ORIGIN Such nature-centered types of spirituality can be contrasted with otherworldly religions that Beginnings emphasize a spirituality reality that is "higher" or "better" than nature; examples of such Written by: Carl McColman transcendental/otherworldly faiths would include mainstream forms of Christianity and Islam. When Paganism is simultaneously a prehistoric and postmodern religion-it is as ancient as the fertility Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe and later the Americas, it contributed to the symbols associated with the veneration of gods and goddesses tens of thousands of years ago, while suppression or marginalization of many indigenous nature-based spiritual practices. However, even in its newest forms have emerged as recently as the mid-20th century. Broadly speaking, Paganism regions where otherworldly religions became dominant, old forms of nature worship persisted, often encompasses two key characteristics: 1) religious and spiritual practices concerning the worship of, or as folkloric practices. One example of this is the veneration of water sources in Ireland, where "holy devotion to, the earth, the natural world, and/or the manifest physical universe; and/or 2) belief in wells" originally sacred to local pagan deities were later Christianized and became centers of devotion spiritual beings: goddesses, gods, nature spirits (fairies, elves, power animals), and ancestral spirits. to the Virgin Mary or other saints. Folk beliefs in fairies and elves also may be vestigial remains of Not all expressions of Paganism incorporate both of these characteristics; it is possible to be a nature earlier nature-based spirituality. mystic without worshiping the goddesses or the gods, and vice versa. Many of the gods and spirits venerated by Pagans have strong ties to nature. (For example, "power animals" are helpful spirits Nearly all interpretations of ancient Pagan religions are contested within scholarly circles. Although inshamanic practice, each one related to an animal present in the physical world.) practitioners of modern forms of Paganism appeal to the past to legitimize their practice, some By their very nature, prehistoric religions have left behind no written records, but are known by scholars argue that these contemporary expressions of nature-centered religion are essentially new archaeological remains. Throughout the world, graveyards and ceremonial sites reveal evidence of religions, formed in response to issues and concerns of their day and related to the past only insofar magical practices, sacrificial rites, and the veneration of gods, goddesses, and/or mythic beings. as they look to archaeological and mythological data for inspiration. Paleolithic figurines of obese or pregnant women, such as those discovered in Dolní Vestonice in the Czech Republic, or Willendorf in Austria, are dated as far back as 22,000-29,000 B.C.E. Such figures Between the 18th and the 20th centuries, a variety of new religious movements have emerged, have been interpreted as fertility symbols and goddess symbols; such interpretations suggest that particularly in Europe and North America, religions that are to various degrees based on Pagan prehistoric humanity engaged in religious activities that were oriented toward nature, the earth, and practices such as nature veneration or goddess devotion. Examples of these would include modern the feminine (as opposed to later worship of masculine sky gods or transcendent deities); however, Druidism, Wicca, and revivals of ethnic religions (such as Asatru). These revivals/recreations of such speculation can never be conclusively proven. ancient Paganism are properly called contemporary Paganism ("new paganism"). Other archaeological evidence suggests early magical/religious practices, often with a strong focus of nature symbolism. For example, an ornately decorated silver cauldron, found near Gundestrup, Influences Denmark and believed to be of Celtic origin and dated to the 1st century B.C.E., includes a variety of In its ancient forms, Paganism had one key influence: nature itself. But in its rebirth in the 18th-20th magical, religious, and natural symbolism. Particularly striking is a symbol of a man sitting in a cross- centuries as various new or revived forms of nature-centered spirituality, Paganism in fact has been legged position, wearing a crown of antlers, and holding a torc (a ceremonial neck ornament) in one influenced by a variety of sources, not all explicitly religious or spiritual. hand and a serpent in the other. This image has variously been interpreted as a representation of a fertility god, Cernunnos (literally, ‘the horned one'), or of a priest or druid who engaged in magical In The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (2000), Ronald Hutton traces rites that involved the guidance of animal spirits. literary, social, cultural, folkloric, and mythological antecedents to the writings of Gerald Gardner, who is widely regarded as the single most influential figure in the emergence of British witchcraft, or Mythologies from around the world often include stories of gods and goddesses with strong ties to Wicca, in the 1950s. Since Wicca is the largest part of modern Paganism, its influences have been the natural world, including deities associated with the earth, like Gaia or Rhea (Greek), Nerthus traced to the largest extent. (Germanic), or Nantosuelta (Gaulish). Many deities were associated with particular elements of nature, such as the Greek gods Zeus (sky/thunder), Poseidon (the sea), and Demeter (grain/harvest). When Gardner published his book Witchcraft Today in 1954, he probably was not inventing his tale of a surviving "witch cult" in England, but neither was he reporting on a genuine "coven" of witches that Paganism has such strong ties with nature and physical reality that among many practitioners has persisted for centuries as a hidden alternative to Christianity. Rather, Gardner drew on a variety Paganism is also understood as "Nature Religion." In 279 B.C.E., a Gaulish chieftain, Brennus, led a of sources in creating the new fertility religion known as Wicca. raiding party into Greece and sacked Delphi, the seat of a renowned oracle. According to the 1st-  Literary adoration of nature - Modern forms of nature spirituality emerged out of the Romantic century Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, when Brennus entered a Greek temple and saw idols of movement of the 19th century. Romantic poets venerated and celebrated nature, often in gods in human form, he laughed. Brennus, and apparently all the Gauls, seems to have understood reaction to the unpleasant side of industrialization. This eventually contributed to the the gods and goddesses not as projections of human personalities, but as embodiments of various establishment of organizations devoted to respect for nature (such as the Boy Scouts) but also to forces of nature. increased interest in ancient forms of religion as means for interacting with the natural world in a spiritual way.  Romantic interest in primitive religion - Certainly vestigial forms of indigenous European  Ceremonial magic and Freemasonry- Many of the ceremonies of Gardner's witch coven drew Paganism could be deduced from folklore as well as certain folk practices. Veneration of water at upon rituals practiced by established secret societies of his day, including Freemasonry and holy wells, ceremonial bonfires during seasonal festivals, and the "cunning man" traditions of folk ceremonial magic groups like the Order of the Golden Dawn. healers and diviners, all point to religious and spiritual sensibilities that run counter to the prevailing Christian faith in England. Likewise, interest in the "medicine men" and the indigenous Although other traditions of Paganism have had different influences (for example, the myth of the religions of North America and Africa inspired those of European ancestry to investigate (or, burning times, i.e., the witch persecution, typically is of little importance to Celtic Reconstructionists perhaps, to re-create) their own primal traditions. or Odinists), this variety of influences serves as an example of how diverse the factors were that  Speculations of a Great Mother Goddess cult in antiquity - By the early 21st century, the concept contributed to modern revivals or recreations of the Pagan path. of one single Great Mother Goddess had fallen out of scholarly favor, but in the late 19th and early 20th century it was a popular idea. Some scholars promoted the idea, while the poet and novelist Founders Robert Graves created his own idiosyncratic vision of Goddess religion in his highly influential book Paganism has no overall founding figure (such as Krishna, the Buddha, Jesus Christ, or Muhammad) The White Goddess (1966). The Great Mother Goddess emerged as an attractive alternative to the who functions as an object of worship or veneration. Because ancient Paganism is prehistoric in overly male image of God promoted by the Abrahamic religions; furthermore, since the one God origin, key figures from the beginnings of this religious path are lost to the mists of time. However, was associated with heaven and with spirit, the "One Goddess" took on a complementary role as various traditions and lineages within the Pagan world can be traced to one or more key visionaries emblematic of matter and the earth. or leaders who founded (or popularized) his or her particular community. It would be inaccurate,  The culture of "Merrie England" - One way in which Romanticism flourished in England was however, to see any one of these figures as a "founder" for the overall nature religion community. through a nostalgic celebration of English folklore and customs, some of which may well have had An example for this would be Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), the British author whose books Witchcraft ancient roots but others of which could have been more recent in origin. May Day celebrations Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959), as well as his ritual writings, are largely credited (particularly the Maypole), Morris Dancing, Yuletide customs, fairy lore, druidism, and various with the creation-or rebirth-of British witchcraft (also known as Wicca).Gardner himself maintained other seasonal festivals all became popular, in part, because of their purported link to a nostalgic that he was initiated into a pre-existing secret community of witches who were practicing a Pagan understanding of the past. For Gardner and other advocates of nature spirituality, all of these religion (and not devil-worship); others insist that Wicca as it exists today is largely the creation of folkloric practices had an explicitly religious dimension to them - they were seen as embedded in Gardner and his associates.That said, many groups of witches and Wiccans pay no allegiance to ancient British Paganism. Gardner at all; furthermore, among other Pagans such as Druids, Celtic Reconstructionists, Odinists,  Anthropological speculation about witchcraft - Another by-product of Romanticism was an devotees to Hellenic or Egyptian deities, and other practitioners who do not identify as Wiccans or interest in occultism and supernatural phenomena, including Theosophy, Spiritualism, and witches, Gardner has little or no influence. ceremonial magic. As the age of revolution, the 19th century was also marked by hostility toward With this caveat in mind, Paganism, like any spiritual tradition, has numerous contributors who have Christianity as the religion of the establishment. In this context, scholars began to speculate about shaped the many forms that it takes today. The following list of individuals represent a sampling of the true nature of witchcraft as suppressed by Christianity, particularly in late medieval and early some of the many writers, teachers, and practitioners who are renowned for their impact on the modern periods. Researchers like Henry Charles Lea, Jules Michelet, Charles Godfrey Leland, and continuing development of the overall modern Pagan movement. These individuals represent a Margaret Murray helped fashion a new scholarly consensus in which witchcraft as persecuted by variety of specific nature-based, polytheistic, and goddess-oriented spiritual traditions, including Christianity became seen not as the practice of devil worship, but rather as the vestigial remains of Gardnerian Wicca, Alexandrian Wicca, Dianic witchcraft, contemporary Druidism, core shamanism, authentic pre-Christian European religion. and Norse religion.  A romantic re-visioning of the witch persecutions of early modern Europe - Following the new Alexander Rud Mills (1885-1964) founded the First Anglecyn Church of Odin in Australia in 1936, a scholarly consensus about the meaning of witchcraft, the witch trials of Europe became forerunner of the 20th-century revival of Norse paganism. Although today his religious vision is seen interpreted as a form of religious persecution, in which the dominant faith (Christianity) as too heavily influenced by Christianity, he is regarded as a contributor to later, more authentic, systematically attacked the weaker "old religion" (ancient European Paganism). This shift in expressions of Heathenry. Mills is the author of The Odinist Religion (1939) and The Call of Our perception changed the image of the witches of Europe from criminal sorceresses to heroic Ancient Nordic Religion (1957). victims. In 1784, German scholar Gottfried Christian Voigt theorized that nine million people Ross Nichols (1902-1972) founded the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids in 1964, which (unlike (mostly women) had been killed during the European witch persecutions - a figure that became previous Druid revivalist groups) began to incorporate more explicitly pagan elements into the widely accepted among Wiccans and other Pagans until the 1990s, when scholars began to widely group's practice, including an emphasis on Celtic mythology. He developed the eight-festival calendar question that figure. In all likelihood, only 40,000 - 90,000 people were killed for allegedly being that was adopted by various other Pagans. An anthology of his writings was published posthumously witches (still a horrific number). as The Book of Druidry (1975). Doreen Valiente (1922-1999) was one of several women who functioned as a High Priestess with Gerald Gardner; she also participated in another influential coven in the 1960s, the Clan of Tubal Cain. By the 1970s Valiente was renowned as a leading writer on traditional witchcraft.She is now originally written by Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente, which functions as an important widely credited as authoring or co-authoring with Gardner the Charge of the Goddess, one of the instructional and devotional text within many forms of Wicca. However, no text has any sort of most popular Wiccan ritual texts. "canonical" status; in other words, no text is regarded as authoritative or absolute. Inspired writings, Carlos Castaneda (1925-1998) authored several controversial books that describe his alleged studies like all other forms of human culture, are regarded by Pagans as expressions of humanity's with Don Juan, a Yaqui "shaman." Despite that fact that the authenticity of Castaneda's writings are experience as part of the overall cosmos, and therefore may have relative merit, but not absolute contested, his books have sold over eight million copies and helped to create a popular authority. understanding of the "shaman" as an indigenous spiritual elder who can initiate others into the spiritual mysteries of nature. Generally speaking, Pagans treat all sacred writings from other religious traditions in a similar way: no Alex Sanders (1926-1988) established his own lineage of Wicca, the Alexandrian Tradition, which text is above criticism, but any text may be respected or even revered for whatever wisdom it might incorporated more elements of ceremonial magic into its rituals than Gardnerian witchcraft.A leading contain. Likewise, some Pagans may embrace texts that are not generally regarded as "sacred," public witch in London in the 1960s, Sanders initiated several influential figures into the craft, nevertheless finding inspiration in such writings because of their inherent beauty or wisdom. An including the writers Janet and Stewart Farrar. example of this is W. Y. Evan-Wentz' The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries, an early 20th-century Michael Harner (b. 1929) founded the Foundation for Shamanic Studies, an institution that teaches compendium of fairy lore that some Pagans embrace as containing evidence of vestigial pre-Christian "core shamanism," a distillation of general principles of indigenous magico-religious spirituality from beliefs. tribal cultures around the world. He is the author of The Way of the Shaman (1980), detailing his own experiences with tribal spiritual elders in the Amazon rainforest. Many forms of Paganism foster a deep appreciation for mythology, particularly polytheistic or Zsuzsanna Budapest (b. 1940) was one of six women who founded the Susan B. Anthony Coven in shamanistic tales and folklore. Thus, anthologies of myths and legends - or interpretations and 1971, now generally regarded as the birth of feminist or Dianic witchcraft (after the Greek Goddess commentaries on mythology - are essential texts for many practitioners. This includes primary texts Diana). Budapest has written numerous books on witchcraft and feminist spirituality, notably The (such as the Irish Book of Invasions or the writings of Hesiod) as well as later retellings of myth Feminist Book of Lights and Shadows (1975) and The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries (1989). (Bullfinch's Mythology or Evangeline Walton's novellas based on the Welsh myths of the Mabinogion) Isaac Bonewits (1949-2010) established a Pagan Druid organization, Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid and even popular spiritual or psychological commentaries on the myths (such as Jean Shinoda Bolen's Fellowship (ADF), which promotes a more scholarly approach to Paganism (and which accepts all Goddesses in Every Woman). Myths are important for creating a shared identity among varieties of Indo-European Paganism, not just Celtic Druidism). He authored several books, most contemporary Pagans, as well as creating a common language for shared ritual practices or even notably Real Magic (1972). shared cosmological beliefs. Starhawk (Miriam Simos) (b. 1951) is the author of the highly influential book The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess (1979) and the founder of the Reclaiming Coven Likewise, the Pagan movement that emerged in the late 20th century featured a large number of in San Francisco. Starhawk articulated both the political as well as the spiritual implications of writers whose works have been accepted as authoritative expressions of the beliefs and practices of witchcraft in her writing, and is as well known for her political activism as her religious authority. various forms of nature veneration, modern polytheism, goddess spirituality, and other types of Edred Thorsson(pen name of Stephen Flowers) (b. 1953) is a leading writer of books on the contemporary Paganism. Some of these authors include Gerald Gardner, Doreen Valiente, Raymond spirituality of the Runes and the religion of the ancient Norse. His books include Futhark: A Handbook Buckland, Starhawk, Scott Cunningham, Diane Stein, Isaac Bonewits, Patricia Monaghan, Kveldulf of Rune Magic (1984) and A Book of Troth (1989). Gundarsson, Emma Restall Orr, Ronald Hutton, and Marija Gimbutas, among many others. None of This list is partial, incomplete, and is not intended to be comprehensive or universal. Because most these writers commands anywhere near universal authority within the Pagan community - each has forms of Paganism are decentralized and emphasize personal spiritual experience rather than his or her own following, as well as others who criticize or reject their work. Rather than coalescing religious dogma or doctrines, founding figures play a much smaller role in most Pagan paths than do around one particular teacher or tradition and demanding conformity to the same, Paganism thrives the founders of other religious traditions. in its own "bio-diversity," which means no writing (or authority) is universally accepted.

Sacred Texts Ultimately, practitioners of nature religion generally assert that nature (as encountered or Unlike religions where a sacred text (such as the Bible, the Quran, or the Bhagavadgita) is accepted by understood through personal experience) is the final "authority" that trumps the opinion or wisdom adherents as a source of authority, Pagan communities generally not only have no sacred text, but of any other human being. "Nature," it might added, can be encountered on three levels: as the often are suspicious of the very idea of "scripture." human body, as the external world of non-human nature, and finally as the cosmos itself expressed through the solar and lunar cycles of the year. The idea that final or absolute truth could be contained within a written text or series of texts has no support within the Pagan community. This is not to say that the written word is always rejected out "When in doubt, consult your nearest tree," says Isaac Bonewits, in regard to the question of how to of hand; some writings are held in esteem by various groups. One example is Charge of the Goddess, determine the merit of books on druidism. This comment, while flippant, reveals a typical perspective in the nature religion community - that nature, which includes one's own intuition and personal the sense that Christianity or Buddhism is, then does Paganism deserve the same protections preferences and values, is always to be preferred over "dogma," which in this context means the afforded to all religions by the second amendment of the U.S. Constitution? codified beliefs or teachings of someone else, especially as found in a book. While this leads to a Part of the challenge in studying Pagan identity is trying to understand and respect the diversity degree of anti-authoritarianism and individualism within the Pagan world, the consensus is that the within the Pagan community. Paganism, Witchcraft, Wicca, Druidism, Shamanism, Hellenic or Pagan community as a whole is self-correcting in terms of rejecting beliefs, practices, and values that Egyptian Religion, Asatru, Odinism, Heathenism - each of these concepts are understood in many are harmful or useless. different ways, by practitioners, outside observers, and detractors. For example, many practitioners have strong (and varied) beliefs regarding the difference between Wicca and Witchcraft - some Similar to how practitioners of other faiths will appeal to passages in their sacred texts to justify their regard Wicca as a dilution of "true" Witchcraft, while others see Wicca as a religion whereas beliefs or actions, adherents of many Pagan traditions will often appeal to natural phenomena, Witchcraft is limited to magical practice. Similar tensions exist between the understanding of science, personal experience, or (the closest thing to sacred scripture) mythology. For example, Paganism and Witchcraft, or between Paganism and Heathenism. nearly all Pagans reject the idea of belief in a single, masculine deity, by pointing to the simple fact that nearly all animals include two genders, male and female, which would then necessitate that God This leads to a number of important questions about the relationships between religion, folk (or the gods) could never be limited to just one sex. practices, and the validity of new spiritualities.When no verifiable lineage or tradition exists, is it valid to speak of a "spiritual" or symbolic tradition (as Philip Carr-Gomm, the current chief of the Order of "Reading" nature (or science or personal experience), therefore, is a tool for cultivating one's own Bards, Ovates and Druids, claims is the case for the relationship betweenthe druids of antiquity and individual spiritual wisdom, similar to how adherents of other faiths will read their sacred texts for their modern imitators)? inspiration. Because of the diversity within the Pagan communities, these kinds of reflections find no consensus even among the practitioners, let alone outside observers. Due to this wide variety of beliefs and Historical Perspectives viewpoints regarding questions of identity and authority, contemporary Paganism - regardless of its With no single sacred text, no unifying teacher, avatar, or prophet, and no pilgrimage site revered by relationship to the past - qualifies as a "post-modern" religion in the sense that, as a whole, it practitioners the world over, Paganism - as a type of human spiritual activity - is as diverse and varied eschews any claims for overall or objective truth, in favor of "truth" as residing only in personal as the biosphere itself.While most Pagans regard this decentralized diversity as a strength, it leads to experience or in socially constructed contexts (which for most Pagan are local and small-scale). significant problems for anyone wishing to understand Paganism as a whole. These problems include For the outside observer wishing to learn more about Paganism, the most fruitful approach may well two key contested issues: the question of identity (what separates "Pagan" religion from all other be simply to embrace the ambiguities and paradoxes found within the community, basically doing expressions of religion or spirituality) and the question of historicity (what is the difference between what practitioners themselves do: learn all that one can about the varieties of Pagan belief and the Paganism of the distant past, and similar religious activity today?). practice, recognizing that just about any statement that can be made about this religious path as a The question of identity begins with controversy concerning the concepts of nature and of religion. whole is subject to interpretation and rebuttal by at least some segments of the community. Does, Paganism, as a "Nature Religion," include any practice that reveres the physical world in any form, or is it more properly understood in a more exclusionary way - only consisting of religions with HISTORY clear ties to agricultural, fertility, polytheism, goddess worship, or prehistoric Early Developments practices?Contemporary Pagans see divinity as able to manifest both in the "natural" and Sketching the historical development of Paganism, in its many forms, would require an encyclopedia "supernatural" realms and able to take many forms, which may be acknowledged by either an of the religious history of humankind. This is because Paganism refers not only to a particular individual or a community. Some of today's Pagans do reject the term "nature religion," choosing to religious tradition, but also to a particular religious type. The Pagan "type" involves religions that are emphasize the historic or ethnic roots of their religious practice. magical, polytheistic, and/or animistic, and often anchored in agricultural or fertility rituals. In this Equally contested is the use of the world "religion" to describe the practices typically included under sense, every culture has some form of "Pagan" religion in its background, although such primal the aegis of Paganism. Some of these practices are explicitly magical rather than devotional or Paganism in many cases occurred in prehistoric times - in other words, prior to the onset of written ceremonial in their orientation.Since Pagans have no central authority, no sacred text, no uniform records. ethical code, no systematic beliefs, and not even a consensus regarding cosmology and While the Pagan religious type can be found around the world, this essay will concentrate on the theology/thealogy, perhaps a descriptor other than "religion" would be more accurate: spirituality, history of a particular Pagan religious tradition-specifically, the traditions of Indo-European (and, to a spiritual practice, magical practice, or something along those lines. lesser extent, Egyptian) polytheism. The modern Pagan movement-the recreation/revival of Paganism In other words, so-called Pagan Religions might exhibit some qualities normally associated with that emerged in Europe and in the English-speaking world in the mid-20th century-draws largely religion, but in other important ways might more properly be seen as something fundamentally (although not exclusively) from Indo-European and Egyptian religions, particularly as those different from religion as it is generally understood. All this is to say that part of the challenge in spiritualities shaped the religious life in Europe up until the arrival of Christianity (and, in hidden understanding Paganism is deciding if, in fact, Paganism is a religion. If Paganism is not a "religion" in ways, even into the Christian era). The Indo-Europeans were the ancestors of virtually all European cultures, as attested by the many universal belief system from which schismatic or sectarian groups could break away. On the contrary, European languages that belong to the Indo-European family. But not only did the earliest Indo- ancient Paganism was, according to most scholars, never a dogmatic religion with a unified, core Europeans (or "Proto-Indo-Europeans") bequeath a common root language, but they also generated body of teachings or beliefs. common religious practices, which can be pieced together through the study of language, archaeology, and comparative mythology. Such efforts are highly speculative, and as such scholars Rather than schisms or sects, a more helpful way to think about Paganism is in terms of natural vary widely in terms of what is accepted as likely fact versus what is regarded as theory. diversity. Just as there are countless myths and supernatural folktales that appear to have their roots The Proto-Indo-Europeans were polytheists, worshiping a variety of gods, such as a father-god of the in Pagan spirituality, so Paganism thrived in an innumerable variety of ways. The easiest way to sky (who eventually emerged as the Greek god Zeus or the Roman god Jupiter); a god of abundance understand this is to consider that different types of mythology come from different regions of and wealth (who became the Irish god Dagda); a goddess of love (the Greek Aphrodite or the Norse Europe. Celtic mythology and Norse mythology were preserved among the people of northern Freya); a river goddess (who emerged as the Irish goddess Danu, but for whom the Danube river is Europe, many of whom lived in regions that never fell under Roman rule. Meanwhile Greek and named); a water or sea god (the Irish Nechtan or the Roman Neptune); as well as many others. Roman mythology represent two other forms of myth, in some ways closely related but nevertheless Comparative mythologists have speculated that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a foundational distinct. Various other mythologies were found in Europe, including those of the Baltic, Slavic, Balkan, creation myth that may have involved the creation of the cosmos from the body of a giant.Another and other regions (some of these myths having survived only in fragmentary or folkloric forms). myth suggests the slaying of a dragon or serpent by a god or a hero; the dragon represented chaos Egyptian religion, while technically not of Indo-European origin, spread to southern Europe so that and/or the underworld, while the god or hero represented cosmic order and well-being.Many myths some in pagan Greece and Rome practiced the worship of Isis and other Egyptian deities. also hint at conflict between the gods (or between two families or tribes of gods) that took place at a central tree, representing the axis of the cosmos, which survived as Yggdrasil (the Great World Tree) But it is misleading to speak of "Greek religion" and "Roman religion" as if these were two monolithic of Norse mythology or the Banyan Tree within Hinduism or the Oak Tree within Celtic mythology, all entities. Not only were the religious practices within each culture varied, but even the mythology emblematic of a sacred center around which the cosmos revolves. itself was unsystematic. Rather than think in terms of "Celtic myth," it would be more accurate to Like the gods and the myths, our knowledge of the ritual practices of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is speak of Celtic myths, in the plural, for the written records suggest that different regions in the Celtic sketchy. Scholars cannot identify words for "religion" or "temple" within Proto-European language, world had their own myths, their own cultic practices, and their own local deities. but words do exist for concepts such as prayer, holiness, cosmic order, consecration, sacred meals and libations, and sacred groves or enclosures. Meanwhile, archaeological evidence suggests While some deities may have achieved sufficient renown to be worshipped throughout the Celtic ceremonial practices particularly associated with burial and with astronomical observances. For world, these would have been the exceptions rather than the rule; most gods and goddesses were example, one of the most impressive of prehistoric ceremonial sites, Stonehenge, is built according to local, anchored to a specific location or a specific feature in the natural world. A British Pagan and a astronomical alignments. The evidence suggests that the ancient forebears of European Paganism Scottish Pagan from 2,000 years ago may have worshiped completely different gods with distinctive had a clear understanding of gods and goddesses, generally aligned with aspects of the natural world, ritual or ceremonial practices, even though they were both Celts and lived in relatively close to whom they would offer sacrifices, pour libations, and conduct ceremonies, presumably to curry geographic proximity. This was true throughout Europe. Only with the arrival of writing - as in the the favor of the gods. case of classical Greece and Rome - did mythologies begin to be recorded, and therefore, to be It is out of this mysterious matrix of ancient, largely unknown religious practices that the classical systematized. Paganism of mythology emerges. The diversity of ancient Paganism meant that many different gods and goddesses were revered, each Schisms and Sects with his or her unique sacred stories, unique sacred sites where prayer or sacrifices occurred, and While prehistoric religion will always have a shroud of mystery about it, the knowledge of ancient unique holy or festival days. As the evidence from Proto-Indo-European language indicates, different Paganism is immeasurably enhanced by the cultures that adopted literacy. With the advent of writing gods from different mythologies may have emerged from common Indo-European religious practices. came the preservation of myths, prayers, hymns, devotional practices, cultic and votive inscriptions, For example, the Roman sea god Neptune and Nechtan, an Irish god associated with a sacred well, and engraved statues or other ceremonial objects, all of which contribute to an understanding of may both have originated in a Proto-Indo-European water deity. But just as the root language of the ancient religious practices. Literacy spread over Europe unevenly, shaped by cultural circumstances. Indo-Europeans evolved into many languages, so too the mythologies (and religious practices For example, the Celts did not generally adopt writing until they were Romanized (or Christianized). associated with them) of the various Indo-Europeans evolved over time. Geographical differences But when written records do appear in a European culture, they reveal not a unified religious ensured that Pagan spirituality would evolve in a diversity of ways, even with common ancestral practice, but rather the persistence of many different religious and cultic activities. roots.

Unlike religions that were literary from their beginning (such as Christianity or Islam), questions of "schisms" or "sects" in Paganism are basically meaningless. European Pagans never had a common or Missions and Expansion of local gods and goddesses, while the Romans imported a more abstract "pantheon" of deities that Ancient Paganism was not missionary in nature - in other words, Pagans did not travel abroad, were regarded as having universal authority. In the process of Romanization that occurred in places seeking converts to their way of life. When cultures were expansionist (as were the Celtic, Greek, and like Gaul and Britain, two key events transpired: local deities were "merged" with their more Roman), the motivation was political and economic rather than religious or spiritual. Paganism has no universal Roman counterparts, and the native priesthood-the Druids-were suppressed. sense of damnation or hell, and therefore no urgency to convert other people to the "truth." The defining feature of ancient European Paganism was polytheism, which by its very nature stressed Once a Roman presence was established in Britain, gods with both Celtic and Roman names were tolerance and coexistence. The many deities revered within a polytheistic religious framework meant venerated. Examples include Sulis Minerva (the water goddess of what is modern-day Bath, England, that local custom and adaptation was a normal and accepted part of Pagan religion. who was merged with the Roman goddess Minerva) and Apollo Grannus (Grannus, a Celtic solar As distinct cultures emerged in Europe - Celtic, Norse, Greek, and Roman - each featured its own set deity, merged with the Roman god Apollo). From the perspective of the conquering Romans, this of sacred stories, of venerated heroic ancestors, and of gods and goddesses, often directly linked to a practicing of merging universal and local deities was a form of religious tolerance, but for the local particular place or aspect of nature. Within each culture were numerous tribes, clans, or city-states, religion, it had the effect of subverting the prior orientation toward local veneration in favor of a each again with its own unique religious make-up.This meant that even the gods and goddesses more universalizing approach to deities (which had the effect of introducing an abstract dimension to themselves "evolved." For example, Danu (an Indo-European river goddess) lent her name to the spirituality that was subtly at odds with local, nature-oriented devotion). Danube River in Germany, which at one point was a Celtic land. Eventually the Celts migrated to Ireland, taking their veneration of Danu with them, but in Ireland, she "evolved" into a shadowy But what may have been even more damaging to Celtic Paganism was the suppression of the druids. mother goddess, known more for her children-the Tuatha de Danaan, or "Tribe of the goddess Dana," In the 1st century B.C.E., Julius Caesar spoke of the need to suppress the Celtic druids when writing a mythic race of gods-heroes who play a central role in Irish myth. Thus Dana is a local adaptation of a about his conquest of Gaul; a century later, when Britain was under conquest, Suetonius Paulinus goddess who remains important in other regions of the Indo-European Pagan world (for example, attacked a college of druids on an island in Wales (modern-day Anglesey), killing the druid priests and Hindu mythology includes a primordial water/mother goddess named Danu). priestesses and destroying their shrines. The age of empire facilitated an increased spread of Pagan practices. During the Hellenistic age, Greek Paganism spread beyond the Greek isles; with the coming of the Roman Empire, Roman While the Roman conquest of Europe weakened the region's indigenous religious practices, the religious practices also spread to new regions. Economic trade meant that spiritual cross-fertilization suppression of Paganism was completed with the arrival of Christianity. This new monotheistic would follow. This is evident in terms of the spread of Egyptian religion in the Hellenistic world after religion spread quickly throughout the Empire; for example, there is evidence of Christianity in Britain Alexander the Great conquered Egypt. Egyptian deities and myths were harmonized with the Greek as early as the 2nd century C.E. With Christianity came a religion oriented toward a single deity and a equivalents, and Egyptian deities like Horus and Isis were venerated in Greece. Likewise, after the belief that polytheistic deities were demonic. Legendary tales, particularly from Ireland, suggest that Roman conquest of Gaul and Britain, the Romans tolerated local religious practices and did not the Christianization of the British Isles included a process of confronting the existing Pagan practices, attempt to stamp them out, but rather introduced their own deities and cultic practices-resulting, and triumphing over them - often by the Christians performing wonders greater than the magic of again, in a syncretization between these two different forms of Paganism. Sometimes, local deities their Pagan priests. would be seen as equivalent to Roman gods or goddesses, and would be given compound Celtic- Although such legends belong to the realm of myth rather than history, they do indicate that Roman names: for example, Sulis Minerva. Christianity did not just move into a spiritual vacuum when arriving in Britain and Ireland, but did in Because of the increased mobility of people within the empire, generated by increased trade activity fact supplant the pre-Christian Pagan religion. as well as military movement, religious practices from different cultures contributed to the increasing The Christianization of Europe never destroyed the old religion, because vestigial remains of old complexity of Pagan religion. Isis was worshiped in Greece; the Persian god Mithras and the Celtic Pagan practices persisted in folklore and folk practices. Ironically, the Christians themselves goddess Epona became popular with Roman soldiers and thus were worshiped throughout the contributed to the survival of European Paganism, in that the monks of the Middle Ages committed empire. But this same mobility also meant the increasing influence of a force that would eventually the old polytheistic mythology, which had previously been transmitted orally, to writing. have a profound influence on European Paganism: the arrival of monotheism from Judea, especially Many Christian holy days coincided with earlier Pagan festivals (for example, the feast of All Saints' Christianity. Day took place on November 1, coinciding with the Pagan festival of Samhain). Ancient water sources, venerated by Pagans as associated with local spirits or deities, became Christianized as holy Exploration and Conquest wells dedicated to a Christian saint, but the spiritual practices associated with such wells consisted of For Paganism, the age of empire - even though the great empires of the Greeks and the Romans all a blend of Pagan and Christian activities. Some Pagan deities survived under the folkloric guise of began in Pagan antiquity - was, ironically, the age when Paganism would be marginalized. By the 1st fairies - mischievous and troublesome nature spirits that needed to be propitiated through century C.E., the Roman Empire had spread throughout most of Europe. Although at this time all of offerings. So, while Christianity became established as the "official" religion of Europe, Paganism did Europe was Pagan in the sense of practicing polytheistic religion, many of the so-called barbarians not die, but simply went underground, hidden but present in a variety of folk practices. (such as the Celtic and the Germanic tribes) appear to have engaged in independent cultic veneration In her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921), archaeologist Margaret Murray made a occultist, Gardner became associated with a Rosicrucian group in Dorset, England, through which he startling claim: that the pre-Christian religions of ancient Europe survived the coming of Christianity was brought to the home of a woman he identified as Dorothy Clutterbuck.Gardner said Clutterbuck and, by the late Middle Ages into the modern era, became the spiritual practice of witchcraft. initiated him into the New Forest Coven, which he called one of the last surviving covens of ancient Witchcraft, according to this view, was the vestigial remains of an ancient Pagan goddess/fertility witches. Scholars question whether the New Forest Coven ever existed, or if it existed prior to the cult. 1930s. What is ultimately at issue here is Gardner's credibility, for not only did he claim the existence of the Murray's theories have largely been discredited within the scholarly community. They remain coven, but promoted himself as one of England's last "surviving" witches through three books: a important, however, because of the impact they had on the emergence of modern Pagan spirituality novel about witchcraft (High Magick's Aid, 1949) and two books that claimed to reveal the secrets of in the mid- to late-20th century. Although the idea of an "organized cult" is no longer held by witchcraft (Witchcraft Today, 1953 and The Meaning of Witchcraft, 1959). Whether or not Gardner academics, vestigial remains of Paganism that survived the arrival of Christianity in Europe have been (or Clutterbuck) made it all up is an unanswerable question.Either way, Gardner's books inspired a documented by a variety of historians, anthropologists, and folklorists who have focused on widespread interest in witchcraft as a valid religious path. mythology, superstitions, fairy beliefs, folk rituals, and ceremonies to demonstrate that, far from Gardner was not the sole founder of modern Pagan witchcraft, but his influence was significant. being eradicated, ancient Pagan spirituality simply survived in unofficial ways. One example is the Others appeared who may or may not have been influenced by Gardner; indeed some, like Robert "cunning man" or "cunning woman" tradition, in which rural communities would rely on the healing Cochrane, maintained that their type of witchcraft both predated Gardnerian Wicca and was more and magical practices of a cunning man or woman who was versed in herbology and folk medicine. authentically traditional. Following Gardner, numerous other figures began to write on the subject of Such figures could represent a vestigial remain of a Pagan priesthood. witchcraft, including Raymond Buckland, Patricia Crowther, Doreen Valiente, Sybil Leek, and others. By the 1960s Wicca and other forms of witchcraft were established within the youth counterculture. Eighteenth-century Britain saw the first movement toward the revival of the druids. Reflecting the Meanwhile, other forms of new Pagan spirituality emerged, parallel to the growth of Wicca. Margot popularity of antiquarianism in the late 18th-century, the druid revivalists sought to restore the Adler traces the early origins of modern Paganism back to 1938, when a Russian immigrant to indigenous spirituality of the British isles, and turned both to literary evidence from classical authors America, Gleb Botkin, founded a Church of Aphrodite in New York. In Germany, interest in Germanic like Julius Caesar, and archaeological evidence (sites such as Stonehenge and Avebury) for inspiration. Paganism grew in the early decades of the 20th century, while in Britain druid leaders like Ross Although most critics now dismiss the early attempts at reviving druidism to be based more on Nichols began to incorporate more genuine Celtic Pagan elements into their rituals, which lead to the fantasy than fact, these early efforts at re-visioning ancient Paganism reborn paved the way for the emergence of authentically Pagan forms of druidism in the second half of the century. birth of modern Paganism two centuries later. Other groups drew on Hellenic paganism, Egyptian religion, Native American spirituality, and even science fiction to shape their identity.In 1979, two American authors released books that coalesced Modern Age the various strands of this new religious movement.Starhawk's The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the The Pagan Renaissance grew out of a variety of sources that coalesced between the 1930s and 1950s Religion of the Great Goddess presented witchcraft as both a living form of ancient Paganism but also to produce the first generation of "public" witches and other Pagans. Following the interest in as a thoroughly contemporary spirituality grounded in environmental and feminist concerns. National antiquarianism and ancient civilizations that became popular in the 17th through 19th centuries, Public Radio correspondent Margot Adler's Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess- including the popularity of the first druid revivals, freemasonry, and occultism, a variety of scholars in Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America examined the diversity within the larger Pagan the early 20th century explored the ancient spirituality of the British Isles and Europe in a variety of community. ways. Numerous other authors contributed to this growing sensibility of Paganism-as-ecofeminist Folklorists such as Alexander Carmichael and Lady Gregory began collecting and recording traditional spirituality: Susun Weed, Diane Stein, Z. Budapest, Carol J. Adams, Carolyn Merchant, Carol Christ, folktales in Ireland and Scotland. W. Y. Evans-Wentz studied the surviving belief in fairies in the Charlene Spretnak, and Vickie Noble were among the authors in the final decades of the 20th century various Celtic lands. Sir James Frazer wrote The Golden Bough, ostensibly to attack Christianity by who contributed to this new understanding of nature-centered spirituality. Scott Cunningham's demonstrating its roots in Pagan practices, with the unintended consequence of stimulating further Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (1989) declared that individuals interested in Paganism interest in Paganism. Anthropologist Margaret Murray published several books in which she detailed and witchcraft did not need to study with others who were already practicing the religion, and could her theory that the witches who were persecuted in early modern Europe were in fact the members in fact alter their expression of spirituality to suit their own intuitive and personal needs. In essence, of a surviving Pagan cult. Even though some of the ideas from these theorists (notably the work of Cunningham celebrated Wicca (and, by extension, modern Paganism as a whole) as a "do-it-yourself" Frazer and Murray) would eventually lose credibility on a scholarly level, their work proved to be religion. Another American author, Silver Ravenwolf, pushed this trend further with a book influential and inspirational to those who would not merely study ancient Paganism, but seek to specifically aimed at adolescents, Teen Witch: Wicca for a New Generation (Llewellyn, 1998). make it a vital spiritual practice in their own lives. But perhaps the most significant development with Paganism in the 1990s was the widespread A key figure in Paganism becoming not merely a topic of academic interest, but a revived (or, accessibility to the internet. Pagans embraced the online world enthusiastically, and websites perhaps, recreated) religion was Gerald Gardner (1884-1964). An amateur anthropologist and avid devoted to fostering community online soon became popular among them, particularly the Witches' Voice. Many Wiccan covens and other modern Pagan groups began their own online presence. Email Along with the eclectic intermingling of sacred stories from around the world, some Pagans (including lists and online forums on a variety of Pagan-related topics emerged. By the turn of the century, the many Wiccans) affirm that "all the gods are one God, and all the goddesses one Goddess" - meaning internet had become a central tool for networking and communication within the Pagan community. that the many different deities of world mythology can essentially be understood as one archetypal As Paganism entered the 21st century, it remains, according to observers such as the Ontario God and one archetypal Goddess. Others, however, reject this idea as a purely modern innovation, Consultants on Religious Tolerance, one of the fastest growing new religions in the English-speaking and so have a more truly polytheistic approach to mythology: seeing the spirit world as populated by world. many different gods and goddesses, rather than by a single, universal pair of deities. Although classical mythology provides many of the gods and sacred beings revered by Nature BELIEFS Religionists, literary sources - from the medieval Arthurian legends to J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle Earth - Sacred Narratives inspire some practitioners as well.Even though these stories are not mythological in a technical sense, In the 1960s, researcher James Lovelock formulated what has come to be known as the Gaia their deeply archetypal symbolism and rich narrative enable them to be approach as functional myths Hypothesis, which holds that the biological and physiological systems throughout the earth function for those who are willing to read them in such a way. Likewise, folklore (which, arguably, often in such a closely interactive and self-regulating way that it is plausible to regard the entire earth represents mythology in a degraded form) can contribute to Pagan sensibilities and values. ecosystem as a single entity - a "super-organism," as it were. While not universally accepted in the All of this is un-systematic and nearly impossible to summarize effectively. Few if any Pagans rely on scientific community, this concept - from which it is a short jump to the idea of the earth as a single their sacred stories to determine what to believe; rather, myth is celebrated as an evocative tool for sentient being - has become one of many stories, both ancient and modern, to be embraced by inspiring the religious and spiritual imagination. Even Pagans who speak about praying to a particular various elements within the modern Pagan community. For many Pagans, not only is the Gaia god or goddess will sometimes clarify that they understand these deities as symbolic or archetypal. A Hypothesis a compelling story, but even its name is taken literally: Gaia, Greek Goddess of the Earth, prayer to Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love, may for many Pagans be simply a symbolic ritual means of is she whom many Pagans adore when they revere the earth. accessing unconscious (or, perhaps, transpersonal) abilities to give and receive love. Others, however, Contemporary Paganism, however, is more than just a spiritualized approach to certain scientific may be more literal, accepting the gods and goddesses as factually real. theories or hypotheses. Woven throughout the various expressions of magical, polytheistic, nature- Not all Pagans are devoted to mythological deities or spirits; some limit their religious practice to the centered, and goddess-oriented spiritualities are a rich array of myths, both ancient and modern, that veneration of nature. However, mythologies from around the world often emerged in cultures with create meaning and spiritual identity for practitioners. Although adherents tend to be sophisticated horticultural or agricultural economies; thus, such myths generally have strong fertility or natural and recognize myth as a category separate from history, approaches to the sacred stories vary widely imagery. Various deities are associated with various elements of the natural world: the sky, the sea, in the larger Pagan community. Myth can be understood as meaningful metaphor, as stories imbued the earth, trees, rivers, forests, the hunt, grain, and so forth. Engaging in religious practice informed with symbolic truth, and even as factual records of the exploits of spiritual heroes and deities. But by such natural imagery can be a direct way of cultivating a rich spirituality of devotion to the earth because Pagans typically reject the idea of prescribed belief or dogma, sacred stories - like all other (i.e., Gaia). elements in modern Paganism - may be interpreted by each individual according to her or his own values and worldview. Ultimate Reality and Divine Beings What do the myths say? Ancient myths, from cultures around the world, tell the stories of gods and Few, if any, Pagans orient themselves to a concept of divinity that is situated "above" or "beyond" goddesses, ancestral heroes and heroines, and other entities (such as friendly or unfriendly spirits, nature. The monotheistic worldview - belief in a single God who fully transcends the physical fairies or elves, or animal and plant spirits). While European myths are favored among European and universe, which God has created and that therefore is not God - is rejected by many Pagans as North American Pagans, other sacred stories from around the world are often embraced by various dualistic and consequently hostile to nature.By contrast, most forms of Paganism entail some sort of Pagans, instead of or in addition to the European sources; naturally, individuals of a certain ethnicity recognition that nature is in itself sacred, or divine, and worthy of human respect, honor, and will often orient the mythic dimension of their practice to the sacred stories of their own ancestors. adoration. But the ways in which such respect and adoration are expressed differ widely among But many Pagans embrace mythologies for which they may have no ancestral ties whatsoever. In the different Pagan traditions, and metaphysical beliefs or concepts - such as the idea that all of nature Celtic community, people of Welsh, Scottish, Irish, or other Celtic heritages may have an ancestral can be related to as a single Goddess - can likewise take many forms. "right" to Celtic mythology, but others - known as "cardiac Celts" (Celts only by virtue of the longing For some Pagans, nature is simply venerated for its own sake, without any metaphysical concepts to in their hearts) - are just as likely to embrace Celtic myth and make it their own. undergird such adoration. At its purest level, such nature mysticism exalts the empirical, measurable While some Pagans insist that mythologies from different cultures should not be mixed in the pursuit physical cosmos above any metaphysical or spiritual concepts and beliefs. In this view, nature is holy of spiritual practice, many others freely integrate myths from around the world into their rituals and precisely because nature is all that we have. While the human imagination is a rich and powerful devotions. This practice is known as "eclectic" Paganism, and results in a uniquely colorful celebration force for creating meaning and joy, such mental activity cannot be proven to point beyond nature, of various gods and goddesses from all corners of the earth. Thus, it is possible to attend a Wiccan and therefore (according to this view) should be regarded as part of nature. The manifest physical circle where the Hawaiian Goddess Pele is venerated alongside the Roman God Vulcan, or an eclectic reality of nature makes it the necessary foundation upon which this approach to spirituality rests. Pagan gathering in which the Cherokee Goddess Selu is invoked along with the Irish God Lugh. Another view holds that nature is basically one with the goddess, or the god and the goddess, or Spiritual or metaphysical beliefs are important, too, if understood as part of nature rather than as some other combination of divine personages. Revering nature and venerating a god and/or goddess pre-given truth. and/or multiple gods need not be a contradictory set of actions. A mythical or spiritual approach to Closely related to this is the idea that humanity can only be understood in relation to the natural nature need not be a denial of the foundational goodness of the empirical world. In its most simple world. Nature is essentially relational: every part of nature is influenced by, shaped by, limited by, form, this spiritualized veneration of nature is a form of pantheism - the belief that all things are and defined in terms of struggle with its environment. Since human beings share so much in common divine, and the divine is in, and one with, all things. It is also monistic (monism is the belief that with other aspects of the natural world, from similar body chemistries to shared DNA, much can be everything ultimately is united in one all-encompassing divine reality).Within this approach, learned about humanity simply by observing the laws of nature, even though the environment cannot worshipping nature and worshipping the divine are identical acts. fully disclose what it means to be human (for example, no other species fully shares in human In a slight variation of pantheism, Pagans may honor nature as the "body" of the divine person or language). persons, similar to how human flesh and blood is the body in relation to the human soul or spirit. Just Many Pagans would affirm that humanity is both conditioned by nature and inspired by evolutionary as the human entity consists of both an external body and an interior mind or spirit or soul, so too possibility. Nature imposes limitations on the experience of being human: every human being dies, could the physical cosmos as a whole be understood as the "body" of a divine being. This divine and suffering, aging, loss, sickness, and hunger are just as much part of the human landscape as joy, entity, like human beings, has both a body and a soul - the earth (or the cosmos as a whole) is pleasure, love, happiness, and well-being. Part of being human is learning to accept such limitations, therefore the "body" of the deity (or deities). This way of seeing nature and divinity can function as a even if it is also part of human nature to struggle against them. Indeed, much of the thrust of nature religious variation of the Gaia hypothesis, a scientific hypothesis that the earth is a unified biosystem religion involves finding the balance between respecting nature even while furthering the innate (although strictly speaking, science does not speculate on whether or not the "Gaia" system has a human struggle against the limitations imposed by nature. spirit integrated with its terrestrial body). Through mythology, magic, and ritual, Pagan religions offer to their adherents tools to deepen the In contrast with pantheism, another approach to divinity within nature religion is polytheism, the experience of being human in nature. The Fates may determine when individuals age, sicken, and die belief that the earth (or the cosmos as a whole) is the material home to a multiplicity of gods and - but the concept of "the Fates" as mythological forces is part of the human quest to find meaning in goddesses and/or other spiritual beings. Integrally connected to the material world is an nature. Likewise, magic and ritual - whether for self-seeking purposes such as personal gain, or for "otherworld" - a spiritual realm - that functions as the home of the deities and other spirit beings. more "noble" pursuits as the healing of another - provide a spiritual framework to humanity's inborn Yet another Pagan belief system, animism, holds that spirit or consciousness pervades all material propensity to struggle against the limitations inherent in being human. things - that every animal, plant, and inanimate object has its own spirit worthy of respect if not It is important to note that, as a whole, Paganism offers no pre-given purpose of existence. Although veneration. This view of nature holds that all things are enchanted, and are alive, even if at a very low mythological wisdom from around the world offers suggestions as to the purpose of life, no dogmatic level of consciousness (e.g., rocks) - and, therefore, are sacred.Yet another perspective emphasizes idea of one eternal, unchanging truth is universally accepted among Pagans. Even within mythology, the idea that humanity is divine, and nature is holy simply because it is home. many different ways of approaching the question of life's purpose can be found. Honor and virtue This list is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather to demonstrate the tremendous diversity of beliefs often are revered within mythic stories, but even these values are culturally relative - in other words, that can be anchored in Pagan spirituality. The most common factor is the notion that nature is different cultures understand them in different ways. sacred, regardless of what mythological or metaphysical beliefs may justify that core belief. Even Many Pagans would maintain that humans are, both individually and collectively, free to chart their those Pagans whose beliefs may be entirely oriented toward spiritual beings rather than toward own course, to determine their own purpose. Without a pre-given, "supernatural" way of nature veneration usually do not reject nature as "fallen" or somehow inferior to the spiritual world. understanding life's meaning, or even a consensus within the mythologies of the world, Pagans are free to create their own meaning or sense of purpose. Although such freedom can be abused (for Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence some, the purpose of life can mean little more than selfish pleasure seeking, even at the expense of If you draw a map of the entire universe, it is only complete if it includes yourself in it. Likewise, others), most Pagans would argue that one's own freedom to decide meaning is more important than "nature" is only complete if it includes "humanity" within it. Pagan wisdom traditions have no efforts to judge or evaluate the meaning-choices of others. consensus on how to understand human nature or the meaning and purpose of life, other than for Within the freedom to chart one's own purpose, resources exist that can help along the way. each individual to forge his or her own sense of self-understanding, meaning, and purpose. Within Mythology often teaches core values (honor and virtue are good, lying and stealing are bad) that can this broad framework, here are several ideas that can be found within the contemporary Pagan help one to function in social contexts and can shape an understanding of happiness and well-being. community. History, likewise, offers examples of heroism, creativity, wisdom, and other qualities worth The first is the principle that humanity is part of nature, not above it or outside it. Recognizing that no emulating, while society establishes parameters of rights and responsibilities within which one's map is complete without the mapmaker means that the concept of "human nature" requires as much purpose may be forged. Science (biology, psychology, and sociology) all offer clues to help attention to "nature" as to "humanity." Physical characteristics of being human: having a body, differentiate between lives that are more (or less) productive, effective, and happy. All these gender and sexuality, sensuality, and the capacity to relate to the environment in terms of pleasure resources are available to help each individual chart his or her sense of purpose and meaning. and pain - these are all characteristics that matter to Pagans who seek to understand humanity. Rather than one unchanging purpose being handed down from an otherworldly god, the purpose of all of these mythic figures represent harm or evil in the same way; for example, while Satan is an humankind as a whole emerges from the combined individual purposes of all people. One could say, embodiment of pure malice, a figure like Loki can be seen as morally ambiguous: chaotic as much as then, that the purpose of being human is to live a free and self-directed life, in pursuit of happiness, malicious. recognizing nature-imposed limitations but also choosing to struggle against them, whether through Beyond the allusions of mythology and the philosophical controversies surrounding evil, the reality of science, spirituality, or art. It is on the continuum between finding happiness and contentment with suffering and harm remain. Since these phenomena occur within the natural world, any response to the way things are, and striving to make things better, that the ultimate purpose of being human is them likewise must be natural. This is not to preclude a spiritual or metaphysical response to revealed. suffering; but many Pagans would regard a purely spiritual response to a natural problem as faulty or For many Pagans, maintaining balance between humanity and nature is also an important purpose of inadequate. There's no point in casting a spell over someone bleeding without first dressing their being human. Humans exist not merely to enjoy the bounty of the environment, but also to serve and wounds. Thus, while various Pagan paths may include a variety of spells, rituals, or prayers to help protect the environment, not only for future generations of humans, but indeed for the sake of alleviate or eliminate suffering, such tools would be preceded by "mundane" or non-spiritual nature itself. Although such a values-driven understanding of life's purpose is far from universally responses to the problem. While many contemporary Pagans are critical of mainstream medicine and held within the Pagan community, for many this is an important part of their chosen spirituality. In a advocate a variety of alternative healing practices, most recognize that a combination of traditional spirit of noblesse oblige, humanity's intelligence and vision carry with them a responsibility to care for and alternative healing practices may be necessary, particularly in serious or life-threatening the well-being of nature as a whole. circumstances. (Ffor example, it would be inappropriate to treat severe chest pains only with a Finally, some Pagans do accept a metaphysical understanding of life's purpose, derived from healing touch practice like Reiki; a person experiencing such pain needs to be checked by a qualified mythology and spiritual beliefs. Living a good life can create positive karma, which can lead to a physician for a possible heart attack.). blessed afterlife existence and/or a favorable reincarnation. How do those who reject the idea of evil explain the existence of pain and suffering? Many say it is simply part of nature, and that questions about why it exists are not nearly as helpful as strategies to Suffering and the Problem of Evil help alleviate it when it does occur. Questions regarding the Pagan response to suffering and evil can best be understood as two separate Regardless of whether suffering is met with natural or spiritual meansresponses, Pagans are free to issues, even if they are closely related. Suffering, or the experience of pain (whether physical or respond to suffering in any way they deem appropriate. Seen on a purely naturalistic level, pain and emotional/mental/spiritual), is an experiential reality, whereas evil is an abstract (metaphysical) suffering are markers of a condition that needs to change - whether the change comes about through concept. Because of this distinction, many in the modern Pagan community have distinct ways of healing the condition thatwhich causes the suffering (or, in extreme cases, through death). Even approaching the problem of suffering versus the question of evil.Suffering is part of life. So areis loss, when a person voluntarily embraces suffering (for example, someone who delays their own personal age, sickness, and death. Simply put, suffering is part of nature. We Humans cannot eradicate ambitions in order to care for an elderly relative), the suffering in itself is meaningful only because it suffering any more than theywe can suspend gravity, and getting caught up in metaphysical is undertaken in service of a clearly understood greater good (in this case, the good of caring for explanations or arguments about suffering simply distract us from the real issue, which is finding others). There is no dogma or belief that would suggest suffering is always bad (or, for that matter, ways to prevent unnecessary suffering and to alleviate or mitigate it when it does occur. always noble and virtuous). Any instance of suffering must be evaluated on its own merits, whether it Evil, which can be defined as a metaphysical principle which that causes suffering or harm, is more is a problem that must be addressed immediately, or a sacrificial act freely undertaken in honor of a problematic than suffering - for while suffering can be documented, evil, as a metaphysical principle, greater good. Few Pagans would subscribe to a belief that suffering is inherently virtuous, but rather cannot. Evil, therefore, is a matter of faith, and among Pagans, no articles of faith are universally held. would view pain as a condition that, whenever possible, should be remedied. Therefore, while some Pagans might choose to believe in the existence of metaphysical principles like good and evil, others argue that such principles are useless or could even be harmful, for example if Afterlife and Salvation used to attack or malign others unfairly. Many Pagans prefer terminology like "positive" and Most Pagans would regard concepts such as salvation or justification as meaningless to their spiritual "negative," or "order" and "chaos" as alternatives to the categories of "good" and "evil," regarding path. With no transcendent deity who acts as judge and no concept of sin, logically no need for these categories as so heavily freightedsteeped inwith Judeo-Christian assumptions that their salvation or atonement exists. Incentives to live a good life do not involve pleasing a god or goddess usefulness is limited. who is exterior to one's self; rather, virtue and honor are their own rewards and one engages in such Nevertheless, because of the high degree of tolerance within the Pagan community, adherents are behavior out of a sense of love and personal pride. free to form their own opinions about the existence and/or the problem of evil. Some Pagans accept a simple concept of karma as a way of affirming that a person's behavior, Whether or not evil exists as a metaphysical principle which that causes harm, and whether or not whether good or ill, will ultimately shape his or her future destiny, whether in this life or a future life. there may be one or more beings or entities who embody evil are therefore matters of personal However, karma is not seen as a system of reward and punishment (since there is no one at the helm opinion. World mythology does include many mythic figures that embody evil to a greater or lesser to do the rewarding and the punishing), but rather simply as a law of the way things function in extent:In Irish mythology, Balor; in Jewish and Christian mythology, Satan; in Persian mythology, nature - equivalent to the laws of gravity or inertia. Ahriman; in Egyptian mythology, Set; in Norse mythology, Loki. It is important to recognize that not Closely aligned to belief in karma is belief in reincarnation, or the recycling of souls. Since the body is RITUALS AND WORSHIP "recycled" by decay and decomposition after death, so the soul can be recycled by taking birth in a Sacred Time new form. As a metaphysical belief, not all Pagans accept reincarnation, but many do; those who do, Ancient Pagan sacred sites, like Stonehenge in England or Newgrange in Ireland, often have an point to ancient Pagan beliefs (for example, Julius Caesar wrote about how the ancient Celtic Druids astronomical orientation, with key features of the site oriented toward specific dates of the year. For believed in the transmigration of souls), to the widespread belief in reincarnation within occult and example, Stonehenge is oriented toward the sunrise of the summer solstice, while the doorway of eastern spirituality, and finally to the anecdotal evidence of many individuals who claim to have past- Newgrange is oriented toward sunrise of the winter solstice. Sites like these suggest not only a high life memories. degree of astronomical and architectural sophistication among ancient Pagans, but also imply that Unlike other religions that regard reincarnation as a sort of prison from which one must eventually be the dates like the solstices may have had ritual significance to their cultures. liberated, Paganism generally does not promote such a pessimistic view of rebirth. Rather, The Pagan movement that emerged in the 20th century draws on a variety of folkloric, mythological, reincarnation is seen as a tool for growth and learning - and perhaps even joy. Although each and archaeological sources to establish its own sense of sacred time. As is always the case among incarnation will carry its measure of suffering and sorrow, it will also bring the joy of new Pagan religions, different traditions often observe different holy days. Wicca (religious witchcraft), relationships, new experiences, and new wisdom and insight. Each incarnation is followed by a period the most widely practiced form of Paganism, offers the best example of Pagan sacred time. of rest and reflection before the soul gets on the merry-go-round again. This perspective affirms the Sacred time within Wicca is established by the cycles of the sun and the moon. Lunar cycles occur cycle of rebirth as a positive process. every 29 to 30 days, while a solar cycle occurs over the course of a year. The key events in a lunar In addition to (or instead of) reincarnation, adherents of various Pagan traditions have mythical cycle include the new moon and the full moon. Many Wiccan solitaries and groups perform rituals on understandings of the afterlife in which they place belief. Typically, these otherworldly destinations the nights of the new and full moons, seeing those dates as particularly propitious for venerating the of the soul after death are regarded as paradise, although some have a darker or drearier feel. Here goddess as identified with the moon. Because the duration of menstrual cycles often is equivalent to are a few of the mythical otherworlds, as seen by various Pagan traditions, as destinations for the the lunar month, many Wiccans understand the phases of the moon as symbolically attuned to the souls of the dead: "phases" of the menstrual cycle. Thus, the full moon represents ovulation, and signifies a time of  The Summerland - the Wiccan concept of paradise, where one experiences happiness and sensual fecundity, creativity, and active engagement with the world; the new moon represents menstruation, pleasure. The Summerland can function as a destination between reincarnations (a place of rest and therefore is associated with rest and withdrawal from worldly activities for a time of reflection and renewal) or as the ultimate destination, when a soul eventually stops reincarnating. and renewal. Wiccan ceremonies can take these associations into account, with new moon rituals  Tir na n'Og - Literally, the "Land of Youth." In Irish mythology, Tir na n'Og is a blessed realm across being more contemplative and full moon ceremonies more ecstatic or celebratory. the water where souls journey after death. It is a land of continual feasting and joy, without old The solar cycle as observed by many Wiccan groups involves eight holidays, collectively known as age, sickness, or death. Perhaps reflecting the sensibilities of the Iron Age culture that gave birth "the Wheel of the Year." These holidays include the solstices, the equinoxes, and four seasonal to Celtic myth, it is also a land where the souls of heroic warriors engage in valorous battle. agricultural festivals with roots in British and Irish mythology. The wheel of the year includes these  Valhalla (Literally, the "Hall of the Slain") and Fólkvangr (literally, "Field of the Host") - Two festivals: destinations for the spirits of noble warriors, as recounted in Norse myth. The great warriors who  Samhain, traditionally celebrated on or near October 31 journey to Valhalla and Fólkvangr upon their death will assist the gods in the apocalyptic battle  Yule, the winter solstice prophesied to occur during Ragnarök, the apocalyptic war that will occur at the end of the age.  Imbolc, traditionally celebrated on or near February 1  Hades - the underworld in Greek myth, ruled over by a god of the same name. The underworld is  Ostara, the spring equinox the final destination of the souls of the dead; while some descriptions suggest it is a misty and  Beltane, traditionally celebrated on or near May 1 gloomy place, others suggest it is a place of peace, and at least one realm within the underworld,  Litha, the summer solstice Elysium, is a blessed place destined for the souls of the heroic and the virtuous.  Lughnasadh, traditionally celebrated on or near August 1 These and other such depictions of otherworldly realms offer insight into the variety of beliefs that  Mabon, the fall equinox various Pagans might hold. Different traditions have teachings that are promoted within their specific Several of these festivals have alternative names, sometimes from folkloric or even Christian sources: community, but no single belief about the afterlife is normative for all. thus Samhain is also known as Hallowmas or Hallowe'en; Imbolc as Candlemas; Lughnasadh as Because of the freedom with which individuals can form their own opinions after the afterlife, some Lammas; and Mabon as Michaelmas. Pagans choose either to remain agnostic about questions of what happens after death, or even reject Like the lunar cycle, the wheel of year is rich with symbolism and mythology. Some traditions weave all such ideas as mere metaphysical speculation. Since many forms of Paganism are more oriented throughout the eight holidays a running narrative about the birth, life, and eventual death of the toward the material world rather than an abstract spiritual world, such a perspective maintains that it goddess, who over the course of the year is impregnated by her consort and gives birth to a sacred is more important to live well in the present than to waste time worrying about what will occur in a child. Another narrative associated with the wheel of the year involves a never-ending cycle of future that cannot be controlled anyway. conflict between two mythic kings - the Oak King and the Holly King - who continually defeat each other at each solstice, the Oak King triumphing in the summer while the Holly King emerges goddesses carry special significance even for latter-day Pagans. Remarkable trees, abundant water victorious each winter. sources, and other singular features of the earth can be imbued with meaning, either received Each of the agricultural festivals also has rich folklore associated with it. Samhain (the name literally through folklore or local tradition, or even established by contemporary Pagan individuals or groups means "summer's end") signifies the onset of winter and is associated with the end of harvest and who feel drawn to find or create spiritual meaning through relationship with a particular feature of the slaughtering of livestock to prepare for the cold season; thus it has traditionally been linked to the natural world. death and to contact with ancestral spirits. Imbolc ("In the belly") celebrates the coming of spring and In addition to such physical forms of sacred space, Pagan traditions often also include metaphysical or a time when ewes are lactating and pregnant with spring lambs. The celebration of spring reaches its imaginal forms of sacrality as well. These include mythic concepts of the otherworld, ritually created apex with Beltane ("The fire of Bel"), a festival to mark the onset of summer and chronologically sacred space (such as the Wiccan "World Between the Worlds"), and even the concept of sacred opposite of Samhain. As Samhain is a festival honoring death, Beltane is dedicated to the celebration space as found within each individual's own capacity for inner visualization. of life and fertility. Finally, the onset of harvest is marked with Lughnasadh ("Lugh's festival"), marked Concepts of the otherworld can take many forms. Nonmaterial realms may exist above, below, or by the first harvest and traditionally observed with games and other festivities. Incidentally, Bel and interwoven with the material world. They can exist in a variety of metaphorical locations, such as Lugh are the names of Celtic gods. over or beneath the ocean, through the mist, or within so-called hollow hills ("fairy mounds"). The These holidays are not universally observed among all Wiccans, let alone all Pagans. Their popularity otherworld can be a place of ineffable beauty and wonder, but also a realm fraught with danger and among many Wiccans and some other Pagans stems from their symmetry and the rich mythic and challenge. It can be populated with gods, goddesses, ancestors, heroes and heroines, as well as folkloric material associated with the festival days. In some locations traditional celebrations spirits, elves, fairies, or other entities seen as intimately connected with nature. associated with these holidays that predate the onset of Paganism by many generations, continue to Sometimes human beings can visit otherworldly realms, although myths are often vague about how be celebrated. For example, the town of Padstow in Cornwall has elaborate May Day festivities each such a journey can occur. Once in the otherworld, the human visitor may have a quest or sacred task year that many scholars believe are vestigial remains of ancient religious observances. The Padstow to complete, may be held prisoner, or may fall in love with a beautiful otherworldly figure and then May Day celebration has been re-created in Berkeley, California for a number of years-an example of face a terrible choice between remaining with the lover or returning home to the mundane realm. contemporary Pagans drawing on folkloric practice for inspiration. Perhaps such "otherworlds" only exist in human imagination - but even so, they can be meaningful elements within an individual's or a group's spiritual practice. Such forays into the realm of mythic Sacred Space imagination can be experienced as challenging, healing, inspirational, or deeply transformational. Many Pagans embrace the idea that the universe is enchanted; that even the most mundane and Many Pagan groups and individuals engage in magical ritual practices as part of their spiritual ordinary elements of nature are, at least potentially, pregnant with spiritual power and possibility. life.Such rituals can be devotional in nature (offering love, honor, and worship to gods, ancestors, or Taken to its pantheistic or monistic extreme, Paganism celebrates all space - all of nature - as sacred nature spirits) or thaumaturgical (attempting to create real change in the world through magical or holy. But within that framework of overall immanence, particular sites or points within the natural means).In some Pagan traditions, performing a sacred ritual involves establishing a bounded space world are revered as places of special spiritual power and worthy of reverence and veneration. (often a circle) in which the energy of the ceremony occurs. This space is understood as having a Stonehenge, Angkor Wat, Newgrange, The Pyramids of Egypt, Macchu Picchu,the Parthenon, the magical quality that sets it apart from the rest of the physical universe. In Wicca, for example, such Great Serpent Mound - all over the world, numerous sites of ancient ceremonial and religious magically inscribed ritual circles are said to create a world "between the worlds" - a spiritual locus significance remain today as mysterious mute testaments to prehistoric or ancient spirituality. Pagans between the material and the spiritual realms, allowing access to both planes. Unlike other faith often look to such venerable monuments for inspiration in the continuing quest to revive or recreate traditions where rituals need to be performed in relation to a specific physical location (such as a polytheistic, goddess-centered, or earth-based devotion. church or a temple), the magical circle is, in essence, a portable sacred space that can by psychically Such human-made sites often are subject to a variety of different interpretations. Some are burial created with each new ritual and then dismantled when the ritual is finished. grounds; others appear to be giant observatories; still others have no clear religious or ceremonial Pagans do not seek to create a rigid distinction between what is and is not sacred, but rather to meaning. Prehistoric sites are often the subject of imaginative speculation as different theorists offer anchor a cosmic understanding of the universe as enchanted within specific locations that are their interpretation as to the original or ultimate meaning and purpose of such sites. particularly appropriate for veneration.For Pagans, sacred space is a key to understanding that all of In addition to sites that were clearly fashioned by human hands, other remarkable or distinctive sites nature - indeed, all of the cosmos - is holy, by and through the particular veneration of a specific throughout the earth have become subject to spiritual devotion, often because of distinguishing location (either in the physical universe, in the spiritual otherworld, or within the imaginal space of geographic features, but also because of metaphysical beliefs associated with such sites.Glastonbury the devotee). Tor in England, the Black Hills of South Dakota, andKi l a u e a in Hawaii are examples of spectacular sacred sites, while many less dramatic sites may be centers of regional or local veneration, such as Rites and Ceremonies the tradition of holy well veneration in the Celtic countries. Most expressions of Paganism are magical - which is to say, they promote the use of individual or Such sites typically achieve status as "sacred" in the minds of devotees because of historical communal ritual practices to effect personal and environmental change, particularly changes in significance, particularly in regard to mythology or folklore. Sites associated with ancient gods or consciousness. Rooted in pre-modern magical practices (where rituals were seen as creating direct physical change in the environment), Pagans often have a more sophisticated understanding of magic and smudges them (ritual purification using incense from a burning sage bundle). When everyone is and ritual, following Dion Fortune's definition of "magic" as "the art of changing consciousness at gathered within the circle, the priest and priestess begin the actual ritual by sweeping the bounds of will." Such ceremonially enacted changes in consciousness are believed to facilitate further changes the circles, then censing it with incense, then "cutting" a boundary using the priestess's athame in the practitioner's life circumstances and/or relationship with the gods. (ceremonial knife). Brief invocations to the spirits of the four elements are offered at each of the Magic can be broken down into two categories: thaumaturgy (the working of wonders) and theurgy directional shrines. (the divine work). Thaumaturgical magic tends to be practically oriented: magic with a specific goal in Finally the priest and priestess face one another, standing between the bonfire and the main altar, mind, whether that may be gaining a fortune, losing weight, making the crops grow, or banishing and invoke the god and goddess to be present in one another. They kiss, and each in turn speaks cancer. Practitioners of magic may engage in it for themselves or on behalf of another. Theurgy, by prophetic words to the gathered assembly. Over the next hour, the community chants, drums, contrast, has a more spiritual and devotional focus: magic performed to foster intimacy with a god or meditates, and dances to raise magical energy for particular purposes. At the direction of the goddess, to achieve union with the deity or deities, or to transform oneself into a more holy or priestess, this energy is used to create a "Cone of Power," which is then psychically directed to godlike state. whatever goal the community has established: perhaps healing for a friend who is in the hospital, or Wiccan and other Pagan ceremonies can incorporate either or both thaumaturgical and theurgical for fertility in the local farmlands. elements. Depending on the beliefs of the individual or group performing the ceremony, a ritual can After the magical energy has been raised and dispersed, the priest and priestess invoke the sacred be devotionally oriented toward one or more specific deities, toward ancestral or fairy spirits, toward marriage between the god and the goddess by a ritual act in which he holds a chalice of ale, into nature in general (sometimes personified as an Earth Goddess), or toward a generic understanding of which she plunges the blade of her athame. Then they bless the ale and share it with all who are "the god and the goddess." Likewise, depending on the beliefs and values of the ritual's enactors, the present. Finally, the ritual ends by thanking and dismissing the elemental spirits and bidding farewell tone of the ceremony may be devotional, worshipful, or more explicitly magical. (A devotional or to the god and goddess, and ritually re-sealing the circle with the athame. Afterward, the group may worshipful ritual makes few or no requests of the spirits that are invoked, whereas a magical ritual linger for general feasting and merry-making. instructs or even commands the spirits to do the magician's bidding.) Actual rituals themselves can take an almost infinite variety of forms, particularly given the strong Worship and Devotion in Daily Life ethos within the broad Pagan community for following one's own intuition and creating some or all Living a Pagan life in our time can involve choices as dramatic as leaving a high-paying job to join an the elements of personal spiritual practice. Rituals can be learned from elders and teachers, copied intentional community dedicated to environmental sustainability, or as simple and ordinary as from a book, or created by the individual. Rituals and magical acts often make use of symbolism, reading books on nature spirituality whenever possible.No consensus exists to direct individuals on which can include decorating the ritual site with colors or objects to symbolize the elements or the how to live a "true" Pagan life.Like so many other aspects of this spiritual path, much is left to the god(s) being invoked.Specific tools can be incorporated (for example, the Wiccan athame, or individual practitioner. ceremonial knife, used to cut a magical boundary in the air that separates the ritual space from its Many people choose to integrate Pagan traditions into their daily life by setting up one or more mundane surroundings), and colorful clothing or robes may be worn, to help create a sense of personal shrines or altars in their home or yard. The personal altar can be simple or elaborate; it can separation from ordinary consciousness and openness to the flow of magical energy. be set up according to traditional parameters as established by one's community, or it can be an Some groups or traditions may have taboos associated with rituals (for example, a prohibition against innovative, individual expression of faith and devotion. Since the purpose behind a shrine is to foster wearing watches or having electronic devices like cell phones in the ritual). Candles, essential oils, a sense of devotion or daily connection with one's deities, anything that contributes to such a incense, crystals, bells, drums or other musical instruments, and ritual foods (for offerings to the gods purpose would be acceptable. One's shrine might include statues of gods and/or goddesses; symbols and/or consumption by the participants) can all be part of a ritual, depending on its purpose and of nature, particularly of the elements of air, water, fire, and earth; candles and/or incense; the function. Rituals can take place indoors, although adherents of nature religions often choose to practitioner's journal or "Book of Shadows" (a journal containing one's rituals and magical lore), perform ceremonies in outdoor settings - such as in a forest or around a bonfire. meaningful objects from the natural world (such as crystals, feathers, seashells, or water from a holy What follows is a brief description of a generic Wiccan ceremony. This is only one of many possible well), and any other item that might have particular religious or spiritual significance. rituals that can be performed within a Pagan tradition.At an appointed time and location (say, in a The shrine can function as a focal point for personal meditation, or as a devotional "offering" to one's forest on the night of the full moon), the participants gather, having ritually prepared themselves gods or goddesses, or as a working altar, which can be used in rituals or ceremonies. As in the design with a ceremonial bath and a period of fasting. The priest and priestess (leaders of the ritual) arrive of a shrine or altar, the ways in which it is used are subject to each person's preferences. Some early to prepare the ground for the ceremony and to set up four shrines - one in each direction with practitioners could conceivably create a personal shrine or altar that functions as little more than a elemental symbolism (air in the east, fire in the south, water in the west, earth in the north) - and a work of art - a visual reminder of spirituality that never gets touched or directly engaged in. Others larger altar closer to the center of the circle, north of the fire pit, marked with symbols of the god and may have a more interactive relationship with their shrine or altar, continually rearranging the items the goddess. on the altar or bringing new items of interest to supplement or supplant older objects already After the shrines and the altar are set up, the priest lights the bonfire while the priestess meditates. there.Some Pagans enjoy collecting statues, jewelry, posters, books, or other items that can be When the participants of the ritual arrive, the priest anoints each person with oil on their forehead, displayed in their home as a way of creating a magical or mythical "feel" to their living space. Pagans have a variety of attitudes toward prayer. Some feel that prayer is meaningless, since it 20th century and the rise of religious Wicca, the pentagram had become a more general symbol implies an external deity "out there" or "up there" to whom one addresses one's petitions. Others representing the cosmos as a whole. One common way of interpreting the pentagram assigns an think of prayer as an appropriate activity, even if belief is placed in a god or goddess who is found element to each point of the star: the highest point represents spirit, with other points representing within. Instead of, or in addition to, prayer, meditation - whether involving visualization, recitation of fire, air, water, and earth. Surrounded by a circle that signifies eternity or the vast emptiness of the a mantra, or Buddhist-style breath awareness - can also be a part of an individual's practices, cosmos, the pentagram functions as a symbol of the entirety of nature. depending on his or her interest and inclination. Other borrowed religious practices, from the use of Because of its Greco-Roman origins and its usage today embedded in symbolism drawn from classical a mala or rosary, to yoga or Tai Chi, to lectio divina, to chanting, may also be incorporated into an occultism - the four elements underneath spirit - not all Pagans regard the pentacle as important or individual's daily spirituality.Because of the freedom and tolerance within nature spirituality as a even useful. Celtic Reconstructionists and Odinists, for example, do not generally incorporate whole, each person is free to fashion his or her own devotional life as their own interests dictate. symbolism from cultures outside the Celtic or Norse world, and therefore regard the pentacle as irrelevant to their spirituality as the Christian cross. Many Pagans incorporate divination into their spiritual practice. Divination practices from around the Within such ethnically specific expressions of Paganism, symbols with strong cultural associations world, including astrology, Tarot, Runes, the I Ching, Ogham, and the use of a pendulum as generally take precedence. Thus, Pagan Druids often use the Awen, a symbol depicting three straight a dowsing tool, all are common within the Pagan community. Some divinatory practices are culturally lines that diverge as they move downward, with a dot or point above each line. This symbol was specific and therefore may be particularly common within specific traditions; for example, the runes created during the Druid renaissance of the 18th century and has been interpreted in various ways. are especially popular with Norse Pagans, and the Ogham with druids or other Celtic Pagans. Practitioners of Norse religion often regard the Mjöllnir, or hammer of Thor, as emblematic of their Divination can be used as a means of predicting the future, but often Pagans will bring a more distinctive cultural tradition. Similar symbols include the Caduceus for adherents of Greek Paganism, sophisticated spiritual sensibility to their divination practice, engaging in it to seek guidance from the the Ankh for Egyptian traditions, and the Medicine Wheel for some Native American traditions. The gods and goddesses and insight into their own unfolding spiritual growth and development. Some labrys, or double-edged axe, has roots in Greek and Cretan culture, but because of its association Pagans may do readings for others, and particularly gifted ones may offer their services professionally with Minoan priestesses it has become a symbol of Dianic Wicca and witchcraft (traditions with a through a metaphysical bookstore or at a psychic fair. But many read strictly for themselves or for strong feminist ethos). close friends, seeing divination as an intimate spiritual practice rather than a mere form of Nature religions also employ symbolism borrowed from other faith traditions. Wicca's links to entertainment or fortune telling. ceremonial magic and occultism include, for at least some Wiccan lineages, a strong emphasis on Since Pagans often resist the idea that "spirituality" is somehow distinct from the rest of life, Hermetic Qabalah (a non-specifically-Jewish permutation of the Kabbalah that emerged within the ultimately almost any activity can be embraced as a part of a spiritual practice. Camping, hiking, occult community between the 15th and 17th centuries); this means that the Tree of Life is significant gardening, nature photography, drawing or other creative pursuits, the practice of herbalism or the to their spiritual practice. Pagans who practice divination use related symbols including the glyphs of use of essential oils, incense making, the preparation and use of folk healing remedies - these are astrology and the imagery from the Tarot. Meanwhile, the Daoist Yin-Yang symbol and the Christian some of the many practices that can be incorporated into daily life with a clear recognition that such Celtic Cross (particularly when drawn as an equal-armed cross) are used by some segments of the activities have spiritual meaning. Ultimately, every Pagan is responsible for developing his or her Pagan community as symbols of the cosmos as a whole. Often these images from other religions are most meaningful practices. re-interpreted within a Pagan context; for example, the Celtic Cross does not symbolize the death of Jesus for Pagans, but rather functions as a European variation on the medicine wheel: the circle Symbolism symbolizing eternity and/or the goddess, the cross symbolizing the four directions and/or the god. A visitor to a bookstore or gift shop that caters to Pagans will notice a broad assortment of symbolic Some Pagans employ more abstract symbolism as well. For example, Wiccans often will use colors to jewelry: pentacles and pentagrams, Thor's hammer and the Minoan labrys, the Sheela-na-Gig and the signify the elements and deity: yellow is associated with air, red with fire, blue with water, green with crescent moon. Even symbols borrowed from other faith traditions, including the Yin-Yang, the earth, black with the goddess, and white with the god. The four suits of the Tarot deck have similar Qabalistic Tree of Life, and the Medicine Wheel, feature prominently in the world of nature-centered associations: swords signifying air, wands fire, cups water, and pentacles earth. Such associations may and magical spirituality. What the observer may deduce - and rightly so - is that no single image or vary slightly from group to group; many groups prefer to associate wands with air and swords with symbol holds universal prominence within this highly diverse and decentralized spiritual path. Unlike fire, for example. the Christian cross, the Jewish Star of David, or the Sanskrit OM, no one symbol fully defines the Perhaps the most ubiquitous symbol of all within Paganism is so widespread and commonly held that multi-faceted world of Paganism. it often goes unnoticed - the circle. The circle has a strong feminine association, linked to the vulva or That said, the pentagram (the five-pointed star, usually but not always depicted enclosed by a circle) the womb (in contrast to the more masculine/phallic symbolism of the straight line). Likewise, the is nearly universally used by Wiccans and other witches, and comes closest to being the most circle has strong associations with nature: the earth is round, the earth moves in a circular orbit commonly used symbol within Paganism as a whole. Rooted in ancient Greek and Roman paganism, around the sun, the moon likewise progresses in a circular progression around the earth. with ties to goddesses such as Hygeia and Venus, the pentagram has been associated with occultism, Reincarnation suggests a circular movement of souls between death and life. Although not all Pagan ceremonial magic, and even Christianity (the five points signifying the five wounds of Christ). By the traditions explicitly use the circle in rituals in the same way that Wiccans do with "circle casting," even culturally specific forms of Paganism often conduct ceremonies in a circle - subtly reinforcing financial contributions but expect members to shoulder their share of group-related work. the nearly universal Pagan rejection of hierarchy. Groups typically engage in educational and ritual work: elders teach younger and newer members the ETHICS AND COMMUNITY theology and spirituality of Pagan religion in general and of their tradition in particular; communal Community Organization rituals help the group members to put their spirituality into practice. Groups also often will engage in As practiced in the English-speaking world, Paganism in the 21st century is decentralized and diverse. fellowship and community-building activities, as well as service projects, often oriented toward Unlike other religions where organization at the community level often means owning and environmental preservation. maintaining a community building (a church, synagogue, mosque, or meditation center), nearly all Pagan groups meet in people's homes or in accessible outdoor settings (such as parks or state As mentioned above, some Pagan individuals and groups own parcels of land that function as nature forests). Some groups, however, do own and manage their own nature preserves. This article preserves as well as gathering places for the community at large. For many Pagans, retreating from examines some common organizational structures among modern North American Pagans; it does urban settings to forest or wilderness environments, even if only for a weekend or a week, can be an not consider how other Pagan groups (particularly among indigenous peoples, or in the past) may important aspect of nature-oriented spiritual practice. Such Pagan nature preserves might be used have structured their common spiritual lives; nor is it meant to be exhaustive even among only by one particular group or tradition, or might be more open to a broad cross-section of Wiccan, contemporary Pagan religions. Pagan, nature-centered, occult, and goddess-oriented groups. Large-scale gatherings, known as Pagan festivals, can attract anywhere from fifty to a thousand or more participants. Participants Because Paganism involves the experience of mystical communion with, or devotion to, nature generally camp on the land, offer and attend a variety of classes and workshops, engage in rituals, and/or Pagan deities, it is entirely possible to be a solitary practitioner of the Pagan path. As a tend a communal bonfire, engage in communal music-making (usually involving a hand-drum circle), spirituality devoid of dogma, there is no mandate to organize. Many people may engage in Pagan and purchase Pagan books, jewelry, and other merchandise. For many Pagans, attending a regional or spirituality as a purely private and personal pursuit; some writers of nature spirituality books have national gathering is the highlight of the year. thus addressed their work specifically to the solitary practitioner. Scott Cunningham's Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (1993) is a best-selling book, indicating the widespread appeal of Pagan Finally, it should be noted that many Pagans are active online, and that numerous groups, mail lists, spirituality to those who do not wish to affiliate with a group. bulletin boards, blogs, meet-up groups, and other online resources are devoted to the learning and practice of Paganism. The relative anonymity of the internet allows newcomers to explore Pagan While solitary practice is acceptable, many Pagans do affiliate with others, typically in small groups spirituality without necessarily committing to it. The wealth of resources online enable interested that are either governed by consensus or some form of democratic process. These groups are known parties to learn about different traditions within Paganism - and even study one particular tradition as circles, groves, tribes, or covens (a term used mostly by Wiccans and witches). Some groups in-depth - all from the safety and comfort of one's computer. Although some practitioners may (particularly traditionalist covens) have established leadership structures, although the small size of "graduate" from online engagement with the Pagan community to in-person involvement with a these groups supports direct accountability between the leaders and the membership. Despite a group, for many the online dimension of their religious practice remains an essential part of their romantic notion that covens of witches should be limited to thirteen members (promoted by early spiritual life. authors like Gerald Gardner), in practice Wiccan and other Pagan groups can have anywhere from three to five or up to 100 or more members. Often larger groups will "hive" or split into smaller Leadership groups, thus enabling the religion to grow and allowing new leadership to emerge. With influences as diverse as ancient mystery religions, shamanism and indigenous spirituality, 19th- century occultism, and the anti-authoritarian ethos of the 1960s counterculture, many Pagan Some groups are part of lineages or traditions, established by students of Pagan elders who go on to communities today feature a priesthood that is unpaid, relatively easy to enter, and collaborative in form their own groups, but remain under the tutelage of their mentors. Other groups are newly its leadership style. Few, if any, groups concentrate authority and leadership in a small number of formed by enterprising individuals who read books on the religion and simply start their own clergypersons who minister to a large community of laypersons. Instead, Pagan communities typically gathering. On the regional or national level, umbrella organizations like the Covenant of the Goddess will ordain many - if not most or all - active and committed members to positions of ritual, or the Pagan Federation enable independent Pagan groups to join together for common purposes, educational, and/or organizational leadership. such as networking or political advocacy. Not only are both men and women eligible for clergy positions within Paganism, but many groups actually favor women. Many Wiccan communities regard their High Priestess as first among equals, Requirements for joining Wiccan or other Pagan groups vary. Some groups can only be joined and organize both new and existing covens around the leadership of the High Priestess. Generally the through a ritual initiation, which typically occurs after a period of study. Other groups, such as the only groups that prohibit one gender or the other from assuming leadership positions are those that druid organization Ár nDraíocht Féin, are membership-based: one joins simply by submitting an limit membership in general to just one gender. Likewise, groups rarely if ever limit ordination on application. Some groups have a dues structure; others ask for pledges; others do not require account of sexual preference or relationship status. Few Pagan seminaries exist; most local covens and groups provide their own training for future Principles of Moral Thought and Action clergy. The largest pagan seminary is Cherry Hill Seminary, an online educational institution. "An [if] it harm none, do what ye will." Although written in the style of 16th-century English, this Otherwise, in keeping with the non-professional status of most Pagan clergy, training typically does maxim, known as the Wiccan Rede, probably dates back only to the mid-20th century. It was first not involve traditional academic coursework (although some groups might require candidates to recorded in print in 1964, having been spoken by Doreen Valiente, a priestess who had been initiated complete university-level coursework in clinical pastoral education or counseling). Rather, training is by Gerald Gardner. Some observers of modern witchcraft speculate that it may represent a revision provided in a small-group or in a one-on-one format, focusing on oral instruction rather than the of Aleister Crowley's occult maxim, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," which first study of assigned texts. Groups generally provide instruction with a strong practical component, with appeared in 1904. Regardless of its origin, the Rede - as a succinct moral code - spread rapidly students engaging in ritual leadership, ritual design, the development of psychic skills, organizational throughout the Wiccan and religious witchcraft community. Balancing an emphasis on personal or administrative classes, and teaching of newcomers as part of their overall training. responsibility with an imperative for non-harm of others, it meshed beautifully with the zeitgeist of Some Wiccan and other Pagan communities feature a rite of passage or initiation ceremony to mark the 1960s, an era when status quo morality was being questioned in the light of student unrest, progress in the spiritual life as well as attainment of priesthood or leadership responsibility. Not all emerging feminist and gay/lesbian concerns with their attendant re-thinking of traditional sexual groups equate initiation with ordination. One common structure within Wicca is a three-degree morality, and public disapproval of conflicts such as the war in Vietnam. The Wiccan Rede's simple initiation process, with new students receiving training and instruction culminating in three separate and common sense ethic allowed both the new freedoms of the age to flourish, while preserving a levels or degrees of initiation (often spaced a year or more apart). Some groups regard first-degree basic sense of responsibility and care for others - at least in terms of refraining from harm. initiates as priests or priestesses, while others consider only second- or third-degree initiates to be ordained clergy. Many variations of the Rede have emerged since its first appearance in the 1960s, some versions Since clergy and spiritual leadership is generally a social function, solitary adherents of Paganism may subtly re-defining its moral parameters. One common variant appends "Lest in thy self-defense it be," feel no need to regard themselves as priests or clergy. Solitaries may receive training from a mentor, modifying the prohibition against harm in the interest of self-protection. The Wiccan community does or may be self-taught through books or personal intuition. Some solitaries may function as clergy in not have a consensus view on how to interpret the Rede; some see it as a spiritual maxim pertaining relation to society at large - for example, engaging in prison ministry or performing weddings - even only to magic, while others regard it as governing all conduct. For some, the prohibition on harm though they are not members of an established religious or spiritual community. extends to an unwillingness to engage in military service, while others see no such limitation inherent To the extent that Pagan communities are self-contained and do not interact with society as a whole, in the Rede. clergy credentials are not a significant concern; respect for the priest or priestess within the group is usually enough of a credential. However, as the Pagan community has grown and more nature- Despite its popularity among Wiccans and some other modern Pagans, the Wiccan Rede is hardly centered clergypersons engage in "public" ministries such as performing weddings and funerals, universally observed in the Pagan community. Most non-Wiccans regard it as strictly a Wiccan text, providing pastoral counseling, prison or hospital ministry, and speaking in public settings on behalf of and seek other principles for moral guidance. Many adherents of ethnic Pagan revivalist traditions their religious tradition, the perceived need for clergy credentials has grown. Some national look to the heritage of their chosen culture for guidance. For example, Celtic and Norse pagans organizations, including the Covenant of the Goddess and Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship, advocate a life grounded in virtue as understood in the great myths and legends of northern Europe. provide clergy credentials to qualified candidates. Others seek ordination through a third party, such Such values often reflect the importance of tribal kinship, valor among warriors, and personal pride. as the Universal Life Church (ULC), Metaphysical Interfaith Church, or Universal Brotherhood. The Here is a list of "Nine Noble Virtues" as used by some Norse Pagans: requirements for ordination within these groups vary widely; the ULC, for example, requires little  Courage - the ability to face both the joys and the challenges of life fearlessly; more than filling out an online form.  Truth - honesty and integrity in one's words as well as one's actions; Pagans who wish to pursue a fully professional credential can pursue ordination through  Honor - strength of character as reflected in one's behavior and trustworthiness; the Unitarian Universalist (UU) Association, since the UU community accepts Pagans both as  Fidelity - loyalty and faithfulness to family, tribal, and spiritual commitments; members and as clergypersons. However, ordination within the UU community leads specifically to  Discipline - consistency in effort toward reaching one's goals; credentials as a UU minister, which means that one's identity as a Pagan becomes a descriptive  Hospitality - kindness to strangers, travelers, and those who are in need; quality, rather than the central defining feature, of the individual's identity as a clergyperson.  Industriousness - willingness to work hard toward excellence in productivity; Within most groups, however, issues such as credentials or the ability to minister to non-group  Self-Reliance - pride in the ability to care for one's own needs; members is not an issue, and most Pagan clergy exercise their ministry in collaborative community  Perseverance - refusal to admit defeat or to let obstacles thwart one's efforts. with others who function as their peers, sometimes under the tutelage of one or more elders who As is the case of the Wiccan Rede, the culturally specific values of various Pagan traditions are not function as mentors. This relatively informal and unstructured approach to ministry works because it universally accepted - not even within a specific cultural tradition. diffuses power and authority among the group membership, which minimizes problems such as abuse or egotism and also enables each clergyperson to work without pay, since the responsibilities of the priesthood are shared with others.

Many Pagans consider environmental stewardship and care for the earth to be a central tenet of their One of the first well-known Pagan leaders to actively promote social activism as an outgrowth of her religious ethics. Such an emphasis arises less out of traditional maxims or virtues and more out of the religious practice was Starhawk. After her first book (The Spiral Dance [1979], an introductory text to widespread contemporary recognition that humanity needs to redefine our relationship with the witchcraft), Starhawk wrote several books about social and political activism from the perspective of earth. Consequently, some Pagans feel inspired to engage in personal environmental activities promoting ecofeminist values. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, Starhawk had emerged as a public (recycling, organic gardening, using green energy and reusable items like cloth grocery bags), figure as renowned for her activism as for her religious beliefs. Her work includes training others in participate in environmental advocacy groups (from national organizations like the Sierra Club to nonviolence and direct action, and supporting the peace movement, women's movement, regional and local associations devoted to conservation work), and engage in political action on environmental movement, and the anti-globalization movement. behalf of environmental causes. Others within the larger Pagan community may choose not to engage in such activity, either because they do not consider it spiritually necessary or because they In her book Truth or Dare: Encounters with Power, Authority, and Mystery (1987) Starhawk suggests do not see a necessary connection between Pagan spirituality and environmental activism. For that power can function in three ways: "power-over," "power-from-within," and "power-with." example, they may prefer to engage in spiritual or magical efforts on behalf of nature, rather than "Power-over" is power wielded by the privileged to dominate or control others. "Power-from-within," emphasizing social or political action. by contrast, is power not concentrated in the hands of a few, but rather power that emerges within individuals to enable them to reach their full potential and to engage creatively with others. "Power- Indeed, magic and spirituality play an important role not only in the practice of many forms of with" is the healthy social alternative to "power-over." "Power-with" is the egalitarian and truly Paganism, but also in the shaping of Pagan ethics. Magic is grounded in a recognition that self- democratic exercise of power in which peers join together to share power in common. Most of what interest and care for one's own family and tribe are acceptable principles of action; in this sense, is wrong in contemporary society can be traced back to toxic forms of dominating power. Thus the Pagan spirituality functions quite well within a democratic capitalist economy, where self-interest is a way to transform society is to encourage all people (and particularly those who traditionally have foundational social principle. However, some magical communities impose restraints on the morality been denied access to power) to manifest their power-from-within, and then to join together with of self-interest, whether in terms of the Rede's "harm none," in terms of classical or mythological others as equals to create shared, healthy, non-dominating power structures in order to create a truly concepts of virtue, or in terms of balancing the competing interests of personal self-interest with the just and good social order. mandate for environmental responsibility and sustainable living. Selena Fox, the founder of Circle Sanctuary in Wisconsin, engages in a variety of social and Ultimately, no universally observed ethical principles define the Pagan movement as a whole, environmental initiatives. She is the founder of the Lady Liberty League, devoted to promoting although mythologically-derived notions of virtue and honor, the Wiccan Rede, the acceptance of religious tolerance, especially (but not exclusively) for Pagans; through Circle Sanctuary she has led magic as a tool for exercising spiritual power, and a balanced sense of the importance of caring for efforts toward nature preservation and environmental education. The Circle community engages in a the environment are widely held values. variety of social ministries, including prison ministry, food drives, and public education on nature spiritualities. In 2005 Circle was in the forefront of "the pentacle quest," the successful legal effort to Vision for Society force the Veterans Administration to permit pentacle-marked headstones and memorials for Wiccan Pagans encompass the entire spectrum of social and political value systems. Adherents of this type of military veterans. spirituality may in good conscience espouse liberal, conservative, moderate, libertarian, green, and other political values. This, in itself, offers an important clue to the Pagan vision for society: it is a In 2005, Llewellyn Publishers released a collection of essays called Pagan Visions for a Sustainable society where freedom of thought, expression, and political ideas are foundational. Future, edited by Ly de Angeles, Emma Restall Orr, and Thom van Dooren. This anthology features a variety of perspectives on the question of how Pagans envision a good society and what it will take to Although many Pagans identify with tribal or prehistoric social structures on a mythic or spiritual bring such visions to fruition. Topics covered include the ethics of Paganism (focusing on the question level, they also generally accept and espouse the values of liberal democracy. Many promote social of "sacred relationships"), the relationship between magic and ecology, the role of shamanism in change of some form, usually involving the promotion of non-sexist, non-homophobic, non- social and environmental change, telling the truth as a political act, and the value of sacred hierarchical, and even non-monogamous social values, although some minority groups (particularly community. Taken as a whole, these essays celebrate the promise of Paganism to create a future in among ethnic reconstructionist pagans) espouse less liberal positions. Alongside such progressive which humankind lives in harmony with the earth, spirituality grounded in magic will empower social values, many Pagans advocate environmentalism (although ideas about how environmentalism individuals and strengthen communities, and the human family will move beyond sexism, racism, and should be promoted vary; for example, libertarian Pagans might advocate for a free market approach heterosexism, creating instead a culture where individuals are free to reach their full potential to environmental responsibility, while left-leaning Pagans might argue for social policies to promote without artificial limitations imposed by social restraints. or enforce environmentalist policy initiatives). Despite the prominence of ecofeminist values and social activism within the Pagan community, not all individuals and groups espouse such perspectives. It is possible to be a Pagan and be non-political, Along with the liberal and positive approach to sexual behavior and ethics, Paganism generally conservative, or libertarian. Many practitioners are enthusiastic supporters of their nation's military. endorses feminism and accepts a post-patriarchal understanding of gender. Nearly all segments of Others see no essential contradiction between Paganism and acceptance of the social and political the Pagan community regard men and women as true equals, complementary to the extent that the status quo. Nevertheless, for many Pagans, part of the experience of embracing nature-based, biological realities of gender means some differences in abilities and strengths, but with a clear goddess-oriented, or polytheistic spirituality is also embracing the ability to envision a different social understanding that this complementarity does not in any way privilege one gender over the other. order for the future, in which personal liberties (particularly concerning sexuality and gender) are While some groups (such as Dianic Witchcraft) may limit their membership to one gender and maximized, current social and economic problems are addressed by a return to tribal or communal consequently may regard that gender as privileged in some ways, for the most part nature values, and care for the earth (including the adoption of sustainable environmental practices) is spiritualities exult in the differences between male and female and celebrate the joyful ways in which considered a key social value. those differences can come together in friendship, love, and sexual union.

Gender and Sexuality With this basic affirmation of equality between the sexes in place, the Pagan community nevertheless When Gerald Gardner and his associates began publicly to discuss and promote Wicca in the 1950s includes broad possibilities for the expression of gender identity. Traditional gender roles (such as the and 1960s, several elements of the movement had strong erotic or fertility overtones. Gardner's strong male warrior and the nurturing mother) are accepted and in some settings even affirmed. group performed their rituals in the nude - a phenomenon called "working skyclad" - and one of the Some Pagan groups recognize a difference between "Male Mysteries" and "Female Mysteries" - male tools used in some rites was a scourge (which symbolized self-denial or sacrificial suffering). Some mysteries can include a celebration of hunting, athletic competition, the ethos of the warrior, and the rites included ceremonial kissing between the priest and the priestess, while the dramatic "Great cultivation of virtues such as bravery and honor; likewise, female mysteries can include the Rite" involved either actual or symbolic sexual intercourse between the priest and priestess leading celebration of the menstrual cycle, the feminine journey from maiden to mother to crone, and the the ritual. cultivation of traditionally "feminine" skills such as divination, herbalism, or healing work.

Although Gardnerian Wicca may be extreme in its explicit use of erotic symbolism and rituals - other The concept of male and female mysteries, like the construction of gender identity itself, is fluid and forms of Wicca, witchcraft, and other nature religions do not always work skyclad or engage in other can vary from group to group (or even individual to individual). And while some groups may enforce forms of ceremonial sexual expression - it is emblematic of the unabashedly positive view that restrictions that only allow persons who are genetically male or female to participate in the mysteries Paganism in general holds toward sexuality. Unlike other religious traditions that have advocated of their gender, on a purely individual level much latitude exists within the larger Pagan community celibacy, prohibited all sexual expression outside of marriage, and encouraged married couples to for men or women to pursue their own interests, regardless of traditional gender affiliation. Thus, limit or restrict their sexual behavior, Pagan religions often reflect the permissiveness of the 1960s- male herbalists and female warriors are not only acceptable within the Pagan community, but can era sexual revolution in regard to extramarital sexuality, homosexuality, swinging or non- even be regarded as prestigious examples of the personal freedom available within the community. monogamous relationships, fetishes or BDSM, use of contraceptives, and abortion. Although many adherents of Paganism adopt lifestyles consistent with mainstream liberal society, those who choose Gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersexed, and transgendered persons also are generally welcomed within the alternative lifestyles generally are accepted within the Pagan community with no need to hide or Pagan community. Although some groups specifically cater to non-heterosexual or non-exclusively- apologize for their lifestyle choice. heterosexual Pagans, many groups welcome diversity in sexual expression among their members. Those whose sexuality and gender identity differ from societal norms are a sign not only of the Like society at large, Pagans abhor predatory or coercive sexual acts such as rape, date rape, child diversity of nature itself, but also the liberality and tolerance that most Pagans consider to be molestation, exploitative pornography, or sexual harassment. While polyamory (non-monogamy) and bedrock values of their spirituality. swinging is generally tolerated, opinion is divided among Pagans as to whether such behavior is truly good. Even those who accept or embrace non-monogamy believe it is wrong to lie or deceive one's partner(s) about such behavior - in other words, it is only okay to have multiple sexual partners when everyone involved is knowledgeable and accepting of the situation.

Although abortion is not considered immoral in the Pagan community, the use of contraceptives is seen as preferable to the emotional and physical trauma of abortion. Persons with sexually transmitted diseases have a moral obligation to either refrain from sexual activity or, at the least, inform partners of their situation and use condoms or other prophylactics to reduce the risk of transmission.