the treatment trial indicate multivitamin A, D, E treatment to cattle was efficacious in alleviating clinical symptoms of vitamin A deficiency (night blindness and fainting episode) within 3 - 7 days and preventing recurrence for approximately 6 0 - 75 days.

Table 3 Effects of a high does of injectable vitamin A supplement in bovine hypovitaminosis A.

No of animals Recovery rate Types of blindness T reated Cured Not cures Night blindness 75 74 1 98.66% Degenerative change 5 0 5 0% Bone growth changes 7 6 1 85.7% Total 87 80 7 91.95%

Management Analysis Result

An interview made for assessment of management practice of 80 small dairy holders and fattening owners in Dera town revealed, that the management practice consisted of mostly stall feeding (93.75%) while only 6.25% cases had history of adding grass and hay and grazing.

Discussion

Depraved appetite and anorexia as noted in this study were reported by Spratling et.al\ (1965) and Abraham et.al (1970). Sinha and Mohan(1969) reported dullness and depression in calves affected with hypovitaminosis A. Sholsberg et.al (1978) reported that the calves affected with

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 108 hypovitaminosis A were having convulsions and episodes of fainting and in-coordination in movements. This could arise due to injury to the bones during the early periods of hypovitaminosis A (Moore, 1960). A similar observation of clinical signs was also recorded in this study.

Remillard (1990) reported both bolus and powder oral products were efficacious in alleviating bovine nvcta opia with in a day of treatment and preventing recurrence for approximately 2 months. Results obtained in the present study are consistent with those of Remillard et.al (1990)and accordingly injectable multi vitamin A, D, E is efficacious in alleviating night blindness and fainting episodes within 3 - 7 days post - treatment and prevents recurrence for approximately 60 - 75 days.

The study of Dhanaplan et.al (1992) indicated the higher incidence of hypovitaminosis A in calves of Madras city and it suburb cold be mainly attributed to the practice of stall-feeding. In our study, a similar finding was obtained. The main reason for the occurrence of hypovitaminosis A in calves in Dera town is due stall feeding with fodder deficient in carotene and failure to add vitamin A supplements to deficient diets. Analysis of the management practice in Dera showed the management system consisted of mostly stall-feeding. This result is in harmony with that of Dhanapalan etal (192).

This finding is in agreement with report of Dhanapalan etal (1992) who concluded physical examination is an important aid for the diagnosis of hypovitaminosis A in newborn calves. It is concluded that physical examination with the association of treatment and management analysis is an important aid for the diagnosis of hypovitaminosis A in animals.

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the sustained contribution of Dr. Hailu Wondimu, without which this report would not have been possible. Particular thanks are due to Dr. Asegedech Sirak, Worku Degefu, Abera Mulat and Getachew Tadese. Dodota woreda staff, namely Berhanu Inserum, Atemayehu Gashaw also made important contributions.

The author wishes to thank Dr. Haile Cherinet for his statistical analysis and excellent technical contribution special thanks are due to Zewditu Desalegn for graphics and typing, Kero Geleto, Alyi Eliyas, Abdela Tola and Muktar H. Hussien for their invaluable cooperation.

References

Abraham, J.m., Barnett, K.C. Bridge, P.S., Palmer, A.C., sprating, F.R. and sharman, I.M.(1970) Nutritional abstracts and reviews, 40: 1227. Blood, D.C.(1983). Disease caused by deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins; vitamin A deficiency. Vet. Med., 6 ed. Bailliere Tindall, London, UK. PP. 1070 - 1075. D ianapalan. P. Srinvasan, S.R. and Nagarajan, V.V.(1992). Indian J. Dairy Sci. 45, 8. Ethiopian society of Animal production editors Note Ruminant livestock development strategy. ESAP news. 3(1 & 2), 1 - 9 , 1995. Moore, T.( 1960). Vitamins and Hormones, 18, 499 - 514. Remillard, R.L.(1990). Preventive vet. Med., 9, 173 - 183. Shlosberg, A., Egyed, M.N. and Eilat A.(1978). Vet. Ball, 48, 3144. Sinha, R.P. and Mohan, K.(1969). Indian vet. J., 46, 727 - 732. Spratling, F.R. Bridge P.S., Barnett K.C. Abrams J.J., Palmer A.C. and Sharrna I.M. (1965). Experimental hypovitaminosis A in calves: Clinical and grass post-mortem findings. Vet Rec. 77: 1532- 1542.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 111" Proceeding Page 109 ETHNOVETERINARY KNOWLEDGE IN CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF ETHIOPIA SHENO, NORTH SHOA

Ayalew Tolosa (Dr.)

ABSTRACT

The paper tries to concentrate on traditional knowledge of the highlanders and stimulates to preserve this precious heritage.

A questionnaire survey was conducted to obtain traditional veterinary practices in the area. Farmers, healer:; and church people were interviewed, professionals were communicated and literatures also cited.

Methods and procedures employed, plant and animal origins used for treatment and preventive diseases are registered. The practices are classified in to five categories: Mechanical / Physical, Pharmacological, Surgical, Rituals (magico-religious) and Managerial. Blackleg, Internal parasite. Bloat, Foot rot, FMD, Rabies, Ticks, Leech and Abscess are among many ailments that curative and prophylaxis measures are taken. Some practices have got ethnic differences. Farmers knowledge on disease causation, classif cation and nomenclature are also discussed.

Documentation, investigation, verification and promotion of this indigenous knowledge are significantly needed with cross-discipline and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) for a sustainable use by resource poor people. Integration with Western medicine and in to formal veterinary curricula is highly recommended.

INTRODUCTION

Ethnoveterinary knowledge is a local knowledge unique to a particular society or ethnic group, which deals with folk beliefs, knowledge, skills, methods and practices pertaining to the health care of animals. These practices are sometimes thousands of years old, elaborated by trial and error, refined over general ions and handed down as important knowledge (Mundy.M.E.,Corkle.M.c.l989).

Like in other developing countries, in Ethiopia traditional practice is deep-rooted and well grounded which s still intact and largely popular in rural societies. Generally it is comparable and parallel health delivery system to that of western medicine. Despite the lack of beginning time of its use, it is cost effective and has adequate coverage. Unfortunately no pay attention is given to farmers wealth of empirical experiences considering them as primitive and superstition or as stories of the evenings by professionals and literate peoples. Recently in a decade of time, attention is given in a global agenda.

The highlands of Ethiopia represent 70% of human and livestock population and practices mixed farming systems. The central Ethiopian highlands take the highest share in human and livestock population of the Ethiopian highlands. The area is endowed with mild climates which favours the introduction of higher yielding cross bred animals, suitable for the cultivation of forage crops, free from trypanosomiasis and has got a great access to central market. Farmers in the area depend on livestock raising and crop cultivation side by side. The Oromo and Amhara peoples are found in the area.

Modem veterinary service is tied up with inadequate budget (operational), drug & logistics supply and make farmers to use their own cost effective and at hand remedies. These empirical experiences of farmers didn't get attention and are the least considered one. Little studies are available on this knowledge. This paper attempts to present ethnoveterinary knowledge of farmers in the area and give an insight for professionals to do documentary and investigative work in their respective working places.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 110 OBJECTIVE

to document traditional veterinary practice by the highlander. to develop awareness of the importance of local knowledge system and broaden research agenda. to stimulate comprehensive study in the country

MATERIALS and METHODS

A Three page questionnaire were used to have traditional knowledge for which Two hundred thirty six farmers were nterviewed from 20 Peasant Associations regardless of sex and age. Fanning places, villages and markets are used as a site for interviewing. Traditional healers and church peoples are included in the survey. Professionals are also communicated for information of traditional practices with doing survey work on their respective districts. The questionnaire includes personal data of the farmer (sex. age, marital status, literacy, ethnicity and religion), farmers view on disease causation, classification and nomenclature, ethnoveterinary and husbandry practices. All question are of open type and depending on the preference of the respondents the survey questions were posed in either Oromic or Arrharic. Vernacular names of plants are identified and getting botanical names using A Glossary of Ethiopian Plant Names by Woldemichael Kelecha. Some Amharic and Oromic words are interpreted using Amharic-English and Oromo- English Dictionaries, respectively.

RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS

Farmers link causes of diseases with their socio-economic and culturally linked attitudes and perceptions. They specify sunlight "mech", sun fever "nedade", grass, dew, frost, anger of God and guerdian spin "xveqabi" are cause of diseases. Their knowledge on the epidemiology of diseases indicated that the winter season is most favourable for the occurrence of diseases like Ovine Pasteurellosis. Foot rot, Internal parasite and Blackleg.

They classify diseases in accordance with severity, onset and duration of the disease (clinical signs). Sudden illness " dengetegna", acute "attaddafe" and chronic "yamaygadla". They consider anthrax as sudden illness blackleg and ovine pasteurellosis as acute where as FMD, Foot rot and Internal parasites as chronic.

They give names to diseases considering species and ages affected thus "abba sanga" is given for Anthrax literaily meaning a father of cattle specifically fattened cattle and aged one, "abba gorba" for Blackleg to express a father of younger and physically good cattle in Oromic.

Clinical signs are used to give names where "engeb" and "kalle darbasisaa" are local names for ovine pasteurellosis in Amharic and Oromic languages, respectively expressing abdominal respiration, "furo" for Strangle considering nasal discharge and respiratory distress as pathognomonic signs and "oodoma"zx\d "dcdoho" for fasciolasis and haemonchiasis expressing bottle-jaw.

Tlure is also naming of diseases in opposite to give a charm or gift to convince the severity' of disease like "dasseta" happiness for rinderpest in Amharic and "qabanechaa"in Oromic kindness for FMD. For some diseases, they don't want to mention the real name instead they name as " something" of animals affected like rabies " wanesare" in Oromic means something of a dog.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 llh Proceeding Page 111 TABLE 1.International and vernacular names of diseases and parasites

No. International name Vernacular names 1 Black leg abba gorba(Or.),etecha(Or.),luke buta(Or.),goloba(Or.) 2 Anthrax abba sanga(Or.J, gogogesa(Or.) 3 FMD afteger(Am.),qabanaa / qabanechaa(Or ) 4 Ovine pasteurellosis engeb(Am ), kalle darbasisaa(Or.) 5 Bovine pasteurellosis gororsa(Or), wane sinbiraa(Or.) 6 Strangle JurofOr.) 7 Rinderpest marye(Am.), desta(Am.) 8 Lymphangitis biche(Or), nidift(Am.) 9 Sheep pox maaryee holaa(Or.),fmo(Or.), yebegoche fentatafAm.) 10 Rabies yebed wesha besheta(Am.). dhukkuba sare merataa(Or), wane sare(Or.) 11 Foot-rot yekote mebesbes(Am ), okkolechisaafOr.), mujale(Am.) 12 Coenurosis janjo(Or ), azurit(Am ) 13 Internal parasite odoma (Am.), dodoho(Or.),kulkult(Am.) 14 Tick meazger(Ani), silmi(Or.) 15 Sheep-ked cini(Or), yebegoche meazger(Am) 16 streptodiricosis ekek(Am.), citto(Or)

N.B Amharic (Am.); Oromic (Or.)

Traditional practices are categorized in to five groups according to their purposes, methods and materials used which are : Mechanical / physical, Pharmacological, Surgical, Magico-religious and Managerial. In each category practices and materials used, applications and procedures employed and their indications are discussed.

1. Mechanical / Physical

exercising or making to run Indication : bloat massaging and application of hot water Indication : inflammation (udder) and abscess immersing in to the river at dawn Indication : Coenurus cerebralis , aggressive ox, FMD putting on tanned sheep skin "debalo" and hit it Indication : bloat, colic air balloting Indication : Blackleg Site of application : at the back Procedure : incising the skin with blade inflating air with hollow substances like "qesem"/"meqa" tying of small stone or iron, key and coffee pestle "yebunci zenzena" on envelopes of placenta Indication : retained after birth manual picking of ticks and leech. They also pierce ticks with a needle or blade, application of a feather in to a teat Indication : teat blockage

There is a practice of immersing cattle in to Horra Lake in Ada' Woreda (Eastern Shoa) once in a year during September, the weekend after the mesqel festival, in a celebration of "irechaa" on a belief to protect cattle from diseases and to increase herd size. There is a similar practice in Eastern and Western Shoa 10 bath cattle in hot spring and they make them to drink once in a year, they call it " hooraa

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 ltn Proceeding Page 112 They indicated as a treatment for internal parasite. There is a risk of skin disease transmission like Streptothricosis.

2. PHARMACOLOGICAL

Plant and animal origins are used to treat animal and human ailments for a long period of time and serves as a foundation for western medicine. 70% of drugs used in modem medicine are derived from plar ts that are used in traditional systems and this shows that fanners know the best. T.Mesfin and T. Obsa (1994) reported on Ethiopian traditional veterinary practice. However, there is lack of infomiation on veterinary medicinal plants. There are reports on plants used for few livestock diseases (rabies, bloat, parasite & wounds) in addition to human ailments by G.Abate et al (1976), G.Abate (1980), A.Getahun (19'76), A.Ayehu (1979 Eth.Cal.), M.Tadesse & S.Demissew (1992) and D.Abebe & A.Ayehu (1993) and Azene et al (1994) in Ethiopia. Many plants indicated for human ills are also used for livestock by hea ers. " r / 2.1. Plant origins - Whole plant, Roots, leaves, pod, tuber, barks, stems, flowers and seeds of various plants are used in a single and/or mixed preparation in a form of bolus, juice, pasty and dried fonn. They are given through oral, inhaling, instillation and spreading over the body. Usually traditional healers prepared dnig from different plants in a form of concoct for treatment of a single disease.

Farners know that some plants are toxic to livestock in the area . Bracken fern (Pterdium aquilinum) , some legumes like "maget” Trifolium rueppelianum and Medicago minima and grasses like Snodenia polystachya "muja " causing bloat . Bracken fern is found abundantly in Wenchi high lands ( Western shoa ) on the road way from Wolliso to Ambo. They take care of recently bought cattle not to graze the bracken fern, which is ever green through out the year ( personal observation ). It causes haematuria. Yehenew Mekonnen (1994) reported toxic plants of veterinary importance and also indicated potentially toxic plants that are used to treat various livestock diseases by traditional herbalists.

2.2 Animal origins

They are used separately and/or mixed with other plant origins. Fat tail being allowed to age, butter, egg anc milk is used for bloat treatment. Egg is indicated for chronic cough in cattle. Whey is used to treat constipation for cattle. Honey and "tazma mar " a honey which is produced by stingless bee-like insects (Trigona spp.) are indicated for treatment of FMD smearing on the oral lesions and used also for prevention of -MD by some fanners. The ''tazma mar" is a liquid with a strong acid flavour. Abdominal fat (mesenteric) is used for wound dressing. Dung mixed with urine found in barns called "coorroqaa " in Oromic indicated for bloat and indigestion problems. Poultry waste is used to fumigate donkeys for treatment of strangles. The dung of hyena is used for treatment of saddle sore in a powder fonn. The fecal of dogs is also used as local antiseptic in castration.

2.3. Minerals and its products

Urea ( fertilizer ) and kerosine are used for bloat. Kerosine is also used for tick and lice infestation. Sulphur is used to treat skin infection. Salt is indicated for external parasite (ticks & leech) mixed with pepper and butter. Salt is also used mixed with tobacco for wide treatments. A salt solution is indicated for foot-rot treatment. Rock salt "amole chew" used for fattening and as a supplement for oxen. In Southern Shoa farmers bring their cattle to the area where there is mineral rock called "bolle" and they allow them to lick.

A pounded earthen ware is heated to be spread on butter smeared saddle sore. This treatment is indicated for chronic saddle sore of donkeys.

Page 113 Et liopian Veterinary Association 11 Proceeding TABLE.2 Vernacular and botanical plant names and their indications

No. Vernacular names Botanical names Part(s][ used Indications 1 alaltu (Or.) haya (Am.) Salix subserrata leaf, root rabies 2 Astenager (Am.);manji (Or.) Datura stramonium root, leaf wound dressing, saddle sore 3 berbere (Am.,Or.) Capsicum frutescens, C.annum pod bloat, tick, sudden disease, FMD, leech 4 Besobila (Am.,Or.) Ocimum sanctum var anisatum, O.basilicum leaf butter making 5 biribra (Am.) Millettia ferruginea seed fish catching(intoxication) 6 bisana (Am.) mekenisa (or.) Groton macrostachys, Albizia anthelmintica whole internal parasite, purgative 7 bosoke (Or.) Kalenchae petitiana and other kalenchae leaf inflammation, haematoma, sore, abscess 8 damakase (Am.) Ocimum suave, O.lamifolium, Lippia leaf sudden illness abyssinicia 9 duba (Am.) Cucuribita pepo seed internal parasite(cestode) 10 feto' (Am., Or.) Lepidium-sativum seed tick, bloat, sudden illness, antiseptic, poultry disease 11 indod (Am.,Or.) Phytolacca dodecandra root, seed, leaf, flower retained placenta, internal parasite 12 insilal (Am.) insilale (Or.) Pimpinella anisum, Foeniculum vulgar, whole colic, urine retention Anethum grareolens 13 iret (Am.) argesa (Or.) Aloea calidophylla and other Aloea spp. latex, shoot bloat, weaning 14 jinjibil (Am.) Zingiber officinale root colic 15 kalala (Or.) yeayili-joro (Am.) Stephania abyssinica root blackleg 16 kese (Am.) kussaye (Or.) Lippia spp. leaf cheese preservative and flavour, bee hive fumigation 17 koso (Am.) heto (Or.) Hagenia abyssinica flower, bark Internal parasite, bloat 18 kulkwal (Am.) adami (Or.) Euphorbia abyssinica root, sap wart, tick 19 lomi (Am.,Or.) Citrus medica, C.liomina fruit poultry disease 20 muka-ija (Or.) Corrigiola littoralis leaf conjuctivities 21 nech 'i-bcirzaf (Am.) ;barzafi-adi Eucalyptus globulus leaf bloat, insect repellent (Or.) 22 nech'i-shinkurt (Am.); kulubi-adi Allium ursinum bulbs wound dressing especially for hyena bite, sudden (Or.) illness, cheese preservative, poultry disease 23 ras-kimir (Am.) Leucas martinicensis, Leonotis raineriana, root Internal parasite boku ferda (Or.) L.afticana 24 sama (Am.) dobi (Or.) Urtica simensis leaf Strangles, FMD 25 senafich’I (Am.); senaficha (Or.) Brassica nigra var.abyssinica seed bloat, sudden illness, broken horn 26 sensel (Am.) tumuga (Or.) Adhatoda schimperana whole diarhoea, bloat, urine retention

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ll"' Proceeding 1—=------•— 1------1N0. Vernacular names DUI<1IH<1<1I iiaiina Indications 27 telba (Am.,Or.) Linurn usitatissimum grain retained placenta, bloat, constipation 28 te'na-adam (Am.);tena-adami Ruta chalepensis var. tenuifolia whole sudden illness, cheese preservative & flavour (Or.) 29 let (Am.) jirbi (Ur.) Gossypium barbadense L.,G.herbaleum L.,and seed eye wound, haemorrhage other Gossypium sp. 30 Tinjut (Am.) tinjuti (Or.) Otostegia integrifolia, 0. steudneri wood, leaf smoking milking pots and fumigation new hive 31 t'nbaho (Am.) tembo (Or.) Nicotina tabacum leaf Oestrus ovis larvae, Internal parasite, leech, sudden illness 32 Tosegtie (Or.) Thymus serrulatus, T.schimperi, Satureja sp., whole fattening sheep and dairy cows (good flavour of meat S.paradoxa, Micromeria bill ora and milk), fumigation new hive 33 Weyinagift (Am.) Pentas schimpema flower, leaf eye disease (conjuctivities) 34 weyra (Am.) ejersa (Or.) Olea africana wood disinfection of milking equipment (good milk flavour) 35 Yamader- imbway (Am.) Cucumis prophetarum, C.ficifolius fruit leech, moluscus hidi-holota (Or.) 36 Yeahiya joro (Am.),giira hare Verbascum sinaiticum root, flower retained placenta (Or.) 37 Yetota kulla (Am.) Pergularia sp. root, flower sudden illness, wound dressing

N.B* Amharic (Am.) and Oromic (Or.) names are used

I

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11" Proceeding Page 1 15 2.4. Industrial products

Farmers use detergents, edible oil and Coca cola for treatment of bloat and digestion problems. Vaseline is applied for tick infestation. Local brewery products like alchole "arraqe " applied for a wide range of local treatments mixed with pepper, like bloat and sudden illness. It is also used as antiseptic and indicated for urine retention. Beer's sediment "cuala" used for treatment of bloat and Indigestion problems.

Drenching with products of animal and plant origins usually causes asphyxial pneumonia that leads to death due to rough application grasping the tongue.

3. SURGICAL

3.1. Wound dressing

Abdominal fat, burned cloths, local alcohol, human urine, dung, mud and ashes are used for wound dressing and occasionally as antiseptics.

3.2. Castration

Traditional healers exercise castration in to closed and bloody castration like the modefn one. Months of October and November are the preferred time for castration considering availability of feed and conducive environment (absence of insects & rain ). It is a crude and in-human procedure and causes anorexia due to stress for a longer period. 93.6 % of farmers interviewed in Kembebit district (North Shoa) practices traditional castration rather than in clinics (A.Tolossa, unpublished findings,1995 ).

3.2.1. Closed castration is done by pulling out the scrotum with a string, laying the tube of the testicle over the stone board or wooden bar and crushing it with a pestle "alollo" and also in some places they put the spermatic cord between forked stick " maneqo" and then crushing over the sticks. Finally, the tip of the scrotum is hammered and the skin of scrotum is scratched with a large needle " wesefe " until it bleeds to avoid swelling. For small ruminants, they use the back of the sickle for crushing. It is indicated for shcco, goal and cattlc. They use local antiseptics like "feto" and dog faecal on the crushed part. There is a complain of orchitis esp. in sheep and bloat in cattle.

3.2.3. Open castration is done by incising the scrotum with a knife or a blade on the stick like scalpel handle and removing the testicle and then branded with a hot sickle and putting on it abdominal fat or butter around the lesion. Local antiseptic like "feto" mixed with butter is spread over the w'ound. The animal is then kept indoors with its leg tied to a rope. It is used for horses and donkeys.

3.3. Blood letting

Traditional healers incise tongue and wing vein for blood withdrawal of cattle and poultry, respectively. Blood lotting of calves is called " yateja taman " in Amharic and "goroo guru"/ "muudhukaa " in Oromic. It is indicated for emaciated calf. In Mongolia blood-letting is commonly used for lean horses and experiments done shows that there is a body weight increase and blood renewal activity is improved A considerable amount of young cells in the blood was also observed in comparison with control group horses ( Sharavdorj.B,1992 ). It is also indicated for cattle and poultry for sudden illness. Blade, thorn, hooks and tweezers are used for this procedure. After blood- letting a mixture of pepper and butter is smeared bn the site. Farmers believe that when there is illness the blood vessel becomes dark and enlarged. After the blood drawn out, the disease is escape with the blood.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 1 l,n Proceeding Page 116 3.4. Scarification

Skin is incised with blade at many areas of the body. Back and hind limbs are the ideal sites for incision. It is indicated in cattle for emergency cases, black leg, anthrax and bovine pasteurellosis. It is a crude operation that leads to skin damage and affects skin quality. Abscess and tumoral growths are lanced, drain the pus and extracted out the tissue, respectively and then they treat the wounds with branding butter on it.

3.5. Trocarization

Stabbing with knife is done for bloat, if local drenches are not effective and the case is acute. Site of application is between the ribs and they stir the rumenal content with stick. It causes peritonitis and the wound remains un healed for extended period of time.

3.6. Cauterization or hot iron branding

It was practiced frequently in veterinary surgery and was used when other treatments failed. It is done for unidentified case, blackleg, abscess, saddle sore, lymphangitis and bleeding. For unidentified case and blackleg, which rump, shoulder, back and hind limbs and dewlaps are sites for cauterization. Sickle is used or branding and farmers prefer specific type of sickle called "albien". It is done following blood vessels and they believe that it limits the distribution of the disease. For infectious diseases, cauterization may depress the production of antibodies through the release of histamines. However, it can be of benefit for arthritis, lameness, sprains and muscle strains as well as for chronic wounds and castrations. The use of fire branding in circles around wounds to limit the burrowing of pus but it delays healing and scar formation. There is drenching of the animal with tobacco and other plant origin after cauterization and scarification.

3.7. Obstetrics

Traditional healers treat obstetrical problems like removal of retained placenta and correction of dystocia. They detach the envelopes manually by slight and repeated traction. Delivery problems in human beings are treated by mid-wives locally called "awwalag". This name can also used for peoples treating in correction of fetal position in abnormal parturition in cattle in some areas. Fetotomy is also practiced by the healers for dead, giant and abnormally position fetus. Traditional healers treat repeat breeding applying a carved stick or usually iron bar call i t "madamcicha bercit" which is applied through the vagina or bare handed in a cow with heat sign. It causes bleeding and after this they let the cow mate with bull. For attraction of a bull a tobacco mixed with salt is smeared at the tip of the vulva. Such traditional intervention is designated as a treatment of "gurdcia" in Oromic and Amharic. It is usually indicated for cows. There is also a practice of pricking the umbilicus with a needle for repeat breeding cow.

3.8 Bone setting

This practice is widely exercised and is popular in rural as well as urban areas and is done by "wagesha”. They are efficient and better than modem practitioners who lack this exercise are. Broken bones, dislocated joints, splinters and rupture tendons are treated by traditional orthopaedist. Bamboos/wooden sticks, strings and cloths are used for wrapping. Abdominal fat and ash are used as wound dressing for open fracture. The Fulani and the Southern Sotho also use the same materials for treatment of broken bones (N.Bizimana,1994).

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11"1 Proceeding Page 117 3.9. Dehorning and hoof trimming

Excessive growth of horn, which causes penetration of head skin, is cut by hot sickle. Enlarged hoof, which usually occurs in donkeys, is trimmed by sickle and knife. These practices are done by farmers themselves and they are aware of the consequences of damaging the cellular part, which they call it "musherra" in Amharic not to cut.

3.10. Superficial Keratoectomy

It is done by special traditional healers who are familiar and popular in this practice. Blade, thread, needle, thorns and safety pins are used for this operation. Goat abdominal fat or butter is put on the external part of the eye and cauterize with warm sickle for slow spreading to the wound. It is done for ruminants and equine. Farmers call this white membrane covering the eye "erert"/"morra" in Amharic and "mora" in Oromic. The practice is called "morra megefef' in Amharic and "mora kassu" in Oromic.

4. RITUALS ( magico -religious )

Magico-religious practice is the oldest and strongly founded cultural heritage in human history used for human and livestock disease treatment. It is interpreted as being the work of the devil and is the last resort after the available means of treatment. Evaluation of magico-religious beliefs can be difficult but the effect in human beings is remarkable due to psychosocial benefits while the practical value in veterinary science is dubious. Despite the draw backs mentioned, documenting is necessary.

4.1. Chanting / Incantation " d e g e m t"

It is a charm or a repeated tune of words used for religious ceremony and magical procedure. It is exercised by church peoples like "dabtaras" and also by "qallechas". In this area church peoples exercise under the name of" degemt" or "mestadert". It is indicated for a lost donkey not to be attacked by hyenas and for livestock in the bam to avoid beasts. Incantation is done on salt to give for aggressive ox and cow. For prevention of hyena attack, incantation is performed on salt bar for cattle, on bread from black tef for dogs and on barley for sheep and goats which is called locally "yejeb abenet". All verbal words and incantation procedures are well documented by Ahadu Ayehu (1979 Eth.Cal.).

4.2. Holy water "Tabal "

Holy water of various Coptic churches found in the area is used in a belief of disease treatment and prevention. It is administered either in a form of drench, spray, at the stalls or by hanging at the fence of animal quarters. The holy water o f "egezeharab" church is indicated for treatment and prevention of rabies in human and livestock. Drenching with holy water of other churches in their respective places is also used for sudden illness, retained placenta and bloat. This practice should get consideration on it's mineral content. Hanging holy w^ater filled in a bottle at the fence is used to avoid the act of ill-wisher . The use of mineral water is naturalistic. The natural and superstitious beliefs may be closely related in such cases, at least in the minds of most users of curative holy waters.

4.3. Amulets " k e ta b "

Amulets are enchanted materials in a form of coded written or a pouch of medicines bagged in a plastic or leather material to be tied to the neck of animals or around the base of horns. It is prepared by religious peoples (dabtaras & qallachas), but in this particular area it is done by "dabtaras". In Amharic it is named ’ ketab ". This practice is also widely used for humans. Written words used for amulet preparation to protect from abortion "shotelaye" in human beings is documented by Ahadu Ayehu(1979 Eth.Cal.). It is indicated for pregnant cows to safe guard from abortion, lactating cows from evil eyes

Ethiopian Veteiinary Association l l ,n Proceeding Page 118 and aggressive cows to make it docile. For large animals, it is tied at the base of horns. It is also tied for oxen and cows physically good and colourful animals to keep from evil eyes. Amulets of pregnant cow after parturition is transferred to the calf or the calf may get it's own. For calves, amulets are tied on the neck. The Bedouin hang amulets with combinations of letters, words, symbols, numbers, or koranic versus on their horses, cows, female camels, sheep, and other animals in order to protect them from the evil eye(Mundy M.E.& Corkle M.C, 1989 ).

4.4 . Tying of red thread and metallic substances

Farmers are tying red thread "qayy telcit" on the tail of cattle for treatment and prevention of FMD. There is a similar practice in the Philippines tying a red cloth or ribbon around the neck of the animal or around the base of the horns to keep away from evil spirits (T.M.Topacio Jr.& M.LI.Jovellanos,1994). Farmers in the area said that FMD is a recently introduced disease from Arsi and occurs yearly in the month of November. Keys, bells and other metallic substances are tied on calves, dogs and other animals to ward off evil eye and diseases. Electric wire (copper ) is tied at the base of horn for cattle. A rope is tied on the chest like heart girth on fattened cattle to keep from evil eyes and for the measurement of it's increase in body size.

4.5. Having vows "selat"

Vows are a solemn promise given to churches in a form of materials like candle "tuwaf \ money and giving a feast "degges". A promise of gift is given, if help is provided. Otherwise, if no help comes, the promise is forgotten. This practise is done widely for human ailments and social problems rather than for livestock. However, in cattle it is occasionally indicated for sudden illness and delivery problem of cows.

4.6 . Sacrification of sheep "boorentichaa"

It is a ong cultural heritage and widely practised among the Oromo people as a culture of thanks giving rituals to improve fertility and production of livestock and safe guard from disease, "boorentichaa" is a guardian deity for livestock. Sheep are offered as a sacrifice for this ritual depending on the wealth and custom of the farmer. They sacrifice a sheep once or twice a year at months of May/June and October at either days of Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. Grey and black sheep are slaughtered at months of June and October, respectively. The colour of sheep and month of sacrification depends on the usual belief of the fanners. The animal is butchered in the stall starting at the time of mid-day up to 4 P.M and it's flesh is cooked and eaten and from every part a slice is taken, baked with flour at the bam and put in the pot on the drainage way for the guardian spirit. They hang the leaf of "weyera" Olea africana on the gate of the fence to show they are in a ceremony of "boorenticha". There is also a similar practise in Philippines where chicken, pig, carabao (Bubalis bubalis) or cow, or a combination of these or other animals would be offered as a sacrifice with the aim of curing a sick animal or herd and to drive away evil spirits (T.M.Topacio Jr.& M.LI.Jovellanos,1994). Moslems and church peoples don't practise "boorenticha" due to religious taboos.

4.7. Fumigation of the barn

This practise is done at the month of November specifically on date of November 22 yearly which they call it in local "yahidar michael" and every dirty materials are collected and burned having smoke to keep animals from disease. This practise is done for human diseases like malaria at that specific day not only in niral areas but also in towns.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association lllh Proceeding Page 119 5. MANAGERIAL

Farmers manage their livestock in extensive traditional way side by side with crop cultivation. They have various husbandry practices from the newly bom up to the older one including management of grazing land, shelter and feed. They keep their livestock in the natural grassland all the year rounded.

5.1. Grazing land management

They keep their livestock from grazing around water logged areas for the prevention of fasciolasis and usually keep their animals on hill sides. They believe that plant grows in the area causes bottle jaw. Grass of water logged areas are used for hay production.

5.2. Dietary supplements

They give special attention for lactating cows and oxen at the time of ploughing and give them extra­ ration and salt licks. There is also a practise of giving salt licks and' dry feeds to cattle in the morning before allowing to graze which is used to prevent bloat. Grains are given for chickens in the morning before scavenging as a prevention from diseases.

5.3. Shelter management

Calves, sheep, goats and poultry are kept in the house or a special shelter by the sides of the house. Large animals, are kept outside with in a fence made out of thorns, wooden materials and stones. Their pellets and dungs are removed daily for making dung cakes "kubat" used for fuel. Its smoke is used in a practice of hcney harvesting. Hives will be smeared inside with a layer of fresh cow dung, which is considered to orevent diseases and provide better insulation.

5.4. Breeding knowledge

Farmers only know the number of animals they own. They neglect their breeding sources. Counting generation may not be extended more than three, even only with the dam line not with the sire. Horse and cattle are relatively favoured one. Bull selection is done on colour but not on milk production and draught ability.

5.5. Age determination

They determine the age of animals esp. ruminants and equine using the growth and wear off permanent incisor teeth. The development process is called in Amhd.nz"sherfe" and in Oromic "cabse". The number of permanent incisor teeth grown is used to specify the time of castration, breeding and draught purposes. Their preference time for having castration and to use for ploughing is the development of two pairs of permanent incisor teeth.

5.6. Dam to calf relation

5.6.1. Colostrum feeding

Although they do not know the purpose of colostrum, they allow the calf to suckle for up to three days alone. In some Districts of North Shoa, in case of first calving, there is a special ceremony where the milked colostrum is served for invited people together with local beer and bread. This is done to promise for fertility and to give thanks to God. In case of cow where the milked colostrum is churned to produce butter The butter is smeared on the right and left limb of the hind legs and head of the cow. The umbilicus of the calf is also smeared and the remaining for the owner and children. This practise is called "mudaa" in Oromic. In some places of the Amhara people colostrum is given for the eldest son of

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11"’ Proceeding Page 120 the family being believed it .gives strength. Colostrum is named in Amharic "enger" and in Oromic "sigila" / "annan dura".

5.6.2. weaning method

Dune and aloes are apW'ed on the dam's teat to make calves to wean. A leather with thorns is tied on the calf muzzle to be avod by the cow. Change of the environment is also practised for calves.

5.6.3. A cow with dead calf

There is a practise of making dummy from the skin of dead calf, straws and wood that they name "gofela" in Amharic and "harkuu" in Oromic to obtain milk from the cow. The skin is skinned off like making a leather sack "selecha" in Amharic and "qanqalo" in Oromic. Salt solution is applied on the calf skin for licking. In Kenya the Turkana and Masai use a similar method to make a dummy for cattle and camels (N.Bizimana,1994).

5.6.4. Foster calf

It is supplied milk ofother cows / animals using bottle. If the cow is docile, salt lick is given for it and then the calf suckle. This practise is done also for small ruminants.

5.7. Poultry management

Poultry raising is practised with indigenous breeds of poultry every where in the country. It is the responsibility of women and school children in rural areas and towns. They are aware of signs of diseased chicken : black comb, shaggy feather, yellowish coloration of the skin and dark wing vein. Chickens scavenge freely in back yards and occasionally grain is offered.

5.7.1 Treatment of a broody hen

The following measures are taken to treat broody hen to become to its normal egg production change of the environment (village) hanging on the fence with legs tied tying and putting on the outside application of feather across the nostrils

5.8. Bee keeping

It is the oldest practice in the area. Honey is used for making "tej" honey beer, which widely used for cultural and religious ceremonies. It is also used for treatment of many human and animal ills in a single or mixed preparation.

Bee hive is made of simple and locally available materials like wood, straw, mud, animal dung and bark of trees. The shape is cylindrical closed with lid of basket which has got a hole for bee entrance. The hive is hanged up on the trees or under the roof horizontally. The new hive is fumigated with plant materials of "weyra", "tosegne", "kesse", "arid" and "tingut". Bee keepers are well familiar with queen. They call it as a male subject "awera" in Amharic and "motii" in Oromic meaning" leader". Cutting of the queen wing is practised to avoid absconding.

Harvesting is done during months of October and November. They usually determine their harvesting date due to belief of a fear in a decrease of bee population and honey production in other days. It is done during the night with naked body. The honey comb is cut with knife together with the brood and pollen. Animal dung on the clay is burnt to produce smoke to avoid bees.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 111,1 Proceeding Page 121 5.9. Nursing of sick animals

They keep sick animal isolated from other animals in the house until its recovery or death. They avoid sick animals from drinking water and eating grass after administration of local treatment and also exercised for deworming practise. On deworming exercise, the mouth of the animal is tied to abstain from water and feed up to 12 A.M. During winter anthelmintic treatment is not indicated and also they do not deworm draught oxen due to fear of fattening which leads to aggressiveness. They usually practise slaughtering of suddenly ill and /or dead animal. If they kill the animal before death, they shared the meat this is called "qercha" having self-help social group for cattle called "eier" in Amharic. If the animal i s dead before slaughtering, they only take off the skin and give the meat for dogs. They don't consider anthrax as communicable and the danger is not known. Generally there is no practise of burning and burying a carcass in the area .

They kill suspected cases of rabid dog and equine but meat from rabid ruminant is highly needed for consumption, since it is believed to serve as a vaccination.

This practice is age-long which is documented by Richard Pankrust (1990) that the flesh of the rabid cow is sold as a preventive for rabies and also reported that Menilek's palace had a traditional practioner who provided treatment, entirely free of charge, to any one in need. In Bereh District (North Shoa), farmers bum the carcass of rabid dog and then people and animals are fumigated with the smoke believing as a prevention.

Traditional pracdces reported in this paper are also practised both by the sedentary and pastoralist community in the world from mechanical to managerial practices. Magico- religious and some special forms of surgery include bone setting, scarification, blood-letting and cauterization is also known among Asians, Africans and Latin americans reported by various authors in the publications (Mundy M.E.,Corkle M.C.,1989; OIE,1994; N.Bizimana,1994).

TASK FORCES

Traditional practice in the area is delivered by specialized task forces like the modem sector of the animal health system. The best known healers of this traditional health system include bone setter "wagesha", religious healers "dabtara and qallecha", herbalists "madhanitagna" and witchcraft "tanquway". dabtara, qallecha and tanquway are faith healers and they are believed by the peoples as they are able to communicate with devils. Farmers are practising there own home made remedies before consulting traditional healers. Traditional healers practice this career on part time basis. Usually they practice human and livestock treatment employing the same herbs and magical therapies, and so forth. Relatively, ethnoveterinary information circulates freely where as information on human medicine is being secret. Animal healers charge stock owners in the area for black leg treatment , obestrical problems, superficial keratoectomy and amulet preparation while there is also social payment in forms of participating on communal labour ”dabo" called by the healers, giving vows for churches on the names of healers and home invitation. Money paid for traditional healers called "irecha" in the Oromo people. The charge is not fixed and even can be a cent. The healer must take the money offered otherwise they believe that the animal would not be cured and even the animal of the healer might be ill. The charge for a single animal and whole herd is the same. Males are the usually involved and there is no age difference even the younger practise inheriting from his father.

Classification of healers and their respective abilities and duties

1."wagesha " practices bone setting, castrations, obstetrics and surgeries. He is well familiar with the various parts of he body of an animal. They deal with clearly caused natural events. They are not influenced by magico-religious beliefs than the other categories. Physical manipulation of the animal is

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l ,h Proceeding Page 122 dominant. Usually illiterate i.e. do not use books in learning the practice, they just leam through oral tradition and long exercise.

2. "dabtara" and "qallecha" they are church and moslem peoples, respectively exercises magic and super natural medicine where they perform chanting, incantation and preparation of amulets. They also use both herbal medicaments and magical sorceries as well. They are heavily depend up on the practitioners intimacy with spirit world and his knowledge of magical books.

3. 'tanquway" is a wizard or witch doctor practices fortune telling and prescribes the colour and sex of chicken to slaughter with the procedure. In some places, he/she will be consulted for teat blockage. He/She is called "weqaabi" / "ayaanaa" among the Oromo people. They have got great respection by the society. They are the least involved in medical practice but in social problems.

4. 'madhanitagna" they are herbalists who cure their patients with the help of herbal medicines from local herbs in form of bolus, juices and pasty form and administer in drench, instillation and topical application. They depend up on symptoms for their diagnosis. This category of traditional medicine is basically secular but more influenced by super natural beliefs than the "wagesha”. These classification don't implies strictly on basis of job description considering job duplication .

Diagnostic methods of traditional healers are performed with following steps . First, they take history of the disease (when, how and where ) from the owner and they did inspection looking appearance of hair, position of the ear, coloration of the eye and palpation of the skin for hotness. Body "on fire", blackness, standing hair, absence of regurgitation, dropping of the ear, abdominal respiration and dullness are the usual expression of clinical signs of diseased animal by the owner.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There should be an urgent need to initiate and develop research work on the effectiveness of the methods and treatment described in this paper with the combined efforts of anthropologists, botanists, phytochemist, pharmacologists and veterinarians. If they are found to be effective , more wide spread use of these methods would considerable reduce the cost of treatment to farmers and can be integrated into formal veterinary curricula and out reach via instruction in ethnoveterinary medicine for both students and professionals in the field.

It is essential to do inventory of traditional healers in the communities and formation of traditional healers association to guard and preserve this valuable information. There should be a training programme for them on modem medicine and being appointed as community based animal health representatives to fill the gap. They serves for establishing epidemiological intelligence network to assist the public service.

National committee responsible for investigation and development of traditional medicine should be established in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and other related institutions. Further comprehensive study at a nation wide should be done and regular publication is necessary. The direct involvement and participation of farmers in the program appraisal process is highly recommended.

Botanical and backyard gardens of medicinal plants should be established in order to conserve and save them from extinction and to enhance the availability of medicinal plants for research and education on ethnoveterinary medicine.

Last by no means least, the need to launch an extension package for mass education of farmers on disease causation and prevention is of paramount importance.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 123 '.TTTf'

REFERENI JJSS

Aiadu Ayelji (1979 Eth. Cal.). Book of medicin$|( meMa^e hiwot). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Vol.l (In Amharic)

Ajmare Getihun (1976). Some common medioihal Ijpoisonous plants used in Ethiopian folk medicine. El equity of science, Addis Ababa U ie|v^ Ethiopia.

Jmsalu Ak [ju» 1979 (Eth.caleoder>; Kuraz Publishing Agiocy* Addis Albaba, Ethi ipia pp 344 '

Azene Beke e-Tesemma, Anne Birnie and Bo T 3). Useful Trees and Shrubs for Ethiopia, Identificatio l; propagation and management for and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish International Dey^l :ofify* Nairbbi, Kenya.pp 474.

Ejizimana I fsekuye (1994). Traditional Vetferi 4ce in Africa, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Susammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,S|ph1^rttJ Republic of Germany, pp 917. if -'a pawit Abel e and Ahadu Ayehu (1993). Medic: pngimatic Health Practices of Northern Ethiopia. Bl !PE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. | Gelahun Al ate, Tewolde B.G. Egziabher and Mi e (1976). A Study of the Medicinal plants cjfLlthiopia -Part I A: The Identity of somefof Mimeographed. Department of Biology, Faculty of t cience, Addis Ababa University. J i Gelahun A ate (1980). Ethiopian Traditional M |e debdabe). Addis Ababa University, Vol2 (jln Amhari ) S Mesfrn Ta< esse and Sebsbe Demissew (1992). thjopian Plants : Inventory, Identification and Classi: cation. In : Sue Edwards and Zsme? Mfitoi’s). Plants used in African Traditional Medicine i s practised in Ethiopia and Uga£da!>' O0i: East and Central Africa. NAPRECA series No.5:1-19 ’

Munday 1 IE. & Corkle M.C.(1989). Ethn|v< medicine and annotated bibliography, Bibliograp ies in Technology and social chan;gei]|o. tate University, Ames, Iowa, pp 199

1994 Early methods of animal disease confr Sci. tech. Off.int.Epiz. Vol 13No.2.pp 614.

Richard P e ikhurst (1990). An Introduction to th^Medfe .1 History of Ethiopia, The Red Sea Press, Inc., New Jerse' v USA. pp 288

Sharavdor B (1992). Some Results of Bloo4-I#$ng> Horse. Hroceeding of V eteriiiary Research Institute Nl> 3 P. 110-114, V0teftna^|R^ Kaatar, Mongolia.. ’

Tafesse U ssfm and Teka Obsa (1994). Ethiopian Tri (ti^nal Veterinary Practices and their possible contributi( n to animal production and manajjedjent. : p f Early Methods of Animal Disease Control. IRev. Sci. I ;ch. Off. int. Epiz.,13 (2). 417-424 I i . , Tilahun C amta (1989). Oromo-English Dictiojiaiy. ^dqis Ababa University printing press, Addis 'Ababa, Et uopia. pp 608. !

Ethiopian V terinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 124 Topacio Jr T.M. and Jovellanos M.LI, (1994). Traditional Animal Disease Control Methods in the Philippines. In : Early Methods of Animal Disease Control. Rev. Sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 13(2). 465- 470

Wjoldemichael Kelecha (1987). A glossary of Ethiopian plant names. 4th edition, Revised and Enlarged. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.pp 245.

Yehenew Mekonen (1994). A Survey of Plants (potentially) toxic to Livestock in the Ethiopian Flora. SljNET : Ethiop. J. Sci., 17(1): 9-32

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 125 COMMUNITY - BASEDif a n im a l h e a l t h car e (Afar Pastoral jEevejo ilot Project Experience) h ttebe*

INTI ODUCTION

AFAL PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT PROJEi * is a two year pilot project (1996 and 1997) execu 4d by the Afar National Regional St$te,: iced by the an Union and implemented by the APDP Management Team.

APDI 'Operates within the font woredas Fentale, Dulecha, Amibara and Argoba special wore( a of zone 3 ( Figure 1 j. The pi integrated community-based components, Lives bck development (which includes anim^J ■nutrition and marketing), Human Health and Mierc projects (Which includes activities suich m m , water, agricultural and income generating activities).

The f< cus of APDP is to work directly mthfpastc id agro-pastoral communities and to help them to idi rttify core problems and to T )jfement solutions to these problems within a partic patory development process.

This j aper, therefore, describes the attempt mi [to identify the constraints of aitfmal health care delivc -y, measures taken and the results olfthe /ear of operation of community - based animal health!care delivery system; | J ; :-W

BAC GROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Animll disease is one of the major constraints t^ i^estock production and productivity in pastoral areas i f Ethiopia (Wario CK 1994). |n jral area contagious bovine pleuropneumonia ) and contagious caprine ]3leuropi|eum<; 4(CCPP) are endemic, outbreaks of anthrax, black jg, haemorragic septicaemia, pest del p|tt| rtjirninants (PPR), lumpyskin disease and pox (in sheep, goats and camels) are quite commori festation of ticks, mange (in goats and camels) liverfl ike and other internal parasites are haf sifous effect.

Althoi gh, the improvement of animal health sc fe^in general and the control of these diseases in parties lar are recognised as a priority iiieed|of |istoralists, the state-run animal health services are un ible to fulfil this demand. The reason^ for failure are: the no riadic and semi-nomadic life style of the c . the ha: sh climatic characteristics and difficult tern of the area, the po >r road networks and communication, in they 1 make extremely difficult to follow them £>y yej iaiy personnel who are foreign to the area. In additicfri to the above mentioned problem^, thei rdyerhmerit veterinary service Is constrained by finano veterinary equipment, medicines, trfuispOji id manpower.

Thus, immediate and appropriate steps- must be en to meet the pressing demands of Afars for approf rjatc, practical, prompt and efficient th care. A community-based animal disease prever ;ton and health care delivery systemfdesij dr as a result of community dialogue to improve the an mal health care delivery system intefms o:t y&ilability, accessibility and efficiency has been established by the Afar pastoral Developmt tjin order to meet this demand. V ; - - .

EU/Afi rj Afar Pastoral Development Pilot Project, 0.0. Box 47j | ish Sebat Kilo, Afar Regional State

Ethiopia Veterinary Association 11w Proceeding Page 126 I. PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

It was realized by EU that animal health was a problem in the areathat the state - run services were not reaching the pastoralists and that the community-based animal health workers scheme would be useful, but how to go about it was unknown; the project had no ready - made technical package to implement. In an attempt to achieve success of the program a series of implementation steps have been taken. These are:

1. Data collection

Several formal and informal data collection techniques were utilized. Prior to field survey existing penment information was collected through discussion with different organizations who had similar experiences, reading and direct visits. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods were used to obtain information and generate discussion with Afar pastoralists. A Semi-structured interview questionnaire was used as an interview technique for key informants to get information on seasons, livestock movement pattern, indigenous veterinary knowledge such as disease description, local vernacular, seasonality and prevalence were assessed within the context of overall community aninal health needs. The mentioned diseases in each species of animal were then ranked by pastoralists based on economic and production losses and as it is perceived by Afars themselves. Finally, the community’s leadership structure and decision making process was discussed with elders anc learned for successful monitoring.

2. Mobile Extension Service (MES)

The Afars have suspicions about outsiders and subsequently a negative attitude towards their idea of development interventions. Thus, they take a passive role in problem investigation and in subsequent attempts to improve their situation. They had to be convinced that the program was actially theirs and trust has to be established for joint action. Therefore, a mobile extension team (MET) was established and provided a mobile extension service based on PRA methods. Communities were encouraged to discuss and identify major constraints of animal health care delivery in the area and to propose their subsequent solution.

Th3 concept of a community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) system was discussed and facilitated the community to participate in the planning of the scheme (which includes selection, tining of the training and, monitoring of CAHWs).

3. The Training Program

Selection of CAHWs

Af:er a considerable level of awareness has been achieved on the concept of the CAHWs system from the communities side and agreed on joint execution and monitoring of the work ,the communities were asked to select the trainees and two elders or members of the village (Community Animal Health Committee).

Twenty-one CAHWs were selected by their communities based on criteria established by the community such as honest, responsible, young and married, who respect elders, illiterate, who is good in livestock keeping and has a high level of knowledge of livestock diseases, who is not addicted to “chat” and who doesn’t go to the town most frequently.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 127 W?

The T aining Course

A con munity - based animal health workers g manual was prepared based on the local veterir ary indigenous knowledge, such aqfloca vernacular description, treatment and/or proph] lactic measures. The course was diviped int > i i i ® and refresher courses

Follow lg selection a ten days initial, course. provided at Doho from April 22 - May 3, 1996. The tr ining was residential and held in an areaf Along pastoral encampment. The trainees were provid ;d with meals and mats for sleeping, froOmtpsde of local material were used as a shelter and class r< toms and nothing new to pastoralists were or introduced. The initial courses includes the following lessons: Lessor 1. Introduction ; Lessor ■i How do Animals Function Lessoi 3. Signs of Health and Signi of pis« Lessor 4, Introduction of Animal Restraint Lessor 5. Examination of Individual Lessor 6. Causes of Disease Lessor 7- Principles of Livestock Dise&e Ty and Control Lessor 8. Drug Administration Lessor 9. Important Diseases of Lipstick ii Lessor to. Treatment Procedures otfkhlfeasis igns Lessor 11. Prevention Versus Cure , ,‘v Lessor 12. Medicine Kit Lessor 13. Points for Sustainable Commjunity* i Animal Health Care Delivery.

The fo lowing factors were emphasized dunhgi 1

Disease analysis (origins, transmission andf; ymptoms) Disease prevention and control methods Traditional and Modem■ treatments i Drugs preparation, dosage and administrs Use and care of basic equipment I Drug mis-use hazards and safety [

Evalui non

At the end of the course an evaluation, waf c out. Theoretical and practical questions were asked jith the latter being emphasized; to asses qw much they grasped. Out of the twenty one twenty of them successfully answered theique and were provided with a certificate and a simple medicine kit that is indicated on table 1.

-II

Ethiopia Veterinary Association U ,n Proceeding Page 128 Table 1. Veterinary Medicines and Equipment provided to CAHWs following initial training.

Item Description Unit Qty .11. Canvas bag Water proof Pcs 1 2. Equipment 2.1 Vaccination syringes Of 20ml, Automatic “ 1 2.2 Vaccination Needle 1.80 size Dozen 1 2.3 Hypodermic syringes Of 20ml, plastic reusable Pcs 1 2.4 Hypodermic syringes Of 10ml, plastic reusable <( 1 2.5 Hypodermic Needle 18G Dozen 1 2.6 Hypodermic Needle 16G/1.6 x 30mm, stainless Pcs 1 2.7 Knapsack sprayer 151it capacity, pressurized u 1 2.8 Sterilization Pot 2.9 Reconstitution Bottle 3. Drugs 3.1 Oxyietracycline Injectable, 20% L.A. a vial of 100ml Vial 5 3.2 Anthelmintics Albendazole Bolus 600 3.3 Acaricide Supadip Lit 1 3.4 Topical antibiotic Powder for wound treatment Tin 2 3.5 Vaccines For blackleg bottle of 100ml Vial 10 For anthrax 1 vial/50 animal 10 4. Pictorial record sheet

Refresher Course

After six months following the initial training a five day refresher course was given for 19 actively wo'king CAHWs. The first two days were spent reviewing theoretical and practical skills covered in the nitial course and CAHWs shared their experience and problem they faced during their work. The next three days were used to discuss important diseases and health problems that were not co\ ered in the initial course, general animal husbandry, and range land management.

Training Approach

Practical and participative approaches such as brain - storming, group discussion and group presentation, -ole-play, story-telling, practical demonstration (postmortum, injection techniques .... etc ), and question and answers were used. The daily training session was divided into two parts a morning program on theory aiming at building on what the trainees already new from their experience, and an afternoon on practical work, visiting nearby cattle kraals, watering points and diagnosing, treating and vaccinating animals under close supervision of trainers.

Each disease was discussed first by displaying pre-drawn figures of sick or dead animals and large photos of different diseases and symptoms that the CAHWs already knew. Then the trainees were fac itated to discuss what they already knew about the disease and get them to agree on the name of the disease. This was earned out through probing and brain-storming questions:

“What can you see?” “What do you think is wrong with it?” “What do you think is the cause?” “Which species of animals are affected by this disease?” “Have you seen sick or dead animals like this?”

“ H d w do you recognize the disease?” “What will happen if it is not treated?” “Have you opened a carcass of an animal dead because of this disease?” If yes, “Which organ is/are affected?” “And what changes have you noticed on the organ/s?” “H dw does this disease spread?”

Eth opian Veterinary Association l l lh Proceeding Page 129 m -i -■ ir f.' -ffr w w

"Doy >11know any traditional and/or modem tre. ejit and control measure’ “ What o you do with the carcass of an animal this disease?” "Is the e any human hazard because of this ^iseasS

!>' 3> .. . | Finally, to build upon the trainees existing kna vledge constructive comments were given, and specin ens of different diseases and sick anjmals| ere used to illustrate the diseases. This was done systen axically,atically, to enable them to understand, accdface* ling to the following sequence:

1. Cause of disease 2. Clinical pictures and postmortum lesions 3. Mode of transmission \ 4. Prophylactic and/or therapeutic; measures

Follov Hup and Monitoring

The tr liner accompanied by veterinary tom zonal veterinary department visited every CAH\ r| in the field every month for the aiths, following their initial training, and every two m mths after refresher course. The iftsl |t included one to one discussion of every case, checki lg every medicine, and equipment ii d discussing new diseases that the CAHW has encoui tered and reading CAHWs record si lie purpose of monitoring the work of CAHWs a pictc graphic record sheet was designed ibols for the various species of animal, disease and ty ies of medicine used which could be simply ked with a tick or cross (See annexe A).

Drug »pp*y i A self financing system of drug supply w& es eckand managed by the project. The project purchg jed recommended drugs eovered lin poufses and keeps as a reserve stock for replett shment. The CAHW are Ii fees they collected from the sale of the first issue c f drugs, either during the follownyp "Sdsit^b: [feneyer there was a need they request for supply or the) come to the project office and buy. I '

II. PROGRAM RESULTS r Ethnoveterinary Knowledge

The B hnoveterinary survey result revealed thata f$rs have a high level of indigenous veterinary knowlfldge. Their capacity to distinguish si healthy animals, and of describing clinical pictures of sick livestock and/or post-mortem ,ons of their carcasses were extremely well develo )pd. They were also perfectly able|to livestock diseases by their local name and establi h their economic importance as producM; riijlosses and as it is perceived by themselves, Annexfejs B, C and D presents the most impo diseases and’health problems in cattle, sheep and goats, Ujlid camels as identified and ranked q immunity. The understanding of epidemiological aspect ;of some of the diseases among A ars significantly high. The following examples indicate: how the Afars associated certain vith their determinants:

Kirbi (Ljiverfluke) associated with swampy !;and areas following irrigation canals and dams, (Blackleg) as a disease of young cattfe an* jilurrence is common during raining season Firma Anthrax) stated as a disease of Well |atten;ej animals. Rindei Dest (Oundugule) stated mainly as ajdises 0f young cattle and outbreak of the disease was associj tfed with the involvement of wart hogs,

The A Pars had a significant knowledge of etbn^herapies and interesting methods of traditional vaccination. Elders mentioned the use Of ethi! bptanicals as veterinary pharmacotherapies for . -;i \ ■ '.% Ethiopis i‘Veterinary Association II Proceeding Page 130 certain diseases. Faeces and urine from sick animal; and lung from recently - dead animal were mentioned to be used as a method of traditional vaccination before the advent of modem veterinary vaccines. It was reported that the use of traditional vaccination is no longer practised.

According to community dialogue animal health is high on the list of priorities. They stated that it was difficult to get veterinary drugs and veterinarians in areas close to them, they had to go to NSazreth or Asebeteferi (more than 100km) to buy anthelmintics. Afars mentioned that livestock often get vaccination during nation wide disease control programs or sometimes during disease outbreaks if at .all transport is available for veterinary personnel and the area is accessible by vehicle.

Service Delivered by CAHWs

Iii the 12 months period following their initial training the CAHWs has provided incredible curative and vaccination services to their communities. They generally treated 8,935 cattle, 1,686 camels and 7,'704 shoats, and a total 43,364 cattle, sheep and goats had been vaccinated.. In addition the CAHWs castrated 162 goats and 17 cattle in the last six month following their refresher course (See Figure 2 aijid 3). These were much higher than the service delivered by Veterinary Department at Zonal level (sjee table 2).

Ojf the treatment the highest percentages, 50% and 39% were deworming and external parasitic disease control respectively. The beneficieries were charged fuel cost plus 10% piark-up for all treatments; and for castration 2 birr for shoats and 5 birr for cattle per animal.

TJie CAHWs, besides rendering curative and preventive animal health service to their communities have been serving as a disease reporting agent to the project and the government veterinary service. They were facilitating rinderpest disease surveillance activity of Pan African Rinder Pest Campaign (PARC) project. CAHWs helped APDP playing the role of extension agent for extending and transferring knowledge and techniques from the project to the pastoralists, and mobilizing the community for participatory development.

Tjable 2. Animal health service provided by veterinary department and CAHWs in 12 months for comparison.

BY BY SERVICES DELIVERED VETERINARY CAHWS DEPARTMENT 1. Vaccination

1.1 Blackleg 4450 8960 2.2 Anthrax for cattle 3237 4820 3.3 Anthrax for small stock 9050 - 3.4 Bovine pasteurellosis 50 5651 3.5 Ovine pasteurellosis 10840 5377

3.6 Sheep pox - 8675 3.7 PPR - 9881 Total Vaccination 27627 43364 2. Treatment 2.1 Bacterial Diseases 690 2016 2.2 Internal parasites (Deworming) 286 9115 2.3 External parasites - 7089 2.4 Wound, Lesions and Abscesses - 105 Total Treatment m 18325 3. Castration 3.1 Cattle ~ 17 3.2 Small stock - 162 Total Castration - m

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l kh Proceeding Page 131 w -

Impac of the CAHWs program on the field.

Figure 4 shows the linkage at grass-roots l^vel at! the branching out of animal health delivery to village; which was restricted to be at zonal lfvel da to constraints mentioned I 1. - i Table and 4 presents the impact of C ogram on animal health manpower and on the Veterir ary Livestock Unit (VLU)/stafifratio

TheGi iWs scheme generally raised tihie manpow by 38% and reduced the Veterinary Livestock Unit (\ LU) / Animal Health Assistant (AH&) + al Health Technician (AHT) ratio by 38% in Zone 3 of Afar National State, The estimate of th(< ttftal VLU and the ratios have been obtained as follows

A) o estimate the total livestock population in;| le zone we have taken the Afar population in the zone tc 5e 150,346 (1994 Population andjiousi Census result) and we have taken animal per inhabitant ratios in Afar area as cattle 1, camels small stock 2.4 (M. Corra, 19i92). Thus, the total li\festock population in the zone estiinat|d to 556,280.

B) ie total VLU calculated from estimated Instock population figure in A (above). About 231,531 VLUs are estimated to exist in the z$ne;

C) e VLU per animal health staff ratio has been calculated taking animal health operators in the zon to be 4 animal health assistants^ 29ianimijh©alth technicians (Zone 3 - MOA) and the 20 CAHW trained by APDP. I

Table 3 Impact of CAHWs program 01^ animj? health manpower in zone 3 of Afar State. ;

Animal Health Operators J Zone 3 Animal Health Assistant (A^IA)} 4 Animal Health Technicians (AHCT) 29; , ca hw s ” X . - 20 Increase in Man power thankst<|CAI|$ f e y 38%

Table 4 Impact of CAHWs program oifVLt ratio in zone 3 of Afar Regional State.

Effect on Working Capacity* ri Zone 3 Total Veterinary Livestock :f: J: 231,533 Unit (Vl.U) 1 ] •, VLU/AHA + AHT ' 4 7,016 . r VU;/AHA + AHT + CAHWs I V 4,369 VLU/AHA + AHT reducedthgnkstS j^H W sby 38% ffl. I ROGRAM EVALUATION

In an at empt to evaluate the success Of CjAHWj spheme formal and informal data collection techniqu ;S were utilized. Monitoring and follow- kits were carried out regularly by the project veterinaii an throughout the year and discussion vi different groups of pastoral community were carried c nt using PRA techniques. The evapaticifi *t§is carried out on the basis of the following question:

Ethiopian ^ eterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 132 How effective was the CAHWs system in terms of improving the availability, accessibility and efficiency of curative and preventive services to the community? were the CAHWs addressing the most important livestock diseases?

Was the training approach successful in transferring the skills?

Was the cost - recovery system for veterinary medicine used by CAHWs maintained? How did the CAHWs value the system?

Were the community able to pay for the medicines and service being offered by the CAHWs? How did the community value the veterinary service delivered by CAHWs?

In addition to the feed - back discussion with communities, CAHWs and village animal health committee further discussion also carried out with Zonal government veterinary department, and private veterinary business men on:

How could the CAHWs system be sustainable considering the long, - term drug supply and monitoring?

The following are the results of the evaluation:

1. Data Collection

For successful CAHWs scheme collection of a wide range of information was a crucial aspect of the program. However, the limited time given for data collection, lack of trained and experienced manpower in rapid appraisal technique, and inaccessibility of certain areas were some of the factors influencing the extent and depth of data collection.

Although, the data collection activities have been reasonably successful in providing information, such as animal health was a real and priority need; the presence of decision making structure; remarkable indigenous veterinary knowledge which was necessary for designing and monitoring the program further information on livelihood and other areas of livestock production may be required.

2. Mobile Extension Service

The mobile extension service has been successful in establishing trust and convincing the Afars that the program was theirs; creating awareness; enhanced community participation to identify the constraints of animal health care delivery and to plan, implement and monitor the CAHWs scheme. In general community-based extension service may be required to help the Afars to identify their core problems and to plan and implement solutions to these problems.

3. The Training Approach

The technical competence of the CAHWs was re-evaluated during the follow-up visits and refresher courses. The training has been successful in transferring skills, although ,a certain level of difference in technical ability was observed from individual to individual. This difference was attributed to their previous level of knowledge and experience with livestock and capacity for independent learning. However, long-term monitoring and follow-up visits must be carried out to improve their technical ability.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 133 *

The activity of CAHWs ».

o increase tjhe quality of the CAHWs work andfto ey|fii$te their progress a monitoring system was introduced Mowing their training. A pictogra$hic d ||tte c 6rd sheet was designed to help illiterate CAHWs re 6rd the treatment they give (see annex A). ^ fob data gives a simple picture of the number and type o umal treated, the disease treated^ and ^ liSh drugs are, or are not being used. The •record can pll whether the training and/or the imedi^j have been given are appropriate for the 1:vestock d: ieases of the area for planning futureitrainij| courses.

Regular m< nitoring and follow-up visits showed treatment service provided by CAHWs sjeems to b< correct. Feedback discussion:With ihos provided the service (CAHWs) and with tnose who eceived the service (the community) wa out to evaluate the GAHWs system, Afar comm laities now had access to CAHWs a$d tb ;s weren’t included in this program were asked what if anything, they knew of the CASff^s ser$ % if they had used it and their evaluation of it. The co: amunities who had access to GAH^s we| with their activities, and all drugs provided hs d been appreciated. They were payjhg arii to pay to have their animals treated. Afar commiinities who weren’t included in this programme stated that they had the *■ 0r’ (information) about the training and the siervice pr( vided by Afar livestock herders in §1 er villages/clans. They expressed their disappoint! ent against the project for not giving thenf H|t chance and requested for more GAHWs training as he existing CAHWs were not able to covf a large area and meet the large?demand for basic animj I health service in the area.

Tfhe numen us demands for training new CAHWs, the lyment for 18325 treatments, and high social Value give: i to the CAHWs, recognition and co^peratfe 1 given to the work were indicative that the community valued the work of GAHWs. If their# wOrM: yas not effective the community would have not spent n oney on their treatments and they could /€: not givenHhem social rewards and could fyave asked he project to give them direct servic$.

GAHWs sfo ted that they were satisfied with jthejpb earn from the sale of drugs, Table 5 shi ws the total amount of medicines so! figures show that .the demand for treatmei was high. - v'

The only pi >blems observed were:

GAHWs st* ted that some individuals were refusing to pay for treatment unless the treated animal was cured, he problem wa£ Afars were ottfy ‘eatments in the late stage of illness, after much prodijcj ; ivity had been lost: and: recovery after fri mt was difficult. GAHWs were instructed not to treat ESjuch animals and to advice livestock jisi to have their animals treated at the early stage of th !; disease. Furthermore, village anflnail ilth committee and the communities were briefed abo t1 the poor result of treatment attheflate ;|j of the disease. Animal health extension service ma^ be required to enhance community*awatf fe^S on the role of livestock management in disease cont

S;ome of th' i CAHWs were discouraged at the b'egii Of the work because the incentive and the rite of wor : were not found as it had been expfected^ Ihe CAHW. The reason was most of the cpmmunitic 5 j were unaware of their activities and?event; jo$e who know started using their service bit by bit obsei Ang and evaluating the result of already tri? e j animals. i Although, 1 tie community was willing to pay for t] treatment lack of cash economy has been preventing some of the Afars from using the| servii Sometimes CAHWs have been giving medicines < n credit basis or receiving goats as % pa*" snt. However, there was a problem during i i&i Ethiopian Vet< rinary Association l l ” Proceeding Page 134

1 ct

J drug supply where the credit hadn’t been paid or the CAHW hadn’t converted the animal he received as a payment into cash. To solve this problem CAHWs were organized into an association and encouraged to start small stock marketing activity. Encouraging other income generating activities may be required to develop the pastoral cash economy and money circulation.

5. Sustainability

The sustainability of the CAHWs scheme depends on many aspects of the program, mainly: the animal health care should be identified as the real and priority needs by the community. Their needs to be a democratic decision making process and leadership structure within the community. full community participation in planning, execution and monitoring technical knowledge and appropriate training approach. good follow-up and monitoring visits drug supply social, economic, cultural and political factors rewards for CAHWs

These have been proved in this program and so for the system seefns to be sustainable. A major concern of sustainability is the reliability and accountability of the CAHWs. Points for sustainable community - based animal health care delivery were discussed as one lesson during the training. As a result of role-play and brain-storming questions CAHWs listed a lot of good points and confirmed their accountability and reliability. The 18,325 treatments and 43,364 vaccinations during the first year indicated the CAHWs were serious in their commitment to take responsibility for the sustainability of the program. However, the most important aspect of the CAHWs scheme is its long-term sustainability. Factors such as monitoring and follow-up visits, adaptability to changing circumstances such as appearance of new diseases and changes in drug availability are important to achieve long - term sustainability.

To ensure long - term monitoring, follow-up, training on new diseases, new drugs and techniques the involvement of government veterinary staff is required. To enable them to carry out this responsibility veterinarians and animal health assistants have been given training of trainers (TOT) courses emphasizing on participatory training techniques, monitoring and follow-up skills. They have been practicing the skill with the project participatory training specialist in the field.

Drug supply is the other concern in relation to long-term sustainability of CAHWs scheme. As a result of CAHWs and community dialogue the present system of drug supply i.e. project managed self-financing (revolving fund), will be changed into CAHWs association supervised by government veterinary service. Rural veterinary drug shops owned and managed by CAHWs will be established to ensure a regular supply of medicines for both the community and village CAHWs (see Figure 5). The shopkeeper can be one of the CAHWs or anybody represented by CAHWs association who will be given training in the correct storage and use of medicine. The following assistance may be required:

Establish link with reliable veterinary drugs and equipment importers and/or retailers. Provide book-keeping and leadership training Provide adult education Introduce and encourage the use of banking facility

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ll"1 Proceeding Page 135 '-T"

Questions I rider Debate

Although, t ie result of the evaluation indicated' that tn >th the CAHWs and the community were interested ai ca convinced that the CAHWs schemje is jropriate, practical, prompt and efficient imal health care delivery system, there are certain co| is worth mentioning in relation with this approach:

Some veter oiary professionals oppose the CAI®Ws sc] :me claiming that lessening their control oVer drug < ispensing will result in drug misuse. lems such as ant helmintic and -antibiotic resistance m ght be more associated with intensive live |k production system than When used by paravets or pastoralists under extensive livestock ilfetiori system (Andy Catly, unpublished report). Ho vever, dispensing of drugs by CAHfVs o|j nicaji be inappropriate because of lack of uhderstandii g of the epidemiology of most o f th^disi si Because Of the fact that the government veterinary d bailment is unable to provide the servict i4 control illegal veterinary drug marking many of th( scheduled drugs are, however, availably pastoralists illegally and are frequently mjisuSed. pAHWs are likely to be the <*nIy|a\Mi source of animal health advice and assistance a ad their role is essential to dis^oiif I drug marketing and thte subsequent drug mis-us t\ hazards.

The second concern is that the CAHWs schem£ will dfermiue the veterinary profession. The main purpos ;;of CAHWs is to provide help and a^viee livestock keepers in dealing with common arjimal healt i problems. They should not be expe|ted j^ve the kind of expertise Sr skillof highly trained vetei inarians. Some of the constraints oT a C$ s scheme are adaptability to changing cij-cumstanc< sj such as appearance of new diseases javailability of new drugs, and lack of uriderstandir $ of the epidemiology of certain diseases; eterinarians, therefore, could be involved inisupervisic i of CAHWs, monitoring drug usage^trai ; |n d establishment of disease surveillance and reportin ; system to improve these situation^ rttfnt benefit of the CAHWs scheme is that if good Working relationship is developed. b|tw© jenfcand the veterinary department, then interchange >jf information results in better yeti j^tment and helps greatly in preventing spread ofser ous infections diseases;

Some privai & veterinary practitioners worriedlthat Ws system will pose competition for veterinary i larket and thereby discourage v< rivatization. Our pilot program has proved the r< verse of this assumption. In pastorajare ij^vate veterinary practice as it Operates in highland are is, is not possible because of low ^vest; |density scattered over large area, poor co^nmunicati >n facility, low value of individual cages, (li .of infrastructure and often lack of a cash economy, wl ere payment might be in the form oflinimE service the k ifid setup by EU-funded Pan Africa est Campaign (PARC) is therefore, not feasible in tl q pastoral areas without the inVolv^nent ime livestock herders themselves in the dejivery of 1 rc service. The 20 Afar CAHWs shave .Jred a very crucial role in creating and mobilizing n irket demand for veterinary services at root level. Table 5 shows the total amount of n ddicines sold by CAHWs in \2 months 1j mod. The involvement of CAHWs in animal heali b care delivery in pastoral areas ii as ntial allies to the veterinary profession and are the b ridge to private veterinary practice to $ to the grass root rather than being competitors. Table 5 Drugs distributed and their monitory value in 12 months.

Initial supply Monetary Restocked Monetary value In value in Birr Birr 1. Oxytetracycline 1. Oxytetracycline 100 vial 3489.00 446 vial 14913.50

2. Anthelimintics 2 Anthelimintics 600 bolus 12600.00 8100 boluses 21760.00

3. Accaricide 3. Wound powder 20 liters 7557.80 20 Tin 1159.00 Total 23646.80 37832.50

IV. Conclusion & Recommendation

Therefore, in order to: improve accessibility to reliable and regular veterinary service in the remote pastoral communities; achieve success of veterinary privatization under pastoral production system; improve access to grass - root information on Animal health constraints for proper disease control planning; mobilize the community for planned disease control program; the CAHWs scheme should be expanded and replicated across all pastoral areas and should be included in the national animal health policy.

For achievement of successful CAHWs scheme proper planning and effective implementation of the following is necessary:

Data collection:- Information such as on socio-political, livelihood and livestock should be collected, analyzed and learned

Planning:- discussion with the community should include the selection criteria of the trainees (selection should be left to the community), timing of the training, animal health problems need to be solved, payment for medicines and CAHWs monitoring.

The training course:- must be appropriate in subject matter as well as the way it is presented. The course should include problems needed to be solved and new skills should be transferred through existing social and cultural mechanisms and taped into the indigenous knowledge base.

Follow-up and Monitoring:- must be conducted regularly in the field aiming at increasing the quality of the work and to assess the progress of the CAHW.

Drug supply:- CAHW’s kit have to contain drugs that can treat local diseases and the supply must be regular and consistent.

Rewards:- CAHWs should be allowed to earn small incentives from the sale of the drugs. Recognition and cooperation should be provided from the community.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11*“ Proceeding Page 137 "1

ACKNGWi ,EDGEMENT

I would like :o acknowledge Mr. Jhorte Fox, Projifct Te< i|pal Assistance, for the spelling correction ard I am gr ileful to w/t Betelihem Tadesse andtSinta| Tadesse for their assistance during the ling.

RlEFERENtjES V...... A cabwai, D (1992) The Ethnoveterinary knojvlejdj lA*portal of entry to Livestock Disease Control in P istoral Areas. A paper presented d ip n p fder harmonization meeting for PARC in Entebee. i Andy, C, (1 Jnpublished Report) Pastoralistsy P^ravet md Privatization: Experiences if the vet Aid/Action i dd Animal Health Programme in:Sai^ng oib, Somali land. j Appropriate ijechnology, (March 1993) Vol. 19 Jsfo. 4 ”.v i' . .. -i' M Baumann, IV P.O. (1993) Animal Health ServJcje fiti Spnj can centralized structures meet demand the field? ] in pastoral production invCentrdSomalf^ “ publication * * (PP299 w - 321).

Central Stat: stical Authority (1996) The 1994 pq|>ula|i| aind Housing Census of Ethiopia, Results foir Afar Reg ion, Volume 1 statistical Report. f J ! 1 Diwit, A. (1 >95) Ethnoveterinary Survey in Amibara, n|ale and Dulccha woredas of Afar Region. iar, Ai it Pastoral Development Pilot Projec

Diiwit, A, (1996) Community - based Animal ^ a ltb l %kers (pAHWs) Training workshop for Afars. EU/A 'ar, Afar Pastoral Development Pilot poje^j

Dawit, A. IT996) Community - based Animal Healt^tetrkers (CAHWs) Training workshop for Kkeyou/Ittujpastoralists. CARE - Awash, Awas| Con|lrvation and Development Project.

Mariner, J.Ct and Van’t Klooster, G.G.M. (1994); Cbiimujiity Based Approach to privatization. A paper presented at the Pan African Riderpest fcamjMgpi (PARC) Conference on Privatization. Kampala No /ember 21, 1994. t '

Mjariner, J.C. Van’t Klooster, G.G.M. and Be^hanu,|, i. (1996) Rinderpest Control in Ethiopia: Participator) Approach to Vaccination in Remot Ijastpr^jl Immunities (Unpublished report).

Secadev, (1 ?95) Working with agro-pastoralists|in Ct& l4Ar^ Land Information Network (ALIN) publication 1 Ip. 7 November 1995. i flr" High Mortality of Livestock Associated with Algae Toxicity in Arsi and Bale Zone

Asegedech Sirak

Summary

A complaint of an increased number of livestock losses due to drinking of water contaminated with green Algae around Hamude, Gedeb and Dodola has been reported to Assela regional laboratory. To ascertain the problem and determine the cause of death, an experiment was conducted on 6 goats and 6 sheep by drenching the water with which contained. Algae at a different time of the year.

On the other hand water sample is submitted for the physical chemical, bacteriological and toxicological behavior determination.

Clinically, all animals displayed muscle tremor, depression, bloating, difficulty of breathing, recumbency and death with in 5-9 hrs.

Necropsy was performed and both gross and microscopical findings were strongly suggestive of an acute hepatotoxic condition.

Bacteriologically the water is found to be non-potable even though contains desirable (allowable) concentration of chemicals. Algae identification revealed the presence of Microcystis auragenousa, which is a highly toxic Algae for livestock.

Introduction

Algae are primitive plants and include the seaweeds and fine hair-like green forms. Although many are microscopic and single cells, a few are big enough to be seen by the naked eye.

Some of the microscopic species are the most dangerous and can multiply rapidly to produce prominent, green, red, yellow and other discoloration’s of the water.

The most spectacular blooms in fresh water dams are produced by a group of algae known as the blue green algae. Since several of these species are known to be poisonous, they are of greatest concern to human and livestock.

Many green or blue green algae (water bloom) contain toxic substances, occurring chiefly on lakes when the algae are concentrated by on shore winds. Small animals drinking water near the edge of the lake get more toxin, because it is concentrated in the superficial layers at the edge(Blood and Henderson 1983).

Smith and Jones (1974) indicated that poising has usually occurred when winds have blown much of their material to the shore at which cattle drink specially during mid-summer.

Although, Ethiopian veterinarians regard algae toxicity as a very rare syndrome, it has been causing a considerable number of live- stock loss to the farmers living around lakes and rivers all over the country.

Areas around kook dam in Arsi and Awa and wade rivers in Bale zone are reported to be the most affected sites. A field report indicates as much as 244 animals have died out of the 312 affected, only from the areas around Awa River in November 1996.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 139 -1

pie objecti yje of this investigation is therefore, tcrdeteip b# the cause of livestock loss and identify the type of algi d. * -h -

Materials: nd Methods

Water samp es were collected from kook... dam- and.-r,' J ;...t • and wade riversand submitted for algae raentifieati< as well as physical* chemical, HcteijiolQgif 1 and toxicological analysis; j\n experin tnt was conducted on a total of 12 qjnimal| which consists of equal number of sheep and goats. 1

he anima s were purchased from a local market .^ire and Assela. They were all thoroughly examined, pwormed and vaccinated against An®a% jfi &goat pox and pasteurellosis.

'hen after, he animals were divided in to three ejroe! groups as follows:

The f?rst group, which included two sheetiLand ifgoats, were drenched with the contaminated (jalgae conti ined) water (1 -1.5H).

-I The second group which also consisted okf tWo||e$p and two goats were again drenched with ed with sand (1,-1.5H).t ie same ty »e of water but previously filtered witl|siev< ed with sand (1,-1.5H).t

The third group, which consisted of two sjieep 1 two goats, were given tap water and used as control.

;y v as performed and all macroscopic oteerval ft|vas recorded. -Then after, a range of tissue specimen w jre collected using 10% buffered formalin Eventually histopathology examinatioi were done. ]■

Results

Results sho ved that the water contains desirabld (alloi le) concentration of chemicals eventhough bacteriologi sally is non-potable and recommended chlof pon and physically it is green in colour and in appearance.

Tjhe algae ic entification revealed the presenee of Micrpti fis aerugenosa, an algae which is known to be toxic both fi r livestock and fish. I |

' t j , ’ All the drei ched animals presented clinical symntoi1 J '■'* eluding muscle tremor, depression, bloating, breathing di rtculty, recumbency and death.occurrjd tyit it-9brs. ' i 1 he post mi ital findings were ascites, enlarged, dark-i and very fragile liver, fragile and congested kidney, endi cardial haemorrhage and catarrhal-ha^morri enteritis.

Microscopic al examination revealed extensive h^emoi ©j congestion and massive necrosis of the liVer with ] leutrophil and mononuclear infijtral^on |h out the parenchyma and portal area. Fragments if necrotic hepatocytes were evident as . Ely eosinophilic rounded or sickle-shaped fragments o: solid, compacted eosinophilic roundld gjcill .efc (so called cytosegrosomus or council man bodies); cyt< segrosomus were also evident with injvaci the Cytoplasm of hepatocytes. Nephrosis and haemon bjage through out the heart muscleibutlinoi w e in the endocardial area was observed.

■v JJ Ethiopian Veit inary Association 11 Proceeding ; Page 140 u I Discussion

The blue-green algae commonly reported to be toxic to livestock, water fowl and fish are Microcystis species.

Blue green algae growing as a waterbloom on lakes and ponds may be highly toxic. Outbreaks of poisoning are not common, but they occur in many countries and may be responsible for heavy mortality among animals or birds that take the algae when drinking. Most well documented cases have involved Microcystis aeroginosa (Jubb.et.al. 1985).

Livestock are poisoned when the algae are swallowed during drinking. Fish are often safe until a pond or dam dries or is drained down, bringing them into contact with floating algae (Langdon, 1990).

Our findings is in line with Amha et.al (1978) who observed the incidence of high mortality on the 2;ebra population associated with the drinking of algae (principally Microcystis) contained water around lake chamo.

Similarly, Galey etal (1987) has reported the death of nine cows out of the twenty which ingested water containing blue greeji algae dominated by M.aeruginosa species in a stagnant pond during hot dry weather.

According to Blood and Henderson(1983), smaller animals which drink near the edge of the lake get more toxin, due to the high concentration of the algae in the superficial layers at the edge. This information coincides with the report we got from farmers around kook dam,where they have observed a higher proportion of mortality on the smaller animals.

The pathogenesis varies according to the toxin produced by predominant species and strain of algae involved, Mycrocystis aeroginosa produces cytolytic peptide hepatotoxins that cause breakdown of the sinosoidal endothelium damage to hepatocytes membranes, and necrotic changes in hepatocyte cytoplasm. Death o^cur in <24hrs after ingestion of the poisonous material Merck (1991).

An investigation of Microcystin in rats experimentally injected by Hooser, (1990) showed that initial lesions are confined to shape changes in the plasma membrane of hepatocytes. These changes are consistent with the hypothesis that microcystin induces alterations in the hepatocytes cytoskeleton. Later changes consist of hepatocyte disassociation and necrosis, as well as endothelial damage, which allow release of hepatocytes and debris in to the circulation with microemboli in lungs and kidney. This is the pathogenesis of the toxin, which produces death of the animal.

As indicated by Kerr (1987) many practising veterinarians regard blue-green algae toxicosis as a rare syndrome th at results in rapid death for consuming animals, however this toxicosis may be common and rot lethal. Because no diagnostic test is available for blue-green algae toxicosis, this condition is rarely diagnosed unless it cause high mortality and that could be the reason why it is reported remotely in our country'.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Based on oar findings mortality is associated to the algae toxicity,being M.aeruginosa the principal contributor.In regard to the effect of the toxin,the major damage is located in the liver and death is mainly due :o liver failure and its consequences.

To enlighten the problem and increase the awareness of the field veterinarians, further study should be carried out in different parts of the country. And farmers should fence off the dam or the rivers and allow stock access to alternative water.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association ll'n Proceeding Page 141 Acknowledgement

I am p eased to acknowledge Dr, HailuWondimu, of Assela Regional Veterinary Laboratory and hissta f for their day to day support and ejnccy throughout the study, Special thanks goes to Dr. Bisrat Mengiste, who assisted me in comjjili

REFE llENCE

Amha 3. and Wood R.B. (1982), Limnplo^cal e$ so f an algae bloom on lake chamo in Gamo GofFai dministrative region of Ethiopia^ 1918, Ababa, Ethiopia.

Blood D.D Rodostitis M.D and Henderaqn A text book of the disease of cattle, sheep, pig a^id ho ses. Sixth edition. Grefct^Britain^.® 1

;D, Beasley V.R, Canmphael,W.W, er S.B, Haschek w.m (1987), Blue green a gae Alycrocystis aeruginosa) hepatotbxico: merican journal o f veterinary research 48

oosei S.B, Beasley U.R,Basgall EJ»C^rd:li|i) , Haschek, W.M, (1990), Microcystin -LR- induceif ultrastructural changes in rats.27 (l)1}* artnient of Veterinary pathobiology. U.S.A

Jubb K V.F, Kennedy C. and Palmer N. (1^85), of domestic animal&third edition, vol,2 USAP >1291

Kerr L A,Mccoy C.P,Eaves D.(1987)Blue toxicosis in five dairy cowsJoumal of the Americ ui veterinary medical association. 191($

Langdcji! J.S,(1990), Toxic algal blooms. |tralian departement of agriculture, Albany. 10 (90)

Merck (1991), A hand book of disease prevention and control for the veterinj rian. The Merck veterinary manual. s#enthllitlon. USA PP.1638

If,Jones,T. and Hunt,R.(1974),Veteri Fourth edition.USAPP.886

i j Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 142 Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Distribution, Identification and Assessment of the Socio-economic viabilities of the new vector central approaches in Arba Minch Zuria woreda

Gizaw Woldeyes7 & Gezahen Aboset8 :

Trypianosomiasis is one of the most severe livestock diseases in South and South-West part of Ethiopia specially North Omo Zone which constraints the improvement of livestock production and its p roductivity. It has eliminated fabulous number of cattle production left the peasant farmers without draught ozen, dairy cows, load and transport animals such as horses, mules and donkeys affected thousands of goats and sheep.

Trypanosomiasis and its vector tse-tse are the number one enemies of farmers in particular all beneficiaries in general which gave rise to following fertile and arable lands; abandon large areas of grazing lands felling down and firing away dense forests and jungles exposing the land to soil erosion and shortage of milk and milk products for infant babies, leading to malnutrition and abnormal growth.

The hither-to methods used to treat the disease and control the vector are either to costly and inconvenient (damaging the ecology, demanding numerous amount of labour, financial and material resources, difficult to adapt and maintain, too sophisticated and risky for rural population) or engendered rapid development of drug resistant strains of trypanosomes against the trypanosidal drugs available on the international market did not stop the expansion of tse-tse invasion to the new areas. This further worsens and aggravates the worries of African livestock industry in particular and predominant agricultural economy in general.

These and other challenging problems entangled the farming community, the veterinary practitioners, policy makers and livestock researchers and research institutes obliged to search for an alternative method including the combination of community based, sustainable and cost effective vector contro methods which must be safe to the environment, to the people, producers and consumers. Some of such alternatives which gave promising results and field trials in various tse-tse infested part of Africa including our own country (Tanzaina, Uganda, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia ... etc.) are the use of spot-on and pour-on formulation which contain Deltamethrin 1% (M/V) and Cypermethrin high-Cis. Respectively and secondly the implementation of tse-tse trapping technology applied in the Lamb Valley (Kenya) and Bides Woreda (North Omo, Ethiopia result unreported).

Based on these principles of tackling the hazards of Trypanosomiasis, the SNNPRC government of SPN-RN has allocated a budget allowance through the regional MOA bureau to extend the already ongoing field trial and implementation of the new technology and approach to two other woredas of North Omo Zone to be launched on in 1996-1997 fiscal year. The A/Minch Zuria Woreda is one of the sites to be embrace din the aforementioned tse-tse arid Trypanosomiasis control programme.

Background

Arsa Minch Zuria Woreda has some specific and common characteristic features similar to most of tse-tse infested zones. Its economically most important and important and potential part lies at the low-land area ranging from 1000 to 1100m above sea level, the annual average temperature is around 30 to 35°C. The main vegetation of this low lying area is savanna, bush lands, marshy areas, acacia trees, dense forests and jungle. This portion of the woreda is surrounded by up-hill mountains, large lakes (Abbey and Chamo) and river basins (Kluge, hare, Isle and Lego). It bounds with the Notch SA National park, wild life and forestry reserve, where wild and domestic animals graze together.

7 North Omo Zor.e, MOAB, P.O. Box 9, Tel. (06) 810143 (06) 810156 Arba Minch Ethiopia

8 North OmoZor e, Arba Minch Woreda MOA Office, P.O. Box 111, Tel, 06 810031 Arba Minch Ethiopia.

Ethiopian Veter nary Association 11“' Proceeding Page 143 The r tost prevalent game animals are: Ant|lopesj sh as Gazelle, Corky, Bshback, Deer) and others like 2 ebra, Warthog, large and small Apef and' * wild animals which serve as a host for Tse-tse andt ypanosome reservoir. *

The! ighinfestation oftse-tse and trypanosjorniasj in the low land area of A/Minch woreda had been regist }i*ed since long time, causing high mprbidif aihd mortality rates in domestic animals including low ; ioduction and productivity- This jva ested by catastrophic damage of large cattle popu lion, which occurred in Lante* K ol| S The two Chanoes, A/Minch town, Sile, the two Shell< s, Elgo and Woseka Pas in years from i-94. These years were marked by inadequate suppl' of trypanosidal drugs which forcedi the hj . owners to depend on smuggled drugs that were forge' and unidentified manufacturer, chemical ositions and expiry dates. Subsequently, wood ash, > ajrious species such a s’Erd* and! sulj»h# ounds were sold in deminazine sachets, coffee powd potassium permanganate crysta^ at brown coloured chemicals were sold as trypai lidiumm. Common wall paints Were sold amorin in polythene wrapping aspirin and other tablet i of unknown origin and composition in brown dyes were sold as Novidiun and Ethid m. Animals that were treated with the ; Ove chemicals of unknown origin and chemical comp >sition were unrelated and inducedihugejl Onomic losses and social miseries to the herd owne: s and professional humiliation to thefvete service. The scars of those years are still felt in Wc zeka and Elgo Pas, which they could jnot rel .bllitate from.

Basec on these background, we conducted a hi (foes survey from March 15 - 29, 1996 in North Omo me, A/Minch woreda in six loc^litjiel. Th? r&y was conducted in collaboration with Soddo Regional Animal Health Laboratory, ,iNb: zone and A/Minch Zuria woreda MOA Office respe< lively.

Then ain objectives of our bas^lixl& sury^lweare^

To in'1estigate the distribution of the vectorland anosome and identify their species; To stidy the ecology, behavior, population struc d ‘dynamics of tse-tse; To de ermine the nature and rates of tripan|s0nw fections; To a* sess the economic viability, s^B accji ioility and impact of tse-tse control on cattle tivity and the environment; * 1 To pibvide a frame-work for the wide ift>re: insemination of NGU trapping technology and applic ition of chemical pesticides spot-On sSi' -on. ■! ■ } ' ' j| -i:- : To achieve the above goals, we pre-intormed BA committees and familiar individuals in each about our objectives and aware Jheiii to p active part in the surveillance programme by guidiip to the sites where the t$e-fee in ^ M o n f and possible to obtain a reliable and auxiliary mater: ils as the property of the community?.

Matei als and Methods

Prima ily six villages, i.e. four Pas (shelle Mf ifKola Shelle, Elgo and Kpla Shara) and two pastor list villages (Netch Sar and Gh^no pam| ; were selected to participate in baseline survey for ob awning basic data for the forthcoming tse^t id trypanosomiasis control programme (TTCP) in Arfcla Minch Zuria woreda (North Omojf Butl |oon as the survey was lauhQhS, it was turned out thj t the grazing sites and watering points inert |g tjie vegetation of ICola Shele are the same or < alto that of Shelle Mella. Thereforefhe pf le in the former was cancelled and the main road s ies from Merkeb Tabia to ATMinchtjawn dements were included instead.

By bi< onical and NGU traps were used iniclose cinities (100 - 200m apart) in strict or sporadic sequet ce as sampling methods fortse-t^e, ag^s that catch flies alive were used with mesh and p i lythene bags simultaneously to co efficiency of both (eventhough not the main

Etfalopli a Veterinary Association 1 lu Proceeding Page 144 objective here), eventually we placed NGU traps top cage with mesh or polytene bags without top cages. Local bamboo (for biconical traps) and wooden sticks (for NGU traps) were used as support frames. Acetone and cow urine were used as olfactory attractants. Favourable site selections were ! mansfged by pre informed self initiated, active and public elected two men from two villages (Shelie ^ Mell£ and Elgo) in coordination with AAHT of the mentioned Pas. Site selectors (men guides) in Kola! Shara, Chamo Gambule and Netch Sar volunteered and were picked up on the arrival of the survey team. This was because, either Pas administrative committee members were too busy on their farming activities (it was sowing season-Kola Shara) or did not receive the letter addressed by Woreda MOA office (Netch Sar and Chamo Gambule).

Before and after placing the traps in each village, we interviewed the above mentioned cattle owners weather trypanosomiasis is the main treat for cattle raising in their respective village, if they know that trypanosomiasis is transmitted by tse-tse and what is the name of the vector and the disease in their local language. We asked them in which season of the year the vector maximally breeds and reproduces if any control and treatment measures are known in their area, weather there will be volunteer and ready enough for community based tse-tse and trypanosomiasis control operation, if the government introduces and new technology and approach, and ...etc.. Responses for these and others will be discussed lately.

The itraps were deployed in the morning hours as soon as the group arrived at the appointed sites. The jsamples were collected and the traps were gathered after 48 hours (Shelle Mela and the main roadsides) and after 24 hrs. (Chamo Gambule, Elgo and Netch Sar). The flies caught were immjediately transported to A/Minch veterinary clinic for spp. And sex identification. Distinguishing tse-tse flies from other flies was based on their external appearances and microscopic structures such as hatchet cells on their wings, unique for tse-tse flies. Spp. Identification was carried out on the baseis of their morphological structure/specific colouring of their abdominal segments and front legs tarsal segment colourings were used as the main parameters of identification specific for a given sp.. Body size, their ecology and other morphological structures were taken into consideration. ; 1 Sexing was based on the genital structure of both sexes. In both Spp. And sex identification, we used a hand magnifier, ovarian aging and wing fray categorizing were not conducted. The number of flies caught was found by counting their Spp., sex and other variables are summarized in tables 1,3 an d4.

134 animals from four villages were randomly selected to obtain a basic data for analysis the evaluation PCV and to identify the infection rate. For all sampled animals (n=134) we registered the name of the owner, sex, age, coulur, body condition (of animal), date of treatment and drug used to investigate the influence of these variables to tse-tse challenges and trypanosomiasis infection. In the process of centrifugation, one capillary tube was broken (no. 41) and the data analysis was based i on 1,33 samples.

To determine the PCV double blood samples were obtained by puncturing the ear vein with sterile landet drawing the blood directly into capillary tubes, which have been treated with heparin. I One end of the capillary tubes was sealed with a crista-seal. Then the tubes were placed in ! midrohematocrit centrifuge with sealed end to outer most. The tubes were loaded symmetrically to insiire a good balance. The centrifuge lead was closed and centrifuged at 12000 RPM for three miriutes. The tubes were placed in the rubber and the reading was expressed as the percentage of pacjced RBC to total volume of whole blood. The result of PCV in four herds is shown in table 5.

To detect trypanosomiasis, after determining the PCV by the microhematocrit method we use dark ground phase contrast Buffy Coat technique (DG) with a diamond tipped pencil we cut the tube 1mm belj>w the Buffy Coat to include to the top layer of the RBC and 1cm above to include the plasma.

Ethiopian Veterinary Association l l 1” Proceeding Page 145 m

;ontents of capillary tube were pis side, mixed and covered with cover slip, then it ixamined by DG microscope, 'file ’%panosome. were identified on the bases of their plogical characteristics according , iyentional lab. Manual for the identification of josome species, The result of n$< ^examination for four herds are shown in table 5. jisitive cases thin blood films had b( K>m the fresh haematocrit capillary tubes to be by Giemsa for further identificati| Incase of Netch Sar, thick blood films were jjred for all sampledranirnals and senti| igiojial Animal Health Laboratory. ii Restilts and Discussion

©suits of the survey based on the me >je$ives had shown the distribution and density Q-tse -flies in varying degrees in^yj jegjending on the altitude, vegetation type, land use, Abundance of host wild game and lo< tof selected site to favourable temp., humidity, shadi areas and types of traps used. IS Tota y 978 tse-tse flies (977 G. Pallidipes| 1 G.| >es) and 143 other biting flies (128 Tabanus, 15 Stoir axis) were caught. The traps deployed v, .11 NGU with mesh, 8 NGU ^yith polytene, 22 bicoi i£al with mesh and 4 biCQflic^I \^th||Qip^ ii six villages of 45 selected* sites. The detail of the a ove data is shown in tables 1,2 iiy. :

Table 1 S ihmarfees the name of the village; the number of fljMcfoight; the spp. and sex (tse tse). ■i libs caught

No jName of village Spp a r m Tab&nus Stomoxis Total Remark R m She le Mella G. paUidipes 12 30-33 48hr catch Roa I jsides (Merkeb Tabia) 72 367 ;:E? *12 20 24hr catch Cha no Gambule il56 14 363 G.fiiscip£s 1 1 f 1 Kol liShara ~ r 5' lll Ned i.§ar G.pallidipes 27 347 Total W 619 128 15 1121 ;v ■ The s immarized table 10 describes a crudi| pict f a^ apparent density of the vector in Spp. and sex ii ithe given locality (village). H ^ejthe s|: predominant species is G.pallidipes which is 99.9°/ (n=977) and this fits with the ^egjstation type (Savanna). G. Juscipes is in insigr ificant size or density which is Q.1% (n: re, we are not sure fro the non existence of other Ipecies which may scape the ;#of th etraps we used. This can .be prove donly after t ying various designs of traps thaj ar^spp. l fipi But #hat we can assure is the fact that the existe ice of G.fuscipes fits with the site it was*& (bank of Kulfo River).

As is ;an be seen from the table, the female pt>| |on preponderates over the male. Figuratively, the fe ijiales constitute 63.3% (n=619j om he^ ‘population while the males make up 36.7% (n—-35 TFrom the high preponderance ©fjthe le population over the male, we can predict the impem iing high tse-tse challenges and rask|ituati. n with related trypanosome hifection rates in the comii% wet season which is already on. f

The ni imber of flies investigated in our survey (1 e: l) nriay not indicate the exact abundance of the vectoi population in the respective vip&ge^ariii 5$, because the survey was conducted in adverse climalk conditions (hot and dry season) fdr tse*t ireeding and reproduction. Rather, it confirms the i ignificance of various factors |climate> ' Station type, game reserve, annual average e :ature, humidity, mortality and flrtimy ■% directly or indirectly determines the fly abund .nee via its effect on one (or mdre) pf f Jd^mographically imjibrtant rates of birth, death,

Ethiopii n. Veterinary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 146 immigration and emigration (D.J. Rojers 1991). Climate affects these parameters and thus shifts a demographic balance one way or the other (the same author and year). The same thing is true about the distribution limits indicate din our study (table 2), eventhough we have not arrived at distribution limit zone demarcation. Water relationships, directly or indirectly, are thought to limit in such distributions in dry environments (D.J. Rojers 1991).

The highest number of flies (only Tse-tse) was captured at Chamo Gambule. The next high sample figures were registered from Nech Sar National park and roadsides respectively (tables 1,2,3 and 4). The list samples (only tse-tse) were captured at Shelle Mella (n = 1), Kolia Shara (n = 5) and Elgo (n = 18). The number of flies captured at each village and site has an important correlation with bioclimatic factors, which were mentioned above. Chamo Gambule, the roadsides and Nech Sar are iri the same scogeographic and bioclimatic conditions where the sites of Chamo Gambule are located between the geographic boundaries of Nech Sar National park and roadsides. Formerly, it was a part of game reserve, now inhabited by a few (some 200 house holds) pastoralist herds men owning about 2000 cattle lead. The sites of road sides are located on both sides of the main road which extends from A/Minch to Jinka and Omo Rate, with relatively heavy traffic from north to south and vice versa, grazed by the herds from A/Minch town and Chamo Gambule. Otherwise all the three locations commonly manifest the birthmarks of game reserve and more detail is unnecessary.

Among the villages with the least fly catches, Shelle Miella and Elgo have common ecoclimatic conditions. They have common boundary and similar vegetation. Most of the land is used for crop production. Major part of the forest is grazed away by cutting down the forests and forest fires. The remaining piece may be cleared up by the coming few years. This seems to be one of the main reasons, together with the adverse climatic conditions, that chased tse-tse to the parks and game reserve thic;

Table 2

Shelle Miella Road Sides Trap I II III IV III III IV No. MF 1 BM - - NC Sa 1000 BM 7 10 MR B F 1040 2 NMNC Sa 1000 NM 24 58 MT BF 1040 3 BMNC Sa 1000 BM 3 11 YB BF 1040 4 NP 1 NC Sa 1000 NP -- YB Sa 1040 5 BPSC Sa 1000 NM 46 38 Ga Sa 1050 6 BP HO SB 1000 BM 20 65 Ga Sa 1050 7 NB HO SB 1000 BM 2 2 Ga Sa 1050 8 BP HO SB 1000 BP 1 3 Ga Sa 1040 9 NM SB 1000 10 BM SB 1020 11 BM SB 1020

Ethiopian Veerinary Association l l in Proceeding Page 147 ■W

Elgo Chamo Gamliiife Trap n in IV T: m IV No, A 1 iM BT VB WF 109 117 BK DF 1000 M BT VB -J ®ST 12 21 KSa Sa 1000 ES AF J 10 15 KSa Sa 1000 ES AF 26 40 NV Sa 1000 BO BO Sa \ m Sa; 1PW ZB Sa SUM f KEYFOl THE ABBREVATIONS: i i I Tfap type BM biconical CS Chamo shore II = flies NM ngu wi; HO m = site name NP ngu^wi MA = Mazoria IV = vegetation BP biconic! bagsMa = marshy area v = altitude BS bush wi SB — Savannah eith bush NC near MT = Merkeb Tabia

YB = YezerefaBota BO KSa Kulfo savanna GA = Gambulle ZB NV Near village BF = bushy forest VB DF dense forest Sa = Savannah MA WP watering {joint BT = BahirTig AF accacia SaC savaarinh camp ES = I Elgo Serra BR bank of F Forest

A = in this village (Shelle Mella), from trap No. 4| ie-polyten bag was fallen to the ground and the flies were raided by predatory insepts.: : B in this village (the road side) the pol) trap No. 4 fall tot he ground, otherwise it was the first site where Glpssma begattt0^^^ ii$i| life placing the trap. C = •in this village (Kolia Shara), from traps pdlj | No. 1, 2 and 3, the rubber bands (for fastening) were taken and the enterance holes (tSfhem| Jr polyten bags) were distrubed (probably by cow iboys).

f It Since on1f one technique of sampling does not sti( tiie real picture of tse-tse fly population, we used the x ambination of NGU andbiconical t [npfesh and polytene bags. The traps were sited in open a 6as adjacent to vegetation, along1 game paths on river banks and at the interface of tickets grassland and on the shores of lakes;*

Table 3 b slow illustrates the type and numbei? (quarifity) of traps deployed in each village and the number oj flies captured by each numbers 1:)*- f m rjleft top to bottom) represent names of the villages i Shelle Mella, the road side, Elgdj, Gambulle, Kolia Shara and Nech Sar) respective y.

Ethiopian v terinary Association 11" Proceeding Page 148

J ' > .M £ Table 3

NGU with Biconical with Total Village Mesh Polytene bags Mesh Polytene bags Traps Flies No. IIII IIIII IIIIII 1 2 2 1 4 3 11 1 2 2 166 2 85 3 35 1 4 8 290 3 1 6 2 11 5 1 8 18 4 1 66 1 226 2 58 4 350 5 3 2 0 0 3 3 6 5 6 2 71 1 85 5 158 8 314 Total 11 311 8 408 22 255 4 4 45 978

I = quantity; II = no. of flies;

Here, 19 NGU traps (table 3, both with mesh and polytene bags), captured 719 flies which is 73.5% of the toial catch where as 26 biconical traps (with mesh and polytene bags) captured 26.5% (n = 259). E\enthough the no. of NGU traps is less by 7 traps, the sample size increased by 460 flies. This shows that about 2.78 times more flies were captured by NGU traps when compared with biconical traps. When we compare NGU traps (restraining topcage) with NGU polytene bags, the quantity of traps (NGU polytene) is less by 3 traps, but the sample size increased by 97 flies, i.e. 0.31 times mere flies were captured by NGU polytene compared with NGU mesh (table 3). NGU traps with pol)tene bags (n = 8) alone captured 41.7% (408/978) and their analogue NGU with mesh (n = 11) captured 31.8% (311/978) of the total catch. Biconical traps with mesh (n = 22) alone captured 26.1% (255/978) and biconical traps with polythen bags (n = 4) captured 0.4% (4/978) of the total sample.

Therefore, NGU traps in general and NGU with polytene bags particularly have superior catch capabilities to biconical traps and biconical traps with polytene bags are the least efficient for G.Pallidepes. Similar variations are registered in sex categories in both traps. These variations are indicated in table 4.

Table 4. Indicates the sex composition of flies in each types of traps used in the survey.

Trap type NGU with NGU with pol. Bic. With mesh Bic. With Pol. mesh Total Fly by sex M F M F M F M F I -- 1 -- -- - 1 70 96 20 65 12 23 1 11 3 290 III 3 3 2 9 1 - -- 18 IV 26 40 109 117 22 36 - - 350 V - 2 - - - 3 - - 5 VI 22 49 23 62 47 111 -- 314 Total 121 190 155 253 82 173 1 3 978

I = Selle Melle; II = road sides; III = Elgo; IV = Chamo Gambule; V = Kolia Shara and VI = Nech Sar.

From what is demonstrate din the table, NGU traps with polythene bags and mesh top cages captured 443 female and 276 male flies, i.e. the female sample size is 61.6% and the male is 38.4% for NGU designs which is 45.6% and 28.2% of the total sample for both sexes. The female to male ratio is 1.6:1 . Of females is 0.6 times greater than that of males (for NGU variants). The above relation is

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11th Proceeding Page 149 — *S W

1.63:1 for I' GU polytene bags and 1.57:1 for l^jGU m|sh, i.e. the no, of females is 0.63 an d0.57 times greate r than that of the males (NGU polytene description i rid the table the sex compositionifoirj^GtI^i$ants is almost the same. The difference is significant (0.06).

len we c jnpare the sex composition pf the^flies^ ipfturoid by the biconical traps of the used variants, constitute 176 females and 83 mal^s. T, ijif 68% an d32% of their own categories ro 18% and 8.j % of the total fly catch. This shpws^hat Ipmaje: male ratio is 2.12:1 (176/83) or the female pop lation is 1.12 times greater tha$ thfc mal (for biconical traps). But if we compare female popi 1ation of NGU with the female plop e jbiconical traps (443/176) 2.52:1. The number of males in NGU increased by 2 0 . fti^s (feit v Therefore the NGU trap is 1.52 times trjore efficia it'* than biconical traps for femalg Gipalii^ Closely related results were attained by other resear ihers. On average, the NG2G design inc: evG.f>allidepes catch by about 1.6 times for females ane 1.3 times for males (Dr. Otieno for male in our case the NGU trap is 2.33 (276/83) me re efficient than th ebiconical one.

Identification of Trypanosome Species, its infection $;and Packed Cell Evaluation (PCV)

Methods o Trypanosomes Spp. identification; had j h discussed in materials and methods, Hereafter, v e shall elaborate the prevailing spp.|of th | asiie (Trypanosome), its infeejtipn rate ad correlation dfPCV with the positive case.

On the basi of the data, (blood samples) obtained froi 133 animals (4 herds) and examined under microscope fej7 samples were positive and the r t t 10( ?s were negative, Ampng the positive 23 were T.c indolence and 4 were Ityivax le predominant species in fte targeted sijtes is T. 0 >ngolence which constitutes 85.2% qf the tail findings. The ratio of infected animals (+ve animal sj to the total number of examined animals lablesus to suggest or estimate the infection rajte of T osome and the tse-tse challenge i d area of the mentioned woreda. The irifection ra t /j as table 5 shows is 0.20 = 20%. Th|s sii Registration result (in our survey) is similar to the. eariie •works of other researchers who: degionst remarkable correlation fo appearent tse- tsp density 1 nth infection rate. DJ. RogereSj (I;} itively suggested that wherever there are flies, there i some measurable risk.of cattle dise: the more the flies there are, the greater ■ ■ j is the risk >f disease transmission. The s ^concludes that if we can determine the abundance if the vectors we have gone some ards predicting the prevalence of disease within the c istribution limit. Table 5 belowi re :Sp

PCV from No Of T. SPP Inf. sample Cattle Village 11J 16-20 21-25 25.5-30 31-35 36-38 +ve. T.C TV rate size t»P- Shell,e Milte 11 14 17 43 W 49 7000 K0II4 Shara 15 15 n: 29 10 027 40 6000 Neclj Sar 11 10 17 0.29 24 2000 Arba! Minch 17 3 0:15 20 6900 Total 30 47 42 ~TF "W ~23 "OW 133 21900

r - J

I A : i

Ethiopian Vete Inary Association 11“ Proceeding Page 150 Table 6. Justifies the fact that was stated and concluded above, i.e. the infection rate decreases as the fly number decreases and^yisa vis. This is illustrated in table 6 below.

Fry Infection No Village Abundance Rank Rate Rank 1. Nech Sar 314 1 0.29 1 2 Road side (A/Minch) 290 2 0.15 3 3. Kolia Shara 5 3 0.27 2 4. Shelle Mella 1 4 0.12 4

At the first glance, it seems that no. 2 and 3 in the infection rate column disobey the above justification. However, further analysis in to other factors responsible for variations in Tse-tse challenge and thus Trypanosome infection in cattle enables us to agree with the justification. D.J. Rogers (1991), showed that many other factors come into play to determine just how much disease there is at any particular level of fly abundance and infection rate (that is as measured by the slope of the line in figure 1). Among these other factors, breeds of livestock susceptibility to infection, nutrition level and veterinary care can be mentioned. The A/Minch cattle, which graze on the roadsides, get sufficient and intensive veterinary care, drug handling, dosage and administration are on the bases of veterinary ethics (adults qualified veterinary staff* relatively well-equipped clinic). This have attributed to low infection rates inspire of its high tse-tse density (n=200). Where as at Kolia Shara each peasant is armed with his own syringes and needles, so veterinary ethics not respected. On the other hand the list or less number of flies registered in adverse climatic condition for the vector did not mask the high infection rates at the mentioned sites, on the contrary we may fearlessly suggest that the infection rates on the data demonstrate the real status of tse-tse under favourable condition. (D.J. Rogers, 1991) in figure 1 below correlates the daily probability of infection 0.12, 0.16 and 0.20 on the vertical axis with corresponding 600, 800 and 1000 tse-tse abundance density on the horizontal (challenge) axis. Whereas 0.27 an dO.29 infection rates registered at Kolia Shara and Nech,Sar are beyond this figure which may correspond with 1350 and 1550 tse-tse apparent density respectively.

Whilst the average infection rate (27/133 - 0.20) investigated by our study, surprisingly fits with the infection rate of 1000 tse-tse apparent density in D.J. Rogers fig. 1. In our study, the total number of flies for the six selected villages was 978.

Figure 1.

PCV as in indicator of Trypanosomiasis Infection

The techniques of PCV analysis were discussed in materials and methods and its detailed picture is shown in table 5. Here we will summarize its relationship with the laboratory +ve findings.

Out of 133 samples obtained and examined for the above purpose 82 (61.65%) samples had PcV from 11 - 25% i.e. 61.65% (n = 82) of the animal shad PCV of 25% and below. 51 (38.35%) samples had PCV from 25.5 - 38%, i.e. 38.35% of the animals had PcV of 25.5% and above. The average PcV for the whole sampled animals is 23.92%. The lowest PcV is 11% (A/Minch) the highest is 38% (Kolia Shara) - 1 sample each. 85.2% (23/27) of the +ve cases were from low PCV categories (11 - 25) and 14.8% (4/7) were from medium and high PCV (26-38). » 23 +ve cases out of 82 low PCV constitute 28.05% of their own category and 4 +ves out of 51 medium and high PCV represent 8%. The sum of both percentages divided by 2 or their average

Ethiopian Veterinary Association 11'" Proceeding Page 151 (28% +8% = 18%) correlates with the infection frate iip licated above. However, other literary i :: ' ' o' - . sources for sin ilar correlation has not been found arid it n i ds further confirmation.

Tab e 7 illust ^tes the frequency of +veity for a given^JPGV and its apparent relationship with Trypanosome infection. Table 7

PCV 16 17 19,5 20 21 21^ 2* - | 4 ; 25 26 30 31 38 Total No. +ve ani inals 1 1 I i 20** T '7 1 Dwelling too r Luch upon other variables such a$|age| sex*§ li$ur and body conditions of the animals including the 1 i |tory of treatments types of drugs used w! umay-have direct or indirect impact on animal Trypan >somiasis will make this report top l0|gffii3® & O iJng. Therefore we willigiv&a brief description of Lrugs used and duration of the treatment i n ® l | 8 on page___

.. i ! ?■'- . . Table 8. Types of drugs used, duration of tre a tm ^ ti|^ K i !%$OJi or persistence of -fveity after a given type of t atmcnt. ' '.'M 4 ■ ’A & Type jof drugs used RX) NOT EIM BIW BIN B2N \ m a w ; TIT TIM M1W MI.,5 N5M E2M No ofj +ve cases t I 1 2 3 I i i l h : 3 3 1 1 I I

Numbers (1, 2 3, 1.5, 5) in the first line of this table (t pie 8) indicate duration-time in week or months after a ;iven treatment. : !

Eventhough, it is impossible to suggest (after this afccidei single registration) that the animals are reinfected afte the treatment or the previous irifeouon r| Isted the treatment, the positive findings afteij one weeli jfor Berenil, two weeks and one mcfnths |ef Trypamidium treatment, increase our suspicions eith it for the formation of drug resistance or stfceatment of the animals. Therefore, in order to assurr si this risky situation it is inevitable fo coi a further1 and deep reaching study in this prospect. Dn the other hand, we could not undermine roll of drug treatment with out which the inortality |ate would have been devastating |hown high infection rate and tse-tse infestation. I Accessing the Socio-Economic Viabilities of the ||omrtf| lijy Based tse-tse and Trypanosomiasis Control Appro 4hes '*

As ii was ment oned in the earlier headings, we.addyfessedij lblic meetings (formally) at least in three Kebules (Shell fjmella, Elgo and Kolia Shelle) indfquest randomly picked and public elected herd owners in all targeted locations. The responses to | questions were positive. All of them agrefed that Trypanosomiasis is the main constraint to i£l health, production and productivity particularly an agricultural output generally. Theyf undt [and that Trypanosomiasis is transmitted by flies, excep tithat some of them do not clearly;distin| ii|h the difference between mechanical transmitters (T >paus, Stomoxis) and the main Vect^* tse^t land this is not unexpected), Some of then, specially tne pastoralists of Nech Sar and Chino, ibule, know relatively well tse-tse than othe rs. Most < $ them indicated the correct sites of: fly al ape, all of them knew very well the correct season >f the maximal vector breeding aiid reprodt titin, i.e. humid rainy season (May, June up to half of Ju y). V 1

All villages usfe5 curative and prophylactic tryp$nos|dal jg |. The source of drugs are veterinary service (when available) and smuggling. All of ttiem $ tiplain that the protective and curative

Ethiopian Veterim ry Association 11 Proceeding Page 152 efficiency of the drugs had decreased so badly that they are compelled to treat the animals monthly or even weekly. Then finally all of them told us their readiness to participate actively in any problem that could bring any significant results in tse-tse and trypanosomiasis control. Some of them (Nech Sar) were so happy that when we told them to look after the traps that we were going to place, the elders immediately ordered some individuals to run home and bring their guns to guard the traps. But we told them that there is no need of armed guarding and it is enough to inform cow boys and the village community not to damage the trap and watch the passers by who may steal or damage deliberately. Otherwise we did not come across with any vandalism except some minor dislocations of cages and removal of plastic rubbers (may be by cow boys) and falling of come polytene bags (maybe wind).

On the other hand, contrary to any action against tse-tse and trypanosomiasis stands wild life and forestry preservation office. It reasons out that, controlling tse-tse and trypanosomiasis in and around the National Game reserve will aggravate deforestation, filling of Game, animals and encourages the pastoralists to annex the whole National Park and Game Reserve.

At present there are 10 pastoralists villages and 270 house holds owning 2000 cattle heads, here we observe domestic and Game animals grazing together. The body condition of the animals is pitiful and worse than ever seen. Almost all predilection sites (ears, mammary glands, scrotum, annul region ... etc) are each invaded by more than hundreds of tricks. They need for Accaricides is desperate. One sachet of tryapmidium is used to treat 60 large animals. Without exaggeration, 20 animals (at Nech Sar) do not represent one well managed animal.

Conclusion

The data of this study makes the implementation of community based tse-tse and trypanosome control technology (CBTTCT) approach an uncompromising, inevitable and cost effective measure. However, the present label of community response (readiness for an active participation) of the community members may not be taken in to grant for a successful implementation of trapping technology (approach) in the mentioned villages, because of the following reasons.

The social structures of these villages (except Nech Sar and Chamo Gambule) is very heterogenous, i.e. not all community members are farmers or cattle owners; in most of the villages (except the mentioned two) there is a great number of floating social strata that earn daily livelihood by gathering and selling wood; these groups may be the main source of threat in damaging and stealing the traps for various purposes.

Community members of these villages (except the two) have the characteristics of semi-urban and semi-rural.

The farmers of these villages (perhaps except Elgo) are relatively well to do farmers. Besides common food crops they produce some commercial crops such as cotton and banana.

Due to the above and other reasons observed from past experiences of mass mobilization for community benefits, the implementation of trapping technology or approach may be difficult.

Therefore we recommend the implementation of spot-on or pour-on approach as a priority choice.

If trapping technology will be the priority choice,

the community must be well organized, well trained, fully admitted and undertake the responsibility;

Ethiop an Veterinary Association l l lh Proceeding Page 153 the gc /emmental organs (Woreda Councils) sh< £ive full support for the programme help in org inizing; i..; the ac ministration of MOA at Zonal and^Sri sis must give full su ^ q it and^faesilitate and el >sely supervise the programme; ■> f the d

Therefor the: policy makers must draft sustainable gcjjj id bold solution be given weather the pastoralists s ould be there or not, until then tl&y cmust i|eh|fun veterinary service, c

Acknowledg ments r.j We wish to j rant our hearty gratitude to Nor^ A io . |MQA for funding the survey;. Regional m 6 a for fur iing the project and Soddo Regipn^SVeU laboratory for conducting the survey, and Ato Min; lu Desalegn for his arduous clerical &sist

Reference

TCIPE, 1993. Proceedings of a science symposium on d Roping community-based an dsustainable peit and vect >r management for rural developments ) ; ■ ' . . : i :-'i Nl^I, Vol. 16 £art 4,1993 . Tse-tse and Trypanos^jmi rmationand news service, i . : i Rogers D. J., 1[991. Satellite imagery, tse-tse andir rdraiasis in Africa. Prev. Vet. Med., 11 201-220

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