Redalyc.Vengeance with a Vengeance: Is It Worth to Study

Home , Revenge (NCIS), Vengeance (2001), Vengeance (2002), Vengeance (2003), Vengeance (2004), Vengeance (2005)

Anuario de Psicología Jurídica ISSN: 1133-0740 [email protected] Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid España

Bueno Guerra, Nereida Vengeance with a Vengeance: Is it Worth to Study it? Anuario de Psicología Jurídica, vol. 22, 2012, pp. 95-110 Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Madrid, España

Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=315024813009

How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative Vengeance with a Vengeance: Is it Worth to Study it? Autopsia de la Venganza: ¿Merece la Pena su Estudio? Nereida Bueno Guerra Universidad Camilo José Cela, España

Abstract. Frijda (1994) warned that there was no major psychological study on vengeance, encouraging researchers to explore it. In the present article, an updated bibliographic search is done yielding similar conclusions but this time stating four arguments (cultural, judicial, criminal and psychological and social) to justify its study, concluding how society and indi - viduals would benefit from it. Desires of vengeance (DoV) usually underlies the most pre - valent crime in Spain. Some victims of bullying and mobbing can harbor DoV and turn into aggressors. In order to achieve a more objective judicial system, the measure of vindictive bias in juries may be helpful, as well as doing it within inmates, to assess risk of recidivism. From ancient to current times, DoV have modulated penal code modifications. These and some other reasons and possible future lines of research are shown to eventually propose an interdisciplinary study and further research so that from common effort of different discipli - nes we can achieve new knowledge of the matter. Keywords: vengeance, revenge, retaliation, reciprocity, interdisciplinary, research.

Resumen. Frijda (1994) advirtió de que no existía ningún estudio profundo sobre la ven - ganza, animando a los investigadores a explorar este campo. En el presente artículo se ha llevado a cabo una búsqueda bibliográfica actualizada obteniendo resultados similares, pero esta vez planteando cuatro argumentos (culturales, judiciales, psicológicos, criminológicos y sociales) para justificar su estudio, concluyendo cómo la sociedad y los individuos pue - den beneficiarse si se investiga sobre los deseos de venganza (DdV). Los DdV normalmen - te subyacen al crimen con más prevalencia de España. Algunas víctimas de bullying y mob - bing pueden albergar DdV y convertirse en agresores. Para lograr un sistema judicial más objetivo, medir los sesgos vengativos en jurados populares sería útil, así como hacerlo con internos penitenciarios para evaluar el riesgo de reincidencia. Desde tiempos remotos hasta el presente, los DdV han modulado modificaciones de códigos penales. Estas y otras razo - nes así como posibles futuras líneas de investigación son esgrimidas en el texto para final - mente proponer más investigación desde la óptica interdisciplinar, de manera que del esfuer - zo común de distintas disciplinas se logre nuevo conocimiento sobre la materia. Palabras clave: venganza, revancha, reciprocidad, interdisciplinariedad, investigación.

HAMLET: “¡Oh! ¡Vengueance!” tingendo quell’onda (Act II, scene II. Hamlet, Shakespeare) di sangue innocente, Andrò d’Acheronte gridando vendetta, sù le nera sponda, ed ombra baccante vendetta fa rò. (Cantata RV 684. La correspondencia sobre este artículo debe enviarse a la autora al e-mail: [email protected] Cessate, omai cessate. Vivaldi)

Introduction wrath, that is, of such anger as leads to vengeful fantasies and actions. (…) What is important is to Let me start the present article in a non-orthodox understand particular functional features, and see way. In 1940 the comic book artist Bob Kane gave how they relate to other functional features. It is birth to the first number of Batman’s series. Its fra - such features that should hold center stage” (p.264- mes told the story of a young boy named Bruce 265). wayne, that went to the cinema with his parents and In fact, during next decade, Vidmar (2000) endor - at the end of the show, on the street, witnessed them se Frijda’s review concluding that there is little being murdered by a common criminal. Next scenes empiric information available about prevalence of portrayed this recent orphan claiming: “ Dead… DoV, which does not help to clinicians in their the - They are dead! I swear by the spirits of my parents rapeutic interventions, given that DoV is not ade - to avenge their deaths by spending the rest of my life quately addressed in the literature for general warring on all criminals ” (Kane, 1940). psychiatrists (Horowitz, 2007). This fiction reading led me to a reflection: could In the purpose of bringing up to date the literatu - a subject change his whole life, his identity, even his re search, I did a new and updated bibliographic vital objectives, just in pursuit of a desire of venge - search (publications later to 2000 until March 2011) ance (DoV)? would that thirst of vengeance stop if in four major data basis, also taking “vengeance” he could get even with the person that caused his and “revenge” as key words, refining the search to damage? That is, would the superhero disappear studies considering its properties or functional fea - once he could kill his parent’s murderer? tures as its main subject, and also refining to “clini - Inspired by the “Gunpowder Plot”, a real event cal psychology”, “experimental psychology” and held in London 1605, where some Catholics planned “social psychology” (so that judicial or literary burning down the House of Lords, a new comic is analysis were excluded), yielding similar results to released, “V for Vendetta”. Alan Moore and David those announced by Frijda in the nineties (Pubmed: Lloyd created a character that, battered by a totalita - 16; PsycInfo: 2; web of Knowledge: 22). rian government, devises his revenge. For that pur - Even if we look up the contents of one of the main pose, he is endowed with a sinister patience: “ For handbooks of emotions, as Lewis, Havilland-Jones 20 years, I sought only this day ”. (Moore, 1988). & Barrett’s (2008), words related to vengeance For how long could a DoV be active? Is it an (revenge, vengeance, wrath, retaliate, vengefulness), emotion (traditionally considered “hot”), a cognition we only have two results considering vengeance (“cold” if we borrow the famous quote from “Les briefly. So the question is: do we need to care about liaisons dangereuses”) or is it an interrelation among the DoV? Is it present enough in our lives so that we both? Going further: from an evolutionary perspec - would need to pay attention to it? what are the con - tive, what does the avenger get with his revenge if it sequences of the DoV? implies big efforts and he cannot restore the damage Thus, in the present article, given that there is lit - caused? Batman cannot bring his parents to life tle deeply study about vengeance or revenge, it is again and V cannot recover his past suffering. going to be used the term “desire of vengeance” Trying to answer these questions I found that (DoV) as the core concept, meaning a cognitive Frijda (1994) had already emphasized, during the assumption elaborated and maintained by a subject congress about emotions that was held in his honor that perceived having been intentionally damaged in the Netherlands, the need of better exploring the before (both intention and damage were real or not). DoV: “ No major psychological study has appeared “Vengeance” itself will be considered as the act cho - on the topic during the last 70 or 80 years. A litera - sen by a subject to put into action his/her DoV, that ture search from 1967 to 1991 yielded not a single is, a further decisional step with factual consequen - study having “vengeance” or “revenge” as its main ces outside. In this sense, the main interest of this subject. (…) It should be a task of the psychology of study will be exploring the reasons that justify the emotion to devote attention to the properties of need of studying the DoV, as the prelude of a possi -

Anuario de Psicología Jurídica Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 NEREIDA BUENO 97 ble future vengeance, and it will be done from four day ”, coming from the metaphor used by Lord different perspectives (cultural, judicial, criminal- Byron describing a gladiator who is waiting for psychological and social), so that it could appear as being “ butcher’d to make a Roman holiday ”, as a a fruitful but forgotten field of research, with many synonym of the keenness of pleasure felt by the clinical and social repercussions, and very useful to audience witnessing his suffering and the celebra - investigate for living peacefully in society. tion that would be held after the show. Thus, the sadistic component may differentiate this term from vengeance, being closer to Latinism “ delectation Cultural reasons morosa ”, meaning the habit of enjoying harmful thoughts about others. Therefore, regarding linguis - Men talk and write about what they care. In fact, tics, both sadism and vengeance would lay in the it is not strange trusting in the study of language and field of pleasure, however, DoV would always have literature to find psychological clues that contribute a justified reason for the avenger, coming from a to the establishment of theoretical models. As an prior damage, and sadism would be a more arbitrary example, during the sixties, Big Five model of per - feeling. Now, outlining the concept, would there it sonality from Costa & McCrae (1992) adopted a be traces of this along literature worldwide? lexical approach assuming the idea that most rele - A quick look to our past led us to mythology as a vant individual differences remain encoded as a last collection of tales that belongs to a culture and that resort in the form of adjectives and expressions, so can be secularized to report fruitful information that the human linguistic knowledge was the reflec - about the way of thinking and the technology avai - tion of the knowledge about human personality fac - lability of ancient civilizations, so that the myth tors. Thus, the more important a factor was, the turns into a valuable mean of research with the more languages would have a term for it (Sánchez- scientific help of some disciplines, such as philology Bernardos, 1997). Therefore, it could be said that or psychology (Grimal, 1979). Some other authors what was relevant for human beings have been support this interdisciplinarity talking about the coo - inserted in their folklore and texts, in their vocabu - peration of philosophy, psychology, sociology, anth - lary and history. Psychology should not obviate this ropology, poets, producers and novelists (Solomon, source of valuable information which is linguistics 1994). It is not said “reading and believing”, but loo - and literature, so that applying its methodology, it king up and exploring which now well-known could obtain new knowledge. psychological aspects were used with ancient hero - In this sense, it is interesting having a look to the es and what characteristics were attributed to them. German word referring to the pleasure produced by From envy in the Judgment of Paris to vanity in other’s misfortune: “Schadenfreude”, composed by Narciso’s myth, Ancient Greek is a good example of “Schaden” (damage) and “Freude” (joy), and these how human beings, devoid of our present techno - in turn coming from Greek’s “epichairekakia”. This logy and of alternative didactic resources, needed to Greek term was described by Aristotle in his create stories anthropomorphizing reality, where “Nicomachean Ethics” as a part of a trio, accompan - images utterly embodied the feelings of Greeks ying envy (phthonos) and vengeance (nemesis). So (Grimal, 1989). And they wrote about vengeance. the subtle difference between them would be that That is why, observing and analyzing myths, we whereas vengeance implies harm response to non- could approach to the idea that ancient Greek had deserved other’s fortune, and envy consists of harm about the DoV. response to every other’s fortune, deserved or not, Vengeance had a deity: Nemesis, the goddess of epichairekakia would define people enjoying other’s balance. According to some authors, she was depic - misfortune. Thus, it seems that deserve and pleasure ted as the personification of the moral feeling that are the two aspects involved in the definitions. On compared the happiness and the misfortune of mor - the other hand, English-speaking countries also keep tals punishing those who caused an imbalance. So if an expression with a similar meaning, “ Roman holi - this was vengeance for Greeks, we could understand

Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Anuario de Psicología Jurídica ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 98 VENGEANCE wITH A VENGEANCE that talking about balance and punishment, it see - ked about DoV. From Medea by Euripides to Hamlet med to inform about emotional basis lines that could or Otelo by Shakespeare; from “The punishment be altered by events, producing an imbalance. That without vengeance” by Lope de Vega to Dumas’ imbalance could have an urge to be necessarily res - count of Monte Cristo; from Moby Dick to Lee tored by homeostasis, so that vengeance would be a Geum-Ja in one of the films that compose the trilogy natural, compulsory and even comprehensible reac - by Park Chan wook; from Kill Bill to the manga tion in the form of a punishment that Greeks could Lone wolf and cub, DoV and vengeance have been ascribe to perceived losses, although they knew that present as a useless way of recovering a valuable the punishment could not recover their lost object. loss but as a satisfactory and sometimes also regret - Erinyes (“those who can’t be named”) or also ful way of response to it. Infidelity, murderer, fake called Furies, were a trio of deities in charge of testimony… have been some of the matters that ari - punishing the unpunished criminals. They were ses DoV and that without a proportionality fixed, Tisiphone, vengeful destruction; Alecto, remorse, can perpetuate criminality. Thus, its existence and and Megaera, hate. As a result of Orestes myth from its relevance and subtle differences with other Aeschylus, that narrates how Orestes kills his human passions have not gone unnoticed by several mother because she had previously killed his father, languages and by relevant authors in such different who in turn had previously killed his sister, this trio times, from German to Latin, from Ancient Greek to became called Eumenides (“benevolents”). This our days, and despite that, there is no major psycho - domestic succession of crimes would have reached logical or empirical research about this desire. its climax when Orestes went to Delphic Oracle loo - Maybe humanity is shouting, and researchers are not king for the compassion of Apolo, and Erinyes, who listening to. had heard his matricide, decided punishing him by chasing and tormenting him with remorse. However, a judgment is held, in which vengeance is substitu - Judicial reasons ted by a system of arguments assessment where Erinyes agree about suspending their punishment, “An eye for an eye” is perhaps the most popular being called Eumenides so far and emerging a wors - quote from Lex Talionis. A statement that may hip to this figures that firstly represented a retributi - sound archaic in our culture because it does not ve system, although some other versions tell other seem appropriate to our concept of present human- finals. rights defense Justice, but that supposed in that time In this sense, it could be seen that it may be a need a step further to the formal execution of revenge and of getting even with the subject who causes the extensively, to the formal execution of Justice. It damage: no crime can lay unpunished. In fact, was mentioned before that mythology might have Greeks established a specific mechanism to avoid it: forgotten specifying proportionality in vindictive Eyrines, the personification of the DoV, the reaction punishments, so that prior seek and need for reven - to a suffering. But there is a lack of nuance in the ge had no limits. If someone stole my harvest, I myth: the proportionality. Damage is returned in the could steal his harvest, kill his son or rape his wife. form of a punishment, but it is not specified the mea - There was no proportionality, so, on the one hand, sure, so the factors that take part in the perception of an endless cycle of revenge-revenge in return (my loss and imbalance, and the factors that measure the father was killed, I kill the offender, his son will kill extent of both damage and punishment, are out of me and so on) was produced and, on the other hand, scene. And so, this absence does not allow establis - if the victim had no means or wasn’t strong enough, hing limits to the DoV. Anyway, the DoV, firstly see - may not be able to get even with the offender, laying med as socially reprobated, adopted a judicial shape undefended. Thus, best solution to avoid violence as a natural right. Humanity was asking for justice, perpetuation and defenseless victims, was besto - and centuries ago, DoV had some part in it. wing the right of taking revenge to a third objective But myths are not the only literature that has tal - and independent power which would receive the

Anuario de Psicología Jurídica Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 NEREIDA BUENO 99 approval of a concrete society both to establishing extended punishment among Samurais, “ seppuku ”, the reprobated conducts and to specifying their con - consisted of allowing the offender to commit suici - crete and proportionated punishments. Lex Talionis de instead of being executed, so that it was unders - (Latin adjective talis-tale means “equal”) indicated tood that he could keep his dignity even during the that losing an eye must be payback with the same final act of death. This seppuku would entail a strict action to the offender, that is, also losing an eye and and ruled ceremonial disembowelment wearing spe - no more than that, deterring this way insatiable and cial clothes, writing a death poem, using specific immeasurable DoV that emerges from estimations arms and selecting a trustworthy assistant, every - of those wounded (as a real example we can find the thing held in front of spectators and keeping a pro - quote attributed to Paquita González: “ I must hurt found sense of respect. However, other castes would you more than you’ve hurt me ”, a Spanish woman die by different methods, pointing the idea that jus - nicknamed “Santomera witch” by mass-media that tice and punishment were based on social structure. presumably killed her children to get even with her Moreover, it also existed a complex system of husband for not paying enough attention to her). values, where honor, loyalty and inherited family This beginning of a retributive system can be values took a central position. The Ethics of found along cultures in Hammurabi Code, Manu Confucius claimed at its fourth chapter: “ With him Code of India, Hebraic Law or Roman Twelve who has slain his father, a son should not live under Tables. However, proportionality can have some the same sky ” (Menander, 2005), implicitly claiming anthropological differences appearing to be far away the allowance to get even in blood crimes. Perhaps from fairness: blood vengeance in Arabic-beduinen inspired in this morality, in pre-modern Japan, kata - cultures (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 1999); commiting kiuchi was an accepted way to punish the perpetra - suicide in Papua Nueva Guinea after being mistrea - tors of murder against certain blood relations among ted so that victim’s family drives to get even with the samurai class (Mills, 1976) specifying its limits: the offender (Counts, 1987); in some regions of No second revenge was recognized in any form India amputating the nose of thieves and war priso - whatever: thus, if A murdered B and B’s son killed ners (Mazzola, 2007) or noses from women conside - A in revenge, A’s son had no claim legally or red unfaithful or unworthy in many Middle East of morally to avenge his father’s death. In fact, we can Asia regions such as Afghanistan, as a symbol of find lots of stories and woodblock prints describing public humiliation (as an example, see Aisha case, this practices, such as “The history of Soga bro - portrayed in Times cover 9 th August 2010), what is thers” (Chikanobu, 1891) or loyalty revenge, as the called honor crimes and that is also shaped as spe - real “47 Ronin”, in which a cohort of 47 Samurai wing acid to her faces; or even death penalty, a vin - serfs carefully planned during a year the vengeance dictive procedure still active in 67 countries in 2010 for their master’s death: quitted their jobs, became (Amnesty International, 2011). monks or got married to the offender’s palace archi - Trying to balance legal responses to criminal acts, tect’s daughter, so they went unnoticed, got the pala - next step was introducing a monetary value as a ce’s plan and beheaded their master’s assassin with mean of compensation, so that victim could receive the same sword their master had died. Given their a response to his/her damage without causing a new caste and their underlying motivation, they were crime by punishing the offender. This change, called condemned to seppuku. As it can be seen, cultural restorative justice, is one of the most extended pro - values, concept of Justice and social division can cedures nowadays (as an example, Law 32/1999, 8 th modulate the concept of vengeance as well. October, on Solidarity with victims of terrorism in Just only 140 years ago, that law changed. Five Spain, in which State may provide a stipulated years after the Meiji Restoration, on the seventh of monetary amount to victims of terrorism). the second month of 1873, the Japanese Govern- And what about Asia? Nippon society had a com - ment issued the following decree (Mills, 1976): plex system of social stratification that assigned dif - The taking of human life is strictly prohibited by ferent rights to different hierarchies. For instance, an the law of the land, and the right to punish a mur -

Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Anuario de Psicología Jurídica ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 100 VENGEANCE wITH A VENGEANCE derer lies with the Government. However, since without social prejudices or emotional and vindicti - ancient times it has been customarily regarded as ve bias that could influence their decisions upon the duty of a son or younger brother to avenge the defendants. In this sense, some studies have been murder of his father or elder brother. While this is a conducted to explore DoV in candidates to be jury natural expression of the deepest human feelings, it (Ho, FosterLee, FosterLee & Crofts, 2002; Stuck- is ultimately a serious breach of the law on account less & Goranson, 1992), finding that some admit of private enmity, an usurpation for private purpos - they seek vengeance upon murderers so that those es of public authority, and cannot be treated as who kill would deserve to die and suffer the pain other than the crime of wilful slaughter. and terror of their victims (Brownlee, McGraw, & Furthermore, in extreme cases the undesirable situ - Vest 1997; Nygaard, 1994). And eye for an eye turns ation often arises that one person wantonly and incompatible with blind Justice. deliberately kills another in the name of revenge Thus, having had a look to some penal legisla - without regard for the rights and wrongs of the case tions, it seems that the DoV has evolved from an or the justification for his act. This is to be individual right to an independent third party assess - deplored, and it is therefore decreed that vengeance ment, from an arbitrary and free use to a proportio - shall be strictly prohibited. In future, should some nated measure, from a retributive to a more restora - close relative unfortunately be killed, the facts tive system. From west to East, both ancient codes should be set out clearly an a complaint be laid and current laws have considered the DoV as a core before the authorities. Let it be plainly understood matter in their inspiring principles of the operation that anyone who ignores this injunction and of human society: by modifying values and customs adheres to the old customs, taking the law into his (McKee & Feather, 2008), by protecting rights and own hands to kill for revenge, will be subject to a trying to deter infinite violent cycles or biased deci - penalty appropriate to his offence . sions in juries, the improvement of the concept of Eventually, in Japan, eye for an eye Justice is sub - Justice has been pursued but, despite all of that stituted by a blind Justice, in which the DoV is effort, centuries and people worldwide involved, snatched from free use of people and also bestowed there is no major psychological or empirical rese - to a third objective and independent power, being arch that had studied the DoV enough. criminally reprobated to getting even, despite the old customs. However, the legislator realized that DoV is deeply rooted in social operation (“ since Criminal and psychological reasons ancient times…customarily ”); he also knows that he is questioning an anthropological value (“ natural Could any psychological disorder be prone to har - expression…duty ”) going against justified centuries bor DoV or to act vindictively? which is the preva - of clan disputes and blood shed. Precisely because lence of crimes pursuing a vindictive goal? As far as of that he insists so much in the new prohibition it is known, the DoV is implied in a wide rank of (“ deplored…strictly prohibited…anyone who adhe - antisocial and criminal acts (Holbrook, 1997), fin - res to the old customs…offence ”), announcing the ding this motivation underlying some crimes: birth of a new social system in which guilty must be employee’s theft (Terris & Jones, 1982); rape judicially proved to a third party. (Scully & Marolla, 1985); sexual aggression (Ney, Furthermore, this urge to remove DoV from 1987); homicide (Porporino, Doherty & Sawatsky, Justice had leaded some legislation not only to think 1987); shop-lifting (Turner & Cashdan, 1988); van - about victims and offenders, but also to think about dalism (wiesenthal, 1990); pyromania (Noreik & juries. Many democratic nations tend to promote Grünfeld, 1990), traffic delinquency (wiesenthal, citizens participation in judiciary power as members Henessy & Gibson, 2000) or even mafia, if we of juries, but in order to protect objective resolu - attend to general knowledge about its operation. It is tions, social psychology had the challenge to settle seen that from minor offences to terrible crimes, channels that allow the configuration of groups DoV can be a trigger for its commission, data of par -

Anuario de Psicología Jurídica Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 NEREIDA BUENO 101 ticular interest if we check the prevalence of some of ment that could be the origin of violent actions such these crimes in Spain during 2010: within a total of as sexual abuse and aggression (Leue, Borchard & 213.878 crimes condemned, 79.111 (36,9%) were Hoyer, 2004; Marshall, 2007), drugs and suicide road safety offences; 637 (0.29%) were homicides; (Dunsieth Nelson, Brusman-Lovins, Holcomb, 341 (0.15%) were sexual aggressions and 156 Beckman, welge, Roby, Taylor, Soutullo, & (0.07%) were arson attacks (INE, 2012). That is, we Mcelroy, 2004; González, 2007). They would like to know the prevalence and we know one of its possi - enjoy human contact but they could not manage it, ble motivations, but there is a lack of statistical so some could blame others because of this incapa - information on how many of those crimes was com - bility, harboring DoV to them because they feel mited in pursuit of a DoV. However, if results from rejected (Esbec & Echeburúa, 2010) and perhaps international data could be extrapolated to Spain, it deciding committing a crime. On the other hand, is yielded that one of the motivations underlying the paranoids are suspicious, usually tend to misinter - most prevalent crime in our country could have been pret minimal gestures or objective facts attributing the DoV. This result may encourage future research malicious intentions to others, and rarely forget an on the study of how DoV arises and how is related insult (Novaco, 2010). Humiliation, embarrassment to criminal offenses, so that prevention policies or jealousy are frequently found in paranoids, being could be settled to protect our society and reduce DoV the fundamental motivation (Carroll, 2009; criminal rates. Esbec & Echeburúa, 2010). Moreover, the associa - Prison is one of the possible penalties sentenced tion between paranoid disorder and schizoid disor - to a condemned person, and research has shown that der becomes especially dangerous, as these indivi - DoV is also commonly present among inmates duals may feel bitter about how they think society (Ohlsson & Ireland 2011; Stuckless, Ford & Vitelli, has treated them, harboring negative emotions such 1995) and even among young offenders (Pardini, as rage and vengeance (Esbec & Echeburúa, 2010) 2011). The perception of being object of a betrayal and occasionally acting violently: a research con - or taking away their freedom by itself, could be at ducted by Stone (2001) yielded that 47% out of 99 the root causes of this desire. Anyway, if we know as serial killers analyzed fulfilled schizoid criteria. we could see above that DoV is one of the factors Furthermore, some mass murderer, partner aggres - related to crime offenses; DoV could be considered sors or individuals retired from jobs serving society as a criminal recidivism factor to take into account such as military, have shown high levels of paranoia when risk assessment for releasing is done by prison likely to harbor both DoV and traumatic symptoms psychologists. However, none of the five most inter - (Dutton, 2007). nationally widespread instruments of risk assess - In fact, feelings of revenge have often been found ment: HCR-20 (Douglas, webster, Hart, Eaves & correlating with symptoms of posttraumatic stress Ogloff, 2001), SORAG, VRAG (Quinsey, Harris, disorder (PTSD) (Kunst, 2011), although they pro - Rice & Cormier, 2006), RRASOR (Hanson, 1997) bably vary across populations and subgroups or SARA (Kropp, Hart, webster & Eaves, 1995) (Horowitz, 2007). Studies conducted with victims of have included measures of the DoV as one of the war (Albania and Kosovo: Cardozo, Kaiser, Gotway mandatory factors to assess. Could it be proposed to & Agani, 2003; Cambodia: Sonis, Gibson, de Jong, explore DoV as a possible factor to be assessed Field, Hean & Komproe, 2009; Palestine and Israel: given that some crimes are committed in pursuit of Hamama-Raz, Solomon, Cohen & Laufer, 2008; a DoV and we intuitively know that some inmates Great Lakes Region, Uganda and El Congo: Bayer, feel it? Klasen & Adam, 2007), yield that DoV could be Regarding offenders, studies have shown that harbored both among children and adults during some people diagnosed with specific psychological months or even years after the incident, especially if disorders, if acting violently, it might be because of the incident provoked psychopathological a DoV. Avoidance personality disorder, for example, symptoms such as PTSD. Thus, children who sho - usually implies insecurity, disappointment or resent - wed more PTSD symptoms had significantly less

Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Anuario de Psicología Jurídica ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 102 VENGEANCE wITH A VENGEANCE openness to reconciliation (rho = - 0.34, P <. 001) point of consideration regarding recidivism; and and more feelings of revenge (rho = 0.29, P <. 001) even though at least three personality disorders in a study conducted with 169 child soldiers from (avoidance, paranoid and schizoid), PTSD, compli - Uganda and Congo (Bayer, et al. 2007). On the other cated grief and other stress response syndromes are hand, Cardozo and his colleagues (2003), assuming frequently associated with DoV, which can, on the a 95% confidence interval, found in 1.999 that one hand, imply a high risk for society in criminal 62,1% out of 1.368 Kosovar victims of war with perpetration and on the other hand imply a signifi - PTSD harbored DoV. Just a year after, it was still a cantly reduction in quality of life for patients, there 59% out of 1.399 (P < .05 in both). A warning is is no major psychological or empirical research that made in this sense, not only for the probability of had studied the DoV enough. Security, health and criminality but also because cognitions and feelings stability are compromised in our society, so that a of revenge may act as maintaining factors of PTSD deep study aiming to find key factors that serve as throughout subjects life (Gäbler & Maercker, 2011), incentive for DoV in both criminal and clinical involving subject’s quality of life. However, others population, may help in the settlement of prevention authors (Sonis et al, 2009), pointed out the opposite and treatment programs addressed to reduce relation, finding that individuals harboring DoV symptomatology and criminal rates that will benefit were more likely to further develop PTSD than the society. we are glimpsing the risks, we should those without DoV, although not significantly. In find the means. both cases, given that DoV could persist over years or even decades (Frijda, 1994; Gäbler & Maercker, 2011), time is a relevant factor as it was shown a Social reasons positive association among PTSD symptoms and feelings of revenge during adult life. Regarding this, Society means interrelations between different it must be said that feelings of revenge mean an groups with different interests, that is why people adaptative appraisal response at first victimization are often confronted and conflicts arise. Conflicts stages, becoming a problem if they are kept for a are part of human nature, conditioning our relations long time (Orth, Montada & Maercker, 2006). and our psychological state as well. within this But not only victims of war develop PTSD. psychological state, DoV could be an interesting Clinicians may regularly face this diagnose finding factor to take into account. intrusive and persistent DoV associated with fee - Bullying happens when a person or a group of lings of rage at perpetrators (Horowitz, 2001; Orth people address nasty and unpleasant comments to et al., 2006), and even though revenge fantasies another one (Olweus, 1993; whitney & Smith, have been discussed in the literature on PTSD 1993), when they beat him, kick him or threaten him (Milgram, Stern & Levin, 2006) and also on compli - (locked him in a room, sent offensives notes to him, cated grief or other stress response syndromes, and nobody talks to him) and the victim finds difficult to these fantasies may even include rage at the self and defend himself. There is lack of statistics, either lead to suicide, they are not adequately addressed in because not all cases are detected or because some the literature for general psychiatrists, however victims feel ashamed and hide the problem. A 386- (Horowitz, 2007). cases study conducted in 2006 by the Department of Thus, although it has been shown that the most Education of the Generalitat of Catalunya, stands prevalent crime in Spain, and many other crimes prevalence of alleged bullying at 10%; physical vio - worldwide ranging from sexual aggression to van - lence 6% and verbal violence 10%. A later study dalism, from homicide to pyromania can have (Nabuzoka, Rønning & Handegård, 2009) found revenge motivations underlying; while many inma - that out of a total of 575 students, those reporting tes harbor DoV and none of the five most internatio - neither having been victims nor witnessed bullying nally widespread instruments of risk assessment constituted 56.5% whereas the rest of the sample, used for releasing decisions take it as a necessary almost a half of the total, had been exposed to bull -

Anuario de Psicología Jurídica Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 NEREIDA BUENO 103 ying by peers either as witnesses (16.2%) or directly want to leave very clear that I am not responsible for experiencing bullying behaviour as victims (27.3%). the deaths that will occur, even though my fingers witnesses are relevant at this point because limits will be on the trigger ”. (BBC News, 2011). with victims are diffusing (Boney-McCoy & Similar scene can be found in adult world within Finkelhor, 1995), and they often suffer similar organizational groups (Morrill, 1995). Mobbing in symptoms as those of directed victims (Garbarino, working life involves hostile and unethical commu - 2001; Janson & Hazler, 2004), although there are nication which is directed in a systematic manner by some differences based on gender. while girls tend one or more individuals, mainly toward one indivi - to use social support as the preferred strategy to dual, who, due to mobbing, is pushed into a helpless deter the harassment and feeling better (Hunter, and defenseless position and held there by means of Boyle & warden, 2004), boys often use physical continuing mobbing activities. These actions occur aggression or harbor DoV towards the perpetrator. on a very frequent basis (at least once a week) and Thus, remembering Nabuzoka et. al., (2009), we over a long period of time (at least six months dura - will be saying that 27.3% of those reporting having tion). Because of the high frequency and long dura - been bullied plus that 16.2% defined as witnesses tion of hostile behavior, this maltreatment results in and often suffering similar symptoms to directed considerable mental, psychosomatic and social bullied, were likely to harbor DoV and thus, were misery (Leymann, 1996). Our legislation has no spe - likely to become future aggressors. cific law about it but the INSHT’S Prevention DoV in this context may be motivated to do Technical Note nº476 develops the concept of mob - something to stop bullying by the need to exert con - bing summing up some defining aspects and warning trol and be assertive and by their emotional reactions that the victim usually has feelings of rage, resent - to bullying (Craig, Pepler & Blais, 2007). The war - ment and DoV against the perpetrator (INSHT, 1998; ning that has to be made is that those who tend to Piñuel, 2001; Rodríguez-López, 2004). react vindictively, have high probability to become An increasing number of studies have explored aggressors (Kristensen & Smith, 2003), this way how subjects respond to perceived unfairness or per - affecting not only parts entailed but also the social sonal offenses within the organization (for example climate in class (Solomon, watson, Battistich, Aquino, Tripp & Bies, 2001; 2006; Skarlicki, van Schaps & Delucchi, 1996) given that the cycle of Jaarsveld y walker, 2008), given that revenge may violence is perpetuated. mediate some of the conflicts generated (wall & In fact, some tragic crimes at education centers in Callister, 1995), or even extreme behaviors in the which relation bullying-vengeance is present, are workplace, such as employee theft (Greenberg, well known. Seung-Hui Cho, before killing 32 peo - 1990), antisocial behavior (Robinson & O’Leary- ple in the massacre at Virginia Tech, was bullied by Kelly, 1998), workplace aggression (Folger & fellow high school students who mocked his shyness Skarlicki, 1998), and violence (Folger & Baron, and the strange way he talked. He left a manifesto- 1996). Although revenge is not always bad (Bies & like statement where he expresses rage, resentment Tripp, 1998), it often leads to violent responses, and desire to get even (NBC, 2007). Years later, resulting in perpetuating the cycle of violence (Pruitt wellington Menezes de Oliveira shot and killed 12 & Rubin, 1986). As it happens with bullying, mob - students at Tasso de Oliveira Municipal School and bed victim could turn into aggressor. Another then committed suicide (Daily Mail, 2011). Analysis current example is computer sabotage, result of a of the videotapes found yielded that he felt intensely vindictive attitude, sometimes aiming damaging for bullied as a child, and was determined to strike the company, sometimes for his/her own advantage. back: “ I hope this serves as a lesson, especially to For example, a recent fired employee may have those school officials who stood by with their arms said: “ I have deleted their hard disk because the crossed as students were being attacked, humiliated, fired me ”, or another one may have copied client ridiculed and who were being disrespected ,” (ABC data from the company list and started a new com - News, 2011) blaming bullies for his murders: “ I pany by himself. Software plagiarism is difficult to

Copyright 2012 by the Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid Anuario de Psicología Jurídica ISSN: 1133-0740 - http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/aj2012a9 Vol. 22, 2012 - Págs. 95-110 104 VENGEANCE wITH A VENGEANCE evidence and it may cost 3.000 euros (Cincodias, field: since being considered as a negative social 2009), so that many companies raise their expendi - motive in Miller Motivation Scale (Miller, 1985) tures, loose relevant information and their brand and later Frijda’s cognitive and emotional approach image may be affected. (1994), there is no deeply and operative definition of Just in case two prior social contexts where DoV what we consider vengeance and DoV are, as well as are often released was considered as infrequent and there is no clear literature on the differences that not related to all readers’ daily life, although there may exist among DoV, as cognition; and getting may be more contexts, last one tackled is revenge even, as action. So with our main parameter looking while driving. Most of us may have faced common as a ghostly and ethereal concept, little research can driving situations such as another driver ignoring be done, given that every researcher may consider rules of the road, tail-gating, horn-blowing, and his/her own definition and we will not be talking aggressive verbal responses (Deffenbacher, Getting about the same. My first conclusion is that we need & Lynch, 1994; Maiuro, 1998). Competitive driving to follow suit Frijda’s attempt and research recom - conditions could cause some drivers to operate their mendations (1994) so that we get a common defini - vehicles with a disregard for the safety of others. As tion of vengeance and DoV, as well as pointing the many commuters drive more aggressively, this may differences that may exist between other concepts cause others to retaliate, often jeopardizing their related such as retaliation, getting even or revenge. own safety. Indeed, a threat to one’s well-being can, And to demand this need, I have based my argument in the minds of many drivers, justify an even more in four reasons. aggressive response (wiesenthal, Henessy & First are cultural reasons. All along human his - Gibson, 2000). Precisely these last authors conside - tory, from ancient to current times, worldwide cultu - red the relevance that DoV and stress had while dri - res have engraved the urge to talk about the feeling ving and elaborated a Driving Vengeance of getting even and the satisfaction to retaliate, using Questionnaire to measure deviant driver’s attitudes, different words to refer to it. Decades talking about a pioneer and very first step through the exploration a concrete matter deserve the matter to be studied, of vengeance. and given that language has been used to understand Thus, since daily and tragic punctual episodes of universal and specific psychological aspects, in the violence at schools have been related with high case of revenge it would be desirable to pay atten - levels of DoV, and given that mobbing and conflicts tion to the linguistics, so we can approach to a com - at working places can derive in feelings of getting mon shared definition. The study of mythology, lite - even, in both cases swapping victims for aggressors, rature, art and other ways of human expression in increasing the probability of new violence with which revenge has largely appeared will be a great disadvantageous consequences for the community, it help in this duty as well, allowing us to know how may result of interest exploring the DoV to prevent our ancestors considered what vengeance was and further unpleasant situations and improve social cli - how the concept may have evolved. mates. Reducing competitive situations and contro - Second are judicial reasons. It has been shown lling stress while driving, may improve safety on the that the need to response when we are damaged is road and may decrease number of accidents. But apparently part of our human nature and this has ins - despite all of this, there is no major psychological or pired most penal legislation, although varying along empirical research that had studied the DoV enough. time. At first considered as an individual right, ven - geance later began to be bestowed to a third and objective party in order to avoid disproportionate Discussion responses and anthropological differences that we have evidenced from social differences among I am aware that I have been talking about DoV Samurai to noses cut in some Arabian countries. without firstly providing a definition of it. In my Therefore, firstly codes estimating and balancing opinion, this is one of the biggest deficiencies in this damage and punishments appeared, such as

Hammurabi Code. The retributive system gave way scales measuring DoV, better if including irrational to a restorative system, appearing money as a mean beliefs and beliefs regarding Justice scales, would be of compensation. Thus, aware of dangerous and vio - recommended to be done, so that psychiatrics, hospi - lent consequences of vengeance, laws have moved tals and prisons could have one more objective this feeling away trying this way to deter cycles of resource in their risk assessments. If a factor fre - response-counter response and protecting rights. quently related to violence is detected on time and Not only thinking about victims and offenders but prevention programs could be implemented, criminal also thinking about juries in order to do the best rate may be reduced, benefiting society. A psycholo - objective process, there has been some research gical model explaining the origin and maintenance of exploring how to create groups without social preju - DoV may help clinicians in finding therapeutic skills dices or emotional and vindictive bias that could addressed to improve perceived quality of life of influence decisions upon defendants. A feeling that patients, benefiting the individual. inspired laws and relevant changes to the concept of Fourth are social reasons. It has been shown that Justice since ancient times, as well as a feeling iden - both bullying and mobbing, as two types of harass - tified as an obstacle to fair processes would deserve ment, usually imply that victims and even witnesses further investigation. Comparative law and anthro - of violence harbor DoV towards the perpetrators, pological studies could provide abundant informa - sometimes turning the tables and becoming aggres - tion about the influence that vengeance and its de- sors (shooting, theft, computer sabotage…), perpe - sire have in a culture regarding its values, thus tuating the cycle of violence. Experiences with making comprehensible that the same crime could mediation in educative centers can reduce school have such different punishments in two countries. violence (Díaz-Aguado, 2006; Johnson & Johnson, Further research in creating assessment instruments 1999), increase problem solution skills and improve that allow configure juries as objectives as possible social climate in class (Boqué, 2002; Malik y Herraz, would benefit Justice and confidence of people in it. 2005). Relative success is guaranteed with these Moreover, another way of moving DoV away from interventions (Johnson & Johnson, 2004; Smith, forensic contexts, such as victim-offender mediation Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002), although there is has been thought about, may result a fruitful field of also evidence at the contrary. Apart from other social research, so that the victim could feel as a real part contexts, DoV is usual while driving. Some subjects of the judiciary system, allowing him/her to find tend to operate their vehicles with a disregard for the answers to his/her doubts and make the incident safety of others. As many commuters drive more understandable drawing preventive advises for the aggressively, this may cause others to retaliate, often future and may be forgiving the offender removing jeopardizing their own safety. There is a little rese - those ruminative DoV. On the other hand, offender arch in this, although a threat to one’s well-being can, would have the chance to regret and understand the in the minds of many drivers, justify an even more damage caused so that he/she may assume the punis - aggressive response (wiesenthal, Henessy & hment reducing his/her DoV about being imprisoned Gibson, 2000). In this sense, programs combining unfairly. stress control and coping DoV may prevent some Third are criminal and psychological reasons. accidents on the road. There is evidence of some psychological disorders Once every reason summarized, we can conclude prone to act vindictively as well as evidence of some that the study of DoV has been weakly explored crimes, many of them pretty common in Spain, that (Frijda, 1994; Vidmar, 2000) despite the benefits that usually have DoV underlying. Then, DoV becomes a it has in many ambits both for society and indivi - risk factor for criminality and recidivism, given that duals. Most research have been addressed exploring even inmates have also shown DoV although none forgiveness, as talking about DoV could be negative risk assessment instrument include any measure of it. or unfruitful. However, in other fields of research, Further research firstly defining the construct and interesting and profitable studies have been recently then elaborating reliable and valid instruments and made, such as social neurosciences (de Quervain,

Fischbacher, Treyer, Schelhammer, Schnyder, Buck ciones en 2010 . Madrid: Editorial Amnistía Inter- & Fehr, 2004; Singer, 2012), or comparative psycho - nacional (EDAI). logy and primatology (de waal, 1991; Jensen, Call & Aquino, K, Tripp, T. & Bies, R. (2001). How emplo - Tomasello, 2007; McCullough, 2008; Silk, 2007). yees respond to personal offense: The effec-ts of Two very fertile fields trying to find both neurobio - blame attribution, victim status, and offender sta - logy and adaptative roots of DoV that are stilled tus on revenge and reconciliation in the workpla - juvenile and should be deeply explored to answer ce. Journal of Applied Psychology , 86, 52-59. questions remaining as well as to improve our inte - Aquino K., Tripp, T., & Bies, R. (2006). Getting even grated knowledge about DoV. or moving on? Power, procedural justice, and types Finally, let me remember that I started the idea of of offense as predictors of revenge, forgiveness, this article reading comics of Batman. Disciplines reconciliation, and avoidance in organizations. that at first sight may appear unrelated to our object Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 653-668. of study, could finally find a place to work together. Bayer, C. P., Klasen, F., & Adam, H. (2007). Asso- Any source of ideas or new knowledge should not be ciation of trauma and PSTD symptoms with taken as inconsiderable if are able to enhance science. openness to reconciliation and feelings of reven - Only a multidisciplinary perspective may accomplish ge among former Ugandan and Congolese child the difficult task to understand as deeply as possible soldiers. Jama-journal of the american medical every matter of study. As it was attributed to Hinde, association , 298, 555 559. none of us could be competent in so many branches BBC News (2011). Brazil: Rio school gunman “mo- of knowledgment as Da Vinci and Darwin were. tivated by bullying ”. Retrieved March 7, 2012 However, despite the permanent need for specializa - from http://www.bbc.co.uk tion, we should not forget to promote links between Bies, R. J. & Tripp, T. M. (1998). The many faces of branches of science. we need to be prepared to inter - revenge: The good, the bad, and the ugly. In R. w. disciplinarity. That is, philology, literature, anthropo - Griffin, A. O’Leary-Kelly, & J. Collins (Eds.), logy, law, criminology, psychology, neuroscience and Monographs in organizational behavior and ethology are called to work together in the difficult industrial relations, 23. Dysfunctional behavior in task to define and explore DoV and vengeance itself. organizations: Part B. Non-violent dysfunctional Only with this common effort, we will be nearer to behavior (pp. 49-67). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. know when Batman will hang his costume. Boney-McCoy, S. & Finkelhor, D. (1995). Psycho- social sequelae of violent victimization in a natio - nal youth sample. Journal of Consulting and Acknowledgments Clinical Psychology, 63, 726-736. Boqué, M. C. (2002) Guía de mediación escolar. The effort of this article is inspired in the effort Barcelona: Octaedro. of H. Brownlee, S., McGraw, D., & Vest, J. (1997). The place for vengeance: many grieving families seek comfort and closure in the execution of a murde - References rer. US News and World Report , 122, 24-32. Cardozo, B. L., Kaiser, R., Gotway, C. A., & Agani, ABC News (2011). Brazil debates bullying in exa - F. (2003). Mental health, social functioning, and mining massacre . Retrieved March 7, 2012 from feelings of hatred and revenge of Kosovar http://abcnews.go.com Albanians one year after the war in Kosovo. Al-Krenawi A. & Graham J. R., (1999) Social work Journal of traumatic stress , 16, 351-360. intervention with Bedouin-Arab children in the Carroll, A. (2009). Are you looking at me? context of blood vengeance. Child Welfare , 78, Understanding and managing paranoid persona - 283-296. lity disorder. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, Amnesty International (2011). Condenas y ejecu - 15 , 40-48.

Chikanobu, Y. (1891) The history of the Soga bro - ture of 113 men convicted of sexual offences. thers . Retrieved March 9, 2012 from http://ccd- Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 65, 293-300. l.libraries.claremont.edu/cdm/singleitem/collec - Dutton, D. G. (2007) The abusive personality. tion/cyw/id/145 Violence and control in intimate relationships (2 nd Cincodias (2009). El sabotaje informático como ed.). New York: Guilford Press. venganza de los despedidos . Retrieved 28 Esbec, E. & Echeburúa E. (2010) Violenci a y tras - February, 2012 from http://www.cincodias.com tornos de la personalidad: implicaciones clínicas Costa, P. T., Jr. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised y forenses. Actas Especiales Psiquiatría, 38(5), NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and 249-261 NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Folger, R. & Baron, R. A. (1996). Violence and hos - Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Reso- tility at work: A model of reactions to perceived urces, Inc. injustice. In G. R. Vandenbos & E. Q. Bulato Counts D. A. (1987). Female suicide and wife (Eds.), Workplace violence (pp. 51-85). washin- abuse: a cross-cultural perspective. Suicide Life gton, DC: American Psychological Asso-ciation. Threatening Behavior , 17(3), 194-204. Folger, R. & Skarlicki, D. P. (1998). A popcorn Craig, w., Pepler, D., & Blais, J. (2007). Respon- metaphor for employee aggression. In R. w. ding to bullying: what works? School Psychology Griffin, A. O’Leary-Kelly, & J. Collins (Eds.), International, 28, 465-477. Monographs in organizational behavior and Daily mail (2011). Fleeing for their lives: Survivors industrial relations: Vol. 23. Dysfunctional beha - of Rio school massacre seen on CCTV sprinting vior in organizations: Part A. Violent and deviant away from class where killer opened fire. behavior (pp. 43-81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://www.daily - Frijda, N. (1987). Emotion, cognitive structure, and mail.co.uk action tendency. Cognition and emotion , 1, 115-143. Deffenbacher, J. L., Getting, E. R., & Lynch, R. S. Doi:10.1080/02699938708408043 (1994). Development of a driving anger scale. Frijda, N. (1994). The Lex Talionis: On vengeance. Psychological Reports, 74, 83-91 In S. van Goozen; N. Van de Poll & J.L. Sergeant De Quervain, D. J., Fischbacher, U., Treyer, V., (Eds.) Essays on emotion theory . New Jersey: Schelhammer, M., Schnyder, U., Buck, A., & Erlbaum Associates. Fehr, E. (2004). The neural basis of altruistic Gäbler, I. & Maercker, A. (2011). Revenge pheno - punishment. Science , 305, 1254-1258. mena and posttraumatic stress disorder in former De waal F. B. M. (1991). The chimpanzee’s sense of East german political prisoners. Journal of social regularity and its relation to the human Nervous Mental Disease, 199(5), 287-294. sense of justice. American Behavioral Scientist , Garbarino, J. (2001). An ecological perspective on 34, 335-349. the effects of violence on children. Journal of Díaz-Aguado, M. J. (2006). Del acoso escolar a la Community Psychology (Special Issue: The cooperación en las aulas. Madrid: Prentice Impact of Violence on Children at Home, Hall. Community, and National Levels, 29, 361-378. Douglas, K. S., webster, C. D., Hart, S. D., Eaves, Generalitat de Catalunya (2006). La mediación D., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (Eds.), (2001). HCR-20: escolar como instrumento de participación y pa- Violence risk management companion guide . cificación en los centros educativos de Catalun- Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada/Tampa, FL: ya . Barcelona: Departamento de Educación. Ge- Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute, Simon neralitat de Catalunya. Fraser University/Department of Mental Health González Guerrero, L. (2007). Características descrip - Law & Policy, University of South Florida. tivas de los delitos cometidos por sujetos con trastor - Dunsieth, N. w., Nelson, E. B., Brusman-Lovins, L. nos de la personalidad: motivaciones subyacentes, A., Holcomb, J. L., Beckman, D. A., welge, J. A., “modus operandi” y relaciones víctima-victimario. ... Mcelroy, S.L. (2004) Psychiatric and legal fea - Psicopatología clínica, legal y forense , 7, 19-40.

Greenberg, J. (1990). Employee theft as a reaction to 476. Retrieved February 27, 2012 fromhttp://- underpayment inequity: The hidden cost of pay www.insht.es cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 561-568. Janson, G. R. & Hazler, R. J. (2004). Trauma reac - Grimal, P. (1979). Diccionario de mitología griega tions of bystanders and victims to repetitive abuse y romana . Barcelona: Editorial Paidós. experiences. Violence and Victims, 19 , 239-255. Grimal, P. (1989). La mitología griega . Barcelona: Jensen, K., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Editorial Paidós Studio 75. Chimpanzees are vengeful but not spiteful. Na- Hamama-Raz Y., Solomon Z., Cohen A., & Laufer tional Academy of Sciences , 104, 13046-13050. A.. (2008). PTSD symptoms, forgiveness, and Doi:10.1073/pnas.0705555104 revenge among Israeli Palestinian and Jewish ado - Johnson, D. w. & Johnson, R. T. (1999) Cómo redu - lescents. Journal of Trauma Stress , 21, 521-529. cir la violencia en las escuelas . Buenos Aires: Doi:10.1002/jts.20376 Paidós. Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Scott, T., & Helmus, Johnson, D. w. & Johnson, R. T. (2004). Implemen- L. (2007). Assessing the risk of sexual offenders ting the “Teaching students to be peacemakers on community supervision: The Dynamic program”. Theory into practice, 43(1), 68-79. Supervision Project (Corrections Research User Kane, B. (1940). The legend of the Batman . Detec- Report No. 2007-05). Ottawa, ON: Public Safety tive Comics. Spring Issue. Nº1. Canada. Kristensen, S. & Smith, P. K. (2003). The use of Hennessy, D. & Schwartz, S. (2007). Personal predic - coping strategies by Danish children classed as tors of spectator aggression at little league baseball bullies, victims, bully/victims, and not involved, games. Violence Victimology , 22, 205-215. in response to different (hypothetical) types of Hennessy, D. & wiesenthal, D. L. (2004) Age and bullying. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vengeance as predictors of mild driver aggres - 44, 479-488. sion, Violence Victimology , 19, 469-477. Kropp, P. R., Hart, S. D., webster, C. D., & Eaves, D. Ho, R., FosterLee, L., FosterLee, R., & Crofts, N. (1995). Manual for the Spousal Assault Risk (2002). Justice versus vengeance: motives underl - Assessment Guide (2 nd edition). Bristish Columbia: ying punitive judgments. Personality and Indivi- The British Columbia Institute on Family Violence. dual Differences 33, 365-377. Kunst, M. J. (2011). PTSD symptom clusters, fee - Holbrook M. I. (1997). Anger management training lings of revenge, and perceptions of perpetrator in prison inmates. Psychological Reports , 81, punishment severity in victims of interpersonal 623-626. violence. International Journal of Law and Horowitz M. J. (2001). Stress Response Syndromes: Psychiatry . 34, 362-367. Personality Styles and Interventions (4th ed. ). Leue, A., Borchard, B., & Hoyer, J. (2004) Mental Northvale, NJ: Aronson. disorders in a forensic sample of sexual offenders. Horowitz, M. J. (2007). Understanding and amelio- European Psychiatry, 19 (3), 123-130. rating revenge fantasies in psychotherapy. Ame- Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Feldman, L. rican Journal of Psychiatry , 164, 24-27. (2008). Handbook of emotions . New York: The Hunter, S. C., Boyle, J. M. E., & warden, D. (2004). Guilford Press. Help seeking amongst child and adolescent vic - Leymann, H. (1996). The Content and Development tims of peer-aggression and bullying: The influ- of Mobbing at work. European Journal of Work ence of school-stage, gender, victimization, and Organizational Psychology , 5(2) , 165-184. appraisal, and emotion. British Journal of Edu- Maiuro, R. D. (1998). Rage on the road. Recovery, cational Psychology, 74, 375-390. 9(2) , 8-9. INE (2012). Estadística de condenados/Estadística Malik, B. & Herraz, M. (2005). Mediación intercultu - de menores (code IOE 30466). Madrid: INE. ral: bases conceptuales e introducción. In B. Malik Retrieved from www.ine.es March 9, 2012. y M. Herraz (coords.), Mediación intercultural en INSHT (1998). Nota Técnica Preventiva número contextos socio-educativos . Málaga: Aljibe.

Marshall w. L. (2007). Diagnostic issues, multiple Novaco, R. w. (1991). Aggression on roadways. In paraphilias, and comorbid disorders in sexual R. Baenninger (Ed.), Targets of violence and offenders: Their incidence and treatment. Aggre- aggression. (pp. 253-326). North-Holland: Else- ssion and Violent Behavior , 12, 16-35. Doi: vier Science Publisher. 10.1016/j.awb.2006.03.001 Novaco, R. w. (2010). Anger and psychopathology. Mazzola, R. F. (2007). Reconstruction of the nose-a In M. Potegal, G. Stemmler, C.Spielberger (Eds.), historical review. Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir , International handbook of anger. Constituent and 39, 181-188. concomitant biological, psychological, and social Mcclelland, R. T. (2010). The pleasures of revenge. processes (pp. 465-497). New York: Springer. Journal Of Mind And Behavior , 31 (3-4) , 195-235. Nygaard, R. L. (1994). ‘‘Vengeance is mine’’ says McCullough, M. E. (2008). Beyond revenge. The the Lord. America, 171, 6-9. evolution of the forgiveness instinct . San Fran- Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying in school: What we cisco, California: Jossey Bass. know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell. Mckee, I. R. & Feather, N. T. (2008). Revenge, retri - Orth, U., Montada, L., & Maercker, A. (2006). bution, and values: Social attitudes and punitive Feelings of revenge, retaliation motive and pos - sentencing, Social Justice Research , 21, 138-163. ttraumatic stress reactions in crime victims. Menander, M. (2005). The ethics of Confucius . New Journal of interpersonal violence , 21, 229-243. York: Cossimo Classics Sacred Texts. Pardini, D. (2011). Perceptions of social conflicts Milgram, N., Stern, M., & Levin, S. (2006). Re- among incarcerated adolescents with callous une - venge versus forgiveness/forbearance in response motional traits: ‘You’re going to pay. It’s going to to narrative-simulated victimization. Journal of hurt, but I don’t care. Journal of child psychology Psychology , 140, 105-119. and psychiatry , 52, 248-255. Doi:10.1111/j.1469- Miller, H. J. (1985). The Miller Motivation Scale: a 7610.2010.02336.X new counseling and research tool . Regina: Meta Piñuel, I. (2001). Mobbing. Cómo sobrevivir al acoso Development. psicológico en el trabajo . Santander: SalTérrae. Mills, D. E. (1976). Kataki-uchi: The Practice of Porporino, F., Doherty, P., & Sawatsky, T. (1987). Blood-Revenge in Pre-Modern Japan. Modern Characteristics of homicide victimizations in Asian Studies , 10 , 525-542. Canadian federal correctional institutions during Moore, A. & Lloyd, D. (1988). The absolute V for two historical periods: 1967-1978 and 1979 1984. vendetta . Dc Comics. Spanish edition: V de Ven- International Journal of Offender Therapy and detta. Barcelona: Editorial Planeta de Agostini. Comparative Criminology , 31, 125-136. Vértigo, 2010. Pruitt, D. G. & Rubin, J. Z. (1986). Social conflict: Morrill, C. (1995). The executive way. Chicago: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement. New York: University of Chicago Press. Random House. Nabuzoka, D., Rønning, J. A., & Handegård B. H. Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cor- (2009). Exposure to bullying, reactions and mier, C. A. (2006). Violent offenders: Appraising psychological adjustment of secondary school and managing risk. The law and public policy students Educational Psychology , 29, 849-866. (2nd Ed.). washington DC: American Psycholo- NBC (2007). High school classmates say gunman gical Association . was bullied. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from Quinsey, V. L., Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (1995). http://www.msnbc.msn.com Actuarial Prediction of Sexual Recidivism. Ney, P. (1987). The treatment of abused children: the Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 85-105. natural sequence of events. American Journal of Robinson, S. L. & O’Leary-Kelly, A. (1998). Psychotherapy , 41, 391-401. Monkey see, monkey do: The influence of work Noreik, K., & Grünfeld B. (1990). Forensic psychia - groups on the antisocial behavior of employees. tric examination of arsonists, Tidsskr Nor Lae- Academy of Management Journal, 41, 658-672. geforen, 110, 1820-1822. Rodríguez-López, P. (2004). El acoso moral en el

trabajo. La responsabilidad en el acoso moral en Sprober, N. & Fegert, J. M (2010). Rampage: And el trabajo . Madrid: Dijusa. now I take revenge! - Is there a correlation betwe - Sánchez-Bernardos, M. L. (1997). Los trastornos de en (cyber-)bullying and rampages in schools? la personalidad y el modelo de los Cinco factores. Nervenheilkunde , 29, 442-445. Relaciones empíricas. Clínica y Salud , 6, 175- Stone, M. H. (2001). Serial sexual homicide: Biolo- 188. gical, psychological, and sociological aspects. Scully, D. & Marolla, J. (1985). “Riding the bull at Journal of Personality Disorders , 15 , 1-18. Gilley’s”: Convicted rapists describe the rewards Stuckless, N. & Goranson, R. (1992). The Vengean- of rape. Social Problems , 32 , 251-263. ce Scale: Development of a Measure of Attitudes Silk, J. B. (2007). Chimps don’t just get mad, they get Toward Revenge , Journal of Social Behavior and even. National Academy of Sciences , 104, 13537- Personality , 7, 25. 13538. Doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.109 Stuckless, N., Ford, B. D., & Vitelli, R. (1995), Singer, T. (2012). The past, present and future of Vengeance, anger and irrational beliefs in inma - social neuroscience: A European perspective. tes: A caveat regarding social desirability. Per- Neuroimage (in press). sonality and Individual Differences , 18, 1-6. Doi: Skarlicki, D. P., van Jaarsveld, D. D., & walker D. 10.2466/pr0.1988.62.3.855 D. (2008). Getting even for customer mistreat - Terris, w. & Jones, J. (1982). Psychological factors ment: the role of moral identity in the relationship related to employees’s theft in the convenience between customer interpersonal injustice and store industry. Psychological Reports , 51, 1219- employee sabotage. Journal of Applied Psycho- 1238. logy , 93, 1335-1347. Turner, C. & Cashdan, S. (1988). Perceptions of Smith, S. w., Daunic, A. P., Miller, M. D., & college students’ motives for shoptlifting. Psy- Robinson, T. R. (2002). Conflict resolution and chological Reports , 62 , 855-862. peer mediation in middle schools: Extending the Vidmar, N. (2000). Retribution and revenge. In J. conflict resolution process and outcome knowled - Sanders&V. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Handbook of jus - ge base. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 567- tice research in law (pp. 31-63). New York: 586. Doi:10.1080/00224540209603919 Kluwer Solomon, D., watson, M., Battistich, V., Schaps, E., wall, J. A. (Jr.) & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict & Delucchi, K. (1996). Creating classrooms that and its management. Journal of Management, 21, students experience as communities. American 515-558. Doi:10.1080/001318893030350101 Journal of Community Psychology, 24 , 719-748. whitney, I. & Smith, P. K. (1993). A survey of the Solomon, R. C., (1994). Sympathy and vengeance: nature and extent of bullying in junior/ middle the role of the emotions in justice. In S. van and secondary schools. Educational Research, Goozen, N. Van de Poll & J. L. Sergeant (Eds.) 35, 3-25. Essays on emotion theory . New Jersey: Erlbaum wiesenthal, D. (1990). Psychological aspects of Associates. vandalism. In R. Takens (Ed.), European perspec - Sonis, J., Gibson, J. L, de Jong, J. T. V. M., Field, N. tives in social psychology (vol. 3) (pp. 279-297). P., Hean, S., & Komproe, I. (2009). Probable Essex: wiley. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Disability in wiesenthal, D. L., Hennessy, D., & Gibson, P. Cambodia Associations with Perceived Justice, (2000). The driving vengeance questionnaire Desire for revenge, and Attitudes Toward the (DVQ): the development of a scale to measure Khmer Rouge Trials. Jama-Journal of the Ame- deviant driver’s attitudes. Violence and Victims , rican medical association , 302, 527-536. 15 (2), 115-136.

Manuscrito recibido: 09/03/2012 Revisión recibida: 21/04/2012 Aceptado: 11/05/2012