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ORIGINALITY

WORKSBY T. SHARPERKNOWLSON

THEEDUCATIONOFTHEWILL Crown8vo,cloth,6s,net THEARTOFTHINKING Crown8vo,paper,1s.6d.net CENTURYSTUDENTSMANUAL Crown8vo,cloth,2s.6d.net LEOTOLSTOI Crown8vo,cloth,2s.6d.net APOPULARSTUDYOFTHE CREATIVEMIND

T.SHARPERKNOWLSON

DIRECTOROFINSTRUCTIONATTHEPELMANINSTITUTE

“Everymindisdifferent; andthemoreitisunfoldedthemore pronouncedisthatdifference.” EMERSON, EssayonQuotationandOriginality.

SIXTHTHOUSAND

LONDON T.WERNERLAURIELTD. PHILADELPHIA:J.B.LIPPINCOTTCOMPANY 1920 to\}''#£a. ū

A'irstPrinted September1917 Reprinted Movember1918 A'eprinted September1919 A'eprinted Aebruary1920 PREFACE

THEobjectofthepagesthatfollowis,first,toshowthe importanceofastudyofcreativethoughtandtodevelop aninterestinit;next,tooffersomesuggestionsastothe naturalhistoryofmindinitsmostinspiredmoments;finally, toinstitutearegimefortheindividualwherebyhemay

securethehighestmentalefficiency. - - ThattheprogrammeisambitiousIknowonlytoowell, butIdesiretodrawattentiontothelimitsimposedupon mytreatmentofthesubject.I haveaddressedmyself togeneralreadersofthemorethoughtfultype,notto psychologicalstudents,exceptinsofarasallintelligent peoplearenowadaysincludedinthatcategory.This, whilstcompellinganobservanceofthescientificmethod, hasnaturallydemandedapracticalstudyofthemindat work—i.e.psychologycaughtintheveryact,nottheformal scienceofthetext-book.Suchamethod,however,cannot besafelypursuedwithouttheassistanceofexperts,and mypagesbearamplewitnesstothefactthatIhavecon sultedtheirviews.Butitisamethodthatselectspractical valuesasthecriterionofworthinpreferencetosystematic treatmentontheoreticallines. Thecivilisedworldappearstobepreparingforanewera inwhichthestrategyandtacticsofwararetobeappliedto commerce.Willtheracegototheswiftandthebattleto thestrong?Possibly;butIshouldprefertosaythatthe racewillbewonbythosewhosemindspossessthefiner

58.3466 Vi PREFACE creativeforces,especiallyasexecutiveabilityhasnow reachedahighdegreeofefficiency.Wemaynotcarefor theideaofcontinuedwarfare,evenonapeacefulbasis,but, despitethenewcosmopolitanismwhichisboundtosucceed thepronouncednationalismofthepast,thenationsarenot yetlikelytosurrendertheirindividualityasseparatepeoples; andinscience,inliterature,andinthefineartsgenerally, thereiscertaintobearenaissanceofnationaltraditionsand ideals.Insomerespectsthisisamostdesirabletendency, becauseitpreventstheuniformitywhichistheaccompani mentoflargecombinations.Hereinthesmallernations willhaveanabundanceofopportunity. Ihaveonlytouchedthefringeofagreatandeverfascinat ingsubject,buttheonethingIhaveaimedatinthisbook, apartfromitsdiscussions,isstimulus;andifIsucceed inarousinganinterestthatshallbearfruitinpractical endeavourIshallfeelthatmylabourshavereceivedtheir reward.

LoNDoN,1917. CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION• - • - • I

TheTrendofModernPsychology—IstowardsSpecu lativeIssues—NeglectingPracticalAffairs—Book PsychologyinGermany—Toknow,tofeel,toresolve— Arenotsoimportantastocreate—APleaforIndi viduality—NewnessandOriginality—TheImportance of“Difference’’—Pitman'sShorthandandHumphrey’s Pump—ProfessorButcheronGreekLiterature— Plagiarism:WhatisitP—Reade,Voltaire,Gibbon— ACuriousCaseinNietzsche'sZarathustra—Imitation andOriginality—TheHigherImitation—Meshtrovic's EccentricImitation—DifferencebetweenPoeticand ScientificOriginality–Originalitydefined–The MysteryoftheIndividual—WedonotknowOur selves—WewearMasks—TheHistoryoftheIndi vidual—SocialAntagonisms—Meredith’sLeasehold MarriageIdea—PenaltiesonIndividualityimposedby Negroes—ExpressionoftheUnaffectedSelf

SECTIONI

THENATURALHISTORYOFGENIUS

CHAPTER I.CONSCIOUSNESS: SOMEOFITSCHARACTERISTICS

ANDIMPLICATIONS• • o • 19

AllOriginalMindsobeythesameLaws—Superiority liesintheGreaterRangeofConsciousness—Thus SpatialTermsareused—e.g.deep,lofty—TheGrowth ofConsciousnessfromthePlanttoMan—OurInability todefineConsciousness—TheFailureofExperimental Psychology—DescartesandPascalonComprehension andCertitude–ConsciousnessmeanstheWholeMind —i.e.Feeling,Thought,andWill—Wecannotisolate oneoftheseFunctions—Plato'sConceptionof€ewpia vii CONTENTS

Chapter PAGE CHAPTERI.—continued Newman'sIllativeSense—Schopenhauer'sIdeaof GeniusasTwo-ThirdsIntellect,One-ThirdWill— Whatis“Range’’ ofConsciousness7–Notmerely GreaterKnowledgebutFinerPerception—AFlower asviewedbya Botanistanda Poet—Feelingand ThoughtinBusinessandinPoetry—OntheVarious KindsofAbility—RibotonImagination—SirFrancis GaltononEminentMen—HarmonyofConsciousness intheGreatestGeniuses—SecondaryGeniusandLoneli ness—Apprehensionv.Comprehension–Everything, finally,isUnknowable—SomeArithmeticalContra dictions—MysticismandMathematics—Mallarméon theMysteryofPerception—AnatoleFranceandthe ElusiveNatureof Beauty—ProfessorJameson Socrates'DemandforDefinitions—“Range’’applied totheSubconscious—OriginoftheSubconscious— Subconscious“Gifts”—ABoyMathematicalProdigy —EducatingtheSubconscious–Poincaré'sHy potheses—CharlotteBronté'sVillette

II.CoNSCIOUSNESSAsAFoRMOFENERGY.• 48

TheLimitsofIntrospectionandExperiment—The LawoftheConservationofEnergy—Ostwaldon PsychicalEnergy–DrWildonCarrdeniestheAnalogy —Jung,Ribot,andOtherstaketheAffirmative—We knowPhysicalEnergyonlybyMentalEnergy—What istheStreamofConsciousnessP-IstheresuchaThing asThought-Wastage7–TheLimitsofMind-Control— NoSubconsciousMindbutaSubconsciousSphere— TheWorkofFreudanditsValue—Doctrineofthe “Complex”—TheContinuityofMentalHistory— MentalEnergy,liketheBlood,Circulates—Kostyleff onFreud'sServicestoPsychology

III.GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS• •

HirschsaysGeniusisnota PsychologicalTerm— TheMany-sidedMindofDaVinci—Importanceofthe InitialImpulse—GreatMenandtheControllingMotive —InheritancedoesnotaccountforGenius—Easeof AttainmenttheFirstCharacteristic—TheFormationof theSubconscious—GeniusandthePrincipleofLeast

W111 CONTENTS CniAPTER PAGE CHAPTERIII.—continued Action—FerreroandMentalInertia—TheLeastEffort asseeninMathematics—IdlenessasaPolicy-TheLeast EffortinReligion—RestandInactionastheIdeal Lombroso’sMisoneism:itsErrors—LogicastheSign oftheGreatestEffort—MyersandtheSubconscious

SECTIONII

THEORIGINOFNEWIDEAS

I.INSPIRATIONAsANATURALPROCESS. e 77 InspirationasaNaturalMentalProcess—TwoMain Factors:(a)Physical;(b)Mental—Howdoweget Ideas?—PerceptionandReflection;Finsen'sCase– RusselWallaceonhowheandDarwinthoughtof NaturalSelection—WordsworthandtheStimuliof Nature—Shakespeare'sKnowledgeofLife—Ideasby MeansofAssociation—DarwinontheArtofDiscovery —ProfessorPoultononScienceandImagination—No InspirationwithoutPreviousKnowledge—J.S.Mill, andOthers,onIntuition—Inspirationworksaccording

toMentalLaws *

II.THELAWSOFINSPIRATIONe e © 87 A.ThataPeriodofCloseInquiryandReflectionshould befollowedeitherbyaChangeofSubjectoraPeriodof MentalInactivity—IllustrationsfromHaydnand Berlioz—PoincaréandMathematicalSolutions— Novelists: SirWalterScottandCharlotteBronté— TheRationaleoftheLaw—AllMentalFunctionsnot controllablebyWill—Souriau'sTheory—ThePlay oftheSubconscious—HardWorkasa Conditionof Inspiration—LaRochefoucauld,Tennyson,Flaubert —SirFrancisGaltonandtheAntechamberofCon sciousness—AnatoleFranceandDescartesontheValue ofLaziness—RusselWallaceontheHygieneofIdle ness—MatthewArnoldonGeniusasEnergy—Walter PaterdescribestheMethodofLeonardo-Kreislerand Paderewskion“Practising”—ModernHasteandits Drawbacks—ThePolicyisoneofWorkingand— Waiting–ProfessorLloydMorgan'sViews-How MaeterlinckWorks ix CONTENTS

CHAPTERII.—continued B.ThattheSearchforNewIdeasisconditionedby IntellectualRhythm—MrsMeynellonMentalPeriodicity —Coleridge'sViewsonthePolarityofMovements— RhythminCommercialProgress—StagnantDaysv. CreativeDays—WedonotstudyourRhythms—The bearingofthisLawonthePrecedingLaw

C. ThattheNewIdeaispartlydependentforitsBirth ontherightExternalStimulus—PrimaryandSecond aryStimuli—AnIllustrationfromRousseau–Byron's Sardanapalus:itsOrigin—GeorgeEliotasinfluenced byRousseau—PersonalConditionsthatcreate“Moods” –Kant,Buffon,Shelley,Sheridan,Gautier-DrJohn son,ThomasHardy,Stevenson—BodilyPositionmost helpfultoThought

D.ThattheEmploymentofAnalogy,consciouslyor unconsciously,isaCreativeMethodofGreatValue ProfessorBainontheNatureofKnowledge-Analogy andGenius–ProfessorJamesonGreatMen—Aristotle andtheMasteryofMetaphor-DiscoveriesbyDes cartesandBooleonMathematics–FaradayandWart manninScience—TheTaubeAeroplane—DrForbes RossandCancer—MrT.AndreaCook'sCurvesof Life-Butler,BagehotandDrummondasStudents ofAnalogy—AnalogyinWitandHumour:Barrie andLeacock-DeQuinceyandJevonsonAnalogies

E.ThatwhentheMindisbentonaDiscovery,orOther wisesetupontheRealisationofanIdea,itsEnergies maysuddenlybeside-trackedbyaConceptionwithfew RelationshipstotheimmediatePurpose,oritmaymake whatiscalledaChanceDiscoveryofatotallydifferent Nature—ThusNiepceandDaguerreinPhotography– HumeandWhewellonChance—CanwepredictMental PhenomenaP-ProfessorMachandChanceDiscoveries –PaulhandiscussesDaudet's“Deviations"—De MussetfollowedChanceasa Policy-Maeterlinck's Views

F.ThattheFinalLawis:ThinkforYourself-Gibbon's Method—AnIllustrationfromtheMysteryofSleep WhyeveryMancanThinkforHimself—TheOnly WayinwhichtoobtainOurOwnIdeas—TheTendency X CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTERII.—continued toThinkbyProxy—SchopenhauerandLordColeridge —WhytheirBooksarePurelyNegative—Economic Originalities—HiddenOriginality—Wanted:AClear ingHouseforIdeas

III.THEPATHOLOGYOFINSPIRATION* • 125 InspirationandPhysicalDisease-HeineandR.L. StevensonasIllustrations—TheMentalEffectsof Drugs—TheRitualofMysticEnlightenment—Inspira tionanditsPhysicalAccompaniments—DeMussetand Alfieri-AbsentintheGreatGeniusesoftheWorld— AConfessionbyGeorgeEliot—Flaubertimagines Arsenicandtastesit—Nietzsche'sClairaudience—

ACuriousInstancefromBalzac -

SECTIONIII

BIOLOGICALFACTORS

I.AGEANDORIGINALITY. • • • 133

TheAllegedFatalForty—FromTwenty-FourtoFifty theAgefortheBestWork—Goethe,Cervantesand Kant—WhyFiftyistheUsualOutsideLimit—Possible IndividualExceptions—E.DeGoncourtatSixty-Five—

TheGlamourofTwenty-Five. -

II.SExANDORIGINALITY• • . 138

SexandOriginality—TheGeneralPosition—Jungon theImportanceoftheLoveElement—AsceticPeriods notMentallyFruitful—LordMorleyontheRenaissance —TheNotionthatallLifeisGood—RobertBurnsand theStimulustowritePoetry—GeorgeEliot,Dean Swift,WilliamCowper—ButAsceticismhasaPartto Play—Nietzsche'sTestimonytothis—FreudandJung onRepression—MasculineandFeminineIntellect— HowtheFeminineMindisquicker,andwhy—Rosa BonheurandSexConsciousness—TheSuffrageIntellect andLackofOriginality xi CONTENTS

SECTIONIV

HINDRANCESTOORIGINALITY chapter Pac-e

I.THESENSEOFTHEPAST - - - 147

DefinitionofHindrance—HowtheSenseofHistory affectsus—PrussiaandMachiavelli-TheBackward Look—Bacon'sViewofAntiquity-Socialismand Reconstruction—BrandesonNietzsche-Repressive SocialInfluences—TheIndexExpurgatorius

II.DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING- • • 153

Fatherv.Son—J.S.Mill'sAutobiography–Gosse's FatherandSon—TheMotherintheCase-R.L. Stevenson–TheMistakeof“Dogma”—SirFrancis Galton'sMenofScience—TheAllegedRightofParents —TheSons'ReligiousandPoliticalApostasy–Mr HavelockEllis'sConfession—TheOverplusofMasculine Influence-AdvantageofaChangeinEnvironment Homeasa laissez-faireCircle-Trainingshouldbe human,social,serious

III.FALSEEDUCATION• • • •

ADifficultSubject—AristotleandModernCriticism— SomeRecentComprehensiveDefinitions—TooMuch EmphasisonKnowledge—TheExam.System-Changes thatarecoming—Matthew'sPrinciplesofIntellectual Education—AttentiontoIndividualTendencies—The NeglectoftheHighlyTalented–AnAmerican Publisher'sViews—AuthorshipandOriginality– PublicSchoolsandtheProfessions—Educationmust inspire-SidgwickOnStimulus

IV.THELACKOFAScIENCEOFREADING. • 173

ThatwereadtoExcess—AndthatReadingisnotyet aScience-MenwhomovedtheWorldreadfewBooks -Buddha,Christ,StPaul,Mohammed–Bismarck's Library-BenJonsononShakespeare—TheReading oftheAverageMan—Middle-ClassMindv.Working Man'sMind-TheSurprisesoftheAverageIntellect

X11 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE CHAPTERIV.—continued TheRightUseofBooks—TheLawofImpressionand Expression-IsdecidedbytheIndividual-And dependsonSelf-Knowledge-Ondaringtobeignorant —BalancebetweenSubjectiveandObjective—Cor pulentIntellects

V.LowSTANDARDSOFMERITe • • 185

(a)Literary.WhatisaStandardP—DependsonValue —Valuedefined—TheEvilofLowLiteraryStandards –GosseonMaartenMaartens—TheEthicsofthe Reviewer—The“Sankey’”StandardinLiterature— “Trick* Originality—Wilde;Chesterton;Shaw— Mordell'sShiftingofLiteraryValues-LiteraryValues andMorality—Bunyan“reekswitherror”—Apollyon unappreciated—ValuesareSubjectiveandObjective —(b)Commercial.The“Itwilldo’’Policy

VI.INCOMPLETEEFFORT. e o © 202

Hampson'sRomanceofMathematics—ItsSuggestive Analysis—“TheLawsofPoliticalMotion”—Readers' Disappointment-GratryandBoole'sMathematical Psychology—TheCalculusinAverageThinking— Hintonon“Fluxions*—Anattractivebutnotcon vincingAnalogy—T.A.Cook'sCurvesofLife— “Spirality”ofFar-reachingImportance—Hearnon theOccidentalv. OrientalMind—AnIncomplete PhilosophyofCurves

VII.THEPROFESSIONALMIND © e o 207

ThinkingbyPrecedent—ABeliefthatalreadyweknowk. theBest-MedicalMenandtheBarkerCase–A LondonM.D.iscalleda Quack—ThePriestasa Reactionary-KulturasaSecularGospel—Ignorance posingasFinalKnowledge—LawyersintheCabinets— LloydGeorge'sFirstLandPolicy—TheLegalMind andPrecedent—ItsCultofSophistry—TheLawyer mustadvertise-LordBroughamonClients’Ethics -Lawyer'sHonestyprofessional—Trollopeasa Witness-WhyAmericanLawyersareDifferent—The

X111 CONTENTS charrer Pac-E CHAPTERVII.—continued CivilServiceMind—WarCensorshipIneptitudes— ArmyandNavyOfficers—ATheologicalColonel—The RightKindofMilitaryIntellect—WhytheNaval OfficerisMentally“Free”—ProfessionalMindtends toDogmatism—IsaacTayloronLayInventions

SECTIONV

LOOKINGAHEAD

I.IsORIGINALITYNowIMPOSSIBLE2 • •

TheQuestionisboundupwiththatofProgress—How regardedbyPracticalMen—AndPhilosophers—C.H. PearsonsaysPoetryhasreacheditsLimits—George MooresaysArtwillsoonbedead-PessimismandAge —Spencer,Ferrero,LangedoubtProgress—Doubts comeafterFifty—AndafteraCloseStudyofHistory— OptimismofIdealists—BalfouronDecadence—Crooks, Wallace,andCarpenter-TheSurprisesofHistory— HowFurtherOriginalitymaybeImpossible—Plato andJesusChrist—TheDramaandNewArtImpulses— GeorgeEliotatTwenty-Nine—HasNaturefinishedher Originalities?—TheNaturalHopefulnessofBusiness Men—TheTruePosition

II.ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE• - -

TheThought-MovementwillbeExtensiveandInten sive—WordsthathavelosttheirBoundaries—e.g. God,Life,Progress-ComprehensivenessasanEffort— FroebelandhisAttempttofindUnities—Education and“Faculties”—EastandWestmoreneighbourly— ProfessorDowdenonExclusiveness-SomeWorn-out Antitheses—TheWarandFreeTradeinThought— —TheIntensiveMovementandSoul-Psychology,now a PopularStudy—GreatThought-Movementstravel Westwards-—NoFormulacanholdExistence—ANew AtmosphereforTalentandGenius—Eugenics—The InfluenceofGovernments-AristocracyandDemocracy

X1W CONTENTS

PAGE CHAPTERII.—continued intheirInfluenceonOriginality—Intellectconsumed in“Government”—BryceandMatthewsonDemo craticOriginality—DeTocquevilleandScherer—Crozier sumsup—EvilsofClassConsciousness—UnduePro minenceof Sport—AthleticsbyProxy—Fearof Solitude—Sociologystudiedacademically-‘‘The HoursofHonesty”—ImaginationaboutRomeand Athens,v. ImaginationaboutLondon—Mental Qualificationsof Aldermen-CoventGardenan Anachronism—ThePlateauLawofProgress-Con tinuityby“Leaps”—WarandMentalRevolution— UniversityProfessorsandOriginality—PatrickGeddes ontheMediterranean-MechanicalandDirective Organisation—BusinessPsychology—TheOldIdeal ofWorkmanship-KiplingonA.D.2150

SECTIONVI

PRAXIS

SOMEREFLECTIONSONMENTALATTITUDESAND

METHODS• o • e . 269

Originalitycannotbe“taught*—ButevenPoets-f are“made*—ProfessorGiddingsontheFewnessof GreatMen—“1”inevery450,000—TheWasteof Talent—ProfessorButcheronropla—TwoFactors: PhysicalandMental–CanPhysicalandMental Abilitybetrainedtogether?—W.R.GregsaysNo —HealthCulturev.MuscleCulture-DoesMindTrain inginjureHealth?—UseandDisuse—J.S.Milland Ethology-OurLackofa HumanScience—The Questionnaire-ThoughtandBodilyPosition—De pressionandFatigue—TheNeedforSelf-Knowledge —ProfessorD.F.HarrisonNerves—TheVirtueof Sensibility—JastrowonFeeling—Logicisa Testof Thinking—SensibilityisnotMereObservation—Da VincionWonder-AlsoAristotleandGoethe–Opposed toModernAntagonism-TürckonDisinterestedness— Maeterlinck'sViewofAdmiration—TheMoralistsandX Rapture-PaterandhisGospelofSensitiveness— MentalLabels-SirThomasBrowne'sSympathy—The PsychologyofMoods—TheFollyofHaste–Dangers

XV CONTENTS

SECTIONVI.—continued inAEstheticism–PlatoonMusic—WorkandSong— Goethe'sDailyIdealism—TheInsightoftheUn educated-Balance–ProfessorCampagnaconBad Rhythms—TheHygieneoftheDepthsandtheHeights —TheCultofthePart—Will-Worship—Illuminationis *theSecret—EnvironmentandtheCreativeMind ProfessorYrjöHirnonArt—FailureduetoLackof Stimulus—FocusandDistributiveObservation-Looking beyondtheStandards—TheFinalWord-AMessage toEveryMan—TheBritishEmpireandtheFuture— Eighty-ThreeyearstoA.D.2000

xvi. ORIGINALITY

INTRODUCTION

THEreaderofmodernpsychologicalliteratureisimpressed bytwofacts:first,theskill,learning,andindustryofthe professionalpsychologist;next,theundueemphasisplaced uponnoeticprocesses.Itisthissecondfactthatisthemore surprisingtotheprivatestudent;fortohimmindisenergy parexcellence,thereforeitisamistaketogiveattentionto itsmorestaticconditionsratherthanitsfundamental dynamicqualities:itisunwisetospendmoneyandlabour onstudyingaspectsoftheknowingprocesswhenthemind's creativeaspectsareawaitingthefirstsignsofseriousatten tiononeducativelines.Inmakingsuchstatementsthere isalwaysadangerofbeingmisunderstood,sowepropose toofferevidenceinsupportofourcontention.Take,for example,therecordofexperimentalpsychology,fromthe firsteffortsofFechnerandWundtuptothepresentmoment. Onwhatismostemphasislaid Notonmentalenergetics, butonthoseprocesseswhichendinthemselves,andhave nodirectorimmediateimportanceinrelationtopractical life.Itisjustasifamotorengineer,lecturingtostudents, neverdealtwithamotorengineinactionontheroad,but confinedhisremarkstotheintricaciesofitsmechanism, displayedwhilstworkinginafixedposition.Thatweneed toknowtheintricaciesofthementalmachineisobvious, andwearegreatlyindebtedtolaboratorypsychologistsfor theirskilfulandoftenexhaustiveworkinthisrespect.But, afterall,itisthemindinaction—onthegreathighroads ofexperience—thatmattersmost;psychologyintheclass roomshouldhavea morelivingassociationwiththe

A. I ...... ORIGINALITY psychologyofthecrowd,oftheassembly,andofthein dividualinhisstrugglestowardsanideal.Toglance throughtheannualindexofamodernpsychologicaljournal, publishedmonthlyorquarterly,istobeconvincedthattwo thirdsofthediscussionsareonmattersofmoreorless speculativeinterest,theotherthirdbeinggivenoverto Volition,toEmotion,ortonewdevelopments.Wedonot presumetosaywhattheproportionalrelationshipsshould be,butallthatisrepresentedbythewordFeelingshould certainlyhaveamuchlargerplacethanithasintheargu mentsanddiscussionsofscholars.Theusualanswertothis contentionisthatonlyacademicsubjectscanbedealt withbyacademicpeopleinacademicassociations.That, nodoubt,isthefactatthemoment,butisitnottimeto changeit! Asocietyforthestudyofpsychologyoughtnot tobesatisfiedifithassimplycomparedopinionsondebated issuesoldandnew: itwillneedtodothis,ofcourse,butits workshouldtranscendthepassivemindandacquirethe abilitytoofferpracticalguidancetoallwhowantit,what evertheirstationinlife.WeneverhearofaProfessorof PsychologybeingsentfortoassistaCabinetMinisterin estimatingtheeffectofanewlawonthepublicimagination, butwedohearoftheprofessorsofothersciencesbeingcon sultedbytheGovernment.Whythisdifference?Pre sumably,becausetheCabinetMinisterishisownpsychol ogist,orelsebecausepsychologyasweknowitintext-book formhasbeenalmostentirelyconfinedtoexposition,tothe comparativeneglectofapplication.OflateyearsAmerican psychologistshavemadea strongefforttorealisetheir teachinginpractice,notablyW.DillScottandthelate HugoMünsterberg.Butthereisstillroomformuch developmentwork,andwearestillintheatmosphereof thebookinsteadofbeinginthepresenceoftheman.

BeforethewareverybodywenttoGermanytostudy bookpsychology,forinthatcountryitwasallegedthatthe internalmechanismofthemindhadbeeninvestigatedwith 2 INTRODUCTION moresuccessthanelsewhere;butalthoughGermansclaimed toknowmoreaboutthementalenginethananybodyelse, theyknowvastlylessaboutmenandnations—hencetheir errorsinthefieldofpracticalpsychologywerepositively \colosal.Theymisjudgedeverybodyandeverything,and willbecomeinfutureyearsasadillustrationofthedifference betweenstudyingasubjectandknowingthereality.Inone departmentalonewasGermanyunique,andthatwasin autoandhetero-suggestion.Thereinsheledtheworld.-? Toknow,tofeel,toresolve—thesearethefunctionsof mindwhichappeartooccupytheattentionofthosemen andwomenwhoactasleadersofthecommunity.Rightly construed,suchfunctionsembracethewholeofourpossible existence,but, ortunately,theyareseldomconstrued intherightway.Inventionorcreationisthehighestmental activityofwhichwearecapable,andyetineducation,in religion,inscience,ineverything,itisanactivitywhich doesnotreceiveitsdue.)Thisisowing,inpart,tothe immensegrowthofknowledge,andtotheintenseinterest inacquiringit;atendencyissetuptolivementallyby amassinginformation;andthemoreindividualtendencies ofthemindaregraduallyeclipsed.Itisa noteworthy achievementtomastertheliteratureofeducation;but itismoremasterlytoknowlessaboutitandtobea Montessori.Itisindicativeofgreatmemorypowertobe abletorecitethepoemsofJohnMilton;butitisbetterto beabletoinditeanewpoemthatshallequaloneofhis. Itisdistinctivetobeanoracleofreferenceonallmatters financialoreconomic;butitisa finerthingtoofferan originalcontributiontothesolutionoftheproblemsof currency.Thefeelingofsuperioritythatisassociatedwith thecreativemindisnotdifficulttounderstand,anditis appreciatedtothefullbymostpeople;neverthelessthere appearstobenoattemptworthyofthenametodiscover anddevelopthementalprocessesleadingtooriginality, presumablybecausegeniushasalwaysbeenregardedasa gift,needingneithertrainingnorexperience. \Oneoftheobjectsofthisbookistopleadforagreater recognitionofindividualitybyallowingmorescopetothe 3 ORIGINALITY

creativeprincipleintheeducationofmentalability.]As mattersstandatpresentourschoolsanduniversitiesarelike factorieswhichturnoutthemanufacturedarticlebythe thousand—accordingtopattern.Tochangethesefactories intoestablishmentswhereindividualdifferenceswillbe recognisedanddevelopedisataskofsupremedifficulty,but thatisnoreasonwhyitshouldnotbeattempted,orthatit shouldbeattemptedinarevolutionaryspirit,forinnothing isa finersenseofdiscriminationmorenecessarythanin balancingtheclaimsoftheoldersystemofeducationwith thoseofthenew.

III

“Somethingnew":thatisthepopularconceptionofori ginality,and,asaconception,ithasmorethanagermof truthinit;although,asadefinition,itwouldnotsatisfy eventhemoderatelycriticalperson.Thepoetwhowrites aballadthatseizestheimagination;thephysicistwho inventsanewmethodofusingethericwaves;theengineer whosubstitutestheexplosivepumpforthesuctionpump; thestatesmanwhocontrivestaxationonhithertounthought oflines—thesemenhavethepoweroforiginalthoughtand action,mainlybecausetheyhavethepowertobringsome thingnewintotheworld.Thusfarthepopularconception isright.CButitispossibletobeoriginalwithoutadding anythingnewtotheworld’sintellectualtreasures,orto theconveniencesofcivilisation.Themathematicianwho believeshehasmadeanewdiscovery,onlytofindlaterthat hehasbeenanticipated,isnonethelessanoriginalworker. Adams'shareinthediscoveryofNeptuneisnotcancelled becauseLeVerrierwasthinking,calculating,andperhaps observingonthesamelines,atthesametime.UOriginality istheexpressionoftheindividualselfinrelationtoits environment;itssignificancedoesnotlieinnewnesssomuch asinsincerity—asCarlylelongagopointedout.Itis obediencetotheinjunction“BeaPerson.”Everymanwho ishimself,andnotacarefulcopyofothers,isanoriginal person.Hisoriginalitymaynothaveanygreatvalueor 4 INTRODUCTION distinction,inasmuchashisessentialselfmayhaveno inwardillumination,deepknowledge,finesensibilityorvast experience,butthesedeficienciesdonotdecidethematter.] MrsPoyserhasmoreoriginality,asacountrydame,than manyaNewnhamgraduate,eventhoughthelattermight maketheformerblushforherignoranceofLatinand Algebra." Inthesepages,however,weshallnotdealwithoriginality incharacterandconductexceptincidentally;ourchief concernwillbetheintellectuallynewandstriking.And whatismeantbynew* Theonlynewthingweeverknow isa newpersonality;andevenhe—orshe—hasmany similaritieswithotherpersonalities.Butthatwhich separatesanindividualfromthesurroundingmediocrities issomewell-nighundefinabledifference:awayofspeaking, amentaloutlook,acharmofmanner,agiftofcontrol.This suggests,andrightlyso,that/wemustlookforthemeaning ofthewordnewinthe ceptionofdifference,notin solutecreation]Takeasimpleillustration":"Pitman's phonography.asitnew* Certainly,butSirIsaac Pitmanwasnotthefirsttoinventasystemofshorthand. Shorthandmethodsofvaryingvalueshadbeeninusefor centurieswhenthefirstTeacherwasissuedinBath;but Pitman,advancingonthemeritsofhispredecessors, engineeredadifferenceinhisfavour.Shorthandhadhad alonghistory,butitreachedanapexinthePitmansigns. Theywerenew,notmerelynovel.Amanwhoinventsa newfacefora clockproducesanovelty,butthemanwho

inventedtheclockitselfwasgenuinelyoriginal.-

IV Takeanotherillustration:thatoftheHumphreyEx plosionPump.Herethereisnopistonandnoconnecting *“Whatrareandracyoriginalitydoweoftenfindinthesayings ofthepooranduneducated| Theirconversationmaybeoften richerinthisgoldenorethanthatofthosewhoarecalledtheir betters;for,havingheardlessofothermen'sviews,theirshrewd, observantmindsaredriventotheirown.”-*Conventionaland OriginalMinds,”inTheSpectator,31stDecember1892. ORIGINALITY rod: a columnofwaterdoesserviceforboth.Were Torricellialivehewouldbeamongthefirsttosayitwas anewthingaltogether,atanyratesodifferentfromthe ordinaryapparatusforliftingwaterthatthewordpumpis hardlyapplicable.InconsequenceMrH.A.Humphrey’s originalityisallthemoredistinctive;itsvalueisinpro portiontotherangeofdifferencethatseparateshisinvention fromsimilarinstrumentspreviouslyused.Andthisisthe criterionwehavetoemployinjudgingalloriginalitiesin relationtothequalityofnewness.Thevitaldifference betweenJudaismandChristianityliesinthefactthatTruth andLawaretranslatedfromaCodeintoaLivingPerson, andChristianitythusbecomesthemostoriginalofall religions,havinginitsFounder,asLeckyputsit,“an enduringprincipleofregeneration.” Prof.S.H.Butcherremarksthat“Greekliteratureisthe oneentirelyoriginalliteratureofEurope.Withnomodels beforetheireyestoprovokeimitationorrivalry,theGreeks createdalmosteveryformofliteraryart—theepic,thelyric, theelegy,thedrama,thedialogue,thelöyll,theromantic novel,history,andoratory;andthepermanenceofthe typessocreatedshowsthattheyrestonnoarbitraryrules oronthemannerismsofapeople,butanswertocertain artisticlawsofthehumanmind.”*PerhapstheGreeks werenotsobadlyoffformodelsasweimaginethemtohave been.WedonotknowenoughaboutearlyGreecetobe abletosay,withconfidence,howfarthegreatpoetsand dramatistshadtheoralandliteraryeffortsofotherstoguide them.Buteventhoughitisimpossibletosupposethey created,inthealmostabsolutesense,alltheformsofliterary artjustenumerated,theyimpartedtothemawealthof achievementthatnoothernationhassurpassed;hencethe unfadingglorywhichstillsurroundstheirnamesandtheir works.” *HarvardLecturesonGreekSubjects,p.129. *MahaffyinhisWhattheGreekshavedoneforModernCivilisation (p.42)saysoftheIliadandOdysseythattheyappearedlike Melchizedekwithoutfather,mother,ordescent.Thisisgoingtoo far.AtruerviewisfoundinK.O.Müller'sHistoryoftheLiterature ofAncientGreece,vol.i.,p.35. 6 INTRODUCTION

Newness?Itisrelative—butreal.Itsrelativityisseen intheoft-repeatedphraseofEmerson,that“everyhouse isaquotationfromaquarryaseverymanisaquotation fromhisancestors.”Giveustime,saythecritics,andwe willtakethegiltoffeveryloudlyproclaimedoriginalityby tracingitsorigintosomepreviousideathathasescaped notice;andeventhatpreviousideawillturnouttobea copyofsomethingstillmoreprevious.Whentheinvestiga tionsthusbegunhavebeenconcluded(thecriticsremark finally)weshallfallintolineourselvesbyimitatingthose whohavegonebeforeus,exclaiming: “Thereisnothingnew underthesun.”Butwillanyreasonablemanventureto saythatsincethisHebrewscepticcoinedhishopelessness intowordstherehasbeennothingnewHavewemadeno sortofadvanceinEuropesincethedaysofSolomon? That weholdsomeofthesametruthsto-daymuchinthespirit inwhichheheldthem,andthathumannatureinitsfunda mentalshasremainedunchanged,maybeconceded;we mayevenconcedethatinhisdaystherewereintelligent anticipationsoffuturedevelopments,buttoaccepthis dictumwiththesenseofconviction,asmanypeopledo,is palpablyabsurd.AsintheworldofNature,sointhe historyofthought,thereisanorganicconnectionbetween pastandpresent;butthisdoesnotprecludedepartures fromwhatseemstobethefixedcourseofthings;andthese variationsinNaturehavetheircounterpartintheoriginalities ofthought.Theproblemthereforeistodecidewhatis relativelynewandwhatisreallynewineverycontribution ofthehumanmindthatwedesignateoriginal.Thisdemands adiscussionofplagiarisminitswidersense,andofthe functionofimitation.Ifwehadthetimeandthenecessary knowledgeoflanguageswecouldgothroughthewholeworld ofliteratureandfindthateverythoughthashadexpression insomeformorother,ofteninadequate,evenincircumstances whereplagiarismwasquiteanimpossibility. Plagiarismispurelyaquestionofdegree.WhenCharles 7 ORIGINALITY ReadeinTheWanderingHeirbodilyappropriatedtwentyor thirtylinesofalittle-knownpoemofDeanSwift,andwas laterfoundout,hebecameangryandcomplainedof“masked batteriesmannedbyanonymuncula,pseudo-nymuncula,and skunkula”;butitwasa caseofdirectplagiarism—i.e. borrowingwithoutacknowledgment.Butwhenwestudy closelyotherchargesofplagiarismwemaybeallowedto expressourdoubts.Baconwrote:“Alittlephilosophy inclinethmen'smindstoAtheism,butdepthinphilosophy bringethmen'smindsabouttoreligion.”Popewrote: “Alittlelearningisadangerousthing; Drinkdeep,ortastenotthePierianSpring.” Arewejustifiedinsaying,assomehavesaid,thatPope borrowedtheideafromBacon? Hemayhavedoneso,but aplagiarismisapalpabletheft,notasimilarity.Besides, asPopeexpressedtheideainaphrasethathasbecome classic,ishetohavenorecognitionofmeritinthatrespect2 Again,whenGibbondescribedhistoryas“littlemorethan theregisterofthecrimes,follies,andmisfortunesofman kind,”heissaidtohavebeenindebtedtoaphraseofVoltaire: “Eneffet,l'histoiren'estqueletableaudescrimesetdes malheurs.”Whichofthetwowasthemorelikelytounder standhistoryinitssordidaspects2 Andwastherenot enoughoriginalityinGibbontosavehimfromsopettya chargeTheseideas,whichfindanembodimentinthe languageofeveryintellectualepoch—i.e.areinthe commoncurrencyofthought—weretakenupbytwowriters ofeminenceandphrasedaccordingtoindividualperception andsenseoffitness.

Oneofthemostcuriousinstancesofunconsciousplagiar ism,bymeansofwhichideasinthememorycomeforth nakedandthuswithouttheclothingoftheiroriginalassocia tions,isprovidedbyProf.Jung.Hefirstquotesfrom *“LiteraryPlagiarism.”ArticleinTheContemporaryReview, June,1887. 8 INTRODUCTION ThusSpakeZarathustra.WequotefromCommon'stransla tion,andsidebysidegivethenotesprovidedbyJung showingtheoriginofNietzsche'sideas: NowaboutthetimethatZaraAnextractofawe-inspiringim thustrasojournedontheHappyportfromthelogoftheship Isles,ithappenedthata shipSphinxintheyear1686inthe anchoredattheisleonwhichMediterranean. standeththesmokingmountain,Just.Kerner,Blatteraus andthecrewwentashoreto Prevorst,vol.iv.,p.57.The shootrabbits.Aboutthenoonfourcaptainsanda merchant, tidehour,however,whentheMrBell,wentashoreonthe Captainandhismenwereto islandofMountStrombolito getheragain,theysawsuddenlyshootrabbits.At3 o'clock a mancomingtowardsthemtheycalledthecrewtogetherto throughtheair,anda voicegoaboard,whentotheirin saiddistinctly:“Itis time.expressibleastonishment,they Itisthehighesttime!”Butsawtwomenflyingrapidlyover whenthefigurewasnearestto themthroughtheair.Onewas them(itflewpastquickly,howdressedinblack,theotherin ever,likeashadowinthedirecgrey.Theyapproachedthem tionofthevolcano)thendidveryclosely,in thegreatest theyrecognisewiththegreatesthaste;totheirgreatestdismay surprisethatitwasZarathustra; theydescendedamidtheburning fortheyhadallseenhimbeforeflamesintothecraterofthe excepttheCaptainhimself,andterriblevolcano,MountStrom thenlovedhimasthepeopleboli.Theyrecognisedthepair love: insuchwisethatloveandasacquaintancesfromLondon. awewerecombinedinequal degree.“Behold!”saidthe oldhelmsman,“theregoeth ZarathustratoHell.”"

Theanalogiesherearetoofamiliartobemerecoincidences; indeedweknowtheyarenot,forNietzsche'ssistertoldProf. JungthatherbrotherhadreadKerner'sworksattheageof fifteenorsixteenbuthadnotrenewedhisacquaintancewith themsince.ThendidNietzscherecalltheincidentatthe momentofwritingtheepisode2 Wecannotthinkthathe did,for,asJungpointsout,itcouldneverhavebeenhis intention“tocommitaplagiarismfromaship'slog;ifthis hadbeenthecasehewouldcertainlyhaveomittedthe veryprosaic“toshootrabbits’whichwas,moreover,quite *ThusSpakeZarathustra,pp.155-156. 9 ORIGINALITY unessentialtothesituation.”"Theonlyconclusionisthat afteralapseoftwenty-fouryearsNietzscherecollectedthe Strombolimaterialbutnotitsorigin,andreformedittosuit thepurposehehadinhand.Therecouldhardlybeabetter illustrationofthemannerinwhichthemindunwittinglywill utiliseoldexperienceintheconstructionofanewunder ...taking.Buttheuseofpreviousmaterialmaybeconscious andintentional,asinthecaseofShakespeare,ofwhom ProfessorBranderMatthewssays,“hereachedoutagain andagaintopossesshimselfofanotherman’swork,buthe wasanimperialconqueror.Hisimaginationwassetfree toworkmostamplyandmostboldlywhenitwassetin motionbytheinventionofanuninspiredpredecessor.”” Here,asbefore,thenewness,andconsequentlytheoriginality, isduetothedifferencebetweenthematerialasitpreviously existedandthemetamorphosistowhichit hasbeen subjected.

VII Howfarisimitationa constituentofalloriginality? Imitationisatreacherouswordtohandle,partlybecausethe greatestgeniusissomethingofanimitator,andpartly becausethewordisusedinanoffensivesense;tocallaman animitatorisintendedtohumiliatehim.Butimitationis amatterofdegree:itstretchesfromtheservilecopyist tothemanwho,asAristotlesaid,imitatesNatureinsuch awayastofulfilherunfinisheddesigns.Insociallife,in economicmatters,andintheintellectualsphere,also, imitationisa methodofprogress.”Allsociologistsare agreedonthispoint,anditisobvioustoeverystudentof mankind.TheRedIndian,proud,aloof,andlackingthe powerofimitation,isdyingoff,andmanytribeshavedis *AnalyticalPsychology,p.88. *“WasShakespeareaPlagiaristP”(Munsey'sMagazine.)De GoncourtbelievedthatBalzacwasgreaterthanShakespearebecause heinventedhisowncharacters.Journal,p.343. | *“Thecopyingofsociallyfruitfulvariationsintheideasand |idealsoftheindividualsistherealmethodofprogressinhuman society."—Prof.Ellwood,SociologyinitsPsychologicalAspects,p.304.

IO INTRODUCTION appearedalready:thenegro,ontheotherhand,hasaneye tobeinglike“theothers,”andhesurvives:imitationis savinghim.Fromthismethodofprogresswenaturally concludethatthereallyimportantpersonisthemanwho setsupourstandardsandcreatesourvalues—thosestandards thatguideourconductandthoseidealsthatgiveusour senseofworth.Andwefurtherconcludethatthelast thingsuchamancouldbecalledwouldbeimitator.No doubt;butletusbewareofthesubtletyofwords.When Nietzschetried,withoutsuccess,torecreateourmoralcon ceptionsheaspiredtobeasecondChristbybecomingan anti-Christ:thatis,hewasanimitatorofapreviousteacher, butwithapersonalnotethatconstitutedadecideddifference —heaimedatacompleteeclipseofhispredecessor.Every pronouncedindividualitymustimitateotherindividualities; theverypermanenceoftheearth,ofhumanconditions,of language,andevolutionrenderthisa necessity.(Butwith thetrulyoriginalmindthereisamarginofdifference,as wehavealreadyremarked,anditisthiswhichcausesth newstandardstobesetupandthenewvaluestobecreated Thereis,however,anaspectofthesubjectwhereinimita tionisusedasameanstoahigherend.Thisneednot occasionsurprisewhenwerecalltheimmenserangeofthe imitativeprinciple,foranewimitation,ifwemaysospeak, isanaddedinteresttothesensewhichhearsechoesevery where.Onomatopoeia—theharmonyofwordsoundsand sensein poetry—isanexample.TakeShakespeare's imitationofthebubblinginthewitches’cauldron: “Foracharmofpowerfultrouble, Likeahell-brothboilandbubble: Double,doubletoilandtrouble, Fire,burn;and,cauldron,bubble.” That,however,isbutanelementaryillustrationoftheuse oftheimitativeprincipletosecurenewunities;weseeitto betteradvantageinmusicandthefineartsgenerally,where thatwhichisfamiliarisreproducedinassociationsthat *AhandyguidetothisisSteel'sImitation:theMimeticFunction inHumanNatureandinNature.Liverpool,1910. *Macbeth,IV. II ORIGINALITY suggestanextensionofit;orasQuatremèredeQuincy phrasesit:toimitateinthefineartsistoproducetheresemblance ofathing,butinsomeotherthingwhichbecomestheimageof it."Itmaybequestionedwhetherthiscanapplytomore materialspheresoflifeandeffort;byitsverynatureitdoes notleadtothehighestoriginality,andinsomeinstanceshas alreadyledtoeccentricity,asseenintheworkofIvan Meshtrovic.Askedastowhysomeofhisfigureshavearms, handsandfeetmissing,hereplied:“Whowouldcaretolook onaVenusdeMilowitharms? Weloveandadmireheras sheis,andoutofthatloveandadmirationarisesadesire toimitate.Youwillremember,doubtless,theremark attributedtoMichaelAngeloonthispoint.Hesaidthata statueoughttoberolledfromthetopofamountaintothe bottombeforeitwasshowntotheworld.Whatremained afterthisexperimentwasaloneworthkeeping.”Wilfulness ofthistypeistobedeeplyregretted.

VIII

Pursuingourinvestigationsfurther,weareledtoinquire: Whatisthedifferencebetweentheoriginalityofapoetand thatofadiscovererinscience?Tomaterialisethequestion letususethenamesofShakespeareandDarwin,and ascertain,firstofall,thenatureofeachoriginality,after wardscomparingandcontrastingthemuntiltheessential differenceisrevealed.Shakespearemaybesaidtohave foundalltherawmaterialforhispoemsanddramasinthe worldaroundhimandintherecordsofpastages;his originalitylayinthepeculiarlyindividualmannerinwhich heinterpretedtheknowledgeheacquired,andthevigour andwealthoflanguageinwhichheexpressedit.These generaltermssetforththechieffacts.Darwin,ontheother hand,setouttodiscoverthemysteriesoflifeinNature. Hisoriginalitylayintheelucidationoffactsthathad escapedotherinvestigatorsbentonthesamemission.We maysay,therefore,thatDarwin'sdiscoverywasthebringing tolightofafactalreadyinexistence. *ImitationintheFineArts.1837. I2 INTRODUCTION Thequestionnowarises:Inwhatwayaretheoriginalities alikeandhowaretheydifferent? Theyarealikeinthis: thattheyinterpretfacts;inShakespeare'scasethefacts ofhumanlifeinrelationtofeeling,knowledgeanddestiny; inDarwin'scasethefactsofbiologyandtheevolutionof species.Theyareunlikeinthis:thatDarwin'soriginality ispurelyadiscoveryoffactsthatwerehidden,butexistent; Shakespeare'soriginalityisadeeperthing—itisthecreation ofsomethingnew,newinthesensethatithadnoprevious existenceandwastheoffspringofhisownpersonality.The bloodcirculatedinourveinsbeforeHarveyannouncedthe facttoaratherincredulouspublic;gravityexistedbefore Newtondiscovereditslaw;andalthoughimaginative geniuswasneededinordertobringthesefactstolight,the thought-productofthepoetandartistisonahigherplane, becauseinthetruesenseitismorecreative. Originality,therefore,maybedefinedasthethought characteristicoftheindividualwhoexpresseshimselfan notanother;fromwhichitfollowsthatthemoredistinctiv theindividualitythehigherwillbethetypeoforiginality Anoriginalmindisonewhichhasamorethanordinaryshare inthejoysofevolution,andinthefelicityoffurthering thoseprocessesofchangethatbringadvantages,realand ideal.

&Theoutstandingfactabouthumanindividualityisits utterinscrutability,eventotheindividualhimself]Men whohaveknowneachotherforyears,inbusiness,atthe club,onthegolf-course,frequentlyfindthattheirknowledge was,afterall,confinedtosurfacethings;forexample,to politicalopinions,personalaversionsandpreferences,modes oflookingatlife,andmethodsofsolvingdifficulties.Then therecomesadayofgreatsurprisewhentheJohnSmith whowassupposedtobesocynicalisdiscoveredintheact ofhelpingamanontohisfeet—notdirectly,butthrough asecondparty.Smith'sfriendsareamazed:theynever knewhewas“thatsortoffellow.”

I3 ORIGINALITY Andyetahusbandandawifehavecelebratedasilver weddingwithoutbeingabletoclaimthattheykneweach other;theirindividualitiesthroughouta quarterofa centurywerepartlyhidden,and—tousetheplantivetitle ofa oncepopularsong—theyare“StrangersYet.”Of course,inahundredandoneordinarymatterstheydounder standeachother—especiallythewife;butinthedeeper, higher,finer,moresubtlespheresofconsciouslife—No. Allmarriedpeoplewearmasks;theyseldomtelleachother alltheythink,alltheyknow,alltheydesire,alltheyintend; butthisdoesnotmeanthatloveisdecliningorrespect failing;fortheinscrutabilityoftheselfismerelypart andparcelofthelove-emotion—fullandperfectknowledge might,indeed,makeitanimpossibility.Thosepeoplewho aresaidtohave“everythoughtincommon”arenodoubt unitedina veryclosebondofsympathy,buteachhas thoughtsnotsharedbytheother;infact,nomanknows hisownthoughtsuntilcircumstancesrevealthemtohim." Weoftensurpriseourselvesingoodorevilmanifestations: wedidnotknowwehaditinus.Really,therearetwo masks—first,theessentialegowhichscreensitselffromthe analysisofourwakingconsciousness,andthemaskthatwe putonwhenwemeetotherpeople.Themodeinwhichthe egomanifestsitselfisbeyondscrutiny,henceanalytical psychologyisonlyanaccommodatingterm;butthemask ofsocialconventionandofintellectualreserveisonethat wemakeandweardeliberately. Weseldomshowourtrueselves.Ifyoudoubtthatstate

*Whitmanexpressesitthus: “WhenIreadthebook,thebiographyfamous, Andisthis,then,(saidI)whattheauthorcallsaman'slifeP Andso,willsomeonewhenIamdeadandgonewritemylife, (Asifanymanreallyknewaughtofmylife; Why,evenImyself,I oftenthink,knowlittleornothingofmy reallife; Onlyafewhints—afewdiffusedfaintcluesandindirections, Iseekformyownusetotraceouthere).” SoalsoRibot,whosays:“Laconnaissancedenous-mêmen'est passeulementdifficilemaisimpossible.”—LaVieInconscient,p.69. I4 INTRODUCTION ment,takeasheetofpaperanddaretowrite,asiffor publication,allyouhonestlybelieveaboutyourfriendsand enemies;allyoubelieveaboutGodandChurches;about women,aboutsex,aboutpolitics,aboutthenewspapers,and aboutanythingvital.Dareyoudothat? Beforereplying thinkofwhatisrequired:notsurface“views,”butwhatyou believeinthedepthsofyourheart.. . . Conventionhastoo heavyahandonus.Torevealourtrueinwardnesswouldbe todestroysociallife.Weshouldsurprisetheworldbyour narrowness,ourprejudices,ourignorance,ourcynicism; orbyourunsuspectedbreadthofsympathy,ourinsight,and ourboldnessofpolicy.Allofuswouldbefoundusing Bellarmine'sdoctrineofmentalreservationtothefull.The professedLiberalnextdooris,atbottom,aMarxianSocialist; theToryacrossthewayisaTorynodeeperthanhisskin; theHighChurchvicarhaslefthisheartinStPeter's,Rome; thebimetallistmaybeamonometallistunderneath.The readerresentsthesecriticisms?Hemay.Buthe,too, hashismask—notsopronouncedorhypocritical,itmaybe, andyethecannotaffordtothrowstones.

Butletussee,ifwecan,howindividualityoriginates.In itsgenericsenseanindividualisaunitseparatedfromthe mass.Apebbleisanindividualseparatedfromitsparent rock;andtherockitselfmayalsobeanindividual—a mountainseparatedfromothermountainsandnamed accordingly.Inorganicindividuality,however,doesnot dependonsize;forthediamondhassignificancesthatfar outshinethemassofearthfromwhichitistaken.Inthe animalworldsizeandindividualityaremorecloselyallied.” Inmanthesefactsmaybesymbolicalbutnomorethanthat.

*“Letus,however,againfixourattentionontheessentialfeature ofindividuality.Itiswhatdistinguishesthisfromthat.Itisthe balanceofunlikenesswhichdistinguishesthisindividualassemblage ofprocessesandproductsfromthatotherassemblageotherwise socloselyalike.”—LloydMorgan,InstinctandExperience,p.174. *JulianHuxley,TheIndividualintheAnimalKingdom,p.5. I5 ORIGINALITY Size,intheearlyagesofmankind,gaveindividualitytothose whowerefortunateenoughtotowerabovetheirfellows inheightandstrength;butwiththeadvanceofmental powerbraindisplacedbrawn,andthemanofpronounced individualitymightbephysicallyinsignificant,forintelli gencemeantmorethanmuscularstrengthtoaworldrapidly growingincivilisation.Individualitycametomeannot onlyseparation,but,morethaneverbefore,separationwith adifference.Itwasthesomethingdifferentthatstamped onemanasdistinctive,andthisistheruleto-day.Self realisationisoneofthesourcesofindividuality,andtorealise theselfmeans,first,thattheremustbeanabolitionofblind andmechanicalconformitytothelawsthatgovernthe many.Suchnonconformityasthisisquitecommensurate witha meticulousobediencetothesocialcode.Mrs Bloomer'sinventionanduseofthegarmentthatstillbears hernamewasadisplayofindividuality—aprotestagainst thebehaviourofthemany;butinotherrespectssheacknow ledgedandobservedthedecorumofthecirclesinwhich shemoved.Thelifeoftheindividualisnotonethingand thelifeofthesocialgroupanother:theyareaspectsofone life.Butin999casesoutof1000ithappensthatthegroup exertsthestrongerinfluence;andtheindividualbecomes aconformistininwardthoughtandoutwarddeed.The speech,thedress,thereligion,thepartypolitics,thepleasures ofhisfellowshetakesuponebyoneuntilhisidentityislost; heistypicalofthecommunitytowhichhebelongs.Let someboldspiritentertheweavingsphereofindustry,as didArkwright,withrevolutionaryideas,andhefindsthe mostvigorousopposition.Anewreligionfaresnobetter; andthe“loveyourenemy”notionisthrowntothewinds asChristiansfightforsupremacy,burningoneanotheratthe stakeasaproofthatthemartyriswrongandthepersecutor isright.Theoriginalmanpaysthepriceofviolatingthe recognisedorder,exceptincaseswherethepublichasfelt theneedofchangesuchasthateffectedbysomeprogressive ind.Thepricehasoftenbeendeath,asufficientlygrave warningtoallmindsofindividualquality,livinginaruthless age,andyeteagerforself-expression. I6 INTRODUCTION

Fortunatelya largertolerationexiststo-day,butthe spiritofoppositiontochangeisstilloperative."Asubstitute forrubberthatisasgoodasrubberwouldnotonlybring fortunetotheinventorbutaveryconsiderablefame;fori* thisisanoriginaldiscoverythatweexpectandhopefor; butletamandaretoproposeleaseholdmarriageasdid GeorgeMeredithandenemiesmultiplyrapidly;theclergy denouncehiminpulpitandonplatform,andthenovelist’s friendsshaketheirheadssorrowfully;theiridolhashada weakmoment.AndyetMeredithsimplydetachedhismind fromallothermindsandadvocatedaremedyforevilsthat areapparenttoeverybody:hisweaknesslayinnotthinking whatthemajorityofpeoplethink.But“thegroupasa psychicalunitisnevercreative”;thatisalwaysthe functionoftheindividual—justastheMessiahcreatedanew lawasagainstthetraditionsoftheelders.Thegroupis generallyrepressive.New,inhisLifeWanderingsinEastern Africa,saysoftheWanikathat“ifamandarestoimprove thestyleofhishut,tomakealargerdoorwaythaniscustom ary;ifheshouldwearafinerordifferentstyleofdressfrom thatofhisfellows,heisinstantlyfined.”Welaugh.But, inLondon,insteadoffiningawomanwhodarestobedifferent wemobherinthestreet.Isnotthesavagecustommutatis mutandismoredignifiedthanours?Itmaybemoredis couragingtoinnovatorsinthought,butitcertainlymanifests morecontrol.Nevertheless,everywherearoundus,despite educativeinfluencesofthehighestkind,wehavetocontend| fortherightsoftheminority,thenfortherightsofthe individual.”Emersontrulysaidthatsocietyisaconspiracy againsttheindependenceofeachofitsmembers.

*SirJohnSeeleyinhisEcceHomo(p.252)referstothemannerin whichthemajorityofpeoplereceivetheoriginalman:heis“alarm ing,perplexing,fatiguing.Theyunitetocrushtheinnovator.” SeealsoNietzsche,DawnofDay,p.17,andBrandes'Nietzsche,p.15. * DG.Brinton,TheBasisofSocialRelations,p.30. *“Thereisnothingwehavetofightformorestrenuouslythan Individuality.”—HavelockEllis,ImpressionsandComments,p.195.

B 17 ORIGINALITY

XII Letusrecapitulateourfindingsinreferencetooriginality. Weaffirmedthatthepopularverdictof“somethingnew* wasrightandyetnotright;itwasdefective,ashalf-truths alwaysare.Newnessisrelative—itcannotbeotherwise, forpastandpresentareanorganicwhole.Andyetthere arevariations—realdeparturesfromtheconventional;new creationsalthoughnotcompletelydisconnectedwiththe past.Howdotheycomeandwhy?Theyarenotplag iarisms,norevenhigherimitations:what,then,istheir originWesawthatitlayinthenatureofindividuality— theexpressionofthepureandunaffectedself.Astheselfis inscrutabletheinnersourceoforiginalitymaybedescribed asinscrutablealso.But,afterall,itisnomorethansaying thatminditselfisamystery;whereasthepointatissue isthenatureoforiginality.Initswidestsenseitisman’s shareinprogress,hisparticipationinagreatworld-scheme bybringingtolighthiddentruths,bybecomingthechannel ofinspirationalforces,andbyaddingtotheconveniences ofcivilisedlife. Inordertocarryouttheprogrammewhichaninquiry. intothenatureoforiginalitymakesnecessarywemust studythenatureofgenius—thattypeofmindwithwhich originalthinkingismostcloselyassociated.Weshallfind thatsofarfrombeingamatterofinbreathingitismind workingonitsownhigherplanes,andthushasanatural historyaswellasnaturallawsofoperation.Thisisthe foundationfact:alltheothersrestuponit,andinsteadof restatingthemherewewouldaskthereadertoinspect theextendedanalysisofcontentsfromwhichhewillseethat itispossibletostudythewholeofthephenomenaoforigin alitybymeansoftheacceptedtruthsofpsychology,biology, physicalgeographyandsociology. * TheadditionofasectiononPraxiswasmadeinthehope thatitwouldserveasafocusfortheprecedingsections,and perhapsalsoasameansofpersonaldevelopment.

I8 SECTIONI

THENATURALHISTORYOFGENIUS

CHAPTERI

CONSCIOUSNESS: SOMEOFITSCHARACTERISTICSAND

IMPLICATIONS

I IThasbeensaidthattherearethreefactorsineveryoriginal conceptionorwork:first,thematerialalreadyinexistence, andoutofwhichthenewproductismade;next,theoriginal\ mindinaction;andfinally,thenewproductitself.In thelastresort,however,thereisonlyonefactortobecon sidered,andthatisthesecondone:theoperationsofa highlyindividualisedintelligence,coveringtheperiodof impregnation,gestation,andbirthofthenewidea.There aremanytypesoforiginalminds,butwithminordifferences theyallobeythesamelaws.Theexperimentalchemist whoisusingvastknowledgeandfar-seeingabilitytodis coverasecretthatwillbeofgreatservicetohumanity; themechanicalinventorontheeveofafineachievement; thenovelistapproaching,withanemotionakintofear,the creationofastrikingplot;thepoetintheecstasyofreducing anobleconceptiontowords—thesemenpossessonetype ofintellect,howeverdifferentitsmanifestations;andthat intellectmaybestudiedinitsactionquiteapartfromthe materialwithwhichitismostintimatelyconcerned,orthe result,inwhateverformitmaybeembodied.Thatwhich distinguishesthemindofunusualpowersfromthemind thatisconventionalorcommonplaceisitsgreaterrange ofconsciousness";hencemanyofourwordsusedtodescribe Bosanquetwouldseemtobethinkingofthisideaofrangewhen hesays:“Ifamanhasmorepowerofcomprehensionandinclusion I9 ORIGINALITY thequalitiesoftalentandgeniusarespatial.Deepthinking, loftycontemplation,andbreadthofcomprehensionarecases inpoint;andwehavealsotheinspirationfromabove,the powerofmentalpenetration,andthemindofgreatcompass. Onthereverseside,amanofcircumscribedintelligenceis exactlywhattheadjectivedescribeshimtobe:hisrange ofconsciousnessissmall,andthebarrierseffectuallyrepel theattacksofnewideas,withthenaturalresultthathis abilityneverincreases.Thenarrow-mindedmanisasimilar individual:hisrangeislimited. Onehasonlytoreflectontheoriginandgradesofintelli genceknowntousintheworldtorealisethetruthofthese claims.Considerforamomentthenumerousevidencesof mind,orwhatwecallmind,stretchingfromtheanswering movementsofatelegraphplanttothethoughtsanddesigns ofmanhimself.Thebotanistsclaimthatplantshave intelligenceandthepsychologistsclaimtheyhavenot; responsibleinvestigatorsaffirmthatthehigheranimalshave reasoningpowersandotherinvestigatorsdenyit. Into thesedisputesitisnotnecessarytogo;buteveryonemust admitthatthewidertherangeofconsciousnessamong animals,thegreateristheabilitytheydisplaytoremember andtoadaptthemselvestonewsituations.Contrast,for instance,theutterlyinsignificantthoughnonetheless remarkablebrainofanantwiththatofadog.Howmuch doestheantknowoftheworld,beyondthemechanical impulseswhichpromptittoplayitsdullanduninteresting rôleinanestofearth? Ifwemayspeakofitsconscious nessatall,itisapitiablysmallaffairwhenregardedinthe lightofthatofthecaninespecies,wherethereisa power tounderstandthechangesinhumanconduct,andtorespond tothemwithaknowingappreciation.Tosaythatthecon structiveabilityofadogisnotequaltothatofanantisto misstheessentialpoint.Anantfollowsoutwhatappears tobeanelaboratesystemoflife—notofchoicebutof sothatlessisoutsidehim,andthatwhatisoutsidehimislessoutside him,hisownunityandindividualityissofarandforthatreasonnot less,butgreater.Consciousnessesareofalldegreesofcompre hension.”-ThePrincipleofIndividualityandValue,p.286. 2O CONSCIOUSNESS necessity.Its“ability”isjustasmuchapartofitsmechan ismasisitsappetite.Butadogisabletoenterintothe detailsofitsenvironmentinamannerthatisinfinitely morecomperhensive;andbecauseitsrangeofconsciousness iswideritsabilityisgreater.

Weseethesamefactinthegrowthofthehumancon sciousness.Ifweaskachildofthreetowriteanessayon Bimetallismweareimmediatelyawareofanabsurditythat isdifficulttocharacterise.Thechildhasahumanmind,no doubt,butitsdevelopmentisstillintheveryembryonic stages;yearsmustpassbeforeitsmindcangraspeventhe elementsofasubjectwhichtogrownmenisconfessedly abstruse.Andifweaskayounggraduateofoneofthe neweruniversities,whereMoneyisamorefavouredsubject thanelsewhere,itmaybethathewillsoonfindthefunda mentalsbeyondhim—thatis,hehasnotthenecessary abilitybecausethenecessaryfactsandideasareoutofhis range.Onthereversesideweseehowthedecliningability ofoldmenisdeterminedbytheirincreasinglackofapprecia-. tion;thecircleoftheirinterestsisnarrowedgradually; newideasareoutsidetheirrangeofsympathy;inaword, theareaofconsciousnessisreduced,carryingwithitcertain ineptitudeswhich,howevernatural,areundoubtedlyrestric tive.AsSchopenhauersays:“Thereisthenasensein which. . . itisonlyinyouththatamanliveswithafull degreeofconsciousness,andthatheisonlyhalfalivewhen heisold.”" Inordertojustifythedefinitionjustgivenofamindwith unusualpowersitwillbenecessarytosaywhatwemeanby consciousness,andalsoinwhatsenseweusethewordrange. *CounselsandMaxims,p.144.Thereisalsoaninteresting passageinhisWisdomofLife(pp.34-35)whereinhetracesthevarious stagesofconsciouslifeendingwiththesewords:“Thehighest productofNatureistheclearestdegreeofconsciousnessinwhichthe worldmirrorsitselfmoreplainlyandcompletelythananywhere else.”

2I ORIGINALITY Weshallhavetoinvoketheaidofcomparativepsychology— thescienceofintelligenceasmanifestedineverykindoflife; weshallhavetoestimatethelossofabilityduetodiminished interests,asseeninoldage;indeedallthesourcesnecessary mustbepressedintotheserviceofelucidation,includingall thatisreliableinrecentresearchesintothesubconscious.

III

Whatdoweknowaboutconsciousness?Wemaytruth fullyclaimtoknowsomething,butwedonotknowenough todefineit. Theattempttodefineithascausedallthe trouble,andwearenotsurprisedtoreadthatLewes,one oftheclearestofthinkersandwriters,wishedthattheword couldbedroppedoutofusealtogether.Letanymangather togetherthequasi-definitionsofconsciousnesspropounded— thereisnootherphrasemoresuitable—duringthelast eighteenyears,asDrSchofielddidfortheyearspreviousto 1892,”andhewillseehowlittlewehaveadvanced;more thanthat,hewillseehowlittlelikelywearetoadvance. Thewholemassofpsychologicalterminologybadlyneeds revision,butevena congressofexpertscouldnotdefine consciousness;itcouldonlynarrowthemeaningoftheword, andisolateitwithinbettermarkedboundaries.Conscious nessitselfisathingbeyondanalysis,”andthereforebeyond definition.Mark,notthelifeofconsciousness—whattakes placeinit—butthestatewecallconsciousness,considered apartfromitsassociatedactivities.Anyattempttostudy one'sownconsciousnesswillfromtheverycommencement haveanelementofvanityinit.Theoldobjectionstill

*Prof.James,inspeakingof“personalconsciousness,”says, withatouchofslyhumour:“Itsmeaningweknowsolongasno oneasksustodefineit.”-PrinciplesofPsychology,vol.i.,p.225. *TheUnconsciousMind,p.52passim. *“Consciousnessitself. . . is an irreducibledatumwhich explanationobscuresandanalysisdestroys.Totrytofindthe detailedelementsofconsciousnessforthepurposeofcontrastingor connectingthemwiththeelementsofthelowerfunctions,istolose sightofconsciousnessitselfandtoconsideritsmaterialsorits product.”-Boutroux,TheContingencyoftheLawsofNature,p.115. 22 CONSCIOUSNESS stands:itisimpossibleduringthesamemomenttobethe observerandthethingobserved."Thestreamofconscious nesscannotstopitscourse,turnback,analyseitsorigin,and surveyitspresentcondition,thengoforwardandestimate itsdestiny.Itwouldthenceasetobeastream.Butsurely (itwillbesaid)thereissuchathingasintrospectiveor analyticalpsychology: Thereis,andtheresults,plusthose oftheexperimentalists,arehighlyimpressiveasabodyof reasonedknowledgeaboutthelifeofthemind.Butour pointisthis:thatnomethodcanexplainconsciousnessina mannerthatenablesustodefineit.Thetruepsychologist wouldbethelasttomakeanysuchclaim.Introspection ontheoldlinesreacheditslimitsalongtimeago.Professor CaseofOxford,inalettertoTheTimes(26thMay1899), Aproducedalonglistofquestionswhichhadbeendiscussed forageswithoutsuccess.“Psychology,”hesaid,“isa sciencefullofinvolvedproblems,andofquestionswaiting foranswers.”*Thesefailuresareduetoourignoranceof thenatureofconsciousness,owingtoitsessentialinscrut ability. Aftertheintrospectiveschoolcametheexperimental school,ledbyWundt.Theyhavehada longandnotable innings,andhaveachieveda gooddealintherealmof sensationandperceptionandnotalittleastotheborder-line betweenmindandbody.Butwehavenoticedthatinrecent yearstheexperimentalistconcludesachapterofinquiry withabaffledfeeling;thediscoverythatseemedsonearhas recededintothedistance,orthenotionthatpromisedarare fertilityhasendedinbarrenness.Kostyleff,inhisLaCrise delaPsychologieExperimentale(1914),givesusacritical summaryofthewholeposition,anditisnotfavourableto thefutureofexperiment.Billiainhispamphlet,Hasthe *“Themereactofobservingthecurrentphenomenaofcon sciousnessintroducesanewelementintoconsciousnesswhichtends todisturbtheprocessesgoingon.Theobservationsshouldbe obliqueratherthandirect:shouldbemadenotduring,butim mediatelyafter,theappropriateexperiences.”-James,Principlesof

Psychology,vol.ii.,p.249. - *E.g.—WhatisMindP WhatistheoriginofKnowledgeP The relationoftheMindtothebody? 23 ORIGINALITY PsychologicalLaboratoryprovedHelpful?(1909),isevenmore negative.“Thetruelaboratoryofpsychology,”hesays, “isnothingbutconsciousness.”Admittingthegreat servicesoftheexperimenters,heaffirmsthatafundamental misapprehensionremains:“theillusionofstudyingoutside ofconsciousnessafactwhichtakesplaceonlywithincon sciousness,andwhichoutsideofconsciousnessisnoteven conceivable.”SoalsoJung,whocontendsthat“modern experimentalpsychologyisveryfarfrombeingabletoafford . . . anyconnectedinsightintothemostvitalpsychicpro cesses;thatisnotitsaim.. . . Henceitcomesaboutthat theinquirerafterthesecretsofthehumansoullearns ratherlessthannothingfromexperimentalpsychology.”" ThenewestschoolisthatofFreudandJungasseenin psycho-analysis.Intothisweshallinquirepresently; meanwhilewemaysayatoncethatwedonotexpectany investigatortotelluswhatthemindis,althoughhemay explainitsworkingbetterthananybodyelse.Letus rememberthewordsofDescartes:“Ilestbondecomprendre clairementqu'ilyadeschosesquesontabsoluementin comprehensibles”;alsoPascal'sfineparadox:“LA,où finitleraisonnement,commencelavéritablecertitude.”

Itmaybeobjectedthatthereisnoservicerenderedto knowledgeinaccentuatingthegreatdifficultiesofitsattain ment;andthatthisattitudeisgenerallytakenupbythose whohavenoabilityforinvestigation,andwhotrytocover theirignorancebydenyingthepossibilityofknowledge. Thereisaspiceoftruthinthiscriticism,anditiscertainly moredesirabletocultivatethespiritofinquirythanto dampitsardour.Butfactsarestubbornthings.There weremenofscienceinthelastcenturywhoseemedtothink wewereonthehighroadtoacompletesolutionoflife— Büchnerusedthephrase,“themysteryoftheUniverse solved”—butaperiodofhumilitysetinanditisstillgrow ing;therewerealsomen—therearesomestill—whoshowed *AnalyticalPsychology,p.353. 24 CONSCIOUSNESS atendencytoregardmindasaneasyproblem:acell,a nerve,asensation,agroupofperceptions—andconscious nessisaccountedfor! Likethehouse-furnishingadvertise mentonthehoardings:“It’ssosimple”!Thetendency isalwaystopatourselvesonthebackandsayhowmuchwe know;thenanewdiscoverycomesandmoodilywebring ourtext-booksuptodate,partinggrudginglywithour favouritetheories.Itisagainstthisfalsespiritthatwe haveventuredtoprotest.Ofconsciousnessitselfweknow \ nomorethanmendidinGreecetwothousandyears ago. Forinstance,wehaveneveryetfoundapsychologist whocoulddefinethedifferencebetweenaThoughtanda \FeelingorbetweenaFeelingandanactofWill;indeed everyteacherinexplainingthesewordsisanxioustoassure usthatthemindisaunity,andthatthereisFeelingand ThoughtineveryactofWill,WillandThoughtinevery Feeling,andFeelingandWillineveryThought.Mindis thussetforthinalmostexactlythesametermsastheGod headintheology;GodexistsinthreePersons—aunityin trinityandatrinityinunity.Similarly,themindhasthree \chieffunctions:tofeel,tothink,andtowill;butthereare notthreeminds—onlyone.Thisgivesrisetoseveralre flections,thefirstofwhichisthateventhemodesinwhich consciousnessmanifestsitselfare,inthelastresort,beyond analysis,socloselyaretheyunified,andsoeasilydothey, inworking,shadeoffintoeachother.Inotherwords,con sciousnessincludes,ateverymoment,allthatwemeanby Feeling,Thought,andWill.Wehavetriedtoooftento isolatethesefunctions—tosay,“Thisisaltogetheran Intellectualthing,”or“ThisisaproductofpureEmotion,” or“ThereweseeanactofalmostpureWill.”Theresult isthatthestudyofconsciousnesshasbeensectionalisedin suchamannerastoneglecttheworkofthewhole,asa whole. Thereareactivitiesofthemindwhichhavenotreceived theattentiontheydeserve,mainly,wesuppose,becausethey werenotsmallconceptions,invitingmeticulousanalysis, butlargeconceptionsinvolvingmorescopeforimagination 25 ORIGINALITY andjudgmentthanforscientificmeasurement.Thefirst isPlato'sideaof“knowing,”andthesecondisNewman's IllativeSense.

6ewpia—i.e.theoria—meansa seeing,a beholding,fol lowedbyunderstanding;anunderstandingmadeupoftwo elements,knowledgeandvision.Itisalookatlifethat embodiesbothscienceandphilosophy;itnotonlyasks, Whatarephenomena?but,Whatliesbehindphenom ena2 andWhy?Andalthoughitbelievesinlogicandin reason,itbelievesjustasmuchinimpression,thedirect messagethatphenomenagivestothesoul.Itisnotonlya thinkingprocessbutamethodofmentalvision." ProfessorPillsburyhasrightlypointedoutthatthereal processinthinking,inthesenseofreasoningathingout,is oneofproblem-solving:tousehisownwords:['Theoccasion forthereasoningisathwartedpurpose:* Intheattitude. representedbytheword6ewpiathereisanentirelackof thiselement:itmeans,asalreadyexplained,abeholding, butnotabeholdinginwhichthereisnothought,nomental comparison,nosenseofcontrast,novaluation;these factorsandmanyothersareintheirhighestformofactivity, mainlybecausetheyareworkingonamoreco-operative basisthanwhenthemindisengagedonworkthatisessenti allylogicalordeliberatelyscientific.Inthatconditionthe wholefocusisdirectedbymeansofthereason,usingthat wordinitsmorelogicalassociations.MrA.D.Lindsay putsthewholematterintoasentencewhenhesaysthat Plato“whilealwaysinsistingonexactargumentandcare *Platodoesnotalwaysusethesameword,buttheideaisthe same.Tohimthehighestformofthinking“isthecomprehensive intuitionofthemanwhoseesallthingsaspartofasystem(5ovvorrixos), realisesthateachparthasitsbeinginthewholeandbringsthat systemtobearoneachthing.”-G.S.Brett,HistoryofPsychology, p.82. *SimilarlyProf.Deweysays:“Demandforthesolutionofa perplexityisthesteadyingandguidingfactorintheentireprocess ofreflection.”—HowWeThink,p.11: 26 CONSCIOUSNESS fullogicalreasoningmakesallreasoningdependfinallyon Nintellectualinsightandvisionwhichisimmediate.”" Bergsonisaphilosopherwhoseteachinghasgrippedona widepublic:andtheprocessesofintuition,tohim,areas muchamatterworthyofinvestigationasthepurelylogical processes;nay,theyaremoreworthy,forreasonhasnot beenacompletesuccessinexplaininglifeandphenomena. CommentingonastrikingpassageinCreativeEvolution (pp.362-363),ProfessorCunninghamsays:“Weneedanew methodofcomprehensionwhichwillbringusintodirect touchwiththevitalimpetus.. . . Consciousnessmustturn fromitsnaturalbentandstrivetoseeaswellasunderstand, sympathisewith,aswellasconstruct,theuniversewhich hasproducedit.”*Theproposednewmethodisreallya modernapplicationofPlatonicvision.ItwasofPlatothat WalterPatersaid,“forhimallgiftsofsenseandintelligence convergeinonesupremefacultyoftheoreticvision,6ewpia, theimaginativereason.”*Perhapswemightdesirea differenceinphraseology,thoughitbehardlyrespectfulto agreatmaster;buttheessenceisthere—6eopiaisthe sumofallgiftsofsenseandintelligence,andnotallits findingscanbeputintowords,muchlessformulatedinto syllogisms. VI

Itissomewhatsurprisingthatpsychologistshaveofrecent yearspaidsolittleattentiontotheimplicationsofthe *FiveDialoguesofPlatobearingonPoeticInspiration,p.9. Ackermanngivesamoreextendedview,andadds:“Itisdoubtless difficultforustoimaginethis,ortobelieveinthepossibilityofsuch acognition,forthesimplereasonthatwecanonlyartificiallyform forourselvesaworld-consciousnessofthiskind,whiletoPlatoit wasnatural.Forwheretheunityoftheintellectuallifeissodivided, andsunderedintoactivitessodifferentandseparatefromeach other,wherethepowerofreflectionissocompletelyseveredfrom thematernalstockofthefulnessofimpression,andhasattainedsuch independentperfectionanddecidedsuperiorityamongus,wecan scarcelythinkofcognitionasotherthanapurelyimmanentlogical actoftheunderstanding.”—TheChristianElementinPlato,p.180. *ThePhilosophyofBergson,p.27. *PlatoandPlatonism,p.127. 27 ORIGINALITY IllativeSense;possiblytheyhavebeentoobusywithexperi mentalresearch.Someday,however,thedoctrinemay takeanewleaseoflife,notinlowlycircles,butinthevery highest.ThewordIllative,accordingtothedictionary, meanssomethingpertainingtoillationorinference,andthe IllativeSenseisdefinedas“thatfacultyofthehumanmind bywhichitformsa judgmentuponthevalidityofan inference.”Thedefinitiondoesnotsatisfyus,forthe illativesenseisnota“faculty”;anditisnotclearwhether theillationjudgesorestimatesthevalidityoftheinference, orwhetheritisajudgmentconsequentupontheinference. Newmanhimselfdoesnotseemtohavegivenusaneat andformaldefinitioninhisGrammarofAssent,butSirLeslie Stephensuppliedthedeficiency.Tohimtheillativesense is“thatbywhichtheminddrawsremoteinferenceswithout aconscioussyllogisticprocess.”"Thisbringsusnearer,and weproposetoofferthereaderanillustration.Remember ingthatformallogicisatestofthinking,andnotaprocess ofdiscoveringnewideas,orarrivingatnewconclusions,we willimaginethataLondonmerchant,intentuponopening abranchofhisbusinessinCardiff,isengagedinestimating thechancesofsuccessandthepossibilitiesoffailure.His cogitationscentreinmassesoffigures,thenpasstoconsidera tionsofstaff;heweighstheprosandconsofthenewshop's positionanditsrelationtothecustomershehasinview. Thewholeschemeinvolvesmanydifficultcalculations, socomplicated,indeed,thatnomathematiciancould symbolisethementalprocessesinvolvedandnologician couldsyllogisethem.Verywell;how,then,doeshe cometoa decisiontoactornottoact?Byan estimateofprobabilities,andthatestimateiscarriedout bytheillativesense.Newmanillustratedhisdoctrine fromShakespeareancriticism,buthisexpositionofmethod isofuniversalapplication,andthatmethodisoneof “thecumulationofprobabilities,independentofeach other,arisingoutofthenatureandcircumstancesofthe particularcasewhichisunderreview;probabilitiestoo finetoavailseparately,toosubtleandcircuitous,tobe *AnAgnostic'sApology,p.205. 28 CONSCIOUSNESS convertibleintosyllogisms.”Butdoestheillative senseexist,orisitafigmentofNewman'simagination? Thereisnodoubtatallofitsexistence,simplybecause mostpeopledrawinferenceswithoutconsciouslogicaleffort: indeeditisoneofthecommonestformsofmentalactivity, employingthewholeofourmentalfunctionsinaunified manner.Thatisreallywhywecallattentiontoitatthis stageofourinquiry.SirLeslieStephen,oneofNewman’s severestbutfairestcritics,admittedthattheillativesense “undoubtedlycorrespondstoarealfacultyorcombination offaculties.”*Thelanguageofthisadmissionisnotas exactasweshouldhavelikedittobe—theuseoftheword faculty,forinstance—butwewilltakeitasaconfessionthat theremaybemorethanonementalfunctionatworkduring illation.

VII Theillativesenseisstrictlyindividualinitsaction.In CardinalNewman’scaseitlandedhiminRomanCatholicism; inProfessorF.W.Newman’scaseitresultedinaformof ** theism.Why?Becauseourillationsdependonthenature ofourtemperament,oureducation,ourenvironment,andour experience,butchieflyontemperament—thatbodilysetting whichdeterminesthetendenciesofthemindandispartly responsiblefortheproportionsofThought,Feeling,and Willinourmentalconstitution.JamesMilltriedtomake hissonJohnaduplicateofhimself,butJohn'sproportion ofFeelingwasinexcessofhisfather's,andhetherefore illateddifferently—i.e.moreemotionally.Böhme'sillative sense,plushisexperience,resultedinasystemoftheosophy; Haeckel,withanarrowfeeling-development,andanexcess intheotherdirections,drawsinferencesofaverydifferent kind.Thusweseethestrangespectacleofmenwithgreat \Powersofintellectacceptingsuperstitionsasiftheywere truth–somesuperstitionsbeingreligiousandothers scientific;weseemenofequalabilitydiametricallyopposed *GrammarofAssent,p.281. *AnAgnostic’sApology,p.209. 29 ORIGINALITY inpartypolitics;weseeTyndallscorningspiritualismand CrookesandWallacebelievingintherealityofitspheno mena;weseemenofbrightintelligenceacceptingMrs Eddy'sstatementthatdiseaseiserror,whileothermen,just asbright,smileincredulously;realistsfightwithidealists, RomanistswithProtestants;artcriticsofsomecompetence defendthenewmovements,whilstothercritics,alsocom petent,condemnthemutterly.Theremustbesomereason whyhighlydevelopedandtrainedmindscannotagreeon importantissues;andwefinditmostlyintheunifiedaction ofourwholeconsciousness.Itisnotlogicthatdecides; otherwiseprofessorsoflogicwouldnotdisagreesopassion atelyonfreetradeandtariffreform;fourdecisionsrespecting truthcomefromablendofinstinct,feeling,thought,and Nexperienceoperatingbymeansoftheillativesense,

VIII

Afurtherreflectionisthis:thattheendeavourtofind thenatureofgeniusina modificationorexpansionof Thought,Feeling,orWillisboundtobeunsatisfactory, simplybecausethemindisaunity.Therearetimes,no doubt,whenonefunctionwillbepreponderant,butatno timedoeseitheroneofthethreefunctionsentirelyoccupy thefieldofconsciousness.Schopenhauersaidthat“if thenormalmanconsistsoftwo-thirdsWill,andone-third Intellect,thegenius,onthecontrary,hastwo-thirdsIntellect andone-thirdWill.”*Well,testthisbyanestimateof Napoleonandtheinaccuracyisatonceevident.Hewas amanofimmensemotive-power,andhisWillwascertainly inadvanceofhisIntellect.Schopenhauerleavesnoroom forFeelingandallthefinerissuesofsensibilityonwhichso muchdepends;andhisattempttomeasureabilityarith meticallybreaksdownatoncewhenweconsideragenius outsidethegroupofthosewhomhehadinmind.Butwe havetoadmitthatweoftenthinkinamannerthatis unbalancedandunsound,becausewegivetoomuchplay toFeeling,toThought,ortoblindImpulse.Speakingof *TheWorldasWillandRepresentation,vol.iii.,p.140. 30 CONSCIOUSNESS RobertHughBenson’sconversionfromAnglicanismto Romanism,MrR.J.Campbellsays:“UnlessIamutterly mistaken,theintellectplayedalmostnopartinthetre mendousdecisionwhichledhimtosubmittoRome.”"This appearstobeareasonablejudgment,but,afterall,themind thatcametotheconclusionreferredtowasMgrBenson’s notMrCampbell's;andwehavenorighttosaythatthe authorofTheDawnofAllchangedhiscreedonaccountof “convictions”thatrepresented,say,five-eighthsFeeling, two-eighthsWill,andonlyone-eighthIntellect.Therecan benodoubtwhateverthatwithamindofsuchsinceritythe wholeconsciousness,governedbytemperament,wasinvolved inthedecision,notinequalratiooffunction,probably,but intheratioofthemanasNaturehadmadehim.These guessesatmentalproportionalrepresentationhaveacademic, evenpractical,interesttosomeextent.Croceasks:“Was notthebattleofAusterlitzalsoaworkofthought,andthe DivineComedyalsoaworkofWill?”*Wecanonlyreply intheaffirmative,andreflectontheactuatingmotivesof Germanyin1914whenthedesire(feeling)ofconquest,the carefullyconstructed(thought)planofcampaign,andthe vigourofitsprosecution(will)showthewholeTeutonicsoul atwork.AFrenchwriterwhohasinvestigatedtherelation shipbetweenthoughtandactioncametotheconclusionthat penser:agirareoneformofenergy—i.e.aunity.” Butwhatofanextraordinarygiftinmusic,ormemory power? DoesnotthisprovethatevenNatureitself indulgesinirregularitybyproducingmenwithonepower inexcelsisandtheothersbelowtheaveragelevel? That isnotthepoint.Wearediscussingtheinterworkingof thethreefunctionsofmindwhatevertheyareintheirnatural proportions;andwhilstthepredominanceofaspecialgift willcontrolthedirectionofmentalactivity,itwillnot,and cannot,actinentireseparationfromtheotherfunctions; itmerelytakesthelead.

*TheLifeofMonsignorRobertHughBenson.ByC.C.Martindale, S.J. *PhilosophyofthePractical,p.7. *LeReveetl’Action,p.359. 3I ORIGINALITY

DX / Byrangewemean,first,thepossiblereachofconscious ness;itsabilitytoencompassandtogiveapproximate valuestoallkindsofphenomena.Next,wemeanallthat isimpliedintheactivityofthesubconsciousness,therange ofwhichisasyetbeyondourken. Inreferencetothefirst,webeginbysayingthatinits moreelementaryformit showsitselfinthesomewhat mechanicalincreaseofknowledge—thestorageoffactsin themind.Amanwhoknowsastronomyuptoitsadvanced stageshasawiderareaofconsciousnessthanthemanwho doesnot.WemayaddaknowledgeofGreektoaknow ledgeofHebrew,orsupplementastudyoflanguagebya \ courseinformallogic.[Butinitsdeepermeaningtheword range,asusedhere,connotesagreatdealmorethanaddi tionstoourstoreofinformation;itmeansaperceptionof unitiesamiddiversities,a moreorlessemotionalappre hensionofwholesasdistinctfromparts.Soinsteadofa suminaddition,addingfacttofact,Greekparadigmsto Hebrewtenses,orthepsychologicalpowersofwordstothe formsofthesyllogism,werealisetheirlargerrelationships tohistoryandtohumanlife.Webecomeawareofthe significanceofthingssmallandgreat. Takeanillustration.Whataretears? Thevisible expressionofstronginwardemotion.Doesthathasty definitiontellusallaboutthem? Yes;forthepractical purposesofsympathy,presuming,forthemoment,thatthe tearsmeangriefandnotlaughter.Butaskthephysiologist toanswerthequestion,andhewilldiscourselearnedlyonthe lachrymalglandsandductsshowinghowourtearsare alwaysflowing,andhowgrief,orlaughter,divertsthemfrom theirnaturalchannelthroughthetwocanaliculitothenose. Asktheanalyst:Whataretears?andhewillwritedown theformula"thus: *. NaCl-H.O *Baltazar,oneofBalzac'scharacters,says:“Ah| tears;Ihave analysedthem;theycontainalittlephosphateoflime,chlorideof sodium,mucin,andwater.”PerhapsBalzacdidnotseekscientific accuracy. 32 CONSCIOUSNESS Youmayaskthecynic,thehumorist,andascoreofothers toanswerthequestion,andeachwillgivehispointofview, whichinmostcasesisdecidedbytemperament,occupation, andexperience.Wedonotsaythatamanofknowledge maynotbealsoamanofsympathy:wearemerelydrawing a distinctionbetweeninformationabouta factandour realisationofthefactitself.Themanwhofirstrevealed thephysiologyandchemistryoftearsrenderedusefulservice tomankind,butthemanwithagreaterrangeoffeelingwho said: “Tearsfromthedepthofsomedivinedespair Riseintheheartandgathertotheeyes

. InlookingonthehappyAutumn-fieldss Andthinkingofthedaysthatarenomore*, contributedtothespiritualwealthoftheworld.Hisreach wasinadvanceoftheothers.Theytoldusoftheimmediate qualitiesofthings:hetoldusofthethinginitselfasit appealedtothewholeconsciousness;hebroughtforththe fineressences.

Thebotanistlooksataflowerwithaneyetoclassification —itsgenusandspecies,itsorigin,itslocality,itsrarity.The poet,pluckingitfromthecranniedwall,mayknowlittleof itsnaturalhistory,butinhisconsciousnessitisathingthat suggeststhoughtsthatlietoodeepfortears.Bothare right;indeedthebotanistandpoetmaybeone.But - thinkofthedifferencebetweentheirpointsofview.Toone theflowerisaspecimen;totheotheraninspiration.Itis thepoet,therefore,whohasthefinerreachofconsciousness, fortohimthevisiblehasmeaningsthatthepovertyof speechrendersdifficultofutterance.Hefeelswhathedoes notcomprehend;hesenseswhathedoesnotknow;and sometimesheappearstorecollectwhathehasnot experienced. Thereisarealsenseinwhichthepoetdoesnotstandalone inthisrespect.Everymanofmarkhasaspecificability which,translatedintopopularlanguage,meansthathesees C 33 ORIGINALITY moreandseesfartherthanthosearoundhim;hisrangeof consciousnessismostextensiveandintensive.Hecould notexplainhimself,howevermuchhetriedtodoso;indeed, thosemanualsofthephilosophyofSuccesswhereinmillion airesandothermagnatesshowhowtheyhavemadefortunes arefullofmisconceptions.Thecynicsaysthatitisnot likelysuchmenwillpartwiththeirsecretsforthepriceof a magazinearticle.Thepsychologistknowsbetter.He says“theycannot,eveniftheywould.”Thedeepest secretsarealwayshidden,notonlyfromtheworldbutfrom themanwhothinksheknowsthem.Whoamongusbelieves thatthePortSunlightbusinesswasdevelopedmainlyby steadyapplicationandperseverance?Andyetthisiswhat LordLeverhulmewouldhaveusbelieve."Ofcourse everyleaderofnotemusttrytoexplainhimselftohimself andtoothers:somestrikethenoteofmodesty,andafew becomeegotists;butthemotivebehindeachistoavoid thebeliefinchanceandtoemphasisetherelationofcause toconsequence.Wewhohavestudiedmeninactionknow thateveninmattersofbusinessthethinkerwhoweighs matterscarefully,evenponderously,isoftenmistakeninhis laboureddecisions;whilstthemanwhofollowsthefirst impulseofconsciousnessismoreoftenrightthanwrong.” Hereagainwestrikeananalogywiththepoet.“Thought byitself,”saysLeighHunt,“makesnopoetatall.. . . Feeling,evendestituteofconsciousthought,standsafar betterpoeticalchance;feelingbeinga sortofthought withouttheprocessofthinking—agrasperofthetruth withoutseeingit. Andwhatisveryremarkable,feel ingseldommakestheblundersthatthoughtdoes.”” Probablybecauseinourfeelingthereisa largesub consciouselement.

*ThreeAddressesbySirW.H.Lever,Bart. *SpeakingofSuccess,thelateDrEmilReichsaidoftheprofessional manthat“themoreandthebetterhethinks,themoreheislikely tobesuccessfulinhisprofession.”Headdssignificantly:“Notso thebusinessman.Thebusinessmanwhothinksandarguesmuch islost.”-SuccessinLife,pp.280-281. *WhatisPoetryP(Cook'sedition),p.66. 34 CONSCIOUSNESS

Therangeofconsciousness,then,isa phrasewitha meaningwhichmayservetoelucidatetheproblemofwhat constitutesdifferencesinmentalability.Thereisnot muchhelpintheworditself:abilityisableness,thequalityN whichdenotespowertoperformortoact.Undoubtedly thisideaisatthebasisofallkindsofability.Thelifting ofahugedumb-bellbyastrongmanisphysicalability;the buildingofabridgeacrossawideanddeepravineisengineer ingability;theforetellingofaneclipseismathematical ability:thesemenhavecertainpowersofknowledgeand actionthatproduceresults—theyareablemen.Butthere areobviousdifferences.Thestrongmanmaynotbegiven tomuchthinking;hisabilityispurelymuscularexceptso farastheaccomplishmentofnewtasksisconcerned.Into thefeatofengineeringthereentersaunionoftheoryand practice,whiletheastronomer'sactionsareconfinedvery largelytointricatecalculationsonpaper.Therealquestion, therefore,isthis:Istherenotanabilitythatispurely intellectual—i.e.oneinwhichFeelingandWillareata minimum? Wedonotmeanthedifferencebetweenthe MiltonswhowritegreatpoemsandtheMiltonswhoaremute andinglorious;wemeantheabilitytoreflectwithsympathy andinsight,eventhoughnoactionfollows,orinanysense isnecessary.Theonlyanswerisadecidedaffirmative.A philosopherofdistinctionisboundtobeamanofgreat intellectualpower,andyetalltheactionthatfollowshis thinkingisconfinedtothewritingofabookorthedelivery oflectures.Kantisaninterestingillustration. ForthesakeofinstructivecontrastwewillplaceLord LeverhulmeandKantsidebyside.Whatisthedifference betweentheirkindsofintellectualability? Oneisamaster intherealworld,theotheramasterintheideaworld.Each hasa widerangeofconsciousness,butnotinthesame direction.Theprofessordealswithideas;thebusiness manwithfacts.Theprofessorputsideasintoaclosed atmosphere—likethosedelicateweighingmachinescovered 35 ORIGINALITY withglass—sothatnodisturbingbreathofemotionmay leadhisvaluationastray;thebusinessman,havingno patiencewithsuchfinesse,takestheworldashefindsit, studiesdemandandsupply,prices,transportation,and accounts.Butwhilstthecontrastbetweenthetwomen isthusevidentthelikenessesarenotfartoseek.Thesame kindofbrain-powerisusedalbeitindifferentdegreesand fordifferentends.ASandoworaHackenschmidtcanlift aweighttwentytimesheavierthanwecanlift,butwhenwe haveraisedourpunyweightwehaveusedthesamemuscles astheirs,undersimilarmentaldirection.Theadvantage ofsuperiorweightisgreatlyonthesideoftheexperts,but boththeyandtheweaklingsusethesamekindofbodily energy.Itisevensointhementalworld.Ribothas provedconclusivelythatthereisnotoneimaginationfor thepoetandoneforthemerchantorinventor.Ifapoet forgetshisumbrellaheforgetsitinthesamewayasthe ordinaryperson;andwhentheordinarypersonhasto imagineaschemeforgettingoutofadifficulty,heusesthe samekindofimaginationasapoet.Anunpalatabletruth, doubtless,butstillitisthetruth.Shakespeare'sbrainwas ahumanbrain,andsoisthatofthemostinefficientone-act playwrightofthemoment.ThebarddidnotpossessFeeling, Thought,Will,andafourthsomethingwhichwecallgenius. Hismindworkedaccordingtothementallawsthatgovern allminds;thedifferencebetweenhimandotherslayin onething:hiswasamindofalmostinfinitecompass.The averagemanhasconsciousness;Shakespearehadittothe nthdegree,sovastwasitsrange,sosusceptibleitsfeelings, andsoprofounditsunityofconception.

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Nopsychologisthasgivenabetterdefinitionofability thanSirFrancisGalton.Hesays:“BynaturalabilityI meanthosequalitiesofintellectanddispositionwhichurge andqualifyamantoperformactsthatleadtoreputation. I donotmeancapacitywithoutzeal,norzealwithout *TheCreativeImagination. 36 CONSCIOUSNESS capacity,norevenacombinationofbothofthemwithout anadequatepowerofdoingagreatdealoflaboriouswork. ButImeananaturewhich,whenlefttoitself,will,urged byaninherentstimulus,climbthepaththatleadsto eminence.”Herearethreeelements: (a)aconsistentmotive-power; (b)goodintellectualdiscernment,and

(c)action. - Theycanbefoundwellmarkedinanymanofnotewhere mentalqualitiesarenecessarilyimportant:butletusnot forgettheplacethatGaltongivestoFeelingasseeninthe useofthewordsdisposition,urge,zeal,andinherentstimulus. Thefirstabilityisemotionalability:theFeelingwhich,as LeighHuntsaid,makesfewermistakesthanThought.The nextismentalperception:themeansbywhichwecollect,if classify,andsystematisewhatothersectionsofthemind givetous.Thethirdabilityisactionability. Thehistoryofgeniusandtalentisaninterestingpicture ofdisproportionsinthesethreeabilities.Wehaveknown atleastonemetaphysicianwhowassomuchoutoftouch withtheRealandsomuchintouchwiththeIdealthathe couldnotearnadecentliving.Consciousnesswasoutof focus.Rousseauerredonthesideofemotion,livingfor wholeperiodsina welteroftears,justasSwedenborg revelledinhisself-hypnotisedvisionsofanotherworld. Lombroso,withakeenscentfortheabnormal,huntedout allthedisproportionshecouldfindinliteraryandscientific biography;andheconcludedthatgeniuswasaformof insanity.Itwasaneasyconclusion,becausedisproportion issoobvious;butwhyavoidsuchnamesasPlatoand Aristotle,ShakespeareandGoethe? Thegreatesttypeof geniushasneverbeenone-sided;itsconsciousnesshasnever beenoutoftouchwiththefactsoflife,howevermuchtime ithasspentintheworldofideas.

*HereditaryGenius.Höffdingsays:“Fromantiquitydownwards, psychologyhaslaidthegreateststressupontheoriginalbentsof feelingwhichgivethekeynotetomentallife,whateverlineitmay strikeout.”-OutlinesofPsychology,p.349. 37 ORIGINALITY TheGreekconceptionsofdirectness,action,andharmony preventedanygrievouserrorsinperspective:thepoetmust alsobeawarrior.AsMahaffysays:“TheGreeksnever thoughtofpromotingamanfor‘deadknowledge”butfor hislivinggraspofscienceoroflife.”Shakespearewrote thegreatestdramasofmodernhistory,andyet,asamanof action,heorganiseda successfultheatricalbusiness;and inregardtodetailscould“caviltotheninthpointofahair.” Goethealsowasapracticalmanofthetheatre;aphil osopher,critic,andpoet;andascientificdiscoverertoboot. ThegeniusesofFeeling,ofThought,orofAction—i.e. consideredasfunctioningmainlyinthesedirections—are alwaysthesecondarygeniuses,becauseconsciousnesshasbeen abbreviatedinimportantdirections.Thatiswhytheyfelt solonely.Intensesubjectivity,withoutrationalsympathies withothersandwithoutasenseofhumour,comestoahead intheshapeofself-consciousness;hencetheegotism,” thefeelingofsolitude,thesenseofantagonismseeninsuch acollectionoftestimoniesasMorrill'sSelf-Consciousnessof GreatMenandDisraeli'sCharacteristicsofMenofGenius. Geniusinitsfinestmanifestationsistheoutcomeofcon sciousnessassensibility,reflection,andaction.Schopen hauer,nearerthetruththaninourpreviousquotation, definesitas“aneminentlyclearconsciousnessofthingsin general.”Herightlyplacesmuchemphasisonsensibility, statingthatourmentalpowersarethemselvesformsofit. Jastrowconfirmsthisbysayingthateachman“becomes thesumofhissensibilitiesandhisworldisboundedby therangeofhisappreciations.””

*OldGreekEducation,p.17. * *Coleridgesaidofhimself:“Youmaynotunderstandmysystem oranygivenpartofit,-or,byadeterminedactofwilfulness,you may,eventhoughperceivingarayoflight,rejectitinangeror disgust:butthisIwillsay—thatifyouoncemasterit,oranypart ofit,youcannothesitatetoacknowledgeitasthetruth.”—Table Talk,p.248.Coleridge'ssystemisamonumenttotheUncon structed.Hisconsciousness(orability)wastoolimitedontheside ofaction. *TheQualitiesofMen,p.5. Or,asProf.J.M.Baldwinputsit: *Toknowthatthegreatestmenoneartharemenwhothinkas 38 CONSCIOUSNESS

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Thefactis,allinwardexperiencesandallexternalfacts areknowninasensethatisdifficulttodistinguishfromthe mystical.Wecomprehendlittleornothing:everythingis apprehended.ItisnotGodalonewhoisunknowable.Inthe lastresorteverythingisunknowable."Isthereonefactin sciencewithoutitsunknownside2 Evenachildcanpuzzle aphilosopher.GeorgeEliotspeakssomewhereofajuvenile whowastoldnottotouchawaspthatwascrawlingupthe window-pane,andthisbroughtoutthequestion,“Why?”. “Becauseitwillstingyou.” “Whydoesitnotstingthepaneofglass?” “Becausetheglasshasnonervesanditcan’tfeel.” “Whydonervesfeel?”inquiredtheyoungster,butthe conversationwasnotcontinued.Akeenquestionabout anything,and—weentertheunknown.Butisittheun knowablealsoPossibly,foreveryadvanceinknowledge doesnomorethanpushbacktheborder-lineofAgnosticism; wehavegainedsomepracticalinformationaboutagas,or ametal,ortheatmosphere:butthebasesoftheknowing processremainthesameandoursenseoftheinfinityofthe Universehasbeendeepened.Themoreweknowthemore vastistheterritoryoftheundisclosed;andthegreater ourdesiretoconquerNaturethemorefeebledoourpowers appear.AsProfessorSantayanaputsit:“Theresources ofthemindarenotcommensuratewithitsambitions.”” Andyetitiswiththesepowersthatthebestmindsof therace,foruntoldages,haveessayedtointerpretthe mysteriesofexistence.Itisastoryoffailureandpartial Ido,butdeeper,andseetherealasIdo,butclearer,whoworktothe goalthatIdo,butfaster,andservehumanityasIdo,butbetter thatmaybeanincitementtomyhumility,butitisalsoaninspira tiontomylife.”—SocialandEthicalInterpretations,p.168. *Thekindofcertaintythatoneobjectstoisseeninthefollowing, fromDrPaulCarus,inTheMonist,vol.i.,p.73:-"Memoryisno mysteriouspower:itisthepreservationofforminfeelingorganisms.” * Well,andwhatisthat? *PoetryandReligion,p.2. 39 - ORIGINALITY success;andalthoughmanyamanhasbeentemptedto endhisphilosophisingwiththegenialcynicismofOmar Khayyám,thecheeringfactisthatthemajoritystillseek thattheymayfind.Somedaytheprogressofmankind, alwaysmarkedbyleapsandjerks,willtakeaforward movementforwhichpasthistoryoffersnoparallel.Mean whileweareconsciousofseverelimitations.Eventhe exactthings,thethingswhichwethoughtwerecrystalin theirclarity,seemtohaveuncertaintiesinthem.Nothing, forinstance,canbeclearer,ormorefreefromdoubt,thanthat 1+1=2.Butwearetoldbyauthoritiesthatalthough “oneaddedtoonemakestwoisabstractedlybeneathcon troversy,itneednotbetruefortheadditionofconcrete things.Itisnottrueoftwoglobulesofmercury,forin stance,norforacoupleofcollidingstars.”Soitseems. WellmaySirOliverLodgeconcludebysaying:“Lifecan ridiculearithmetic.”*Thefactis,arithmeticandmathe maticsarementalconveniencesforthepurposeofadjusting phenomenatoourconsciousness.Wehavetoremember thatweowethefirstelementsofbothsciencestothePytha goreanmystics,”anditdoesnotfollowbecausewecan measuretheparallaxofastarorcalculatethecomingofa cometthatmathematicsistheprimarycertainty.

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Thenisthematerialworldadelusion? No;itisaclearly definedexperience,oneoftheimmediaciesofconsciousness. Wedonotknowhowweknowthetrees,theflowers,andthe *TheHibbertJournal,Jan.,1912,articleon“Balfourand Bergson,”bySirOliverLodge.MrBertrandRussellsays,on anotheraspectofthesubject,that“itwasassumedasself-evident untilCantorandDedekindestablishedtheopposite,thatif,from anycollectionofthings,someweretakenaway,thenumberofthings leftmustalwaysbelessthantheoriginalnumberofthings.This assumption,asamatteroffact,holdsonlyoffinitecollections;and therejectionofit,wheretheinfiniteisconcerned,hasbeenshown toremoveallthedifficultiesthathadhithertobaffledhumanreason inthematter.”—PhilosophicalEssays,pp.27-28. *Berkeley,MysticisminMathematics,p.5. 40 CONSCIOUSNESS sky;anditismerelyplayingwithwordstosaythatwhilst weexisttheseobjectsonlyexistassensationsandperceptions," havingnoexternalreality.Butitisnotourpurposeto discusstheproblemproandcon:wesimplypointoutthe almostmysticalwayinwhichphilosophersandpsychologists arecompelledtodescribethingsthatareplaintoconscious nessbutverydifficulttoputintowords.Theyarenotalone inthisrespect,forpoetslabourunderthesamedifficulty whentheytrytoexpresstheinexpressible.Mallarmé, indeed,regardsthedifficultyitselfasathingtobereverenced; andinhiscommentsonLeMystèredanslesLettres,”hewill notsomuchashavethingsnamed:tonamethemistodrag themdownintotheknownandtheanalysable. Here,again,thereadermaythinkwearesolelybentupon displayingtheimpossible.Wearedoingnomorethan drawattentiontotheessentialmysteryofallexperience. Takethewordsoftwoverydifferentmenandtestthemby yourownknowledgeofmenandthings.SaysAnatole France:“Ibelieveweshallneverknowexactlywhya thingisbeautiful.”Now,weputittoyouasaproblem: Doyouknowwhya thingofbeautyisbeautiful? The aestheticphilosophersandartistsforcenturieshavedebated thematter,andthelibraryshelvesgroanwiththeweight oftheirfindings,butnobodyknowsexactlywhyathingis beautiful.Artisthemostelusiveofconceptionsandyet itisoneofthegreatestofrealities.Wedelightinit;we fillourgallerieswithneweffortsandzealouslyvisitthose buildingswhichhousethegloriesofthepast;wehave artcriticismsinthePresseverydayandmonthlyjournals ofartkeepusinformedaboutthelatestdevelopments;and yetnobodyhasevercaughtBeautyandconfineditbehind thebarsofa definition.Weshouldbedistressedifthis everhappened,foritselusivenessisthesoulofitscharm. *ThelanguageofProf.LloydMorganisasnearthetruthaswe canget:“Thesubjectandobject,involvedinthesenseimpression, arelikethecolourorthescentoftherose,distinguishableinthought, buttheyarenotseparableinexperience.”-ComparativePsychology,

p.309. - *Divagations.Paris,1897. •LifeandLetters,SecondSeries,p.176. 4I ORIGINALITY

Takeanotherconfession—fromProf.Wm.James.“In tellectualisminthevicioussense,”hesays,“beganwhen \SocratesandPlatotaughtthatwhatathingreallyis,istold usbyitsdefinition.”Ifyoudoubtthesewordstestthem byanattempttodefinesomeofthetruthsofyourconscious N.life:love,taste,right,soul,truth.Weusethesewordsfreely andunderstandingly,asiftheypresentednodifficulty,but ifsomemodernSocratescaredtocross-examineusandinsist upona definitionweshouldsoonbenonplussed,seeking refugeinthesayingthatweknowthemeaningbutcannot phraseit.Thisusedtobeaconfessionofweakness.Itis suchnolonger.For,howeverskilfullyweattempttodefine truthorright,itisadmittedthatsomeelementofimportance willbeleftout;andusuallytheomissionreferstothat intangiblesomethinginthoughtwhichnevercomeswithin therangeoflanguage.Psychology,asa science,has achievedmanygratifyingsuccesses,butithasnotbeena completesuccess—perhapsinthenatureofthingsthatis impossible.Researchesintheworldofmindhavebeen conductedintheexclusivespiritofscience,asifsoulcould beanalysed! Thereis a suggestivepassageinProf. Titchener'sExperimentalPsychologyoftheThoughtProcesses whichindicatesawelcomechangeofmethod.Inspeaking ofhisownideasastotheconductingofinquirieshesays: “Iassumewearetoattemptapsychology,andthatpsy chologyhasheretopickitswaybetweenlogic,orthetheory ofknowledge,ontheonehand,andcommonsenseonthe other.”Yes,andagoodmanypsychologistshavelosttheir way—notontheonehand,butontheother.Common senseasaguidetopsychologicaltruthisanexcellentnotion, andoneofitsfunctionswillbetoseparatetheindefinables andtheunknowables.AsBoutrouxputsit:“Allexperi mentalfindingisreduced,intheend,toconfiningwithinas closelimitsaspossiblethevalueofthemeasurableelement ofthephenomena.Weneverreachtheexactpointat *APluralisticUniverse,p.218. 42 CONSCIOUSNESS whichthephenomenonreallybeginsandends.”Anditis alwaysthebeginningsandtheendingseverywherethatresist mostresolutelyourattemptsatdefinition.Butthings,in process,arereallyquiteasresistant,foraphenomenonmid wayinitscareercanlaughatoureffortstodiscoverits essence.Wefindafewsecretsandlaybarethemethod, butthethinginitselfdefiesus.Itiswelltorecogniseour limitations;fordogmatism"—thatconfidencewhichcomes froma beliefinourhavingsecuredthewholetruth—is offensivewhetheritbetheworkofareactionarytheologian orofacocksurescientistlikeHaeckel.Prof.Schäferhas urgedthat“Vagueness,whichusedtoberecognisedasour greatenemy,isnowbeingenshrinedasanidoltobewor shipped.”Nothingofthekind.Allwewantfrommen ofscienceisastatementoftheapproximatelyknownand unknown:itisnoworshipofvaguenesstomarkoffthearea oftheundiscoveredandfranklyconfessourutterignorance ofit.

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Buttherangeofconsciousnessincludestheworkofthe subconscious.Thereisnoimproprietyinspeakingofthe rangeofthesubconscious,inspiteofourignoranceofits natureandscope.Whatwehaveinviewisthewholesphere ofmind,andmindincludestheconsciousandsubconscious. Thewordsthemselvesneednotcauseanydifficulty:we mayindeedadoptthephraseologyofSidiswherehedefines thesubconsciousas“mentalstatesthathaveconsci: butdonotreachthepersonalconsciousness”*—thatis, theworkingitselfisunknownandyettheresultsmay manifestthemselvestous.Consequentlyanyfactorthat affectstherangeoftheconsciouscomeswithinourpurview. Thatthereisasubconscioussphereisnowalmostuni versallyrecognised*;and,tousethelanguageofLipps,it isnotsomuchapsychologicalproblemastheproblemof .*TheContingencyoftheLawsofNature,pp.27-28. *NormalandAbnormalPsychology,p.206. *Münsterbergwasanexception.SeehisGeneralPsychology,p.27. 43 ORIGINALITY psychology.Thefirstquestionthatarisesisthis:How doestheworkingoftheconsciouscompareandcontrast withtheworkingofthesubconscious?Theansweris notaneasyone,butthetwospheres,sofaraswecantell, appeartoworkinmuchthesameway,withcertainimportant differences.Oneisthatthesubconsciousseemstoactasa super-consultantandadvisertotheconsciousand,apparently, confinesitsactivitytoThoughtandFeeling—Willisalmostan absentee."Herewecomefacetofacewiththemostdifficult problemofall—namely,theoriginofthesubconscious.Did itcomebeforetheconscious,orafter? Thereismuchto besaidonbehalfoftheformercontention.Itwouldhelp ustoexplaintheexistenceofinfantprodigies,andofthe earlymarksofgeniusineverydirection.Itwouldprovide uswithahypothesistoaccountfortheinwardurgewhich, asGaltonpointedout,isthefirstcharacteristicofnatural ability.Itwouldexplaintheuniqueachievementsofmen whoseconsciousmindshavereceivedlittleornoformal education.Besides,thereisnoapriorireasonwhyinthe subconscioussphereweshouldnothavenaturalgifts— inbornfacilities—justaswehaveintheconscioussphere. Buteverygiftneedsitsobjectiveexperience,andno marvellousjuvenilecalculatorcouldsolveknottyproblems mentallyunlesshehadhadsomeexperienceoffiguresand symbols.Hoffmannrecordsaninstructivecase:“Vito Mangiamele,ashepherdboyofSicily,wastakentoParis in1837,whenhewastenyearsold,andexaminedbefore theFrenchAcademyofSciencesbyArago,thefamous astronomer.Heputtotheboythefollowingquestions:— Whatisthecuberootof3,796,416Inhalf-a-minuteVito gavethecorrectanswer156.Anotherproblemwasthe equationw8–4a–16779=0. AtfirstVitoanswered3:but *Itistooearlytotalkabout“unconsciouspsychicprocesses" as“realentities”afterthemannerofFreud.HequotesLipps, approvingly,whosays:“Thedominantfactorsofthepsychiclife arenotrepresentedbythecontentsofconsciousnessbutbythose psychicprocesseswhichareunconscious.”-Freud,Witandits RelationtotheUnconscious,p.227.Ifthismeansadictatorship,set upwithouttheauthorityoftheconsciousintelligence,itisanother instanceofatheoristsqueezinghisfactstosuithishypothesis. 44 CONSCIOUSNESS afterwardschangeditto7whichisthetruesolution.”Are wetobetoldthatVitosolvedtheseproblemswithoutever havingseenorknownthemultiplicationtableortheuses ofa? Ifso,thentheageof“miracles”isstillwithus, andweshallbescepticsofthemostpronouncedtype.The morerationalsolutionisthatVitohadafacilityforsolving arithmeticalandmathematicalproblemsbysubconscious processes,butthattheelementsofcalculationwerelearned intheusualconsciousmanner.

XVII

Butevenifthesubconsciousisfirstinpointoforigin, andanimalpsychologylendssupporttothattheory,there canbenodoubtthatforitsmaterialitdependsonordinary -consciousactivity;forwemayseethedaywhenthesub consciousmind,ofpopularimagination,isprovedtobethe organisedbutunconsciousmemory-systemoftheindividual self.Thetaskthatwefailtoaccomplishinourwaking momentsisaccomplishedbythesubconsciouswhilstwe sleep.Inthiswaytheabilityofthesubconsciousisraised ordepressedbythemanneroflifeweliveontheconscious plane;consequentlyitisnotimpropertospeakofthe educationofthesubconscious—indeedthatkindofmental traininginschoolsandcollegeswhichleavesnoroomfor* individualityandspontaneityisdefectivesimplybecause subconsciousprocessesarecrowdedout.Thisisallthe moretoberegrettedbecausetheseprocessesyieldfiner resultsthanthosewhichareconscious.Poincaré,indis cussingthisfact,indulgesintwohypotheses.Hisfirst hypothesisisthat“thesubliminalegoisinnowayinferior totheconsciousego;itisnotpurelyautomatic;itis capableofdiscernment;ithastactandlightnessoftouch; itcanselectanditcandivine.Morethanthat,itcandivine betterthantheconsciousego,sinceitsucceedswherethe latterfails.Inawordisnotthesubliminalegosuperior totheconsciousego?”*Therearenottwoegosinthe * PsychologyandCommonLife,pp.252-253. *ScienceandMethod,p.57. 45 ORIGINALITY matteratall,forthemindissodefiniteaunitythateven thesemblanceofseparateconsciouspersonalitiesdoesnot destroyit. Buttherearetwochambersofintelligence; inonetheworkingisanalysabletoalargeextent;inthe otheritisunconscious,neverthelessbothchambersarein vitalunion.Weconfesstosomeregret,however,that Poincarédecidedagainstthehypothesisjuststatedinfavour ofanother,whicharguesthattheaestheticsensibilitiesdecide thenatureandscopeofsubconsciousactivities.Tousthe evidencethatsubconsciousactioniscapableofgreater achievementsthanconsciousactionis incontrovertible. AsProf.Dwelshauvershassaid,inhisL’Inconscient—the latestandmostcomprehensivebookonthesubject—nearly allinventivenesscomesfromunconsciousmentaloperations." Thereisastrangebutveryinterestingillustrationinthe lifeofCharlotteBrontë.ReadersofVillettewillremember thevisionconsequentuponthenarratortakingadrugin adoseofmedicine;andthequestionaroseastohowthe writerobtainedherideas.“Iaskedher,”saysMrsGaskell, “whethershehadevertakenopium,asthedescriptionof itseffectwassoexactlylikewhatIhadexperienced.She repliedthatshehadnever,toherknowledge,takenagrain ofitinanyshape,butthatshehadfollowedtheprocess whichshealwaysadoptedwhenshehadtodescribeany thingwhichhadnotfallenwithinherownexperience;she hadthoughtintentlyonitformanyandmanyanight beforefallingtosleep—wonderingwhatitwaslike,orhow itwouldbe—tillatlength,sometimesaftertheprogressof herstoryhadbeenarrestedatthisonepointforweeks,she wakenedupinthemorningwithallclearbeforeher,asif shehadinrealitygonethroughtheexperience,andthen coulddescribeitwordforword,asithadhappened.”The methodemployedistheonethathasbeenusedfromtime immemorial:ourforefathersalwaysfilledtheirmindswith anurgentproblembeforegoingtosleep,experiencehaving taughtthemthata solutionmightbeexpectedonefine morning.ButinthecaseofVillettethedetailsofanopium *L’Inconscient,byGeorgesDwelshauvers,Professorin the UniversityofBrussels.Paris,1916. 46 CONSCIOUSNESS visionare“found”or“invented”withstrikingaccuracy; andifMrsGaskell'sreportbecorrectitsuggeststhatthe subconsciouscanperformsomeverywonderfulworks. Manifestlytheremustbelimits,fornoman,howeverwell giftedsubconsciously,couldexpecttoriseonemorningwith thepowertoreadSanscrit,simplybecausehehadresolved toreadit.AsinthecaseofPoincaré'sdiscoveryoffunctions (theremustbesomepreviousacquaintancewiththesubject') ThedateofVilletteis1853;thedateofDeQuincey’sCon fessionsofanOpiumEateris1821;sowemaypresumethat CharlotteBrontë,recallingsubconsciouslythereadingof theearlierbook,wasabletoindividualiseherowncon ceptionsofanopiumvision.Ofcoursewecannotprovethat shehadreadDeQuincey,butitisareasonablesupposition, anditdoesnothingtodetractfromtheworkofthesub conscious;for,consciously,sheatfirstfeltherselfincapable ofwritingthevisions—hermindwasablank.Butaftera fewweeksthewholething“came’’;andweallagreeit waswellworththewaiting. Theuseofthephrase“rangeofconsciousness”has,we hope,beenmadequiteclear.Itistheactionofthewhole mindinitsconsciousandsubconsciousspheres,and,aswe Seealready,originalityisdue,mainly,totheinteraction betweenthesetwospheres.Weshallreturntothesubject again;meanwhile,wedesiretoshowhowthenewerdevelop mentsofpsychology,consequentuponthefailure,inpart, oftheoldermethods,throwlightonthecreativethought processes.

47 CHAPTERII

CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY

IF,then,thescienceofpsychology,onitsintrospectiveand experimentalsides,hasreachedwhatappeartobedefinite limits,orhascomewithinsightofthem,itisevidentthata newmethodisdesirable,nottosaynecessary—onethatwill enableustoapproachtheproblemofmindfromanother pointofview,andtoapproachitinthescientificspirit. Suchamethodisthatofconceivingmindasaformofenergy havingmorethanafewanalogieswithphysicalenergy. Thestudyofpsychologyonthisbasishasalreadybegun," and,althoughitsearlyresultshave,insomeinstances,the extravaganceswhichoneexpectstoseeintheworkof enthusiasts,theprovedremainderissufficientlyencouraging tojustifyfurtherefforts. Wearefamiliarwiththelawoftheconservationofenergy, andthereisnoneedtoenlargeuponithere,ortotakeinto accountitsmoderndevelopments—e.g.thedissipationof energy.Thebentbow,whenreleased,transfersitsforceto thearrow,andthepowderinthecartridgeistransmutedinto thetrajectoryofthebullet.Thesearestockillustrations. Butwhenanattemptismadetoestablishanidentitybetween physicalandmentalenergy,notsomuchinessenceasin modeofoperation,acryofalarmisraised.Theologians andidealistsareafraidofmaterialism,andsomeofthe materialistsareafraidtheywillbechargedwithbad science.Itisalla partoftheeternalquarrelbetween *WelookuponM"Dougall'sconceptionofpsychology—i.e.mental behaviour—asonethatisnotonlysoundbutprogressiveinthebest sense.Itisnotastaticmindthatheanalyses,butmindinaction. AndisthereanyotherkindofmindP 48 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY MindandMatter.Ostwaldstatesthepositionneatlyin thesewords:

“If,intheotherpairofideas,Mind–Matter,wesub stituteenergyforthesecondmember,thenthereresultsthe pairmind–energy.Inwhatrelationdothesetwothings standtoeachother;dotheyformanirreconcilableopposi tionormaytheybeunified? Thisquestionhasalready beenaskedseveraltimesinotherconnections;ithasusually beendeterminedinthenegativesense.Acarefulcon siderationofalltheargumentsknowntome,bothproand contra,hasledmetoconcludethatitmaybeansweredin theaffirmative.I deemitpossibletosubordinatetotheidea ofenergythetotalityofpsychicalphenomena.”"

Itiscurioustonoteinwhatwaysandforwhatreasons somethinkersobjecttothenotionoftheconservationof mentalenergy,andequallycurioustoobservehowother thinkersappeartowelcometheidea.DrH.WildonCarr affirmsthat“Energyinphysicalscienceistheconceptionof somethingthatismeasurable,somethingthatundergoes changeofformwithquantitativeidentity.”Toapplysucha conceptiontomentalactivityisplainlyimpossible,andto applyitmetaphoricallyisonlyconfusing.Inwhatsense, forinstance,isthememorythatformspartofmysubcon sciouspsychicallifealatentenergy,andwhatisthisenergy convertedintowhensomeassociationbringsittoconscious ness?”*Thisoughtnottobea difficultquestionfora

*Articleon“ThePhilosophicalMeaningofEnergy,”inThe

InternationalQuarterly(Sept.1903). * *MrW.R.BoyceGibsonhasofferedakeencriticismofthis allegedabilitytomeasurephysicalenergy.SeePersonalIdealism,

pp.I5I-I54. - *Mind,July,1914.SeealsoSidis(FoundationsofNormaland AbnormalPsychology,p.21),LloydMorgan(ComparativePsychology, p.330),andBinet(TheMindandtheBrain,p.7).Binet,aftersaying that“Thoughtisnotamovementandhasnothingincommonwith

D 49 * ORIGINALITY discipleofBergsonandhisphilosophyofchange.Butletus beginatthebeginning.Mentalenergy,manifestedinthe variedactivitiesofthemindasweknowit,istheonekindof energyofwhichwearemostassured;weareinfinitelymore certainaboutitsconservationanddissipation,fromthedawn ofconsciousnesstotheapproachofdeath,thanweareofthe energyinNature,theexistenceofwhichisaninference,not apersonalexperienceintheprimarysubjectivesense.In deed,itisonlybymentalenergythatwebecomeawareof theexistenceofenergyinthenaturalworld.Thatbeingso, whyshoulditbeimpossibletoseeksomeanalogybetween thetwoenergies—iftheyaretwo—andwheredoesthecon fusioncomein2 Arenotanalogieshelpfulintheinterpreta tionoffactsthatonthesurfacemayseemtobelongto differentworlds?'ProfessorJungisofthisopinionandeven suggeststhatmentalenergy,inthesenseoforiginaldesire, isthesameasBergson'selanvital."| Butolderpsychologists thanJunghavefoundnocontradictionintheideaofmental energyworkingonlinesanalogoustothatofNature;and althoughHerbertSpencerisnowregardedassomewhatout ofdatehisdeeplyphilosophicmindfounditstrueworkin thebuildingupofcomprehensivetheories,consequentlyhis viewsonsuchaproblemareworthyofrespect.Hesays: “Eachmanifestationofforcecanbeinterpretedonlyas theeffectofsomeantecedentforce;nomatterwhetherit beanorganicaction,ananimalmovement,athought,ora feeling.Eitherbodilyormentalenergies,aswellasinorganic onesarequantitativelycorrelatedtocertainenergiesex pendedintheirproduction,andtocertainotherenergies whichtheyimitate;orelsenothingmustbecomesomething amovement,”affirms(p.175)that“Psychologyisascienceof matter—thescienceofapartofmatterwhichhasthepropertyof pre-adaptation” *“Allpsychologicalphenomenacanbeconsideredasmanifesta tionsofenergy,inthesamewayasallphysicalphenomenaare alreadyunderstoodasenergeticmanifestationssinceRobertMayer discoveredthelawoftheconservationofenergy. . . (which). . . canbeunderstoodasvitalenergyingeneral,orasBergson'selan vital.”—AnalyticalPsychology,p.231.SeealsoGore'sArtof Discovery,pp.127-128. 50 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY andsomethingmustbecomenothing.”"Suchanargument cannotbeevadedandevasionisneverattemptedexceptin theinterestsofaparticularphilosophicsystem. ButDrWildonCarrseemstolaystressuponthefactthat physicalenergycanbemeasured,whereasmentalenergy cannotbemeasured.True—inpart—buttheadmissionisnot sodamagingasitlooks;indeedtheimpossibilityofmeasur ingpsychicalenergymaybesometestimonytoitsessential superiorityasacausativeagency.Theimpressivefactis thatpsychicalenergyexists.DrCarrasksuswhatasub consciousmemoryisconvertedintowhensomeassociation bringsittoconsciousness.Beyondsayingthatitis,forthe moment,changedfromahiddentoarevealedfactweare unabletoanswer,justasweareunabletosay,innatural science,howacausegivesrisetoaneffect.Astothesub consciousbeingaformoflatentenergy,itisalreadyacon victiononthepartofsomewriters,notablyRibot,whosays: “L’Inconscientestunaccumulateurd'energie;il amasse pourquelaconsciencepuissedépenser.””

III

Mentalenergy,contrastedwithphysicalenergy,isofa finerandmuchmoresubtleform;indeeditisthisdifference whichisresponsiblefortheunwillingnesstoadmitany suggestionofidentity,oreventoallowthatthereexistsa trueanalogyofaction.Lightandheat,asmodesofmotion haveacounterpartinthoughtasaspeciesofvibration: butathoughtisthelastwordinrefinement,comparedwith whicharayoflightandaconcentrationofheatarecrudities ofthelowestorder.Letustakeathoughtandanactionfor

* FirstPrinciples,p.205.Boutrouxsaysthatthelawofcon servation“seemspre-supposedineveryenquirythattendsto explainthestatesofconsciousness,consideredbythemselves,in thewayinwhichthephysicalphenomenaareexplained; itis impliedineveryattemptofpositivepsychology.”—TheContingency oftheLawsofNature,p.136. *LaVieInconscienteetlesMouvements,p.77.SeealsoBergson's CreativeEvolution,pp.4-8. 5I ORIGINALITY analysis.Amansays:“Mywatchhasbeguntoplay trickswithme,andsoonitwillbelikethatofourcommis sionnaire:whenthehandspointtoaquarterpastthreehe knowsitishalf-pasteight! IthinkIoughttotakemy watchtothewatchmaker,andIdecidetodoso.Itherefore getmystickandhat,andoffIgo.”Nowtheactionshere referredtoare,ofcourse,physical,buttheiroriginismental; consequentlymentalenergyprecedesphysicalenergy; indeedthesetwoenergiesareboundtogetherinapartner 2.shipofbeinganddoingthatcannotbedissolvedwithout bringingbothtogrief;aparttheycannotexistasseparate energies.Wecanhavenomindwithoutabody;andyet themindisalwaystheseniorpartnerandmanagingdirector." WhenGoethereadShakespearehesaid:“Istoodlikeone whoblindfrombirthfindshimselfsuddenlyblestwithsight bya beneficentProvidence.”Hereispsychicalenergy workingonanexaltedplane.Whatcausedit! Outwardly, thefactorsweretheprintedpageandtheorgansofvision; inwardly,therewasprofoundactivityamongthebraincells resultinginanenlargementofthesphereofconsciousness. Buttheprimaryagentwastheprintedpage,andwithoutit thisinfiniteexpansionoffeelingcouldnothavetakenplace. Who,then,willventuretodogmatiseaboutthisprocess— sometostatethatallenergiesareoneenergy,andthat althoughabookplacedbeforetheeyesofadeadmancan producenoresult,theresultthatwasforthcominginthecase ofGoetheisexplainablebythemind’spoweroftranslating symbolsintotherealitiesoffeeling—theverythingthat callsforexplanation;sometostatethattheexaltationre ferredtowasmerelythemind'suseofasimplephenomenon —thusoverlookingthequestionastowhetherphysicalor psychicalenergywasthepriorpower;andsometostatethat Goethe'slanguagewashyperbolical,expansionbeingaterm totallyinapplicabletomindasanentity—therebyforgetting thatinvisiblethingsmustbestatedinthetermsofthe visible7 *TheargumentsbroughtforwardbyProf.D.F.Harris,inhis articleon“ConsciousnessasaCauseofNeuralActivity,”seemto usunanswerable.-HibbertJournal,January,1913. 52 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY

Thereisaphraseincommonusebyallpsychologists:it is“thestreamofconsciousness.”Itmeans,ofcourse,that mentalenergyisbestconceivedasflowing;wemaycontrol itsdirection,raiseitstemperature,increaseitsforceby narrowingitsbanks,andinotherwaysaffectitsdestiny,but" inthelongrunourcontrolisonlypartial.Wedidnot originatethestream;lifeandbeingwerethrustuponus,so tospeak,andalthoughwecanputanendtoourexistence, therebydefeating,temporarily,somepurposeintheforma tionofwhichwehavehadnoshare,werealisewearefree withonlyalimitedfreedom.Wemaylookuponourselves aspersonstotallyseparatedfromtheblindenergiesaround us,butfinallywehavetoadmitwearepartandparcelof thewholeschemeoflifeanddeath,andthatourenergies, howeverexalted,appeartohaveintimaterelationshipswith theebbandflowofenergiesonalowerlevel. Letusexaminetherecordofaday’sconsciouslife.“First, thevaguefeelingsthatcomeatthemomentofwaking; nextthebodythrillafteracoldplunge,followedbyacheer fulnessofmindanda keenreadinessforthetasksofthe day;breakfastandthemorningpaper,thenthemorning's workandalightlunch;afternooninterviewsandbusiness, alsoavisittoanoldfriendnearingdeath;theeveningsocial meal,thensomeformofrecreation.”Wewillimagine thatonretiring,suchamanresolvestotracethethoughtsof theday,onebyone,nottovaluethemindividually,butto studythemasformsofmentalenergy.Hefindsthatall thoughtappearstoobeyonelaw;makingnodifferencebe tweenthatconcerningthemistakesofaninvoiceclerkand thatconcerningthedeathandfinaldestinyofagoodfriend —eternallifeorannihilation.Inthefirstinstancethe thoughtwasoneofthefrailtyofyouthandtheannoyanceto customers;thesecondwasexaltedtoahighdegree,butto theminditwassimply—energy.Hefindsalsothatinthe streamofconsciousnessthereismucheffortthatisapparently aimlessandwasteful.Duringtheday,thedeedsofwhich 53 ORIGINALITY weoutlined,hismindwasneverunoccupied—atleastnotto hisknowledge,buthecannowremembermomentswhenhe “thoughtofnothinginparticular”;therewereswiftim pressions,intrudingsnatchesofmemory,fancies,notions thatmeantnothingandendedinnothing.Amindmaybe mosthighlytrained,anditmaybelongtoamanwhobelieves heneverwastesaminutebecausehehasalwayssomething todo,andyetitisamindthathasitsrecordofideasand halfideas,themereeffervescencesofreflectionthatare seeminglyuselessandwhosepresenceinanorderedintellect callforsomeexplanation.But,afterall,isthiswastage real Betterstill,isitwastageinanysense? Itisnot; forthesimplereasonthatthemomentwhenconsciousness isnotfocusedintheactofconcentration,itdisportsitself accordingtoitsnatureandasaffectedbytheinfluenceof immediateorremoteassociations.Itcandonoother.A manofonethought,withaconsciousnesspennedup,hemmed in,andhavingnochanceofquietmeanderings,becomesa maninsane.

Mindisaformofenergythatisallthebetterfordrill, butitmusthaveaperiodwhenit“standsatease.”And thisisnotwastage;itisrecuperation.Wecannotsafely judgethebrainbymodernstandardsofefficiencyanymore thanwecanapplythemtotheprocessesofnature.Arethe millionsofacorns“wasted”becausetheydonotbecomeoak treesAndisnotameasureofday-dreamingassoundly psychologicalasameasureofconcentration? Inhisdoctrine ofthe“secondintellectualwind”thelateProfessorJames wasmisledbysuperficialanalogiesdrawnfromscientific managementinbusiness,whichseekstouseupeveryatom ofavailableenergyinordertosecurethehighestpossible output.Asanidealithascertainmerits,aswehopeto show,butitisnotpossibletotreatbrainpowerwithsuch *Prof.BorisSidis,inachapteron“TheChanceAspectofLife andMind”(NormalandAbnormalPsychology,pp.97-100),says theyarechancevariations,andthat(#isattheheartofmental life,notfurposes,

* 54 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY methodsasthoseappliedtoamachine.Theoutputofa businesscanbeanalysed,measured,calculated,andgraphed; butweknowtoolittleofbraintotreatitinthesameway. Whatwedoknow,however,tellsusthatefficiencyprinciples appliedtomentalenergywillresultinabriefmiraclefollowed byatotalcollapse.Whatevercontrolwecanexerciseover thestreamofconsciousness,therecanbenodoubtthatit exercisesagooddealofcontrolonitsownaccount,and mainlywithoutourknowingit. Fromthisfactspringour doctrinesoftheunconscious,thesubconscious,theco conscious,thesubliminal,andalltherestofthetermsused todenotearealsomethingaboutwhichourknowledgeis verydim.Tospeakofthesubconsciousmindissurelymis leading.Thereisonlyonemindineachperson;someofits processesareconscious,othersarebeyondthefringeofcon sciousness;occasionallybitsofexperiencemayinasense bebrokenofffromconsciousness,and,sinkingintothesub consciousregion,actprejudiciallytoreasonandconduct; buttheseadmissionsdonotcallforthehypothesisofasecond mind:alloperatithemindareone. Thismentalenergywhichworksirrespectiveofourwill andknowledge—likesomeofthehiddenprocessesofthe body"—callsforcloserattention:itisthemind'spowerof self-movement.Revertingtothelanguageofthepsychol ogistwemayexpresstheideathus:thatthestreamofcon sciousnessissomethingofwhichwebecomeawarebecause weareonewithit;thatitflowsonandonunderourpartial butnotcompletecontrol: andthatitsexactrelationtothe egoorselfisasyetundetermined.Doesthisenlightenus? Nottoanygreatextent.So,avoidingfiguresofspeech,let ussaythatwhilstwemaybemastersofourminds,our mindsinarealsenseareourmasters,andinnosectionis thismoreapparentthaninthesubconsciouslife.True,the natureofthatlifedependsonthenatureofourvoluntary thoughtsandfeelings,butnomancansay:“Goto,Iwill dispensewithsubconsciousactivity.”Hecannotlivethe mentallifewithoutit;nay,hecannotproduceanyresult *OnthisnothingcouldbemoreilluminatingthanDrW.H. Gaskell'sTheInvoluntaryNervousSystem. 55 ORIGINALITY ofrealmeritwithoutrelyingonsubconsciousthinking. Forthisreasonthelifethatweliveunconsciouslyoughtto occupyalargerplaceintheprogrammeofthepsychologist. Toolonghavewegivenmostofourattentiontothestatics ofthementalworld;thetimehascomewhenwemustfind aplaceforeveryaspectofdynamicactivity.Wearenot ungratefulforthecuriousworkoftheexperimentalistswho giveuslittlecuriositiesliketheMüller-Lyerillusion,orwho mappedoutthesensitiveareasoftheskinonourbodies,or helpedusinsolvingmemorydifficulties:whatwesayis thattherearemoreimportanttasksthanthese,moreim portantbecause,whenevenpartiallysolved,theywillhave adirectbearingonhumanhappinessandontheprogressof originalthought.

Professorsofpsychologyareoftentrulydisappointing whentheymeasuretheirvastknowledgeandexperiencewith thedifficultiesofadultintelligence.Theyhavewritten excellenttreatisesontrainingthemindofchildren;pitifully few,andthosequiteinadequate,fortheyoungmanbetween eighteenandthirty.Weknowofonecasewhereanintelli gentyouthoftwenty-three,agraduate,hadallowedhimself, tousehisownphrase,tofallintothehabitofmind wandering; andwhenheappliedtohisprofessorfora remedyhewastoldtoworkoutafewridersinEuclidevery day.ThisadvicehasLockebehindit,butforallthatitis purequackeryinthelightofmodernknowledge.Lackof concentrationisafailureinthecontrolofenergy,andithas adefinitecause.Onlybycarefulinvestigationcanthat causebelaidbare.Suchcasesneedskilfuldiagnosis,justas iftheevilwereadiseaseofthebody;andalthoughaprac ticalpsychologist,likeapractisingphysician,canquickly findtheresponsiblefactor,thereisalwaysthepersonal equationtobedealtwith.

Indevelopingourknowledgeofsubconsciousmental energy,nowriterorinvestigatorhasrenderedmoresignal 56 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY servicethanProfessorSigmundFreudofVienna,althoughthe driftofopinionseemstofavourthebetterreasonedcon clusionsofProfessorJungofZurich,insomesensesadisciple ofFreud.OntheContinentandinAmericaFreudiantheories havereceivedagooddealofattention;inEngland,com parativelylittle.Thisistoberegrettedbecausethese theories,supportedastheyarebyanumberofdemonstra tions,areworthyofseriousconsideration;indeedtheymay ultimatelybecomethecentreofanewmovementprovidinga vitalconceptionasfruitfulinpsychologyandmentalphysi ologyasnaturalselectionwastoscienceinthenineteenth century.Freudlooksuponmindasenergyworkingaccord ingtofixedlawsforitsexpression.Ifthisenergyisnot allowedtoexpressitselfnaturally,inasuitableformof action,itisindangerofbeingrepressedintoacomplex, causingmuchconfusioninthoughtandconduct.Itwould takeustoofarafieldtoexpoundthisdoctrineinallitsbear ings,anditisnotnecessary;butitisnecessarytogiveone ortwoillustrationsofhispracticeinordertoshowitsrelation tothenewerpsychology,andopenoutthewaytotheone aspectthatappealstousinthesepages—namely,thehelp whichpsycho-analysismaygiveinelucidatingtheproblems ofthecreativemind.Fororiginality,notFreudism,isour

subject. - VII beA\complexisdefinedas“aseriesofemotionallyaccentu atedideasinarepressedstate.”TAmanwithsuchacomplex haspassedthroughsomecrisiswhich,perhapsunknownto him,hasleftitsmarkintheshapeofagroupofoperative ideasthataffecthimdirectlywithouthiscognisanceofthe association.Hereisanillustration.Anelderlywomanfelt astrangeanddisturbinguneasinesswhenevershemetared

*InthelongBibliographyattheendofRegisandHesnard's LaPsycho-AnalysethereareonlyoneortwoBritishnames. * VideBrill'sPsychanalysis,alsoPfister’sDiePsychanalytische Methode(p.132),whosays:“Iusethewordcomplextodenotean accentuatedandcohesivegroupoffeelingswhichwhollyhasfallen intotheUnconscious.”

57 > ORIGINALITY hairedperson.Shewasunabletosaywhy.Needlessto state,theexperiencecausedhersomementalanxiety,and thiseventuatedintreatmentonFreudianprinciples.Psycho analysisisakindofcross-examination,theobjectbeingto discoverthesecretcauseofthetrouble—e.g.theoriginofsuch anaversionasthiswomanfelt.\Theexpertbelievesthat whenhelightsuponthecomplexitwillbereleasedandlose itspowerforfurthermischief).Inthecaseundernoticeit wasfoundthatforty-eightyearspreviouslythewomanhad hadamostunpleasantaffairwithared-hairedschoolmate, butsodetachedwasthecausefromtheeffectthatforallthose yearstheevilmemoryhadreproduceditselfdistressingly ontheconsciousplanethewhiletheoperatingfactorwas hiddeninthesubconsciousandonlyrevivedbychance associations.Todisintertheburiedcomplexistoendits career.]andwhenthesuffererrealisedthemeaningofher aversionthesenseofuneasinessdeparted. Almostallourfearshaveatraceableorigin.Theyare unfortunatetransmutationsofenergyduetoemotional crises.Amanofthirty-threeconsultedaNewYorl.physician someyearsago,thesymptomsbeingacurioushatredofdrugs andanunavoidablehabitofwashinghishandsonevery possibleoccasion.Hewasotherwisepracticallynormal; butaspotonhiscoatcreatedthefearthathemighthave touchedit,andforthwithhewashedhishands;andhewould immediatelywashthemagainifhethoughtthathehad inadvertentlytoucheda boxofmatches,sulphurand poisonsbeingamonghisphobias.Hiscomplexeswere dulytraced.Theyarosechieflyoutofrepressionsending inmoralcrisesofwhichthehand-washingwasthecleans ingsymbol.Slowandpersistenttreatmentonthemental methodcuredhimcompletelyinfivemonths.Itwould bepossibletoquotemanyothercases,butthesemust suffice;norcanwediscusstheminanyotheroftheir aspectsthantheirultimatebearingonthementalprocesses oforiginality. *Brill'sPsychanalysis,pp.131-136.Numerousothercasesmaybe foundinFreud'sPsycho-PathologyofDailyLifeandthesameauthor's OnDreams. 58 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY

VIII

[psycho-analysisemphasisestheobviousbutoftenforgotten truththatallmentalhistoryiscontinuous.]Eveninpsychi atrythistruthhasnothadasmuchattentionasitdeserved. Causeshavebeensoughtinimmediatecircumstancesand happeningsratherthaninthosewhichweremoreremote,with theresultthatthemind,insomeformsofdisease,hasnot beenunderstoodbecausethemethodusedwasseriouslyat fault.Butourownaimistolookatmentalcontinuityin thelightitcastsonmenofgenius,talentandoriginality. Oncemoretheconservationofenergyisadominatingthought. Inthelifeofthemindnoenergyislost,noexperienceis forgotten,nocrisisoverlooked.TheemotionsofGoethe,as aboy,reappearedinthematurityofmanhood;changed,no doubt,buttheretheywere;andifonecouldanalysethe realoriginofFaustweshouldprobablyfindthatitbeganwith thestimulusofinterestcreatedbyFrauGoethe.Thechance observationsofShakespeare'syouthatStratford,aswellas hisdeeperexperiencesofloveandhate,cometothesurface inhisgreatdramas.Tolstoi,wheninParisasayoungman, witnesseda publicexecutionwhichdistressedhimpro foundly.Itseffectatthemomentwasnotformulated,but whenyearsafterwardshere-readtheNewTestament,we canwellimaginehowitinfluencedhimintheacceptanceof thenon-resistanceofevil.Perhaps,too,itcausedhis antagonismtotravel,forheaffirmedthatmenandwomen shouldliveintheplaceinwhichProvidencehadplacedthem." Wecannotlookanywhereinthelifeofthemindwithout findingthiscontinuity.LAfinefrenzyofexaltationoriginat ingintheexquisiterenderingofasong,orofapianoforte sonata,isnotalostexperience;theimpressions,deepand powerful,findtheirwayintothesubconsciousandappear again,transformedandenriched,whenwearesuddenlycalled upontodefendthemoralityofmusic,tomakeagreat sacrifice,tosustaindefeatwithequanimity,torisetoour *Evidentlyhemodifiedhisviewsbeforehedied.SeehisDiary for1897,wherehetakesasanerview. 59 ORIGINALITY opportunities,ortorespondtothecallforservice.Theutter ancesofgeniusarenotsecretscommunicatedtoanotherwise ordinaryintelligencebysuperiorbeings;ifthatweresothen ourimmortalsareimmortalsnolonger.Geniushasits naturalhistory,andallmentalexcellenciesofwhatevergrade haveanorganicrecord.Themindisaneconomicalarrange ment;itgathersupthefragmentsofexperiencesothat nothingislost;andthepicture,orpoem,orbook,orinven tionthatstartlesusbyreasonofitsbrilliancecouldbetraced, wereweable,tothepastlifeofamindthatworksoncon tinuouslines. IX Anotherreflectionisthis:that[thereisacirculationof energybetweentheconsciousandsubconsciousspheres)We usethislanguageuntilwecanfindsomethingbetter;mean whilethenotionistolerablyclear.Thereisaconstantinter changebetweenthetwospheres;ofthatwearecertain,but ofthemannerofitweknowlittleornothing.Psycho analysispromisessomefurtherlightonthesubject,andif thetheoryofcomplexesiseverdemonstratedinafashion thatisconvincingtothegreatmajorityofmedicalspecialists andpsychologists,thenweshallbeonthehighroadtofurther discoveries.Acomplexisevidentlyaclotofthought,and worksmischiefinthementalsystemlikeaclotofblood doesinthebody.Inbothcasescirculationisimpeded.Is thatacauseoraneffect?Presumablyacause:ahealthy relationshipbetweentheconsciousandsubconsciouswill tendtopreventtheformationofcomplexes;further,awell regulatedconsciousmindmusthaveitscounterpartinorgan isingtheactionofthesubconscious. ItwouldappearasifwemayadaptthewordsofStPaul, andsay:“Howbeitthatwasnotfirstwhichwassubcon sciousbutthatwhichisconscious,andafterwardthatwhich issubconscious.”(Onlyinthiswaycanweexplaintheexist enceofconsummateability.[Menandwomenofsmall mentalpowerhavenowealthofconsciouslifetobepassed onintotheunconsciousregion—noinsight,norange,no imagination—consequentlythesubconsciouselementisweak 60 CONSCIOUSNESSASAFORMOFENERGY becauseithadnotbeensuppliedwithmaterialtobe fashionedinitsownway.Ingeniustherelationbetween thetwospheresmustbeonewhereintheinterchangesare manyandcontinuous;(allconsciousknowledgeingeneral, andsomeknowledgeinparticular,will,inthesubconscious spherecombineintonewunities,ultimatelytofindaway intotheconscioussphereintheformofinspirations:Hence thethoughtsthat“come’’;thebrightideathat“strikes” us.Wewonderwhetheraninspirationisthehealthyaspect ofthatlawwhichinitsevilformissuesinacomplex2

Freud’scontributiontomodernpsychologycannotyetbe determined,butheandhisdisciplesareboundtoleavetheir markdespitetheirloveofsystemandtheirtendencytosee inpsycho-analysistheoriginandcureofeverymentalill. TherecanbenodoubtthatinsomeinstancesFreudhas pressedhistheoriestoofar:witnesshisteachingthatweforget anameorafactbecausetherehasbeensomethingdisagree ableconnectedwithit. Thisisincorrect.Specialistsin *. **,\\ memoryinvestigationknowthatthepainfullyexperienced*..." factistheonethatisunforgettable.Doweforgetthename\" ofthemanwhoborrowedfiftypoundsforthreemonthsand whoattheendoftwoyears,afterrepeatedapplicationsfor payment,coollydeniesallliability?Doweforgetthe cyclingaccidentthatcausedthelossofafinger?Again, Freudseessexeverywhere:tohimitisthesolecausative, whereas,asoftenasnot,itisthechiefamongotherfactors. Wefranklyadmitthatsexualinfluencesaredeeperand widerthanpreviousphysiologistsandpsychologistshad imagined,butevenJungthinksthatFreudhaspressedthese influencesintoaprominencethatisnotjustified.Taking psycho-analystsasabody,however,wecanonlybethankful tothemforpresentingthemindanewtousasagroupof

*Sidissays:“Wedonotforgetourpainfulideas.. . . Pain hammersexperiencesintothemind.”—NormalandAbnormal Psychology,p.202. 61 ORIGINALITY mentalforcesdisplayingtheirworkinginamannerassug gestivetothepsychologistasitistothestudentofmental diseases.WeagreewithKostyleffthatpsycho-analysis hasopenedoutaneweranotonlyforpsychiatrybutfor psychologyandthephilosophicsynthesisofourknowledge." *LeMécanismeCérébraledelaPensée,p.298.Acriticalestimate ofpsycho-analysisisfoundinRegisandHesnard'sLaPsychoanalyse. CHAPTERIII

GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS

BUTwehavenotyetreachedtheconclusion.Granting thatgenius,andallabilityofthehigherorder,dependson therangeofconsciousnessaspreviouslylaiddownandde fended,whatisitthatcausesconsciousnesstoextendits borders?Whatisitthatgivesdirectiontothisprocess? Andwhatisitthatacceleratesthespeedofit?Atfirst blushthesequestionssuggestthatwehavebeencontentto introduceasynonymforgenius,insteadofsayingwhat geniusis;andasthewordgeniushasanimportanceofits ownwewilldealwithitfirstofall.Hirsch,afterexamining aboutthirtydefinitionsoftheword,cametotheconclusion thatnopsychologicalmeaningcanbeattachedtoit. Itis difficulttodisputethisfinding.“Wecanmakeoutwhata poeticgeniusis,”hesays,“whataperformerofgeniusis, whatamilitarygeniusis,whatascientificgeniusis,butto acceptgeniusasaunivocaltermandattachonepsychological definitiontoit,toanygoodpurpose,isnottobedone.Un doubtedlyallmenofgeniushavecommontraits;butthey arenottraitscharacteristicofgenius;theyaresuchasare possessedbyothermenandmoreorlessbyallmen.”" Geniusmeanssuperlativeexcellence,usuallyanexcellence connectedwithdiscoveryorwithcreativeactivity;butit alsoappliestoremarkableskillinperformance,especiallyof theinterpretativekind.Thecommonnotionisthataman ofgreatandimpressiveoriginalityisonewhohastheordinary man’smind,withFeeling,ThoughtandWillplusadistinct somethingcalledgenius,justasasaintisamanpossessed oftheusualmentalpowersplusahalo.Thegeniusisreally *GeniusandDegeneration,p.69. 63 ORIGINALITY amaninwhomsomepower(orpowers)israisedtoastandard ofworkingfarinexcessofthatwhichisfoundinmenof talent.Buthehasno“faculty”whichmightbecalledan “extra.”Usuallyageniusisageniusinonedirection— art,literature,poetry,engineering,militaryleadership—but therehavebeencaseswheregeniushasshownitselfintwoor moredirections,notablyinthatofLeonardodaVinci.We thinkofhimfirstasanartist-genius,butheseemstohave beenquiteasgoodageniusasamilitaryengineer,andasa manofsciencegenerally.Hisbiographyisabewildering accountoforiginalitiesinprettynearlyeverything;andhis workmanship,thedrawingsespecially,isawonderofneat nessandaccuracy.Howshallweexplainhim? Byshow ingthathisrangeofconsciousnesswasnotlimitedtoart,but wasequallyextendedinsuchdifferentspheresasbotany andbridge-building. No;wehavenotsimplyintroducedasynonymforgenius. Wehavetriedtoprovethatgeniusissuperlativeexcellence ofthoughtoractioninonedirection—sometimesmorethan one.Itisnotasortofmentalsixthsense,oraclairvoyance ofintellect:itisintellectasweknowitraisedtothehighest degreeinsomeparticularformofexpression.

Amoreseriousquestionisthatwhichhastodowiththe initialimpulse—theinwardurgethatcompelsanincreasein therangeofconsciousness,socharacteristicoftheoriginal mind.Theoverpoweringtendencytowrite,topaint,to construct,totradeforprofit,tofight,tolegislate—howdo thesetendenciesarise? Wedonotknow.Theyseemtobe qualitiesinborn,likethepossessionofanaturallystrong memoryoranaptitudeformathematics.SirFrancisGalton indiscussingnaturalabilityputsthisemotionalbiasinthe firstplace.Themindhasaglow,andthelightpointsina specificdirection;itwillbeart,law,medicine,divinity, trade,politics.Butevenmenofaverageabilityarenot destituteofanativetendency;theywishtodothisorthat *InquiriesintoHumanFaculty. 64 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS becausetheyfeeltheywouldliketodoit;andyetwhencon trastedwithmenoftalentorgeniustheimpulseofanordinary manisnomorethanaspeciesofcuriosity:thereisnopower behindit,andthereforenogrowth,noenlargement,nofulness ofconsciousrealisation.Withgeniusitisdifferent;the inwardurgeforknowledgeandexpressionismasterful. “Originalmen,”saysHamerton,“appeartobeendowed withanalmostungovernabledesiretofindanoutletfortheir originality. . . allpoets,artists,inventors,thinkers,are compelledtosetforththeirgifts.”MrHamertonisnotas clearinthisstatementashenormallyis,norsohappy;for theungovernabledesireisbutthefirstsignofgenius,not itsfinaloutcome.Butspeakingfromawideknowledgeof menandthingshetellsusinplaintermshowdeeplyhehas beenimpressedbythefeeling-forcewhichmovesthethought lifeofmenofmarkedability. Itisfutiletotrytofindtheoriginofgeniusinthedoctrine ofinheritance.TheparentageofShakespearecastslittle lightonhisownextraordinarygifts;andhischildrenappear tohavehadnomorethanaverageminds.Theywereshort lived,andJudithseemstohavebeenquiteilliterate.Love andmarriage,sofarastheseconcerngreatmenandwomen, showthat,onthewhole,wecannotexpectthelawsof hereditytoperpetuatethetype;itdiesoutalmostassud denlyasitarose.Amusicalormathematicalgiftthat,to allappearances,haspassedfromfathertosonmaybealmost entirelyamatterofdevelopmentduetoanatmospheresuper chargedwithdefinitesuggestion.Theyouth,withhis sensitiveintellect,andactuatedbyfiliallove,unconsciously conceivesapassiontofollowintheparentalfootsteps.But thisresultisnotforthcomingunlessallthefactorsarepresent: theremustbethecapacityforfeeling,theimpulsetowards expression;andtheremustbeastrongpersonalrelationship betweenfatherandson. Whicheverwaywelookattheproblemitisneversoluble: forifgeniusisinheritedwhydowefinditissuingfroma totallyundistinguishedparentage2 Andifitisdueto trainingorenvironment,whyhavewebeenunabletodevelop *ThoughtsAboutArt,p.199. E. 65 ORIGINALITY geniuswhenandwhererequired? Themostreasonable answertothesequestionsisthatwehavenotyetstudied geniusinamannerthatisatalllikelytodiscloseitssecrets, orevenafewofthem.SinceProfessorGerard’sAnEssay onGenius,publishedin1774,thiscountryhasbeencontent toissuestudiesofisolatedaspectsofthesubjectlike ProfessorSully'sEducationofMenofGenius—andforeign contributionshavebeentootheoreticalandnotsufficiently physiologicalandpsychologicaltoextendourknowledge satisfactorily.Whatwewantisa trulyscientificanalysis ofmentaloriginsanddevelopments,andtherightwayto beginistoexaminethemotiveforces.Untilthathasbeen accomplishedweshalldonomorethantalkroundthe subject,leavingitsessentialsasmysteriousasever.

III

Butthereisonehypothesissofruitfulinsuggestionthat itscredibilitymaybesaidtoriseyearbyyear:wereferto theinteractionbetweentheconsciousandsubconscious spheresofthemind.Whatimpressestheobserverofmental phenomenaisthespeedwithwhichsomeoperationsare carriedout—say,adecisiononthepartofamerchanttobuy a£10,000cargo,ortherapidityofajudge’sappraisalof evidence,orthelightningquicknessofamathematician’s calculation.Theseinstancesmaybetakenasalmostnormal, whereasingenius,thespeed,thoughnotincreased,ismade moresignificantbytheresultsachieved—e.g.theimmortal poemwhichappearedtocomewithouteffort,thefinegeneral isationthatseemedtoannounceitself,andthemusicthat simplyfloatedintoconsciousness.Nowtheonepointtobe keptinviewindiscussingspeedisthis:thatonlyoneidea, concept,ornotioncanoccupythemindatanyonemoment. Hereisanillustration.Amanwhoknowsmanylanguages hasavocabularyofsomethinglike500,000words.How manywordscanhethinkofinasecondOne—perhaps two.Inaminutehemaythinkofsixty—ormore.But wherearetheotherhundredsofthousandsofwordsallthis time?Inthesubconscioussphere.Theyappearwhen 66 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS calledupon,orwhenthelawsofassociationsowillit. Thus amanwhoisworkingmentallyathighpressure,eitherwrit ingorspeaking,iscallingforthideasfromthesubconscious inonecontinuousstream";andasfastastheyappearand dotheirworktheyfallbackintothesubconscious.Itis obvious,therefore,thatexcellenceinwriting,and,toalarge extent,inspeaking,dependsonthestoredmaterialinthe subconscioussphereandhowithasbeendealtwith; onthe easewithwhich,likeaflash,thetransferofanideacanbe madefromtheonespheretotheother;and,lastofall,on thesubtlechangesthatmaytakeplaceduringthemomentof transfer.Thediamondpre-existsinotherandseparated formsofmatterbeforethecrucibleofNaturechangesthem intoanewandhighervalue.Itwillbeobjectedthatto recallafactfromtheunconsciousspheredoesnotchangeit. No;butsomefactsrecalledforthefirsttimeinagroup,and atthesamemoment,sometimesfusetogetherintoanewunity: andthatwayliesoriginality.Weshallreturntothis thoughtlateron;theaspectofittowhichwewoulddraw attentionnowisthesupremeeasethatmarksthecreationor productionofdistinctivework.Themindhastwospheres, and,apparently,itistherightrelationshipbetweenthem thatgivesrisetohightalentandgenius.

Letusappealtoanalogy.Thereisaprincipleinscience calledthePrincipleofLeastAction,andMrP.E.B.Jour dainhasexpoundeditwithmuchscholarshipandamplitude *“Inallthinking,whethersuccessfulorunsuccessful,thereisan immenseamountofsubconsciousactivitygoingon;images,noetic Schemes,actsofcomparison,andexperimentincessantlyproceeding inthatbusysubterraneanworkshop.Andthereisnoreasonto doubtthateveryoneofthesesubconsciousmentalacts,likeevery humanact,hasitsownpleasureorpain,thoughitisonlythefeeling toneresultantofamultitudeofsuchactsthatappearsabovethe surface.”—H.Sturt,M.A.,ThePrinciplesofUnderstanding,p.152. Isitnotinthistransitionfromthesubconscioustotheconscious thatwefindtheexplanationofwhatDeweycalls“aleapinall thinking”P SeeHowWeThink,p.26. 67 ORIGINALITY ofdetail.Theonevitaltruthforusisthatwhichhequotes fromMaupertuis:“WhensomechangehappensinNature thequantityofactionnecessaryforthischangeisthesmallest possible.”Withthisideabeforeuswecanbegintotrace thepsychologicalanalogy,andwecannotdobetterthan followRibot,atleastinpart,inhischapteronLeMoindre EffortenPsychologie.”HebeginsbyreferringtoFerrero’s theorythat“mentalinertiaisthelawoftheleasteffort,” andwhich,inturn,isbaseduponLombroso’stheoryof misoneism.”Weshallhavesomethingtosayaboutthese theoriesafterwards;letitbesufficientnowtostatethat Ribotandpsychologistsgenerallyadmitthatthereisinus atendencytotheleasteffort."Thiscanbeprovedbyan analysisofourgeneralconceptions.Inourschooldayswe gleefullyacceptedfromourfellowstheknowledgeofshort andeasymethodsofworkingarithmeticalproblems.The economyintimeandlabourappealedtousasamostproper thinginitself,”and,inaddition,asameansofextendingthe timeforgamesandsports.Onarrivingatyearsofmaturity westillretainedthisadmirationforachievementsbrought aboutbytheleastexpenditureofenergy:thatiswhythe efficiencymovementhasmadesuchrapidstrides—itisin harmonywithnature.Longandtediousmethodsoflabour arenotnecessarilygoodinthemselvesalthoughtheymaybe highlycreditableasdisplaysofsoberindustry.Ifthework *ThePrincipleofLeastAction,p.7. *LaVieInconscient,p.117. *Thistermmeansarepugnancetoallinnovations;anobjection

tonewideas. - *Itisnoticeableinlittlethingsaswellasinthemoreimportant things.Forinstance,weshortennames.MrKennedyJonesbe comesK.J.,notoutofdisrespectbutbecauseitiseasiertodesignate him.Thetendencyistochangebreadthfornarrownessandto replaceamplitudebyadetail. *Prof.Whitehead,inhisIntroductiontoMathematics(p.61),gives anexampleoftime-savingsymbols,adding:“Thisshowsthatby theaidofsymbolismwecanmaketransitionsinreasoningalmost mechanicallybytheeye,whichotherwisewouldcallintoplaythe higherfacultiesofthebrain.Civilisationadvancesbyextending thenumberofimportantoperationswhichwecanperformwithout

thinkingaboutthem.” - 68 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS performedcanbedoneinhalfthetime,morepleasantly,and withlessexhaustion,thenthelongerandmoretedious methodsstandcondemnedasinefficient.Somepeoplesee inthesecontentionsnothingmorethananencouragement oftheidlespirit.Thatisnottrue.TheaimisNature's— i.e.theleasteffort.Ofcoursethereissometimesadanger inthelackofoccupation,butthatisbecausesuchmenand womenhavenoinwardresources;theyhavetobeemployed, otherwisetheirtimewouldnotbewellspent.Work,inthat sense,isaconcessiontohumanweakness.Wemaydenythe factbutwecannotgainsayit:ameasureofidlenessisstill anideal.Workmaybedivine,buttheannualholidayis thetrueromanceoftheyear;economicallyitisthecatch oftheseason.Paradiseofoldwasastateofbeinginwhich therewasnoeffort,andnoperspiringdays.Anindustrious Germanwhohadtravelledeverycivilisedcountryonthe globewasaskedforhismostoutstandingconception.“That allmenlofflazee,”washisreply.Andtheworkingman’s ideaofagentleman’slifeisstillthatofamanwhohasno needtowork.

Letuslookatthematterfromanotherstandpoint.How doesapianistobtaintheskillnecessarytoplayChopintoa delightedaudience2 Well,first,hemusthavethemusic inhimself;next,hemustpractiseonapprovedlines.In theearlystageshewillstumble,butasheworkssteadily, finallyobtainingmasteryovertheinstrument,theknow ledgeofhowtomakethenecessarymovementsbecomes automatic: theybelongtothesubconsciousandhedoes notthinkaboutthem.Thushisoneaimhasbeentoplay Chopinwiththegreatesteaseinthemechanicalsense,so thathemaygiveallthemoreattentiontointerpretation. Inotherwords,excellenceliesinobediencetothelawofthe leasteffort.Thereasonforthisis,asstatedbyProfessor *“Ithasbeensetforththatmentalenergyisbestconservedby cultivatingautomatismsandadheringtothem.Themovements ofaskilledpianist,thewritingofanexpertstenographer,typewriting withthe‘touchsystemathighspeed,theexpertaccountantfooting 69 ORIGINALITY Titchener,that“themorea pieceofworkisreducedto amatterofcourse,themorepowerhasthemindtoadvance tofurtherwork,”notmerelyasasavingoftimebutas anincreaseinpower.Thesetwoarequitedifferentalthough theymaycombineinoneeffort.Forinstance,wewill contrasttheprincipleofthegreatesteffortwiththatofthe leasteffort.Incounting10,000sovereignsthegreatest effortwouldbetocountthecoinsonebyoneandseparate themintotwenty-fives,fifties,andhundreds;theleast effortwouldbetoweighthemonthescales,seizingthemby thehandful,notisolatingunitsbythefinger-tip.Again, whenyouconcentrateyourattentiononthesolutionofa problem,isitmoremeritorioustoarriveatthesolutionin threehoursthaninthreeminutes?Certainlynot,provided thesolutionhasthesamevalueinbothcases.Thepalm belongstotheshorterandquickermethod.Nowinboth theseinstances—thecountingofcoinsandthesolvingof theproblem—thereisatime-saving,butisthereanincrease inpower?Yes,insofarasthehabitofactingontheleast actionprinciplecreatesanabilitytoextendthesphereofits operation;lessenergyisconsumedandconsequentlythere ismoretobeusedinotherdirections;andmentalefficiency isbroughtnearerbyreasonofcontinuallysuccessfulefforts. AEsthetically,theleastactionstandsonahigherlevel thantheslowerandmorelaboriousstyleofworkingbecause theabbreviatedmethodcarrieswithitapleasurethatisall itsown.”Thereisafinishedexcellenceaboutitthatevokes admiration.Noristhemoralqualityabsent.Salvation, accordingtotheology,usedtobeobtainedbykeepingthe uplongcolumnsoffiguresatarapidglance,theartistcreatinga complexobjectofmeaningandbeautywithafewrapidstrokesof thebrush,seemremarkableachievementsyetperformedwithease, graceandaccuracy.. . . Nothingisdonewelluntilitisreducedto anautomaticstage.”—Prof.Seashore,PsychologyinDailyLife,p.89. * PrimerofPsychology,p.81. *“Ourpleasureinstraightlinesorregularcurvesorsymmetrical figuresisnot,however,entirelytobeexplainedbythesuggestionof pleasantmovement.Wemustfallbackonafundamentalprinciple ofpsychology,thatmentalactivityispleasantinsofarasitissuccess ful.”—Valentine,ThePsychologyofBeauty,p.48. 70 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS commandmentsandobeyingthelaw.Thelifeofthedevout wasonewhichcalledforasuperabundanceofeffort:it wasarduousintheextreme.ThencametheMessiah,who abolishedsalvationbyworksandpreachedagospeloffaith andlove.Lovefulfilledthelaw.

Itwastheprincipleoftheleastactiononcemore,andit seizedupontherabbinicalmindofSaulofTarsuswithall theforceofarevelation:itsoriginality,thoughhintedat intheProphets,wasstartlinginitssimplicityandconvincing power.Deliverancefromsinshadbeenpursuedonthe principleofthegreatesteffort—weseeitintherecordof self-torture,inpenances,inmeticulousobediencetotrifling rulesraisedtothedignityofdivineordinances,anditis visibleinalltheartsoftheasceticandthePharisee.When thenewdispensationdawnedactionwasreducedtoitsproper limits—theaction,thatandnomore,whichspringsfroma loverelationshipbetweenthesoulandGod.Theconfusions andsufferingsofChurchhistoryareduetostrugglesbetween theexponentsofthegreatestactionandtheleast. Thereisanothersenseinwhichtheprincipleoftheleast actionhasa divineside.Repose,inertia,contemplation, superlativeblissbyunionwiththeDivine—allthesenotions ofa futureconditionarenotionsoftheactionless,and nearlyeveryoneoftheheavenspromulgatedbythereligions ofmoreorlesscivilisedpeoplesisaheavenofleastaction. Thebelieverinreincarnationaimsatalifewhichtendsto dissociatehimfrommaterialinterests,andthis,inturn,will tendtoreducethenumberofre-births,enablinghimallthe soonertoreachNirvana,whereexistenceisswallowedupin theEternal.TheheavenoftheChristianisastateofbeing, notofdoing;thatoftheMohammedanisastateofsensuous enjoyment;infact,whicheverwayweturnwearecon frontedwithactionversusinaction.Itcanonlymeanthat wehavekeptbackfromourconceptionofthefuturelifethe verythingswhichherehavecausedsomuchtrouble:the wastedendeavour,thesorrowfulmistake,thetreadingofthe 7I ORIGINALITY wrongroad—inaword,wehaveregardedtheperfectlifeas oneinwhichactionisatitsminimum.Perhapsthereisa deeperphilosophyinworkthanwehaveyetfathomed,and thatwhenAristotlesaid,“Weworkinorderthatwemay haveleisure,”hevoicedaprinciplethatexplainsthenature ofallouridealismsofarasitconcernsafutureexistence. Itwillnowbesaid:“Istherenotadifferencebetween usingjusttherightamountofenergyandnotusinganyat all—asinaconditionofinertia” Undoubtedly,andthat iswhereFerrerohasgonetoofar.Thereisasenseinwhich mentalinertiaisasourceofillumination,asweshallultimately makeplainwhendealingwithinspiration;butthatisonly comparativeinertia—givingupthepursuitofaparticular consciousthoughtandturningtosomethingelseuntilsub consciousactionhasdiscoveredadesiredsolution.Complete inertiaisaneviltobeavoided;itisatravestyofthereal thing.Lombroso’smisoneism”isadoubtfulaffairaltogether. Whenthehand-loomweaversdestroyedArkwright'sweaving machines,itwasabitofLancashireandYorkshiremisoneism —anobjectiontoprogress.Itwasthelawofinertia,a desire“toletthingsalone”—sowearetold.Butwasit2 No; itwasanobjectiontonewthingswhichthreatenedthe weavers’senseofsecurity;itwasanactofself-preservation —mistaken,ofcourse,butverydifferentfrominertiaand indolence.Therealmisoneismis seeninastorytoldby thelateLordAvebury.WhenintheSouthSeasheengaged aChiefinconversation,andalmostinthetwinklingof aneyetheChiefwasasleep.TheimplicationastoLord Avebury'ssoporifictalkisdispelledbywhattheChiefsaid whenhe“cameto,”tenminuteslater.“Ideasmakeme sosleepy,”heyawned.

VII Wearenowinabetterpositiontoshowhowtheseappar entlyirrelevantnotionsaredirectlyassociatedwiththework ingofgenius.Weusethewordgeniustodenotethevery *Nic.Ethics,x.76. *Fullyexplainedandillustratedinhisarticleon“Innovation andInertiaintheWorldofPsychology.”SeeMonist,vol.i.,p.344. 72 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS acmeofeaseandsuccessinanyonedirection;greatresults areobtainedwiththeminimumofhardmentallabour; briefly,geniusistheleast-actionprincipleoperatinginthe worldofmind.Butinwhatsense?[Inthis:thatall illuminationistheoutcomeofthecombinedworkingofthe consciousandsubconsciousspheres,andthat,howeverlong wemaysearchforittheilluminationalwayscomessuddenly atthelast—itflashesinuponus.Agenius,therefore,isone whoneveragonisestoenterthestraitgate;themethods ofobservationandexperimentofdeepconcentration,and slowandlaboriousreasoningaredispensedwithwherever possible,fortheyrepresenttheprincipleofthegreatest effort,andallhisinstinctsleadhimintheoppositedirection,1 Hisbeliefthataspiritinspireshimispurefancy,butitis gooddescriptivepsychologynevertheless.Itmeansthat intuitions—thosefineleapsofthemindthatreachthetruth atabound—aretheveryperfectionofintellectualeffort becausetheyaresoeffortless.Noweffort,asexpressedin workandconcentrationspreadoverlongperiods,isthesign ofadifficultcommunicationbetweenthesubconsciousand theconscious,justastheflashofintuitionisasignofthe utmostreadinessfortransferfromonetotheother.May wenotthenconcludethatthenatureofgeniusisfoundin somespecialrelationshipbetweenthetwospheres?Funda mentally,thisisthetheoryofMyers,butMyershadan almostcompletetopographyoftheunconsciousworld,and withhissubdivisionswehavenothingtodo.Buthisnotion ofintercommunionis essentiallyreasonableandhighly probable;and,inoursimplerform,isfreefromtheobjec tionswhichcriticshaveurgedagainstit.”Takethecaseof *“Logic,”saysMrA.J.Balfour,“hasnevershakenitselffree fromacertainpretentiousfutility:italwaysseemstobetellingus, inlanguagequiteunnecessarilytechnical,whatweunderstandmuch betterbeforeitwasexplained.Itneverhelpstodiscover,though itmayguaranteediscovery;itneverpersuadesthoughitmayshow thatpersuasionhasbeenlegitimate;itneveraidstheworkof thought,itonlyactsasitsauditorandaccountantgeneral.”— TheismandHumanism,p.175. *“TheInterpretationofGenius,”achapterinProf.H.L.Stewart's "QuestionsoftheDayinPhilosophyandPsychology,p.97. 73 ORIGINALITY readinessinrepartee.Aretherenotscoresofuswhoknow exactlywhatwecouldhavesaidifonlywehadthoughtof itatthetime! Whatkillingthingswethinkof—alltoolate| Butwhydowenotthinkofthemwhentheyarewanted? Becausetheconnectionbetweentheconsciousandthesub consciousisnotasfacileasitmightbe.Theconnectionis setupeventually,andthecrushingreply,orthewitty rejoinder,comesforth,apologetically,showingthatwehad abilitytosaytherightthingbutnotattherighttime. Maynottherightthingbetheconsciouslyreasonedthing? No;becausethereisnosuchfactasaconsciouslyreasoned thingwithoutsubconscioushelp.Everymomentthereisa wirelessbetweenthetwospheres,andamanorwomanwho issmartatreparteeisonewhocangetawirelessfromthe subconsciousalmostbeforetheconscioushasMorsedthe primarymessage.He—orshe—employstheleastaction: wewhofailedworkedthehardestandtookthelongesttime.

VIII

Torecapitulate.Webeganbydefiningthemindof unusualpowersasonethatismarkedbyagreaterrangeof consciousnessthanisfoundinconventionalminds,asugges tionofthistruthbeingdiscoveredintheuseofspatialterms likedeep,lofty,breadth,penetrationandcompasswhenapplied tointelligence,andsupportedbythemannerinwhichcon sciousnessexistsinvariousstagesofanimalandhumanlife. Ouranalysisofconsciousness,asawordandafact,revealed aninabilitytofathomit;andinspiteofexperimentsand introspectionthesolutionisasfaroffasitwastwothousand yearsago.Weknowthemindisa unity,functioningas Thought,Feeling,andWill,buteventhesemodesofconscious nessare,finally,foundtobeinscrutable.HencePlato's useof6eopiaandNewman'sdoctrineoftheIllativeSense approximatethetruthasinstancesofconsciousnessworking, notsectionally,butasawhole.Theattempttodiscover thesecretofgeniusinanexcessofanyonementalfunction isamistake:wecannotisolateonefunctionandmakeit actoutofunionwiththeothertwo.

74 GENIUSANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS Rangemeansreach—theutmostpossiblelimitofknow ledgeandappreciation.Butwesawthatwhilstrangeof consciousnesswasincreasedbyadding,say,aknowledgeof SpanishtoaknowedgeofItalian,therangewespeakofis morespiritualthanthat—likethedifferencebetweentears asachemicalproductandasarepresentationoffeelings beyondexpression;indeedthisisthesortofdifferencethat constitutesinequalitiesinmentalability.Onemanhas “reach*inadirectiontowhichothermenarestrangers. Allmenhaveconsciousness,butabilitymeanstheextent ofmentalvisioninsomeparticularsphere,andabilityis triuneinform,asGaltonpointedout;thereisfirstthe motivepower,thenthediscerningpower,finallythepower toactorwork. Thatwecanonlyapprehendphenomena,notcomprehend them,arisesoutofthecomplexityofconsciousnessitself: eventhescienceofmathematicshastoyielditselftolife. Themysticalnatureofexperiencestandsrevealed:beauty isundefinable,indeedoureffortstodefinemostthingsare onlypartlysuccessful.Andifpsychologistscannotaccount forthechemistryofthought,theyarenotlikelytobeable toaccountforphenomenainamannerthatisconclusive. Thisattitudewefoundtobenecessary,howeversceptical. Butourmentalrangeisnotcompletewithoutthesub conscioussphere;andafterinvestigatingthiswesawthat itsactivitywasinmanywayssuperiortothatofthecon scioussphere,beingabletoaccomplishworkimpossibleto themindinitswakefulmoments.Thesumtotalofour reflections,thusfar,maybeexpressedinthesewords:that theunusualmentalabilitywhichmanifestsitselfinorigin alityisnotsomucha super-developmentofFeeling,or Thought,orWill,buttheworkofconsciousnessasawhole, andasmodifiedorincreasedbyitsrangeofaction.This pleaissupportedbytheessentiallyunknowablenatureof allexperience.

Asfurtherevidenceofourcontentionweshowedthatmind wasbestconceivedasaformofenergy,especiallyasthe methodsofintrospectionandexperimenthadapparently 75 ORIGINALITY reachedtheirlimitsofsuccess.Thestreamofconsciousness ismorethanafigureofspeech:itismentalactivityaswe knowit.Wedidnotoriginatethestreamandourcontrol overitispartial.Freud’sservicestopsychologyareim portantbecausehehasdealtwithmindasenergy,and demonstratedsomeofhisstatementsbysuccessfulexperi ments.Hisworkbringsoutthecontinuityofmentalhistory inaremarkablemanner:noexperienceislost.Hereinwe seehowgeniusisindebtedforitsinspirationsnottoexternal agenciesbuttotheworkingofinternalmentallaws,especi allythatlawwhichhastodowiththeinteractionbetween theconsciousandsubconsciousspheres. Thequestionnowarisesastowhatcausesconsciousnessto increaseitsrangeinsuchamannerastoeventuateinorigin ality.Theinitialimpulseisundoubtedlyinborn,andyetit doesnotdependonheredity.Thisistherealproblemof genius.Buttheworkingofthemindofgeniusisnotso difficulttounderstand.Itsdistinguishingcharacteristic iseaseofaction:whatevertheeffort,intenseorotherwise, thebrilliantideaalwayscomesswiftly—it“flashes* in upontheconsciousness.Wefoundananalogyin the principleofleastaction—i.e.geniusistheapexofsuccess intheworkingofthemindbecauseitrepresentsachievement onthemosteconomicalbasis,andthereforewiththebest aestheticassociations.

". SECTIONII

THEORIGINOFNEWIDEAS

CHAPTERI

INSPIRATIONASANATURALPROCESS

ITishighlyprobablethatweshallneverdispensewiththe wordinspiration,but,speakingpsychologically,itisused quiteinaccurately.Anewideaisnotbreathedintothe mindfromwithoutbyaForce,aPerson,oranInfluence;it! isanoriginationwithintheboundariesofthehumanmental frontier,andabetterword,thoughonelessmagical,would becerebration.Aninspiration,consideredinitshistorical associations,presupposesanagentwho,orwhich,usesthe humanbrainasamusicianusesaninstrument.Wherein, then,liesthemeritofsuchinspirations?Itliesinthe honour(wearetold)ofbeingchosenforthispurpose,and therewouldseemtobeanadditionalmeritinhavingno individuality,alsoincultivatingthespiritofself-abnegation." Withthiskindofinspirationwehavenothingtodointhese pages:itbelongstoasphereofitsown.Ourfunctionis todiscover,ifwecan,someoftheoriginsofnewideasand totracethemthroughtheelementarystagesoftheircareer. Therearethreefactorsinvolved:thephysical,themental, andthesocial.Noonefactorcanbeclearlyseparatedfrom theothers;wecanonlydiscussthemasthepsychologist wouldthethreefoldunityofthemind.Thephysicalfactor hastodowithallthoseorganswhichintheinteraction *Platostatestheoldviewthus:“Fortheauthorsofthose greatpoemswhichweadmiredonotattaintoexcellencethrough therulesofanyart,but. . . inastateofinspiration,andasit werepossessedbyaspiritnottheirown.”—Ion,p.6. 77 ORIGINALITY betweenmindandbody,duringhealthanddisease,affect thenumberandqualityofourthoughts.Therearebodily conditions,aswellasgeneralenvironments,thatpromote fortunatetrainsofthoughtjustastherearerepressivecon ditionsthateithermakethinkingdifficultorimpartaquality toitthatispessimistic,cynical,taciturn.Andwhere naturalabilityisconsiderablethesegoodorbadconditions fosterordestroythemoodsthatareconducivetoinspiration andhencetooriginality.Thesecondfactorismental, dependingprimarilyforitsefficiencyonthestateofthebody anditsgeneralsurroundings.Whenworkinginamanner thatwemaycallhappy,thisfactorrendersthemindhighly susceptibletoexternalorinternalstimuli;andthetwo fusedtogetherwithimaginativewarmthofteneventuate inanewcombinationofthoughts:inaword,aninspiration. Thethirdfactorissocial,andhasalreadybeenincludedin thedescriptionoftheothertwo.Itisrepresentedinthe widestsensebytheeffectofmindonmind,inwhateverform themindmaymanifestitself.

Todiscussingreaterdetailtheinter-workingofthese threefactorsitisnecessarytoaskandtoattempttoanswer thisquestion:£Inwhatwaydoideascometous?”On thefaceofit,thequestionseemstobetoosimpletodetain usverylong;moreover,thespecificinquiryisastohow particularlygoodideas,calledinspirations,cometous.The broaderquestion,however,willserveourpurposebest, inasmuchasideasthataresuperlativelyexcellentmaybe foundtooriginateinthesamemannerasthoseoflessim portance,thedifferencebeingthattheformerarebornwhen thebrainisworkingathighpressure,andwhenallthe necessaryconditionsareharmonious,whilstthelatterfall intoconsciousnessduringitsmoreprosyperiodsandwhen conditionsareinnosenseunusual.Themethodisnot withoutobjections,butitwilljustifyitselfintheend. Ideascometousfromtheexternalworldthroughthe |mediumofthefivesenses;andfromtheinternalworldby 78 INSPIRATIONASANATURALPROCESS meansofreflection.]Thetwocannotbedissociated,and thedecidingelementisthenatureanddepthoftheresponse whichexternalstimulievokeintheobservingmind.To Newtontheapplewasthesymbolofagreatlaw:tothe marketgardeneritisacommercialaffair;totheboyit suggeststheideaofafeast.Therearemenandwomenwho liveamidscenesofwondrousnaturalbeauty,butitisa beautythatseldomimpressesthem,andisinnosensea partoftheirconsciousness.Genius,ontheotherhand, alwaysshowsandalwayshasshownakeenimpression abilitytothefactsofenvironment,bothnaturalandhuman. Finsen,thecelebratedDanishlight-curespecialist,wasone summer'sdaylookingoutofhisstudywindow.Hesawacat ontheroofofashed,stretchingitselfandluxuriatinginthe sun.Itslepton,andFinsenwatchedit—almostaimlessly. Thenhenoticedthatsoontheshadowdeepenedandreached thecat;whereuponthetabbyaroseandwentfartherinto thesun.Finsenwasinterestednow,andhewatcheduntil hesawtheactseveraltimesrepeated.Hecametothe conclusionthatlightandheatwereofsomeparticular benefittotheanimal;andthatwasthestarting-pointofhis nowfamouswork.Letusexaminethiscaseforamoment. FirstthereisFinsenhimself,amanwithakeenmindacting bynaturesynthetically.Next,thereistheshiningsun; thenthecreepingshadeandthesleepingcat.Probably scoresofpeoplehaveobservedthesamefactsasthosewhich wereobservedonthisoccasion:itmaybethatevenFinsen hadseenthembefore;butuntilthisparticulardayarrived noonemadetheimportantinference.UButinwhatsense doesthenewideacomefromexternalstimulus?Onlyin this:thatitsuppliedtherawmaterial.Itismindacti syntheticallythatmattersmost.Thecatmighthaveacted itspartontheroofoftheshedeverysummer'sdayforten years,butsciencewouldnothavebeenfurtheredoneiota unlessanacuteintelligencehadbeenbroughttobearupon thefacts.Thepointismoreimportantthanitappearsto beatfirstsight;indeedoneissurprisedtoobservewhat confusionexistsevenamongoriginalthinkers.

79 ORIGINALITY

III

ThelateDrRusselWallace'slettersprovideanillustra tion.Inoneplacehesaysthat“ideasandbeliefsarecer tainlynotvoluntaryacts.Theycometous—wehardly knowhoworwhence.”Alittlelaterherefersto“thehappy chancethroughwhichIbecameanindependentoriginator ofthedoctrineofthesurvivalofthefittest.”Theposition hetookupwasthis:thatheworkedindustriouslyinbiology andnaturalhistory,andthatasaresulttheideaofnatural selection“came*tohim.Butafewparagraphsbeforethis hehadansweredthefollowingquestion:—“Whydidsomany ofthegreatestintellectsfail,whileDarwinandmyselfhit uponthesolutionoftheproblem?”*Andhisansweris eminentlysatisfactory.Darwinandhimselfreachedthe sametheorybecausetheyhada“curiousseriesofcorre spondencesbothinmindandenvironment.”First,theywere ardentbeetlehuntersandbeetleshaveanalmostinfinite numberofforms.Thiscreatedsurpriseandstimulated inquiry.Next,theyhadagreatpassionforcollecting—i.e. anintenseinterestinthevarietyoflivingthings.This interest,inWallace'sopinion,wastobe“theonlyonewhich couldleadustowardsasolutionoftheproblemofSpecies.” Thetwomenbecametravellers:theysawanimmense numberofvarietiesoflifeandbegantotracechanges. FinallybothmenreadMalthusOnPopulation,andinboth casesitunifiedconceptions,reducingthemanytoone. ThestagesoftheDarwin-Wallaceoriginalityarethese: (a)knowledgeofvarietieshereandinforeigncountries; (b)observationofchanges;and(c)thefusingofvaststores offactsintoawhole,bythelightofananalogydrawnfrom Malthus.Why,then,shouldWallacespeakofthething asahappychance,aftersocarefulanexplanationofhis method2 Thetruthisthat,asinFinsen’scase,Nature suppliedtherawmaterial,butthenewthoughtaroseinthe interpretativemindafteryearsofpreparation. *LettersandReminiscences,vol.i.,p.117. *Ibid.,p.114. 8O INSPIRATIONASANATURALPROCESS Onapreviouspagewesaidthatthedecidingfactorwas inthenatureanddepthoftheresponsewhichthemind makestoexternalstimuli.Wordsworthsaidofhisfirst poem,theEveningWalk,thattherewasnotanimageinit thathehadnotdrawnfromhisownobservationofnature, andthathecouldpointoutthetimeandplacewheremost ofthemwerenoticed.Clearly,thisearlyhabitcanbeseen withmorestrikingresultsinhislaterwork.Theoak, “Itsdarkeningbowsandleavesinstrongerlines” isdrawnfromnature.“Irecollectdistinctly,”hesaid, “wherethisfirststruckme.Itwasonthewaybetween HawksheadandAmblesideandgavemeextremepleasure. Themomentwasimportantinmypoeticalhistory,forI datefromitmyconsciousnessoftheinfinitevarietyof naturalappearanceswhichhadbeenunnoticedbythepoets ofanyageorcountry,sofarasIwasacquaintedwiththem; andI madetheresolutiontosupplyinsomedegreethe deficiency.”Perhapswedonotquiteendorseallthat Wordsworthclaimsforhimselfinthisrespect,butthereis nodoubthispoetryaffordsusafinestudyinthestimulus ofnature,actingona supersensitiveimagination.”But Shakespeareis,ofcourse,theclassicalinstanceofadeep andwideresponsetotheeffectsofnatureandcivilisation. Hewascalledmyriad-mindedbecausenothingescapedhim; andwehaveneverreadamoreinterestingchapterofliterary historythanthatwrittenbyProf.Halleckcalled“How Shakespeare'sSensesWereTrained,”” whereweareshown inafewpageshowmuchthebardowedtoobservationand

1AuthorsatWork,p.291. *Goethestrikesamodestnote.“Peoplearealwaystalkingof originality,”hesays,“butwhatdoesthatmeanP Assoonaswe areborntheworldbeginstoactonusandthisgoesontotheend. And,afterall,whatcanwecallourownexceptenergy,strengthand will? IfIcouldgiveanaccountofallIowetogreatpredecessors andcontemporaries,therewouldbebutasmallbalanceinmyfavour. . . . Ibynomeansowemyworkstomywisdomalone,butto athousandthingsandpersonsaroundmethatprovidedmewith material.”—ConversationswithEckermann. *InTheEducationoftheCentralNervousSystem. F 8I ORIGINALITY howlittletobooks.Itisoutsideourpurposetoreproduce theresultsoftheseanalyses,toshowhimasanexpertin thehabitsofbeesoroftavernhabitués;whatwedowish tokeepbeforethereaderisthis:thatobservationisonly importantasa meansofsupplyingtherawmaterialof thought.Awoodmanof1589wouldprobablyknowall aboutthethirty-ninebirdsmentionedbyShakespeare,but hecouldnotthinkandwriteofthemasShakespearedid: hehadnomindforthatpurpose.

Itiscertain,therefore,thatthevitalelementinoriginality isthequalityofmindwhichmakesuseofthematerial suppliedbythesenses;for,afterall,eventhethingswesee | andhear,andwhichmayimpressusdeeplyandwonder \'fully,areinternalconceptions.Theideathatarisesinthe mind—whetherfromwithout,byvision,orwithin,byre flection—isaproblemwehavetosolve;andwemayrepeat appositelythegeneralquestionwithwhichwecommenced * thissection:UInwhatwaydoideascometous?Theonly properansweris:Bytheactionofthelawsofassociation. Thoselawsarethegreattraderoutesofintellectualexchange, whereinthingsaliketendtocoalesceandthingsunlikeare madevividbycontrast.Ideasthemselvesarestilla mystery:nopsychologyhaseveryetfathomedthem!But webelievethatthemovementsofideasaretraceable,even thosewhicharesuddenlyunifiedintootherandnewideas Bothscienceandpoetryaffordinterestingillustrations. “Ihavebeenspeculatinglastnight,”saidCharlesDarwin toHoraceDarwin,“whatmakesa mana discovererof undiscoveredthings;andamostperplexingproblemitis. Manymenwhoareveryclever—muchclevererthanthedis coverers—neveroriginateanything.AsfarasI cancon \jecturetheartconsistsinhabituallysearchingthecauses andmeaningofeverythingthatoccurs.”"Thisisonly partiallycorrect,fordiscoveryisalwayssomethingmore thanastrictlylogicalprocess,asProf.E.B.Poultonpointed *InEmmaDarwin.SeealsoGore'sArtofDiscovery,pp.45–48. 82 INSPIRATIONASANATURALPROCESS outlongago."Ofcourseobjectionswereurgedagainstsuch aplea,buttheywereurgedhalf-heartedly,andTyndall,on theonehand,andRibot,ontheother,havesuccessfully establishedtheclaimsofsciencetoimaginationandinspira tion.Andyetevennowmanypeopleappeartoagreewith Shelleythat“poetryisnotlikereasoning,apowertobe exertedaccordingto determinationofthewill.Aman cannotsay‘£poetry.Thegreatestpoeteven cannotsayit;fort indincreationisasafadingcoal, whichsomeinvisibleinfluence,likeaninconstantwind, awakenstotransitorybrightness.”*Tolookfortheorigin ofpoeticilluminationinaspiritoutsidethebordersofin telligencehasbeenthefashion,nodoubt,butitisnomore truethanthatwecan“reason”wheneverweexertthewill todoso.Everymanmusthaveagod,andShelley’swasthe beliefinagodoutsidemenwhoinspirespoets.To-day, however,aswillbemadeevidentinthepagestofollow,in spirationcallsfornogreaterfactorthanthemindinitscon sciousandsubconsciousactivities.Evenintuitionislosing itsmysteries,onebyone.Itusedtobeimaginedthatan intuitionwas“pureuntaughtknowledge,”orsignified“a cognitionnotdeterminedbyapreviouscognitionofthesame object.”DidColburn,thearithmeticalboyprodigy,give squarerootsandcuberootsatamoment'snoticewithouta previousknowledgeoffigures,asfigures?DidMozartcom posewithouttheslightestknowledgeofmusicalnotation,and playdivinelythefirsttimeheseteyesonapiano?(Dowe

*“Itisacommonerrortosupposethattheintellectualpowers whichmakethepoetorhistorianareessentiallydifferentfromthose whichmakethemanofscience.Powersofobservation,however acute,couldnevermakeascientificdiscoverer;fordiscoveryrequires thecreativeeffortoftheimagination.. . . Fertilityofimagination isessentialforthatstepfromthelesstothemoreperfectlyknown, whichwecalldiscovery.Butfertilityofimaginationaloneisin sufficientforthehighestachievementsinpoetry,history,orscience; forinallthesesubjectsthestrictestself-criticismandthesoundest judgmentarenecessaryinordertoensurethattheresultsarean advanceinthedirectionoftruth.”—E.B.Poulton,CharlesDarwin andtheTheoryofNaturalSelection,p.12. *Shelley'sADefenceofPoetry(Cook'sEdition),p.39. 83 ORIGINALITY notfindthatintuitionscomefromexperiencesorichlyunified thatwhenanewsituationpresentsitselfilluminationcomes \ina moment,andjudgmentisinstantaneous* Memory, , actingforthemostpartunconsciously,butwithunusual -efficiency,isthebasisofourintuitions."Instinctivelikes anddislikes,immediatedecisionswhenconfrontedwitha newsituationinbusiness,arethe soutcomeof previousexperienceactinginaf

Toreasonathingoutistoturntoacollectionoffacts,to studytheirprosandcons,andtoweighthemwithaviewto securingapreponderanceononesideoranother.Thetask isoftenlaborious,anditshowsintellectinitsleastattractive light;whereasinintuitionweseethemindworkingonits highestlevels;theprocessisrapidalmosttoinstantaneity, butitsrapidityisthesoledifferencedividingitfromthe slowermethodofreasonedargument.”Thelawofassocia *JohnStuartMill,inalettertoDrW.B.Carpenter,says: “Ihavelongrecognisedasafactthatjudgmentsreallygrounded , onalongsuccessionofsmallexperiencesmostlyforgotten,orperhaps neverbroughtoutintodistinctconsciousness,oftengrowintothe likenessofintuitiveperceptions.Ibelievethistobetheexplana tionoftheintuitiveinsightthoughttobecharacteristicofwomen; andofthatwhichisoftenfoundinexperiencedpracticalpersons whohavenotattendedmuchtotheory,norbeenoftencalledupon toexplainthegroundoftheirjudgments.AndIshouldagreewith youthatamindwhichisfittedbyconstitutionandhabitstoreceive trulyandretainwelltheimpressionsmadebyitspassingexperiences willoftenbesaferinrelyingonitsintuitivejudgments,representative oftheaggregateofitspastexperience,thanontheinfluencesthat canbedrawnfromsuchfactsorreasoningsascanbedistinctlycalled tomindatthemoment.”—MentalPhysiology,p.486. “Byintuition,”saysBergson,“ismeantthekindofintellectual ~sympathybywhichoneplacesoneselfwithinanobjectinorderto coincidewithwhatisuniqueinit,andconsequentlyinexpressible.”— Metaphysics,p.7. *AwriterinTheMonist(April,1916)—MrH.J.Mulford—whilst arguingprettymuchonthesamebasisasourselves,putsintuition ona lowerplanethanreasonedthought.“Itismerelyreflex thought,withoutthevalueevenofself-consciousthought”(p.309). 84 INSPIRATIONASANATURALPROCESS tion,actingonthemethodoflowpressureinonecaseandof highpressureintheother,explainsthemovementofideasin

bothinstances.- Themoreweareabletounderstandassociationtheclearer willbeourknowledgeofallthementalprocessesinvolvedin originality.Weseeitinthosesuddenadventsofthoughts quiteforeigntothesubjectinhand.Youengageyouratten tionandfocusiton,say,thesubjectoflaw;andaftersome timethestreamofthinkingisbrokenintobyasuddenre collection—youareremindedofamanwhosenamehasnot enteredyourmindforperhapstenyears.Whydoesitdo sonow?Yousayyoucannottell.True—notforthe moment;butifyouthinkbackslowlyyouwillmostlikely findthatthewordslawandfugitiveareassociated,andthat Fuge,thenameofthelong-forgottenperson,didnotcome intoconsciousnessbychance,butbylaw,thelawofassocia tion—thistimeassimilarityinsound."Weoftensaya thought“came’’tous,justasWordsworthconceivedwhen hesaid: “Thinkyou,'midthismightysum Ofthingsforeverspeaking Thatnothingofitselfwillcome Andwemuststillbeseeking?” andwehaveencouragedourselvesinbelievingthatready madethoughtsandfineinspirationssometimescometous fromaspiritualworldoutsideus.Todenyitwouldbeto fallintothedogmatichabitwecondemninthesepages; butwecansayitishighlyimprobable,evenwhentelepathy isadmitted.Thesuddenandmysterious“comings”are trueenough,especiallywithmenofgenius,butthesecomings, iftheycouldbestudiedclosely,wouldbefoundtohavea Thisisthecartbeforethehorse,andMrMulfordshouldhenceforth avoidanyspontaneousnotion.Carson(inhisMathematicalEduca tion,chapteron“Intuitions”)says:“Intuitionsareonthesame footingasprimaryassumptionsconcerninggravitation.They differfromtheseinthattheyareformedunconsciouslyasaresult ofuniversalexperienceratherthanconsciousexperiment.” *Anexcellentandup-to-dateinvestigationofassociationgenerally isfoundinProf.FelixArnold'sPsychologyofAssociation(U.S.A.). 85 ORIGINALITY naturalhistoryinthementalworldtowhichtheybelong. Inspirationisthatfamiliarlyfavourablemomentwhenthe factorsofthought—i.e.externalstimuliandinternalresponse —areintruerapportwitheachother.Wecannotaffirm thatthereisalawofinspiration,butweknowsomeofthe conditions,someofthebodilyandmentalstatesaccompany ingmentallycreativeactivity,andtheseweshallnowstudy inextenso.Ifalawisamodeofoperationthenwemay rightlyspeakoftheseconditionsaslawsofinspiration. CHAPTERII

THELAWSOFINSPIRATION

A.Oneoftheprimaryconditionsofinspirationisthata periodofcloseinquiryandreflectionshouldbefollowedeither byachangeofsubjectoraperiodofmentalinactivity.After producingevidenceinsupportofthislawweshallendeavour toexplainitsunderlyingcauses.Haydnsaid:“Whenmy workdoesnotadvanceIretireintotheoratorywithmy rosaryandsayanAve;immediatelyideascometome.”" Here,achangeofsubjectwassufficienttoarousedormant notions,andonewonderswhethertheresultwouldhavebeen thesameifHaydnhadturnedtopaintingorbotany.Later, weshallhazardaguessastowhyasuddentransferof interesttoanewemotionalassociationcanestablishadesired connectioninaspherewheredirecteffortwasunsuccessful. Itisalmostasifatelephonesubscriber,failingtogetthe numberhewanted,deliberatelyrangupsomebodyelse,and immediatelygotintotouchwiththefirstnumberaskedfor. AnotherillustrationisfoundinthelifeofBerlioz.He desiredtocomposeasong,withchorus,fortheCinqMai ofBeranger,butwaspulledupshortbytherefrain: “Pauvresoldat,jereverrailaFrance, Lamaind'unfilsmefermeralesyeux.” Hetrieditagainandagain—butinvain.Hegaveitup indespair.Twoyearsafterwardshewasbathinginthe Tiber,andonrisingfromadivehefoundhimselfhumming themusicalphrasesolongsoughtinvain.”Thelengthof *Lombroso,ManofGenius,p.19. .*Paulhan,Psychologiedel’Invention,p.24.Prof.Jastrowgivesa numberofcasesinhisbookonTheSubconscious.“Hamiltonevolved \ theintricateconceptionoftheinventionofquaternionswhilewalking 87

| ORIGINALITY timebetweentheoriginaleffortandthefinalissueisextra ordinarilylong,andonewouldliketocross-examinethecom poserastohowmanytimesduringthetwoyearshis thoughtsrevertedtotherefrain;orwhetherhehadforgotten italtogether.Butevenasitstandsthecaseisonethat illustratesthelawofsuspendedconsciousaction.

WewillnowturntothecasesuppliedbythelateProfessor HenriPoincaré.Itisratherlong,butitsinterestissogreat thatthelengthofitsrecitalmaybeforgivenus.Fora fortnightPoincaréhadbeenattemptingtoprovethatthere couldnotbeanyfunctionanalogoustoFuchsianfunctions. Onenightitchancedthathetookacupofblackcoffee(quite unusualforhim)andheworkedathisproblemthroughthe night,beingunabletosleep.Inthemorninghehadestab lishedtheexistenceofoneclassofFuchsianfunctionsand verifiedthem.Guidedbyananalogytoellipticalfunctions, hedesiredtorepresentthenewfunctionsbythequotient of2series.HefoundeventuallywhathecalledTheta Fuchsian.Ageologicalconferenceatthismomentneces sitatedajourneytoConstances,andhismathematicswere forgottenintheincidentsoftravel.Butonenteringthe brakeatConstancesitquitesuddenlycameintohishead thatthetransformationshehadusedtodefineFuchsian functionswereidenticalwiththoseofnon-Euclideangeometry. OnreturningtoCaenheverifiedthisideasatisfactorily.He thenbegantostudyarithmeticalquestions,butwithout apparentresult,andhavingnosuspicionthattheywere connectedwithhispreviousresearches.Hisfailuresannoyed

withLadyHamiltoninthestreetsofDublin,theflashofdiscovery comingtohimjustashewasapproachingtheBroughamBridge. MozarthadtheariaofthebeautifulquintetteinTheMagicFlute cometohimwhileplayingagameofbilliards,andseemedprepared forsuchoccasionalinfluxesofmusicalideasbycarryinganotebook fortheirinstantrecord.. . . Prof.Kukulétellshowhesawthe \atomsdancingaboutinmid-airinconformitywithhistheoryof atomicgrouping,whileridingontopofaLondonbus”(p.95). 88 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION him,andhewenttotheseasideforatime,forgettingthe matterentirely.Onedaywhilstoutwalking,theideacame tohimsuddenly,concisely,andwithcertainty,thatarith meticaltransformationsofindefinite,ternaryandquadratic formsareidenticalwiththoseofnon-Euclideangeometry. HereturnedtoCaenandverifiedthisashehadverifiedthe other;indeedheworkedthenotionouttoitsfinalissues, establishingallofthemexceptone,thesolutionofwhich camesuddenlyasbeforewhilstengagedinservinghistime asasoldier. TheseandotherinstancesimpresseduponPoincaréthe beliefthatsuddenilluminationspointto“alongcourseof previousunconsciouswork.”Theyare“neverproduced exceptaftersomedaysofvoluntaryeffortswhichappeared absolutelyfruitless.”*Thiscontentionissupportedina letterwrittenbyClarkMaxwell.“IsetProf.Thomson apropositionwhichIhadbeenworkingatforalongtime. Hesentme18pagesofletterofsuggestionsaboutit, noneofwhichwouldwork;butonJan.8,intherailway fromLargs,hegotthewaytoit.”*Wemightfillpages withsuchevidencesofthelawunderdiscussion,notonlyfrom therealmsofmusicandmathematicsbutfromeverywalk oflife.Thenatureofthesubjectmatterofthoughtdoes notaffecttheworkingofthelaw.ThomasAquinas,called fromhisstudiesofheresytodinewiththeKingofFrance, enteredintothesocialatmosphereoftheoccasion,completely obliviousofbooksandtheories.Butalong-sought-forargu mentsuddenlydawneduponhim,andbangingthetablewith hisfist,heexclaimed,withdelightfulirrelevance:“Thatis conclusiveagainsttheManicheans.”SirWalterScott, facedwithanunsolveddifficultyduringtheday,always lookedtothemorningforasolution;indeedhecametorely onhisearlymorningthoughts.“Iliesimmeringoverthings,” hesaid,andifasearchinworkinghoursfailedtorevealthe wantedideahewouldsay,“Nevermind,I shallhaveitat *ScienceandHypothesis,p.24.Thereader,likeourselves,may notbeabletofollowthesemathematicaldetails,buthewillbeable tounderstandthepsychologicalargument. *LifeofJ.ClarkMaxwell,p.104. 8Q ORIGINALITY seveno’clockto-morrowmorning.”CharlotteBrontë wasnotsoconfidentofanearlyaccessofideas.MrsGaskell tellsusthatsometimesweeksorevenmonthselapsedbefore shefeltthatshehadanythingtoaddtothatportionofher

storywhichwasalreadywritten. -

III

Wepromisedtohazardaguessastothereasonwhya changeofsubject,ora periodofmentalinactivity,was followedbyaninspirationinsuchcasesasthosereferredto. Thesolutionmustbesought,firstofall,intheinabilityof thewilltocontrolthemoreremotefunctionsofthemind, oneofwhichisthetransitionfromtheunconscioustothe tconscious.MrArthurLynch*hasprovidedasuitableillus trationintheaccounthehasgivenoftryingtorecallafor gottenword.Hehadquotedthesentence:“Thelabourwe delightinlessenspain,”andhadimmediatelyrecognisedthat “lessens”waswrong.Hetriedtorecalltherightword— thatis,hewilledittocome—butwasnotsuccessful,so heturnedhisattentiontootherstudies.Suddenly—these thingsarealwayssudden—herememberedtherightquota tion:“Thelabourwedelightinphysicspain.”Will powerwasnotabletoevokethisresultatthedesiredmoment, thereasonbeingthattimeisrequiredtoobtaintheright connectionwhenawrongonehasbeensetup—likethewrong numberinthetelephonecalloffice.Itmaybeobjected thatthereisadifferencebetweentheprocessofrecallinga lostwordandthatofinventinganoriginalidea.Butisthere suchadifference2 Thelostwordisrememberedwhenthe neededassociationsarefound,andtheoriginalideaisforth comingforthesamereason;moreover,themodusoperandi isthesameinbothcases—i.e.thinkofsomethingelse:to reachAyoucommencetowalktowardsB.Therealquestion, apartfromthelimitsofWill,is:Whyshouldprolonged concentrationappeartobeafailureanddeliberatemind

*Pebody,AuthorsatWork,p.67. *Psychology: ANewSystem,vol.i.,pp.255–256. 90 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION wanderingasuccess?Ifthereisatarget,whydowehitit byaimingatanotherobject2"

Theanswerstothesequestionswilleventuallybefound inthepartwhichthesubconsciousplaysinthinkinggener ally—i.e.thethinkingthatcallsformorethanmerelysurface reflection.ThereasonwhyPoincarécouldnotatonce obtainthedesiredresultlayinthefactthatthesubconscious actionneededtimeforthecompletionofitswork;andthat assoonasitwascompletetheresult,beingmarkedurgent, wasatoncecommunicatedtotheconscioussphere,abruptly andsuddenly,justasalocalcallisinterruptedbyatrunk call.Thetimeelement,therefore,isoftheutmostsigni ficance;foralthoughtherearesomemattersconcerningwhich subconsciousactionisimmediate,asinintuitions,thereare others,usuallyconnectedwithnewknowledge,wherethe resultcannotbewilled: wehavetowaituntilit“comes,” anditcomeswhenitisready,notbefore.Thus,thiscessa tionofconcentration,andthisturningtootherthings,are notassociatedinwhatwemightcallanorganicway;the mainitemoftheoperationistogiveupstrenuouseffort. Thenatureofthementaloccupationtakenupafterwardsis notsoimportantasisapparent. Thespeedwithwhichaninspirationisevokedvarieswith theindividualandwiththesubjectmatterinwhichhe: interested.Usuallyamanofscienceisslowtodiscoverth secretsofNature;thepoetseldomhastowaitsolong— inspirationistohimanexperiencesovividthathecanalmost imaginehehearsa voicedictatingthelinesonebyone. WilliamBlake,inspeakingofhisMiltonandJerusalem,said: *Souriaudisagrees.Whentryinghardtorecallaname,instead ofwaitinguntilit“comes”tous,“wearerestrictingourminds fromfindingitthroughwiderassociations.Amanislookingfor something.Hewillfinditmorequicklybylettinghiseyeswander overthegroundthanbylookingthroughamagnifyingglass,inch byinch.”—Theoriedel’Invention.Yes;butthemethodisnotto seekatall: weturnawayandthinkofsomethingelsequitedifferent from“thewiderassociationshementions. 91 ORIGINALITY “Ihavewrittenthepoemfromimmediatedictation,twelve orsometimestwentyorthirtylinesatatime,withoutpre meditation,andevenagainstmywill.Thetimeithastaken inwritingwasthusrenderednon-existent,andanimmense poemexistswhichseemstobethelabourofalonglife, allproducedwithoutlabourorstudy.”Anexaggerated account,doubtless,butonethatshowsthespeedofmental creationduringaperiodoffrenzy.Howdifferentwasitwith LaRochefoucauld,whoissaidtohavespentfifteenyears onhisfamousMaxims,re-writingandre-polishingsomeof themthirtytimesbeforetheysatisfiedhim.Andhowdiffer entalsoisthecaseofDarwin,slowlygatheringfacts,record ingthem,classifyingthem,organisingthemwithaview toalargerunity,theideaofwhicheludeshimuntilhehas readMalthus'sOnPopulation.Thesethreeinstancesenable ustounderstandwhythewordinspirationhasbeenrefused asinapplicabletoanytypeofworkthatisatallmechanical andlaborious. Thepoet'sinspirationhasanease,anelevationanda manner—soitissaid—thatsuggestsadivineinbreathing: LaRochefoucauldandDarwinarereckonedasdignified plodders.Wedonotaccepttheseverdictsto-day.We know,forinstance,howTennysonconstructedhisIn Memoriam; weknowhowotherpoetsrevisedtheirwork, cuttinghereandenlargingthere;andweknowhowour literarystylistsagonisedtofindtheonewordorphrasethat betterthananyotherwouldembodytheirthoughts.Pater's erasuresandsubstitutedphrasesresultedinphysicalaswell asmentalexhaustion;andFlaubertwasreadytowork himselfintoafeverwhilstsearchingforthemotthatwould magicallyconjureuptheideainthereader'smind.”Asa matteroffactthislabourisbutthepreliminarytothe suddenillumination: thusitfulfilsthelaw.Ifitdidnot, whatcouldwesayofNapier'slogarithms,theworkingout ofwhichtooktwentylongyearsofarduouslabour,and *LettersofWilliamBlake. *Thisisvividlybroughtoutbythefiverenderings,beginning: “Ainsivud'enhaut.”—SeeRecueildeMorceauxChoisisd'Auteurs Français.London,1909. 92 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION concerningwhichLordMoulton,acompetentjudge,said thatthewholeconceptioncamelikeaboltfromtheblue,so remarkablewasitsoriginality.Nopreviousworkledupto it,andnothinghadforeshadowedorheraldeditsapproach." Workingandwaiting,inconstantrepetition,givesinspira tionapersonalhistory.AsDostoievskysaysinoneofhis Letters:“Itisthefateofallfirstbookstobealteredover andoveragain.I don’tknowwhetherChateaubriand’s Atalawashisfirstbook,butIdoknowherewroteitseven teentimes.Pushkindidthesamewithquiteshortpoems. Gogolusedtopolishawayathiswonderfulworksfortwo yearsatatime.”*. W

Poincaré,commentingonhisownexperiences,wasinclined toacceptthenotionthatonlyaportionofourunconscious thoughtsisinvitedtocrossthethresholdintotheconscious nessitself;andthatonlythoseunconsciousthoughtssuc ceedinmakingthetransitionwhichdirectlyorindirectly affectoursensibility.ThisseemstobeaFrenchrendering ofSirFrancisGalton’s“AntechamberofConsciousness,”" andthereisnodoubtthatittouchesupontheonefact whichmaygiveustheexplanation,sofarasitispossibleto haveone. Successinthinkingdependsonthreethings:first,“a largeattendanceintheantechamber’—thesubconscious; next,theabsenceofideasalientothetopicunderconsidera tion;and,finally,“thejustnessofthelogicalmechanism thatissuesthesummons.”* Theresultisthat“themind frequentlydoesgoodworkwithouttheslightestexertion.” *InanaddressattheNapierTercentenaryCelebrationsat Edinburgh. *Letters,p.23. *“WhenIamengagedintryingtothinkanythingout,thepro cessofdoingsoappearstobethis:theideasthatlieatanymoment withinmyfullconsciousnessseemtoattractoftheirownaccord themostappropriateoutofanumberofotherideasthatarelying closeathand,butimperfectlywithintherangeofmyconsciousness.” -InquiriesintoHumanFaculty,p.146. *Ibid.,p.146. 93 ORIGINALITY Thiscanonlybeexplainedbythefortunaterelationship which,inallpeopleoccasionally,andinmenofgeniusmore oftenandmorefully,isestablishedbetweenunconsciousand consciousmentalactivity.Sucharelationshipcannotbe initsoriginamatterofeducationordiscipline;itmustbe aninheritance=a.giftofthe-gods:and,howevermuch attentionmaybedevoted,undercompetentoversight,to \ thetrainingofunconsciousactivity,byconsciousmeans,the factremainsthatthetransitionsfromonespheretotheother aremostlydependentonnativefacility.Nevertheless, resultsofanotablekindhavebeenachievedonthelinesof | slowdevelopment.

Areviewofthelastfewparagraphsbringsintolightagain theoftenforgottenimpotenceofthewilltocontrolthe wholeofourmentalforces.Thedispositionofthedayis toglorifythewillasifitwerewellnighomnipotent; whereas,eveninsoinsignificantanoccurrenceasthefor gettingofaname,notallthewill-powerofwhichweare capablecanenableustorecallthemissingword;for #Themore annoyedwebecomebecausethewordeludesus,andthemore emphaticallyweresolvetofinditquickly,thelongerwill beoursearch,becauseastrongcombinationoffeelingand willblocktheway.Thensomethinghappenstodivertour attention:ourmindsareoccupiedbyotherthoughts,and, suddenly,thenameleapsintoconsciousness.Why?The waywasclear.Previousefforthadsetupatendencyto connecttwoassociationstogether,theconnectionbetween whichhadbecomeweak,butenergywasexpendeduselessly intryingtoforcematterstoaspeedyresultandthetendency wasrestrainedfromitsfulfilment.Atlastthemisspent energywasre-controlledandusedinanormalmanner;the energybehindtheset-uptendencygotitschance;thecon nectionwasestablishedandwithalittleshocktheforgotten *MrGrahamWallashassomeinterestingnotesonwhatthewill candoinChapterX.ofTheGreatSociety. 94 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION nameannounceditself.Thatwhichisnotinconsciousness atagivenmoment,andwhichrefusesasummonstoappear fromtheante-chamber,cannotbecompelledtoappearuntil therightassociationhasbeenfound.Forthis,timeisre quired;andtheattentionmustbediverted. Thesamelawholdsgood,apparently,inregardtoany transitionfromthesubconscioustotheconscious.'Even menofgeniuscannotcommandthepresenceofbrilliantly originalideas,anditwouldseemasifdeepconcentrationof aprolongedcharacterisapsychologicalerror.Thetrue method,accordingtoPoincaré,istoworkdiligentlyfora period,thentoturntoanewsourceofinterest.)Inthis connectiononerecallsastrikingcommentfromthepenof anotherFrenchman: “SinceIstudiednothingIhavelearnt much.Itisindeedinourleisurelystrollsthatourgreat intellectualandmoraldiscoveriesaremade.”1 And,lestthe readershouldimaginethattheauthorofSylvestreBonnard isnottobetrustedinsoseriousandexactareflection,we willrefertostillanotherFrenchman: RenéDescartes. ProfessorMahaffysaysofhimthathesleptagreatdeal, “andparticularlyrecommendsidlenessasnecessarytothe productionofgoodwork.”*Idleness,insensiblepropor tions,givesthesubconsciousminditsopportunity;close work,ontheotherhand,withitsconstantabsorptionofeye andbrain,monopolisesthewholeareaofthewakingmental life,allowingfewopportunitiesfortransitionsfromthesub conscioustotheconscious.

VII

Letthereaderbutrememberwhatheknowsofbiography, especiallythatofpoets,novelists,essayists,painters,and musicians,andhewillseethatthevagariesoftheartistic temperamenttakeonthesemblanceofrationality.Their lackadaisicalhabits,theireccentricitiesinpart,their *LifeandLetters(SecondSeries),p.116.Thereisanothersaying, attributedtoTellier:“Thebestemployedtimeisthatwhichone loses.”SeeHamerton’sIntellectualLife,p.369. *Descartes,p.138. 95 ORIGINALITY irrelevancies,theirbohemianismandtheirfitsoflazinesswere partandparceloftheirintellectualmethod;unconsciously theyobeyedapsychologicallawwhichdemandschange, leisure,andpartialday-dreamingifthebestresultsaretobe forthcoming.Thereisasenseinwhichstrenuousmental efforttoarriveatascientificsolution,ortophraseahaunting lineinpoetry,isprofoundlyunpsychological—unlessrelief issoughtinrecreationoridleness.Thesubconsciousmust havetimetoexerciseitscreativepower.Wallaceoftensaid hewaslazy.“Hisidleness,”saysonewhoknewhim, “washiswayofdescribinghislongmusings,waitingthe biddingofherwhomGodinspires—Truth,whooftenhides herfacefromthecloudedeyesofman.Forhours,days, weeks,hewasdisinclinedtowork.Hefeltnoconstraining impulse,hisattentionwasrelaxedorengageduponanovel, orhisseeds,ortheplanofanewhouse,whichalwaysexcited hisinterest.Then,apparentlysuddenly,whilstinoneof hisday-dreams,orina fever(asatTernate,torecallthe historicalepisodewhenthetheoryofNaturalSelectionstruck him),anexplanation,atheory,a discovery,theplanofa newbookcametohimlikeaflashoflight,andwiththeplan thematerial,thearguments,theillustrations;thewords cametumblingoveroneanotherinhisbrain,andassuddenly hisidlenessvanished.”” Thetruththatliesinsuchmisquoteddefinitionsas “Geniusisaninfinitecapacityfortakingpains”*isstill there,butitisnotevenahalftruth:itisaone-thirdtruth. Weseeitinthetremendousindustrythatfollowsaninspira tion;butthenotionthat“takingpains”—inotherwords, hardwork—canproduceoriginalityofthemostdistinctive kindis nonsense.*EvenMatthewArnoldcontradicted

*Thephilosophyofwork,asahumanactivity,containssome interesting,andratherdifficultproblems.Afewofthem(the naturalhistoryofwork,forinstance)aredealtwithinLeoSera's OntheTrackofLife,chapterentitled“WorkandMorals.” *LettersandReminiscences,vol.ii.,p.242. *Carlylesaid:“Genius(whichmeanstranscendentcapacityof takingtrouble,firstofall).”—FredericktheGreat,vol.i.,BookIV., chap.iii. *SeealsoTürck,TheManofGenius,pp.455-456. 96 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION himselfonthispoint.“Geniusismainlyanaffairofenergy,” hetellsusinhisessayonTheLiteraryInfluenceofAcademies, butinhisNoteBooks(pp.5-6)wefindthequalitiesthus tabulated: “Thethreetokensofgenius;extraordinaryunderstand ing,extraordinaryconduct,andextraordinaryexertion. “Thethreethingsthatimprovegenius:properexertion, frequentexertion,andsuccessfulexertion. “Thethreethingsthatsupportgenius:prosperity,social acquaintance,andapplause.” PaterinhisRenaissancecommentsonLeonardo'smany sidedness—aqualitythatdisposedhimtoaneffortwhich sometimesmadeitselfvisible—“asinthoseheavyGerman foreheads—tooheavyandGermanforperfectbeauty.. . . WhatananticipationofmodernGermany,forinstance,in thatdebateonthequestionwhethersculptureorpainting isthenoblerart!”ButtheItalianpainterdoesnotwork alldayandeverydayfortheilluminatingvision;he“will neverworktillthehappymomentcomes—thatmomentof bien-étrewhichtoimaginativemenisthemomentofinven tion.Onthishewaitswithperfectpatience;other momentsarebutapreparation,orafter-tasteofit.”"

VIII

VirtuosilikeJosefHofmann,Kreisler,Paderewski,and Godowskyhavestatedthattheydonot“work”inthe mannerinwhichanadmiringpublicisoftenledtobelieve.” IHofmannwhenaskedhowmuchhepractised,smiledashe said:“Notnearlysomuchasthenewspaperswouldlike tohaveme.Oftennotforaweek.Oftennotmorethanan hourandneverwhenIamincapableofabsoluteconcentra tion.”Kreisleraffirmedthatmusicianswerepositively superstitiousaboutpractice:“.. . thisgrindinganddulling ofthemind,aswellasthesense,forhoursatatime! It seemstomelittleshortofinsanity. . . Ican’tpractisefor *TheRenaissance,pp.117-118. *TheLiteraryDigest,18thDec.1915. G 97 ORIGINALITY morethanonehouratatime.. . . Icanlayfivehoursata time,buttopractise. . . . ” Perhapsidleness,asavirtue,isaconceptionnoteasily admitted,inviewofthedoctrinethatallworkissacred. Butaremodernideasofthevalueofworknecessarilytruein everydetail' Thattheyaretrueinregardtothediscipline ofcharactermaybetakenforgranted,but,forintellectual progress,absorptioninroutine,oranyformofinquirywith outtheadvantagesofvariation,isclearlyamistake."A wisethinker,keenonanykindofdiscovery,neverwearies himselftoexhaustionbypursuingonelineofinvestigation totheexclusionofeveryother,unceasingly,unrestingly; heknowsthataftercarefulworkhecansafelyleavethesub consciousactivitiestocontributetheirsharetothefinal solution.Prof.WilliamJames,inoneofhislecturesto teachers,saysthatafriendofhis,anxioustosucceedina particulardirection,alwaysthoughtaboutsomethingelse— withgoodresults.TheProfessordoesnotdoubtthestate ment,butheseemstoregarditasunusualandfreakish. Sustainedconcentration,insomecasesatleast,will“groove’’ themindandunfititforthatspontaneityonwhichwerely forthetrulyindividualqualityofthought;andeventhough Newtonissaidtohavediscoveredthelawofgravitationby “thinkingaboutit’’thereisnoevidencetoshowthathe workedatthisproblemuntilhesolvedit—givingnoatten tiontoBiblicalprophecy,astrology,andotherlightsubjects. Work?Perhapsthepresentcenturywillnotpasswithout revisingsomeofournotionsontherelationshipbetween leisureandprogress.InAmerica,whereworkisavocation anda destiny,thereispublisheda translationofPaul Lafargue'sbookontherighttobelazy.”InEnglandthe pamphletdoesnotseemtobeknown,buttheideaisfamiliar, thesocialistshavingpreacheditforagoodmanyyearspast. Itisabitofsocialismweshouldliketoseeinfullrealisation, justaswehopetoseeotherbitssinkintothenethermost abyss.Andthispleaforleisureneednotrevoltthesoulof *Seetheinterestingchapteron“RoutineandGenius”inHight's UnityofWill. *TheRighttobeLazy. 98 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION JeworChristian,fortheybothcherishthestoryofthe GardenofEden.BeforeAdamfellhewasagentlemanof lightoccupation,andyetthisstateisheldouttousasthe firstandperfectconditionofGod-createdman.Butwhen Adam“fell,”andthecursewaspronounceduponhim,he foundthatheandhisseedhadbeensentencedtohard labourforlife.WhatthenisthetrueconceptionofParadise?” Thetruthisthatthemoderneraofindustrialandcommercial expansion,aworld-embracingphenomenon,hasblindedus totheneedofleisure,notonlyforoneclass,butforall classes.Andevenwhentheleisurehasbeenfound,itdis coversussoexhaustedmentallywiththemonotoniesof labourthatwehavebeengladtoparticipateinformsofre creationwhichdonotfosterrealadvanceinthethingsthat matter.Theleisurewedesiderateisthequietspecies,not thefifty-milerushtoaseasideresort,followedbyunhygienic methodsofeatinganddrinkingthatculminateinthefag ofweek-ending.

Theconclusion,therefore,isthattheremustbeworkand waiting.Ifitisamentallawthatconcentrationmustnot beprolongedwhengoodresultsaresoughtfor,itisalsoa mentallawthatinspirationsdependonacertainamountof disciplinedlabour.LNapoleonbelievedthatbattleswere wonbymeansofsuddeninspirationsonthefield—mental excitementbeingthegeneratingpower,andthepreviously acquiredknowledgeofstrategy,tactics,men,material,and terrain,thesubstance.Thechancesarethatanuntutored Napoleonwouldhavehadnoinspirationsatall.Jolyhas itthat“wheneveraman,inconcentratinghisfacultiesona matterofimportance,conceivesanideawhichsurpriseshim bythemagnitudeofitsresults,wesaythathehasbeen inspired;butitwillbedifficulttoaverthatamanhasever *“Originalpersonshavealsoforthemostpartbeenthenamers ofthings,”saysNietzsche-JoyfulWisdom,pp.207-208. *Theindignity—anddignity—oflabour,soablyarguedinProf. Veblen'sTheoryoftheLeisureClass,is,ofcourse,notwithinour purview. 99 ORIGINALITY beeninspiredinanartotherthanthatwhichheunderstands andpractisescontinually,andforwhichhehasanatural inclination.”" Observationandexperimentarethekeywordsofthe scientificmethod,butforyearsnowwehaverealisedthat thepoetandtheartist,themanofscienceandeventheman ofbusiness,areofimaginationakin.Tennyson,onhisknees, peeringintothedepthsofabubblingspringinorderthathe mayknowitseveryaspect,isascientificobserver;hebecomes anexperimentalistwhenheessaystoembodyhisvision inwords—notsucceedingatfirst,perhaps;theinspiration comesaftereffort.”MadameCurie,insearchofradium,and Selfridgeinsearchofnewcommercialconquests,exhibitthe samestagesintheirprogress:aclosestudyofthefactscon cerned,anefforttowardsrealisation,afewset-backs,then, finally,thedesiredresult.Sothebrainworkerinanyfieldof operationmaynowlogicallyplacehimselfsidebysidewith theartist—i.e.observe,strive,andwaitforhisinspiration. OnthispointProfessorLloydMorganremarksthat“itis idletoexpectthroughtheapplicationofrulesofscientific proceduretoattainscientificinsight;forthemanofscience, insofarasheiscreative,isanartist.Onecanonlysayto him,asonewouldsaytootherartists:Saturateyourself throughandthroughwithyoursubjectandwithallthat bears,ormaybearuponit,andwait.Iftheflashofinsight comes,treasureit,andthenpatientlyworkitoutinallits bearings,rememberingthatnoartproductismadecon vincingwithoutlabour.Thenyoumayapplyyourrulesof scientificmethod,withprofitandadvantage.Andifitdoes notcome,stillwait.”.”Maeterlinck'sLifeoftheBeeisasug gestivecombinationofscienceandthepoeticspirit.More over,hismethodsarethosewhichwehaveprovedtobe trulypsychological.Hebelievesinworkplusmeditation—a *PsychologiedesGrandsHommes,p.232. *Byron,inTheBrideofAbydos,firstwrote:“Mindonherlife andmusiconherface.”Inthenextdraftitwas:“Themindof musicbreathinginherface.”Finallyitwas:“Themind,themusic breathingfromherface.” *ComparativePsychology,p.307.Thewaitingshould,ofcourse, beexpectant.Towaithopelesslyistohinderthedesiredresult. IOO : :

2, *, *, * *, * * *** - " - THELAWSOFINSPIRATION meditationthatallowsthemindtogoitsownway,superficial attentionbeinggiventothelifearound—nature,social doings,theprocessofdailyexperience.“Whenoneisable tofollowMaeterlinck'sexperience,stepbystep,”sayshis wife,“onegetsarevelationoftheformidablerôleplayedby theunconsciousinourspirits.Hisworkisnottheresultofa mentalintentiononly;itemanatesfromaforcewhichisin perpetualmovement,alwaysawake,whichactsunknownto him,outsideofhim,andseemstotakeonahumanvoicein ordertodictatethoseprofoundpageswhichhehaswritten aboutthesharewhichthisveryunconsciousnesshasinour thoughts.”"

Afinalhypothesisastothereasonwhywaitingmust followworkingisfoundinthelawofintellectualrhythm; butasthishasconsiderableimportanceforotherreasonsit maybewisetostudyitseparately.

B.InspirationisgovernedbytheprocessofIntellectual Rhythm. Weconfesstosomeconfusionwhenweareaskedtodefine thislaw,butofthefactitselfwearequitecertain: themind hasitsperiodsofexpansionandcontraction—thesystole andthediastoleofitsheart.InoneofitsaspectsMrs Meynellhasdescribedthemoraloutcomeoftheprocess. “Periodicity,”shesays,“rulesoverthementalexperience ofmanaccordingtothepathoftheorbitofhisthoughts.. . . Happinessisnotamatterofevents;itdependsonthetides ofthemind.”*Hopeandfear,exaltationanddepression —thesearepartofeveryhumanlot;onlythegodsgofree. Theworldofspiritualthingsinitsentirety—andapparently theworldofmaterialthingsalso—issubjecttothislaw. Coleridge,speakingofthemorallawofpolarity,remarks that“whenthemaximumofonetendencyhasbeenattained *“Maeterlinck'sMethodsofLifeandWork."SeeContemporary Review,November,1910. *TheRhythmofLife,p.1. IOI oRIGINALITY thereisnogradualdecrease,butadirecttransitiontoits minimum,tilltheoppositetendencyhasattaineditsmaxi mum;andthenyouseeanothercorrespondingrevulsion. WiththeRestorationcameinallatoncethemechanico corpuscularphilosophy,which,withtheincreaseofmanu factures,tradeandarts,madeeverythinginphilosophy, religionandpoetryobjective;till,atlength,attachmentto mereexternalworldlinessandformsgottoitsmaximum— whenoutbursttheFrenchRevolution;andwithitevery thingbecameimmediatelysubjective,withoutanyobjectat all.”1.

Andastostrictlymaterialissuesrhythmclearlygoverns thewelfareofourinvestments”whicharetabulatedaccording totheirhighestandlowest.Theebbandflowmaybe differentherefromwhattheyarethere;herealingeringebb andtherea fullerflowing,butthefactremains:weare creaturesofaworldinwhichrhythmrules.Thenhowdoes thisaffectoriginality?Itcausesperiods,longorshort,of dullnessandinfertilityjustasreadilyasitcausesperiodsof livelyimaginationwhenideasbubbleupfromthedepths. Weallknowtheseperiods—thegloomofthestagnantdays

*TableTalk,p.149.SimilarlyFalckenbergsays:“TheGreek viewoftheworldisasclassicastheplasticartofPhidiasandthe epicofHomer;theChristian,aseternallyvalidasthearchitecture oftheMiddleAges;themodern,asirrefutableasGoethe'spoetry andthemusicofBeethoven.Theviewsoftheworldwhichproceed fromthespiritsofdifferentagesasproductsofthegeneraldevelop mentofculture,arenotsomuchthoughtsasrhythmsinthinking, nottheoriesbutmodesofintuitionsaturatedwithfeelingsofworth.” —HistoryofModernPhilosophy. *“Thusfarinoursurveyweobservethatthecommercialrhythms ofwhichwehavebeentreating,undergoacontinualriseandfall. Thelowestpointsatwhichironissold; thetimeatwhichtheleast numberofimmigrantsarriveinthecountry;thetimewhentherail roadbuildingistheleastactive; thetimewhenstocksreachtheir lowestpoints;thetimeswhenfailuresarethemostnumerous;these times,withbutminordifference,occurtogether.”—R.H.Smith, TheScienceofBusiness.NewYork. IO2 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION andtheboundingjoyofthosethatarecreative.Wedisagree withMrsMeynellwhenshesaysthat“man—exceptthe elect—ishardlyawareofperiodicity. . . theindividual manneverlearnsitfully,orlearnsittoolate.”Wearenot oftheelect,andyetweknowperiodicityonlytoowell;but ifMrsMeynellmeansthatweneverstudythetidesofthe mind,andthatwemakethemistakeoftryingtocreateideas duringtheebbinsteadoftheflow,weagree.Theunfortun atepartisthatdutyoftencallsuponustoproducegood workwhengoodworkispsychologicallyimpossible,and then. . . ? Nevertheless,theuseofobservationandexperimentin thestudyofmentalrhythmshouldhavepracticalvalueof thehighestkind.Whenimportantworkisbeforeusitisa manifestadvantagetoknowthetimes,seasons,andcircum stanceswhenexperienceandexperimenthaveassuredus wemayexpectthebestresults.Toblunderalongun scientifically,notknowingthesethings,istowasteenergy andtoachieveonlyamodicumoftheexcellencethatmight otherwisebeforthcoming.

Wenowturntotheotherquestion—namely,whetherthe lawofrhythm,asnowunderstood,castsanylightonthe reasonwhywaitingfollowsworking,apartfromthosereasons alreadyadduced.Wethinkitdoes.Allilluminationisthe outcomeofthealternateactionoftheconsciousandthe subconscious.WemaynotagreealtogetherwithSouriau thatoriginalityisnevertheresultofpurereflection,butwe canagreetothisextent,thattheforwardmovementof reflectionseldomsucceedsinarrivingatasolution;per sistencyinthinkinginacontinuouslineisrarelyeffective. Theexplanationseemstobethatonlybyarhythmical movementcanthewealthofmentalassociations,consciou andsubconscious,bedrawnwithintherequiredradius.

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C.Afurtherconditionofinspiration,closelyrelatedto thefirst,isthis:thatthenewideaispartlydependentforits IO3 ORIGINALITY birthontheactionoftherightexternalstimulus.These stimulimaybeclassifiedasprimaryandsecondary,thefirst consistingofthosethingsseenandheardwhichapplythe sparktoatrainofthoughtthathaspreviouslybeenpre paredinthebrain;thesecondclassiscomposedofobjects, positions,orgeneralsurroundingswhichfosterthecreative moody.WhenRousseauwaswalkingfromParistoVincennes onehotsummer'sday,toaskaboutDiderot,theninprison, hechancedtoseeinanewspaper,whichhehadpickedup attheroadside,anoticeofathemepropoundedbytheDijon Academy.SilerétablissementdesSciencesetdesArtsa contribuédépurerlesmaeurs.“Ifanythingeverresembled asuddeninspiration,”hewritestoMonsieurdeMalesherbes, “itwasthemovementthatbeganinmeasIreadthis.All atonceIfeltmyselfdazzledbyathousandsparklinglights; crowdsofvividideasthrongedintomymindwithaforce andconfusionthatthrewmeintoanunspeakableagitation . . . aviolentpalpitationoppressedme.. . . Isankunder oneofthetreesintheavenueandpassedhalf-an-hourthere.” Oneissurprisedhedidnotweepalso—hisemotionalismoften tookthatform,unless,asislikely,healwaysexaggerated— but,asaninstanceoftherightexternalstimulus,nothing couldbetterserveourpurpose.Theaveragegeniusgenerally receivesonethoughtbywayofa suddeninspiration: Rousseaureceivedacrowdofthem—orwasitthatonegreat ideaflashedthroughhismindandheimmediatelybeganto formulateaseriesofinferences! Wecannottell.Butof onethingwearecertain:ifRousseauhadnotbeenthinking previouslyonthelinesofthethemereferredto,thenews f 1paperitemwouldnothavemadethesameimpressiononhim. Weonlyrespondtoastimulusforwhichthemindhashad anadequatepreparation.Thatiswhythegreatmenof oneagearealwaysindebtedtothegreatmenofprevious ages.Allinspiration,ofcourse,doesnotcomeinthesame

*AgroupofsuchinstanceshasbeenmadebyDrC.J.Whitbyin hisMakersofMen.“Goethewasprofoundlyinfluencedbythe geniusofShakespeare;Scottowedastrongimpulsetopoetryto histranslationofGoetzvonBerlichingen; Flaubert'srealismwas largelybasedonsympathywithhisfather'senthusiasmforscience; IO4 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION wayandfromonlyonesource,buttheinstancesquotedand thosetofollow—somewhatfamiliar,weconfess—provethat themostdirectstimulusforapoet1orforascientistisother poetryandotherscience.

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WhenByronhadconceivedtheideaofhisSardanapalus —thegermwasdiscoveredinJuvenal'sdescriptionofOtho —heproceededtodevelopitinamannerofwhichhegives asomewhatdetailedaccountinhisDiary.

Jan.13,1821.—Saturday.Sketchedtheoutlineand drams.pers.ofanintendedtragedyofSardanapaluswhichI haveforsometimemeditated.TookthenamesfromDio dorusSiculus(IknowthehistoryofSardanapalus,andhave knownitsinceIwastwelveyearsold);andreadovera passageintheninthvolumeoctavoofMitford’sGreece, whereherathervindicatesthememoryofthislastofthe Assyrians. Jan.14,1821.TurnedoverSeneca’stragedies.Wrote theopeninglinesoftheintendedtragedyofSardanapalus. Rodeoutsomemilesintotheforest.Mistyandrainy. Returned—dined—andwrotesomemoreofmytragedy. ReadDiodorusSiculus—turnedoverSeneca,andsomeother books,Wrotesomemoreofthetragedy.Tookaglassof grOg.. . . Feb.15,1821.Lastnightfinishedthefirstactof Sardanapalus.. . . GalileoowedmanysuggestionstothestudyofLeonardo'sMSS.; Harvey'slife-longinterestintheproblemofcirculationwasdirectly inspiredbyhisintimacywithFabricius;Leibnitzwasprofoundly influencedbythestudyofBacon;Kant,bythestudyofHume; Darwin,bytheexampleofHenslowandthegeneralisationof Malthus;Jesus,bytheteachingsofHillel,Isaiah,DanielandJohn theBaptist;MarcusAurelius,byhisadmirationoftheEmperor

Antoninus,”etc.(p.286). - Pindarsays:“Poetfrompoetlearnshisartbothnowandof old.”—QuotedinButcher'sHarvardLecturesonGreekSubjects, P.I39. Io5 ORIGINALITY Ravenna,May28,1821.Sincemylastofthe26thand 25thIhavedashedoffmyfifthact.. . . Butnowcomesthe copyingover,whichmayproveheavywork—heavytothe writerastothereader." Herethestimuluscomesfromvariousquarters:Diodorus Siculus,Mitford'sGreece,butchieflyfromthetragediesof Seneca.Thereadingofsuchauthorsfocusesattentionin suchawayastocreateatmosphere:this,initsturn,brings themoodinwhichthereiseaseofrecollectionandasurprising facilityinformingassociationsleadingtounityofconception. GeorgeEliotsaidthatshemightadmitallRousseau'serrone ousviews,andyet“itwouldnotbelesstruethatRousseau's geniushassenttheelectricthrillthroughmyintellectualand moralframe,whichhasawakenedmetonewperceptions— andwhichhasmademanandnatureafreshworldofthought andfeelingtome;notbyteachingmeanynewbelief.It issimplythattherushingmightywindofhisinspirationhas soquickenedmyfacultiesthatIhavebeenabletoshape moredefinitelyformyselfideaswhichhadpreviouslydwelt indimAhnungeninmysoul.””

XIV Theseexampleshavetheircounterpartinthelifeofevery manwhosevocationrequiresfertilityofidea:heneedssome thingtostimulatehisinvention,andheusuallyfindsitin workofananalogouscharacter—whichhepurposelyseeks. Butveryoftentherightstimuluscomesunsought.Lifeis onevastfieldofhetero-suggestion,notmerelyintheinvita tionstobuythegoodsofthosewhosell,orinthetendency toimitatesocialcustoms,ortoconformtopublicopinion, butinthevarietyofideasthatassailus.Theseideasare oftenofafugitivecharacter,buttheireffectivenessisnot necessarilyimpairedonthataccount.Therightstimulus maycomeaswereadthenewspaper,talkwithafriend,walk thestreet,ormotorthroughthecountry.Onlytheman *Pebody'sAuthorsatWork,p.264. *LifeofGeorgeEliot,vol.i.,p.199. I06 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION withmorethanaveragesensitivenesstoexternalimpressions respondstotheunsoughtstimulithatbringinspiration. Thestimuliclassifiedassecondaryweredefinedasthose composedofobjects,positions,orgeneralsurroundingswhich fosterthecreativemood.Ibsenusedtokeepanumberof littleimagesonhiswritingdesk:theyhelpedhiminthe workofcomposition,hesaid,butdeclinedtosayhow,adding: “Thatismysecret.”Similarly,Kantusedacertaintower, visiblefromhisstudywindow,asasortofmentalfocusfor thinkingouthiscategories;andwhen,inthecourseoftime, sometreesgrewupandhidthetower,hewrotetotheCity Councilaskingthemtocutdownthetreessothathemight oncemoreseethetower,andthink.Thestorygoesthat theCityFatherscomplied.Buffon'seccentricitiesarewell known,thechiefamongwhichwashisinabilitytothinkto goodpurposeexceptinfulldress.Shelleyfoundthat munchingbreadwashelpfulincomposing,justasAddison andSheridanlikedtohaveabottleofwinehandy,and SchilleraflaskofOldRhenish—alsorottenapplesinhis desk.Gautiersaid:“Itisonlythesmellofprinter'sink thatcanmakememove.”DrJohnsonneededapurring cat,andorangepeelandteawithinreach.Jokaicouldnot writeunlesshehadvioletink: blackandblueinkwould makeworkimpossible—ithadtobeeithervioletinkora leadpencil.ThomasHardy,priortobeginningwork,always removeshisbootsorslippers.CharlesLamb'ssistersays thatEliacoulddonothinginaroomwithbareandwhite washedwalls;thatwasthekindofroominwhichStevenson couldworktoadvantage.Thecontrastsinhabitareas strikingasitispossibletoimagine;forwhilstRousseau likedtothinkouthispagesbare-headedinthesun,Bossuet preferredtoworkinacoldroom,hisheadwrappedinfurs; andZolapulleddowntheblindsatmiddaybecausehe foundmorestimulusinartificiallight.Ribotremarksthat “somerequiremotorexcitation;theyworkonlywhen walkingorelseprepareforworkbyphysicalexercise.”” Andyetthereareotherswho,likeMilton,Descartes, *MostofthesedetailsarefoundinErichsen’sMethodsofAuthors. *TheCreativeImagination,p.73. 107 ORIGINALITY Leibnitz,andRossini,findthehorizontalpositionmore advantageous." Totheaverageman,especiallythepracticalmanofbusi ness,orthecitylawyer,thesefactsaremereodditiesof characterandhavenothingwhatevertodowithfostering themoodinwhichpoets,dramatistsandothersdiscover theirbestthoughts.Butwecannotsaysomuchasthat. Immediatesurroundingshaveagreatdealtodowithmental processes:witnessthehealthyandmuscularfarmerwho, seldomifeverawayfromhome,cannotsleepinastrange room.Hisconsciousnessneedsa certainaccustomeden vironmentjustashisbodyrequiresapositionthatmust be“justso’’;otherwisesleepwillnotcome.Theeccen tricitiesofthewritingfraternityareproverbial;theyhavea longandcurioushistoryandwearecompelledtoadmitthat, sofarfrombeingartificialitiesoraffectations,theyarea realpartofthepsychologyofcomposition.Thebankerwho hasdiscoveredthattowalkfromCharingCrosstotheCity (wheneverhehasaproblemtosolve)istoseedaylighton adifficultsituation,canbeassuredthathiscaseisnodifferent fromthatofpoetandlittérateur:hehassetupawell markedtopographicalassociationbetweendifficultyand solution. XV ( * D.Acloserstudyoftheadventofnewideasprovesthat *\theemploymentofanalogy,consciouslyorunconsciously,isa creativemethod.Beforewegivethismethodtheattention itdeservesitmaybewelltoshowitsrelationshiptoknow ledgeperse.Baindefinesknowledgeastheconsciousness wehaveofthedifferencefromandagreementwith—i.e.when surveyingphenomena,andespeciallyphenomenanewtous, wecanonlyknowonethingfromanotherbymarksof agreementanddifference.”

Thispositionstillholdsgoodasastatementofourex *TheInfluenceofBodilyPostureonMentalActivities,byE.E. Jones,Ph.D. *TheSensesandtheIntellect,p.335.1894. IO8 * THELAWSOFINSPIRATION perience—thewayinwhichexternalfactsareunderstoodby us.If,then,analogyoccupiessoimportantaplaceinthe schemeofthemind’sactivity,thereisallthemorereason tosupposethatfurtherknowledgeaswellasnewideas havenosmallconnectionwiththesamemethodof understanding. Thisisthemethod:ourmindsgatherideasfromexperi ence.Theseideasareclassified,andastandardissetupfor eachclass.Newfactsareknownmainlybytheirdifference fromfactspreviouslyknown,butthediscoveryinmostcases arisesoutofsomepointsofsimilarity.Likenessanddiffer encearegoverningmentaloperations:wecannoteven imaginetheallegedinhabitantsoftheplanetMarswithout thinkingoftheminhumanterms—i.e.theirpointsofagree mentanddisagreementwithourselves.Therearethirty sixvarietiesofhaddocks,andonlyaBillingsgateexpertcan identifythem:thishedoesbyknowingtoanicetytheir resemblancesanddifferences.

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Itfollows,therefore,thatuntilallthepossibleanalogies havebeenperceivedandallthepossiblecontrastscatalogued thereisawholeworldofdiscoveriesyettobeexploited;and insteadofsayingthereisnonewthingunderthesunwerather oughttobeimpressedbythenarrownessofourknowledge. Analogyhasplayedagreatpartinscience,inphilosophy, andinart: anditissuggestivetonotethatnearlyallour greatproblemsareconcernedwithfactsforwhichwecan findnoanalogy—e.g.consciousness,andtheoriginanddestiny oflife.Insteadourmysteriesarethoseofbeginningsand endings—ortheborderlineswhichatonceuniteanddivide onekingdomofnaturefromanother.Geniushasalways beenmarkedbyitskeenperceptionofanalogy,andProfessor 1CarvethRead,inaninterestingarticleon“TheFunctionsof RelationsinThought,”saysthatgeniusconsistsinanunusualpower of“thoughtbyanalogy,”butaddsthat“thesensitivenesstoanalogy . .must(itseemstome)besupportedbyextraordinarypowerof registeringexperiences.”-BritishJournalofPsychology,vol.iv., I09 ORIGINALITY Jamesendeavouredtodrawadistinctionbetweenthosewho merelynoticetheanalogyandthosewhoobeyit. Perhapswe hadbetterquotehisownwords:“Accordingtoourview, therearetwostagesinreasonedthought,onewheresimilarity merelyoperatestocallupcognatethoughts,andanother fartherstagewhenthebondofidentitybetweenthecognate thoughtsisnoticed;somindsofgeniusmaybedividedinto twomainsorts,thosewhonoticethebondandthosewhomerely obeyit. Thefirstaretheabstractreasoners,properlyso called,themenofscienceandphilosophers—theanalysts,in aword;thelatterarethepoets,thecritics,theartists—in aword,themenofintuitions.”Thendonotthepoets noticetheanalogywhentheyobeyit! Itisnoverbal quibbletoasksucha question.WhatProfessorJames meant,nodoubt,wasthedifferencebetweentheworkingof analogyinonemind—saythepoet's,andanothermind,say thatofaphysicist.Intheonecasethereisnodeliberate search; intheotherthereis. Butbothmustnoticethe analogyandbothmustobeyit. Theonemoreeasilythinks andtalksinfiguresofspeechbecausehissubjectsaremore variedincharacter;buttheother,withinthelimitsseverely imposeduponhimbythenatureofhisinvestigations,has justaskeenaneyefortheadvantageofanalogy.Professor JameshimselfwouldhaveadmittedthatFechnerthoughton themethodofanalogyasrichlyasanypoet.”

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Thefactis,analogyisanecessarymodeofallourthinking, andgeniusisoftenanothernameforthepowertoseesimi laritiesinphenomena,naturalormental,thathavehitherto beenundetected.MrHavelockEllishasbroughtthisout clearlyinhisImpressionsandComments.“Itwasafineand 1911.Ackermannpointsoutthatoneofthetwoconstituentsof Plato'ssystemis:“Analogyexplainsthetotalityofthings.”—The ChristianElementinPlato,p.171. *PrinciplesofPsychology,vol.ii.,p.361. *SeehisstudyofFechnerinAPluralisticUniverse:“Fechner's greatinstrumentforvivifyingthedaylightviewisanalogy”(p.150). IIO THELAWSOFINSPIRATION deepsayingofAristotle,”hesays,“thatthegreatestthing \byfaristobemasterofmetaphor.Thisisthemarkof genius,for,saidhe,itimpliesanintuitiveperceptionof similarityindissimilars.)Allthegreatthinkershavebeen mastersofmetaphorbecauseallvividthinkingmustbein imagesandthephilosopherwhosemetaphorsareblurredand dilutedisonewhosethinkingisblurredanddiluted.Thus itcomesaboutthatthethinkerswhosurvivearethethinkers whowrotewellandaremostnearlypoets.(Allgreatthinkers aregreatmastersofmetaphorbecauseallthinkingofany kindmustbebyanalogy.”Ahostofillustrationssprings tothemindimmediately.Booletracedtheanalogybetween logicandalgebra,justasDescarteshadpreviouslyshownthe likenessbetweenalgebraandgeometry.Sosoonaslight andradiantheatarefoundtohavesimilaritiesnewerdis coveriesimmediatelyfollow.Faradayfoundtherotationof theplaneofabeamofpolarisedlightbyamagnet,andatonce Wartmannfoundthatabeamofpolarisedheatrayswas similarlyaffected.”Modernknowledgeis repletewith similarillustrations.IgoEtrich,theinventoroftheTaube flyingmachine,gothisideawhilstinIndia,wherehenoticed *thattheseedoftheZanonia,akindofIndianvine,was practicallya naturalaeroplane.Ithascurvedcrescent wings,slightlyturnedupatthetips.Theseedproperis placedinthecentreofthisvegetable“plane’’intheposition ofa pilotinamonoplane,thusgivingitbalance;and althoughTaubesarenowsupersededthewingprincipleis stillconsideredsoundandreliable.8

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Inthingsmedicalanalogyhashadandwillcontinueto havethesamerangeofapplication.DrForbesRoss, observingtheknottedoutgrowthsonthetreesinhisorchard, *ImpressionsandComments,pp.81-82.SeealsoMaxMüller's articleon“MetaphorasaModeofAbstraction,”inTheFortnightly Review(1886). *Gore,ArtofDiscovery,p.329. *ArticleinTheEveningNews,1stFeb.1915. III ORIGINALITY wasledtoaskhimselfwhythetreesintheforestsoseldom hadthesegrowths,forhethoughthedetectedadeparture fromnormalhealthintheseuglydevelopments:hebeganto thinkofthemastree-cancers.Theconclusionatwhichhe ultimatelyarrivedwasthattheywerecausedbytheabsence ofpotassiuminthesoil.Thisabsencewasexplainedby thefactthatinorchardsalltheleavesareusuallyswept away,andthegrassiseithereatenbycattleorcutforhay. Thepotashthusremoved,thetreesdevelopexcrescences andoutgrowths,theirlimbswither,andthefruitbecomes lop-sided.Intheforests,ontheotherhand,wherethe potashisgivenbacktothesoil,thetreesremainperfectfor hundredsofyears.Andjustaspotassiumisabsentfrom cultivatedorchards,whichdevelopaformofcancer,soitis sometimeslargelyabsentfromthewaterwedrinkandthe foodweeat.DrForbesRossconcludedthatpotassium wouldbearemedyforthisfrightfuldisease,andheclaimed thatexperimentprovedhisargument.Medicalauthorities maydisputehistheoriesanddoubthisevidence,butthey cannotdenytherightnessofhismethod. Buttakea verydifferentillustrationofanalogy.Mr T.A.CookhaswrittenaremarkablebookcalledTheCurves ofLife,aboutwhichweshallhavemoretosayinanother place.MrCook’sstudyofspiralformationsinnature, science,art—everywhere,infact—maybebestunderstood inthelightofhisownwords:“JustasNewtonbeganby postulatingPerfectMotionandthenceexplainedthework ingofthesolarsystem,soitmaybepossibletopostulate PerfectGrowth(bymeansofa logarithmicspiral)and thencearriveatsomelawrulingtheformsoforganicobjects asgravitationisheldtoprevailinthephysicalworld.”We shouldnotliketosaythatMrCookhassatisfiedhisreaders, butthosereadersareverygratefultohimforthetwenty yearshespentinthestudyofcurvesasseeninhisenter tainingchapters.Speakingforourselves,wethinkitwould bewisertopostulatenothing.Followordinarymethodsof inductiveinquiry.Alreadyenoughmaterialhasbeen gatheredtoshowthatthecurveisafundamentalwitha secretinitsgrasp;andonedaywemayhaveathrill.But

II2 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION whatisitthatissostronglyappealinginsuchbooksasThe CurvesofLife?ItiswhatBaincalled“thefetchofsimi larity.”Thereissomethinginusthatcompelsaloveof analogy.Weseeitinthelonglifeofsuchtreatisesas utler'sAnalogy,Bagehot'sPhysicsandPolitics,andeven. Drummond’sNaturalLawintheSpiritualWorld.

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Weseeitalsoindisplaysofwitandhumour.WhenSir JamesBarriewasaskedbyanenterprisingeditortogive someaccountofhismethodsofwork,hewrote,inreply:

Journalism Fiction

2pipes . I hour 8pipes I OZ. 2hours. I idea 7 OZ.. I week I idea. . 3paragraphs2 weeks 1 chapter 3paragraphsI leader 2Ochapters. 1 nib 2 nibs I novel

Similarly,MrStephenLeacock’s“LodgingHouseEuclid”A.' isastatementofthevicissitudesoftheboarderintermsof postulatesanddefinitions.Wereproducethree:

Alandladyisaparallelogram—orotherplain,oblong, irregularfigurewhichcannotbedescribed,andisequalto anything.

Thebedclothesofalodging-housebed,thoughproduced eversofarbothways,willnevermeet.

Ifthereshallbetwolodgersinthesameflat,andthe amountofsideofonebeequaltotheamountofsideofthe other—eachtoeach—andthewranglebetweenonelodger andthelandladybeequaltothewranglebetweentheland ladyandtheotherlodger,thenshalltheweeklybillsofthe twolodgersbeequal—alsoeachtoeach; forifnot,letone billbethegreater—thentheotherbillislessthanitmight havebeen,whichisabsurd.

h II3 ORIGINALITY Thegratifiedfeelingthatarisesaswereadthesesparkling eventhoughforcedanalogiescanonlyspringfromasenti mentalregardforunityofidea.WhenMrLloydGeorge wasadvocatinghislandpolicy,awagwrotetothepapers tosaythatasheownedapieceofgroundinBrookwood Cemetery,sixfeetbythree,forwhichhehadnouseatthe moment,hewouldpresentitfreeofchargeonconditionthat theChancellorwouldenterintoimmediateoccupation.It wasthesortofjokethatdinersretailedtoeachotheratthe clubs,andthereasonwhyfriendandfoealikeenjoyeditwas, ofcourse,itspointedanalogyofconception.Thesamemay besaidofthestoryofWendellPhillipswhenhewasona lecturingtourinOhio.Tackledasanabolitionistbysome clergymen,thefollowingdialoguetookplace.Saidoneof theparsons: “AreyouMrPhillips?”

&4Iam.” “Areyoutryingtofreetheniggers?” “Yes;Iamanabolitionist.” “Well,whydoyoupreachyourdoctrinesuphere?Why don’tyougooverintoKentucky2” “Excuseme,areyouapreacher?” &c.Iam.” “Areyoutryingtosavesoulsfromhell?” “Yes;thatismybusiness.” “Well,whydon’tyougothere?”"

ThereisaphraseusedbyDeQuinceywhichisworthy ofreproduction.Itis:“Anelectricaptitudeforseizing analogies.”Hehadoftenbeencomplimentedonhismar vellousmemory,andthecomplimentsoffendedhim;forhe *QuotedinBrill'sPsychanalysis—chapteron“Freud'sTheory ofWit.”Schoolboy“howlers”areoftentheoutcomeofmistaken analogiesduetosound.“TheKingwasnottoordertaxiswithout theconsentofParliament.”“HenryVIII.wasveryfat,besides beingaNonconformist.”“Peopleoftenlosetheirconscienceswhen theyareill.” II4 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION believedthatitwasnotmemorythatgavehimpowerso muchas“thefarhigherpowerofanelectricaptitudefor seizinganalogies,andbymeansoftheseaerialpontoons passingoverlikelightningfromonetopictoanother.”" Thequicknesswithwhichanalogiesareperceived,recorded, andused,iscertainlysomeguidetomentalability.”Butthe perceptionneednotbespeedyinordertopossessworth. WhatcouldbebetterthanthisfromRibot: “Allimagin ativemetaphysicshaveadynamicbasis,e.g.PlatonicIdeas, Leibnitz'sMonadology,theNaturePhilosophyofSchelling, Schopenhauer'sWillandHartmann’sUnconscious.”* In asectiononthemind’sloveofunity,SirWilliamHamilton givesusthesecretofourlikingofanalogies."Itisour efforttoreducethemanytotheone,anditisoneofthecauses ofphilosophyitself.Ifamanshouldaskforamethodthat, applieddiligentlyandintelligently,wouldleadtopromising results,hecouldnotdobetterthanceasetoviewhisproblem asanisolatedfact,butasonehavinganalogousfactsinother spheres,astudyofwhichcannotbutthrowasuggestivelight onthemainissue. Likememory,oraturnformathematics,thesenseof analogyis,morefrequentlythannot,agift;butthisdoes notmeanthatalowrangeofpowercannotbedevelopedinto ahigher.Aneyeforanalogiescanbetrainedlikeanosefor news—maybenotuptothestandardofaninborngift,but *– uptothepitchofskill- andquickness- thatatfirstseems improbable.

XXI

E.Anotherlawofinspirationisthis:thatwhenthemind. isbentonadiscovery,orotherwisesetupontherealisationof

*Autobiography,vol.i. *Jevonsindeedlookeduponitasthetruemeasureofintellect. “Thereisararepropertyofmindwhichconsistsinpenetratingthe disguiseofvarietyandseizingthecommonelementsofsameness; anditisthispropertywhichfurnishesthetruemeasureofintellect.” —PrinciplesofScience,vol.i.,p.5. *TheCreativeImagination,pp.253-254. *Metaphysics,vol.i.,p.67. II5 ORIGINALITY anidea,itsenergiesmaysuddenlybeside-trackedbyaconcep tionwithfewrelationshipstotheimmediatepurpose;orit maymakewhatiscalledachancediscoveryofatotallydifferent rature. Aninterestingillustrationisfoundinthehistoryofphotog raphy.Niepcehadtakenseveralstridestowardsdiscovery buthediedbeforeachievinghispurposeandDaguerrecon tinuedhisexperiments.Hefoundanunder-exposedplatein acupboard,andwassurprisedtonotethatthepicturehad beendeveloped.Presumingthatthecupboardhadsome thingtodowithit,althoughitwasempty,hetriedvarious experiments,andalwayswiththesameresult.Ideasof “sorcery”assailedhimThenhenoticedinacornerofthe cupboardacapsulefullofmercury,ametalthatemitssteam atanordinarytemperature.Hesupposedthatthissteam haddevelopedtheplates.Tomakesureheputanunder-, exposedplateinaperfectlydarkroom,makingsurenopicture wasvisibleontheplate.Heexposedthistothevapourof mercury,andthen,ashelooked,thepictureappearedonthe Aplate.Daguerrehadmadeoneofthegreatdiscoveriesof thecentury.Itwouldbepossibletoprovidelargenumbers ofsuchillustrationsinscience,andincommerce,butthey havetheonecommonqualitywhichDaguerre'sexperiments contain—namely,theunexpected,theaccidental—or,assome persistinsaying,knowledgebychance.”Nowchanceisa verylargesubject,withmanyramifications,andwecandeal withonlyone: itsrelationshiptonewideas.Whatisthat relationship! Sofaraswecanjudge,itisoneoflaw,for, asHumesaid:“Whatthevulgarcallchanceisnothingbut asecretandconcealedcause.”* Whewell,inarguingagainst thenotionofchanceasitexistedinhisday,declaresthat “inwhatevermannerfactsmaybepresentedtothenoticeof adiscoverertheycanneverbecomethematerialsofexact knowledgeexcepttheyfindhismindalreadyprovidedwith preciseandsuitableconceptionsbywhichtheymaybe *Paulhan,Psychologiedel’Invention. \ *Gore'sArtofDiscovery(p.224)containsa numberofgood instances.SeealsoR.A.Gregory'sDiscovery. *TreatiseonHumanNature,BookIII. II6 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION analysedandconnected.”""Thisrightlyplacestheemphasis ontheknowledgeandmentalacumenofthediscoverer.It istruethathediscoveredsomethingwhichhedidnotsetout todiscover,buthadhenotbeenthemanhewashewould neverhavenoticedthephenomenawhich,onfurtherinvesti gation,leduptoanewfact; andwithouta useofthe scientificmethodthenewfactwouldhavecontinuedits undiscoveredcareer.

XXII

Thequestionnaturallyarises:Canwepredictmental phenomena2 anditisamostreasonablequestion,inspiteof thefactthatitasksmorethanisjustifiedbythepositionwe havetakenup.Mentalprocessesobservethelawsthatrule ourconsciousandsubconsciouslife,butuntilthoselawsare fullyknowntherewillbeamarginofexperiencewherelaw isuntraceable.That,however,doesnotprovetheabsence oflaw.IfthePrinceofWalesisintownwemaymeethim inTheMall,butifwedonotmeethimitdoesnotprovethat meetinghimisanimpossibility.Ifastudentofhistoryis doingresearchworkattheRecordOfficewecannotpredict thathewilldiscoversomenewitemsaboutShakespeare's lifeatStratford,butwecanpredictthatifheseesaremote allusiontotheseitemsinavolumeoflawcases,hewillhave boththeimpulseandtheabilitytofollowthecluesstepby steptothelastissue.Thismayseemasmallandun importantclaimtomake,butinrealityitisagreattruth. Itmeansthatifalltheallegedaccidentaldiscoveriescould beanalysed,weshouldfindthefamiliarlawsofassociation wouldexplaineveryoneofthem.Whend’Orbignysawa peasantwomanspitonahotirontotestitsheat,andnoticed thatthe“spit”flewofftheironbeforeitcouldevaporate,he gottherightideaforsolvingphenomenainconnectionwith volcaniceruptions.Anaccidentaldiscovery: Certainly 1NovumOrganonRenovatum,p.47.Prof.KarlPearson,inhis GrammarofScience,says:“Whatwearetounderstandbyachance distributionisoneinaccordancewithlaw,andone,thenatureof whichcan,forallpracticalpurposes,becloselypredicted.” II7 / ORIGINALITY not—atanyratenotinthesensethatchanceisitselfa cause,andthatwemustwaituntilthegodofchancehas thewhimtoputdiscoveryinourway."Thekindofpre dictionwecanmakeinthementalworldisindicatedbythe lawsofthoughtgenerally.Wecannotsaywhatnotesan organistwillusewhenimprovising,butwecansay—when weknowtheperformerandhismood—inwhatdirectionhis impulsewilltakehim,andwithwhatpowerandfinishhe willexpresshisfeelingsandideas.

XXIII

Paulhanofferssomeinterestingillustrationsofthewayin whichwritersduringtheprosecutionoftheirworkwill deviatefromtheiroriginalpurpose.”Buttheirverydevia tionsshowconformitytolaw.Whoofthosewhoknew AlphonseDaudetintheflesh,orwhoknowhimonlyasa writer,willbesurprisedthatheallowedavisittoasana toriumtoaffectthedevelopmentofoneofhischaracters? Speakingofamuch-criticisedepisodeinNumaRoumestau— thedeathofHortenseleQuesnay—Paulhansaysthatan accidentinthelifeoftheauthorcauseditsinsertion.“Why consumptive* Whythisdeathsosentimentalandromantic, thisfacileallurementoftheemotionsofthereader? Be cause”(Daudetcontinues)“oneisnotmasterofone'swork; becauseduringitsgestationanideatakespossessionand hauntsone.WhilstIwasworkingatNumaIwastakento Allevard. . .”—andthenhegivesapictureofconsumptive humanityinallstagesofsuffering,addingthat“oneofthem thrustherselfintomybookinspiteofmyself,bringingher *Prof.E.Machsays:“Butgrantingthatthemostimportant inventionsarebroughttoman'snoticeaccidentallyandinways thatarebeyondhisforesight,yetitdoesnotfollowthataccident aloneissufficienttoproduceaninvention.. . . Inallsuchcases theinventorisobligedtotakenoteofthenewfact,hemustdiscover andgraspitsadvantageousfeature,andmusthavethepowerto turnthatfeaturetoaccountintherealisationofhispurpose.” —“AccidentinInventionandDiscovery,”TheMonist,vol.vi., p.166. *Psychologiedel’Invention,chap.iii. II8 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION melancholytrainintothebeautifulpastoralsetting.”Was theinsertion,then,aliteraryblemishThecriticsmust judgeastothat:toDaudetitwastherightandhappything todo,justasitwasproperonthepartofVictorHugoto inserta massofarchaeologicaldetailinhisNotreDame. Therehavebeenmenofgeniuswhohaveraisedtheunex pectedintoaprincipleofguidance—Musset,forinstance. HereproachedScribefortheregularityandevenbalanceof hiswork.“WhenScribe,”hesaid,“commencesapiece, anact,orascene,healwaysknowshowitwillstart,howit willgo,andhowitwillend.Thereisundoubtedlythemerit ofthestraightlinewhichgivesgreatsolidaritytoallhewrites. Butthereisalsoaneedofsupplenessandimagination.He istoological:heneverloseshishead.I,onthecontrary, midwayinascene,orapieceofpoetry,findthatImust suddenlychangetheplan. . . IhadstartedforMachiel, andIarriveatConstantinople.”Thereisnodoubtacharm insuchmentaladventures;wegoout,notknowingwhereor how,andexpectingtomeettheunexpected,sotospeak; butevensoweshallonlymeetandrecognisethatwhichis inaccordancewiththeinwardself.AsMaeterlinckputsit: “Donotforgetthatnothinghappenstousthatisnotofthe Samenatureasourselves.. . . Climbthemountainorgo downintothevillage,traveltotheendsoftheworld,ortake awalkroundthehouse,youwillmeetonlyyourselfonthe pathsofchance.”Thisisthelawwhichgovernsthemental

processofaccidentalinspiration. -

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F.Themostimportantconditionofinspirationhasbeen reservedforfinaltreatment.Itisbothsimpleandbrief: ThinkforYourself.Inonesensethisisimpliedinevery formofmentalactivity.Eveninreadingthethoughtsof anotherwearetestingthewriter'sopinionsandestimating theirvalue.)Buttothinkforoneselfinthespecialsense *Paulhan,chap.ii. Souriausays:“Itrarelyhappensthatthe ideaswefindarepreciselythosewehavebeenseeking.. . . We findourideasmostoftenbydigression.”—Théoriedel’Invention. II9 ORIGINALITY herereferredtoistoapproachaproblemwithoutthe assistancethatmaybedrawnfrombooksorothersources.] Gibbon’smethodhassomebearingonthepractice.Before sittingdowntoreadanewbook,hefirstofallcross-examined himselfonthesubjectofthebook,toascertaintheextentof hisknowledgeandtodiscoverhowfarhisopinionshadbeen formed.Naturally,thispresupposedsomepreviousknow ledgeofthesubject,obtainedintheusualway;butasa meansofdevelopingthespiritofchallengeto,aswellas | appreciationof,a newwriter—nothingcouldbebetter. L.Still,itbelongsmoretotheethicsofreadingthantothe psychologyofinspiration.What,then,dowemeanby urgingamantothinkforhimself?Wemeanthatheshall discovertheproblemsoflifebeforetheyaredisclosedtohim > byauthorsofbooksorbysomeotherformofdiscourse. Theseproblemsareinfiniteinvarietyandwedonotrefer speciallytoanyonegenusorspecies:aproblemmaybethe originoflifeorthemysteryofsleep.Takethelatterasa familiarexample.Whathappenswhenamandesiresto solvethismysteryHegenerallycommenceswhatiscalled acourseofreading.Hedevoursbookafterbook:makes voluminousnotes;studieshisowndreamsandthedreams ofhisfriends;andattheendofayear,ifyouaskhimhow heisgettingon,youfindthathistalkisallaboutwhatthis Professorsays,whatMariedeManeicenesays,andwhata profoundmysterythisapparentlysimplematterhasbecome. Hehasmadethemistakeofmasteringtheliteratureofsleep; heoughtfirsttohavestudiedthesubjectbytheunaided lightofhisownintelligence.“But,”youobject,“would thisbeanygoodunlesshehappenstohave,naturally,avery acutemind?”Well,itistheonlypossiblewayofbringing outanyoriginalityhemaypossess.Besides,itisthemethod ofalltrulyoriginalinvestigators.Hemayaskhimselfa simplequestion,as:Whyissleepnecessary?andafter turningitoverinhismind,maydecidethatitisoneofthe primalrhythmsofphysicalnature,andthat,lookedatmen tally,itislikedaylightandactiontothesubconsciousworld. Whenhecomestostudywhatothershavethoughthemay findsomeofhismostvaluedideasareoldandhoary-headed; I2O | J ( THELAWSOFINSPIRATION andthatotherideasofwhichhehopedmuchhavebeen severelycriticised;but,asoftenasnot,ithappensthat thereisaresidueoftheorieswhichpossessoriginalmerit— i.e.thinkingforhimselfhasbroughtinspiration.Thisisno fancypictureofthementallife;itisahappeningthatcould berepeatedoverandoveragainifmenandwomenwould butavoidthewrongmethod.Thatmethodconsistsin leaninguponothers,andinconningwhatothershavesaid anddone.

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Tosomepeopletheideaoftellinganuneducatedmanto thinkforhimselfsavoursofabsurdity;theywouldargue thatamanmustfirstknowhowtothinkbeforeheisadvised tothinkforhimself.Wedisagreeentirely.Everyman canthinkforhimself:trainingshowshimhowtoimprove inthisrespect."Andinmanyinstanceshetrainshimself intheschoolofexperience.Someofthemostoriginalmen inbusinesshaveowedlittletotheschoolsandmuchtoin dividualeffort,relyingsolelyontheirownintellections.The ideaswhichcametothem,andwhichtheycarriedoutwith fortunateresults,weretheoffspringofthefinallawofinspira tion.Indeedthisnotionthatonlyahighlyeducatedman can,oroughttobeallowedto,thinkforhimselfispatheticin itsignorance;itisjustaswrongastheotheridea—namely, thatnosortofeducationortrainingcanimprovethepowers ofreflection.Butletusgomoredeeplyintothematter. Whyisitthattothinkforoneselfisthefinallawofinspira tion—theoneroyalroadtoideasifsobethatsucharoad exists?Itisbecauseourownideascancomeinnoother way.Wedonotsaythattogetanewideabyreadingabook orstudyinganadvertisementisnotthinkingforoneself, butweshalladmitwehavehadsomeassistance.Thekind ofreflectionunderreviewisonewheresuchassistanceisall butdispensedwith,andwherewerelyalmostentirelyon **Abeingwhocouldnotthinkwithouttrainingcouldneverbe trainedtothink; onemayhavetolearntothinkwell,butnotto think.”—Dewey,HowWeThink,p.29. I2I ORIGINALITY ourselvesfortheoriginalimpetusandforitsfuture development. XXVI

Thenaturaltendencyamongthemajorityofpeopleisto thinkbyproxy:weleanuponothers,orwefollowintheir footsteps.Nowtheoppositemethod—thatofthinkingfor oneself—isnotonlyhighlyeducative,butitis,asalready stated,theonewaytooriginality.Onthateverybodyis agreed—itistooobvioustobedenied.Theuntaughtman, however,unlesshehasastrongemotivetemperamenturging himforwardtoaction,doesnotknowhowtobegin.Let ussupposeheisinbusinessandisanxioustostrikeoutin anewdirection.Heneedsspecialinformationoncertain points,butdoesnotknowhowtogetit;andinsteadofthink ingoutwaysandmeansofhisownhereliesontit-bitsof knowledgehecanpickuphereandthere.Inthefinalissue hebuildshisnewventureonfoundationslaidbyothermen, notonhisownfoundations.Letussuppose,further,thata friend,eagertostimulateindependentthought,giveshima copyofSchopenhauer’sOnThinkingforOneself"andLord Coleridge'sessayonThinkingforOurselves.”Willtheseen lightenhim2 Onlytotheextentoftellinghimwhatnotto do.Theirwholeinfluenceisrathermoralthanintellectual. Thefactis,nobodycantellushowtothinkforourselves, exceptinthisalmostunnecessaryrule:[thatbeforeconsult \ingotheropinionsweshouldmakeastrongefforttoformour own.Todothatwegenerallyneedaknowledgeofthefacts involved,andtheseareseldomobtainedwithoutasearchin whichbooksfigureconspicuously."Buttherearemanyfacts whichweshoulddowelltocofféctforourselves;andin economicsthisisparticularlytrue.Politicaleconomywas calledthedismalsciencebecauseitwasatfirsttheproduct ofthought.Professorsapproacheditfromtheirownstand pointinsteadoffromthestandpointofsocialandindustrial phenomena.Thefirstqualificationofasocialreformeris toknowbypersonalexperiencetheevilshewouldremedy. *InTheArtofLiterature. * *NewReview,July,1890. I22 THELAWSOFINSPIRATION AprofessorofPoliticalEconomymaydiscourselearnedly onrent,butheisnotlikelytotouchthebottomofthesubject untilhehasknownmenandwomeninpatheticdifficulties withtheirlandlords.Theunsatisfactorynatureofmuchof ourmoderneducationistraceabletoitsacademicnature, whichmeansthatitisinsomerespectsoutoftouchwith reality.Thefailureoftheacademicmindinpracticalpolitics isnothingshortoftragic.Suchmenaretheapostlesofa scholastictradition;theyneverthinkforthemselvesina trulyradicalmanner,foritwouldinvolvealossofcasteand constituteanoffencetotheprecedentswhichguidethem.

XXVII

Thatthereisagooddealofwhatmaybetermedhidden originalityisatruthwellknowntomenwhohavegainedthe confidenceoftheirfellows.Wehavemetmenwhoonthe surfacelookedandtalkedlikethebumpkinsofpopular humour;butinexpansivemoments,whenthestrangerhas becomeafriend,theyhaveoutlinedastrikingimprovement inanagriculturalinstrument,orsuggestedamuch-needed modificationintheworkofbutter-making.“Whynotpatent theseideas2°wehaveasked.Theanswerwasnotslow tocome.“TedNicolpatentedhis—he'samileacrossthere —andtheLondonagentchargedhimtenpoundsandTedgot nothing.I’macountryman,Iknow,butideasisexpensive —eh2°PerhapsabetterPatentOfficeanda reformed agencysystemwillcomewiththenewregime.Butnotonly inthingsmaterialbutspiritualdowefindhiddenoriginality. Getintotheconfidenceofmenintownorcountry,whoappear tobequiteaveragemen,andyouwillsometimesfindthey -haveevolvedforthemselvesasystemoftheuniverse,crude initslogic,perhaps,butnotunintelligentinitsperceptions. Thisappliestomysticism,especially,wheresubjectiveex perienceisthesoleendandaim" : butitoccasionallyapplies tothingsmoremundane,eventhemostpracticalthings.In thedepthsofthecountry,milesfromwhatwecallcivilisation, *ThissideofconsciousnesshasbeendealtwithbyMissE.Underhill. Seeher“TheMysticasaCreativeArtist,”inQuestforJuly,1913. I23 ORIGINALITY wehavelistenedtoaman,dressedinshabbyclothes,dis coursingonthetheorythatincertainstagesofheatthefire man'shosesimplyaddedfueltotheflames.Theargument wasconductedwithfervourandwithmanyreferencesto thelawsofphysics;itwasnotconvincing,andyetnoone ofusvanquishedhim.Heveeredofflaterintoadiscussion on#ovalawhichhesaidhadsixdistinctmeanings;and althoughaself-taughtmanhewould“backhimselfagainst LiddellandScott'sLexiconanyday.”Thesession—for itwasnothinglessthanthat—closedbythestatementofa theorythateverymanandwomanoughttoknowtheday ofdeath.Heknewhis,andhadpreparedaccordingly. “Howcanweknow’’’hewasasked.“Justaskinthe Silence,”hereplied,“anditwillbegivenyouinthewatches ofthenight.”Astrangemanhewas,somewhatavoided byhisneighbours,half-unconsciousofhisoriginality,anda littleannoyedthathisviewsshouldbesoscepticallyreceived. Thereadermaydeclarethattheworlddoesnotwant anyvillageeccentricities.Probablynot.Butwewantthe Satmosphereoffreedom,inwhichanymanisatlibertyto declaresuchnewideasascometohim.Hisfellowsare certaintocriticisethemadverselyatfirst; butifthereis anyvalueintheideastheiradvantagewillberealised,whereas inacynicalatmospheretheideasremainunspoken.We alsowantsocialmachinerywherebymentalabilityofall kindsisnotallowedtobefruitless.AClearingHousefor * Ideas,notasaGovernmentDepartment—Godforbid—but asaprofit-makingconcern,wouldbeagaintoeveryde partmentofthecommunity.

I24 CHAPTERIII

THEPATHOLOGYOFINSPIRATION

THEinspirationofideasbroughtaboutbyartificialmeansis asubjectofnomeanmagnitude,andinthesepageswecan donomorethantouchthefringeofit. Strictlyspeaking, someofthephenomenadonotbelongtotheartificialsphere atall;theyarenaturalintheiroriginandeffects;butas theyaremoreeasilydealtwithinthissection,onaccount oftheirassociationwithpoisonsanddrugs,thatmustbe ourexcusefortheirappearanceoutofplace. Disorderslikegoutinfuseatoxinintothebloodthatat certaintimesgivesthepatientabrainsoclearandpene tratingthatheisthusfarmoreadvantagedbyhissuffering thanhinderedbyit. Whendothosetimesoccur! When thepoisonlocatesitselfinajointofthefootanddrawsthe restofthetoxininthatdirection.Butiftherebenoloca tion,andthetoxindistributesitselfthroughoutthesystem thenthebrainreceivesitsshare,andintenseirritabilityis theresult.Medicalwritersarenotquitecertainastowhy thisresultiswhattheyclaimittobe;themerelayman imaginesthatbloodminustoxinisbetterforanythingthan bloodplustoxin.Andyettherearestrangehappenings thatgotosupporttheveryoppositeview.Forinstance, WilliamSharpsaysofHeine,whosufferedfromapainful malady,that“asthebodydiedthemindmoregloriously effloresced,likethefantasticflowerofBorneo,whichdisplays itsrichestbloomsasthestemrotsattheroot.Newideas, freshimpulses,creativeinstinctsarosewithinhim;his mentalhorizonwidened,theatmospherebecamerarefied ... itwasduringthelastthreeyearsofsufferingthatthe geniusofthepoetreacheditsclimacteric.” I25 ORIGINALITY DrReedhasinstitutedastrikingcontrastbetweentwo periodsinthelifeofRobertLouisStevenson.AtHyères, “afteraterriblehaemorrhagehefellavictimtosciatica andwastemporarilyblindfromophthalmia.Alllightwas excludedonaccountofhiseyesandhisrightarmwas bandagedtohissideonaccountofthehaemorrhage.”This wouldbeenoughtoplaceanyordinarymanoutoftherunning foranythingexceptenforcedpatience,but,“tocircumvent fatehehadalargeboardcoveredwithpaperlaidacrosshis bed,andonthis,oronalargeslate,hewroteoutwithhisleft handmostofthepoemsinTheChild'sGardenofVerses.” Pulmonarycomplaintsnotablyharmonisewithoptimistic feelings,andtherewouldappeartobeanaccentuationof theactionofallthevitalcentres,resultinginanincreased stimulationofthebrain.Thisfactisabundantlyillustrated inthecaseofJ.A.Symonds.

ButtoreturntoR.L.S.AtWailimahishealthrapidly improved,andthetuberculartroublewasarrested;and althoughthiswasbetterinonewayitwasadisadvantage inanother,forheseemstohavelostthestimulusofdisease. WritingtoBaxter,hesays:“Iamcometoadeadstop. InevercanrememberhowbadIhavebeenbefore,butat anyrateIambadenoughjustnow;Imeanastoliterature; inhealthIamwellandstrong.ItakeitIshallbesix monthsbeforeIshallbeheardofagain.”Thecontrastis certainlystriking,butthespecificinfluenceofdiseaseonthe creativepowersofthemindisasyetspeculative.Never thelessthedriftofopinionseemstobethatinsomecases bodilyillsandfinethinkingareintherelationshipofcause andeffect. Drug-takingasameansofsecuringintellectualelevation isapracticethatishappilydyingout—atanyrateamong workers.WereadourDeQuincey,andthedetailsof bibulousauthorsinthepast,withasenseofhistoryrather thanofmodernpractices.Thecocainehabitandother similarformsofseekingmomentaryelationarenotpart I26 THEPATHOLOGYOFINSPIRATION ofliteratureorofbusiness;theybelongtothegeneral practitionerandthementalexpert.

III Inspirationisoftwokinds:(a)natural,and(b)artificial. Thenaturalkindisthatwhichisbroughtaboutbythe activityofthemind,apartfromanyphysicalagencies speciallyintroducedforthepurposeofstimulation;the artificialkindisthatwhichisbroughtaboutbytheuseof drugslikealcohol,opium,haschish,andcocaine,whereinthe nervousexcitementofthebodyhasadirecteffectonfeelings, onthought,andonconsciousnessgenerally,resultingin mentalstatesthatareunusual,orabnormal.Thebodily andmentalcharacteristicsofnaturalinspirationhavebeen thesubjectofclosestudyformanyyearspast,andinthe paragraphsthatfollow,wedesiretoexcludefromconsidera tionallthephenomenaofHinduConcentration,Hebrew Prophetism,GreekDivinationandModernSpiritualism;they belongtothehistoryofreligionsratherthantothePsychology ofInspiration.Theirintentionisnottodiscovernewideas buttoobtaindivineknowledgeforinwardenlightenmentand forexternalguidance.Hence,theyareoutsideourpurview. Whatwehavetoconsider,chiefly,istheprocessoforigina tivethoughtinitsphysicalandmentalaccompaniments. Thephysicalsigns,otherthanthosereferredtoinaprevious section,areveryfewindeed.Ifamaniswalkingwhenan

*Insomecasestheyareliteraryorartistic.Forinstance, Coomaraswamy,anIndianwriterofhighrepute,says:“Theartist whodesirestoreceiveinspirationforanynewworkmustproceed toasolitaryplaceafterbathinghisbodyandputtingonnewor newlywashedgarments.Thenhemustperformthesevenfold officebeginningwiththeinvocationsofthehostsofBuddhasand Bodhisattoasintheopenspacebeforehim.Hemustoffertothem realorimaginaryflowersandendwithadedicationofthesecrethe thusacquires,tothewelfareofallbeings.Thentheartistmust realiseinthoughtthefourinfinitequalities:Love,Compassion, Sympathy,Same-sightedness. . . onlywhenthementalimage ofthefiguredescriedisclearlyseendoestheartistbegintomodel ortopaint.”-OrpheusforJune,1910. I27 ORIGINALITY inspirationovertakeshim,heshowsatendencytoslacken hispace,orelsehestopssuddenly."Butwhenheresumes hiswalkhefindsanincreasedbloodpressure;speedis accelerated.Mentalexcitementhasreactedonthebody.

Thisexaltationoffeelingisthefirstandmostnoticeable featureofaninspiredexperience,andtherearecaseswhere thephysicalaccompanimentsaredepressive.DeMusset said:“Inventionannoysmeandmakesmetremble.Execu tion,alwaystooslowformywish,makesmyheartbeat awfully,and,weepingandkeepingmyselffromcryingaloud, I amdeliveredofanideathatisintoxicatingme,butof whichIammortallyashamedanddisgustednextmorning.”.” Similarly,Alfierisays:“ThatpartofcompositionwhichI havecalledcreationisafever,andduringitsaccessone feelsnothingelse.”Again:“ThewholedayIpondered, asI alwaysdoassoonasthefeverbymeansofwhich Ibeginandcarrythroughawork,seizesmeIknownot how!”* Lombrosohascollectedsomecuriousinstances ofexaltedfeelingwiththeirphysicalconcomitancies* on muchthesamelines,buthispurposesomewhatvitiatesthe fairnesswithwhichhetriestodealwiththem.Thenervous systemofthethinkeristhedecidingfactorinsayingwhat positionhisbodywillassumeduringinspiredmoments andwhatwillbethepeculiarmanifestationsofhismind. WedonotknowhowAristotleandPlato,Shakespeareand Goetheactedwhenmovedbytheconceptionoftheirfinest thoughts.Perhapstheywouldhavesaidnomorethanthis: thatthey“enjoyedtheexcitementoforigination.”" Certainlyitmustbeadmittedthattheeccentricitiesofsuch menasthosetowhomLombrosorefersarenotthenecessary

*“Butastheywalked,Socrates,engagedinsomedeepcontempla tion,slackenedhispace.*-Plato,Banquet,p.20. *SeeRibot'sTheCreativeImagination,p.52. *SeeHirsch'sGeniusandDegeneration,p.96. *TheManofGenius,p.22. *SeeLifeofWalterBagehot,p.32. I28 THEPATHOLOGYOFINSPIRATION accompanimentsofinspiration;butitwouldseemasif musicians,poets,andartists—inthatorder—aremoreout wardlyaffectedbytheirconceptionofnewideasthanmen whospecialiseinotherformsofinvention.Forinstance, athoughtfulwriter,bothcriticandcomposer,remarks: “Everycomposerhasenduredweeksoftortureowingto thepersistence,ontheedgeofhismind,ofatunewhich hecannotdefineclearly.Heisunableto“visualise’dis tinctly.”Allowalittleforexaggeration,andsufficient remainstoshowthatinsomecasesthecreativemoodhas nervouscomponentsthatarealmostdistressing.Neverthe less,havetherebeennomoderncomposersandpoets,who havegiventheworldgreatcreations,andwho,inconceiving them,didnotpassthroughnervouscrisesofanykind2 Mendelssohnamongmusicians,andTennysonandBrowning amongpoets,appeartohavebeenphysicallyandmentally normalduringthecreativeperiod.Indeed,thisquestion islikethequestionoftherelationshipbetweengeniusand insanity;andaswefindthegreatestofallgeniuseswere notinsane,wecanleavetheeccentricitiesofthesecondary geniusestothemedicalpsychologist.

Aninstanceofanotherandquieterkindofinspirationis foundinthelifeofGeorgeEliot.Lewessaidtoheroneday: “Youmustwriteastory.”Shedidnottakekindlytothe suggestion. “Ideferred. . . aftermyusualfashion.Butone morningasIwasthinkingwhatshouldbethesubjectofmy firststorymythoughtsmergedthemselvesintoadreamy doze,andIimaginedmyselfwritingastoryofwhichthetitle wasTheSadFortunesoftheRev.AmosBarton.Iwassoon wideawakeandtoldG.”” Anotherfeatureoftheinspiredmomentisitsprofound mentaldetachment:anabilitytoabstracttheattention fromimmediatesurroundingsandtoconcentrateitonthe 1W.Wallace,TheMusicalFaculty,p.95. *LifeofGeorgeEliot,vol.i.,p.415. I29 ORIGINALITY subject.Theextenttowhichthiskindofconcentrationis possiblemaybedoubtedbymany,butinthatspeciesof originalitywhichdependsonfollowingatrainofthought leadingultimatelytoagreatdiscoverythereisapossibility ofabstractattentionwhichcanatleastbeimaginedifnot described.Thestoriesthathavecomedowntousabout SirIsaacNewtonarenothighlyimprobable;ratherthe opposite.Absent-mindednesssimplymeansthatthe thinkerisonlypartlyconsciousofthethingsofsense,but deeplyconsciousofthethoughtsheisthinking.Tohim thoughtsarethemostrealthingsintheworld;infact, theyseemtotakeontheattributesofmatterandproduce resultsaccordingly.“WhenIwasdescribingthepoisoning ofEmmaBovary,”saidFlaubert,“Ihadsostrongataste ofarsenicinmymouth,IwasmyselfsofarpoisonedthatI hadtwoconsecutivefitsofindigestion. . . realindigestion.” Here,asalways,thepersonalequationgovernseverything; agenius,aschemist,couldconcentrateonarsenic,evenina mostdramaticpoisoningcase,withoutgettingthetasteof arsenicinhismouth.ButFlaubertwasparticularlyliable tosufferfromwhatwemaycallanadvancedformofidentity withthesubjectofhisthought.InalettertoMadameX., writtentwohoursbeforedawn,hegivesanaccountofthe terriblephysicalandmentalsensationshesufferedwhilst describingtheadventuresofMadameBovary:“dizziness, paininhisheart,unspeakablelassitude. . . hehastoopen thewindowandbreathethecoolair;hisgroansbringhis housekeeperintotheroom.”Theseunpleasantmanifestations aroseoutofhissenseofonenesswiththepeopleandthings ofhisimagination.Hesays:“Ihaveriddenwiththem inaforestonanautumnafternoon,underthefallingleaves, andIwasthehorses,theleaves,thewind,thewordsthey spoke,andtheredsunwhichmadethemhalfclosetheir eyelidsheavywithlove.”” *AnumberofcasesmaybefoundinCarpenter'sMentalPhysiology,

pp.544-549. - *Paulhan,LePsychologiedel’Invention.

I30 THEPATHOLOGYOFINSPIRATION

Novelistsareaccustomedtoidentifythemselveswiththeir charactersbutitisnotnecessarytosufferbodilypainson thataccount.Dickens,Thackeray,GeorgeEliot,Thomas Hardy,Meredith—thesearenotnamesthatsuggestagony incomposition—andyettheircreationsarehighlyin dividualised,likethatofMadameBovary. Someofthereflexinfluencesofabstraction,especially wheretheindividualisofahighlystrungnature,areworthy ofnotice.Oneofthemis clairaudience—i.e.thoughts becomeaudible.ThecaseofBlakehasalreadybeen referredto. Nietzscheappearstohavehada similar experiencealthoughnotsocontinuous.Inaprivateletter, presumablytoBrandes,hesaysThusSpakeZarathustra wasconceivedchapterbychapterduringlongwalks,“with afeelingofinspiration,asthougheachsentencehadbeen shoutedinmyear.”Itmaybearguedthatthisfeeling mustberegardedasasymptomofadvancednervoustrouble, thehearingof“voices”beinglookeduponbymedical menasevidenceofaderangement,andtothisfindingwe shalloffernoobjection.Boththesemenultimatelybecame insane.Buttherearegeniuseswhohavehadtheseaudible thoughtswithoutlosingtheirreason,eventemporarily. Neverthelesstheexperienceisnothealthy,notonly becausethenervecurrentsaredisturbed,butbecausethe individualhimselfisindangerofdevelopingdelusionsin mattersofeverydaylife.TainesaysthatBalzac,atthe houseofMadameGay,wasdescribingwithanimationafine whitehorseheintendedtopresenttoSandeau.Sodeeply didtheintentionpossesshim,andsovividwastherealisa tionoftheprojectedtransfer,thatsomedayslateronmeet ingSandeauheaskedhimhowhelikedthehorse! Itwas thefirsttimeSandeauhadheardanyreferencetothematter. Therightkindofidentityisnotonethatismysticinthe wrongway,butwhichisspiritual—i.e.aloveinterestthat yieldsfullknowledgeandinsight,yetpreservestheproper relationshipofsubjectandobject.

1.GeorgBrandes,Nietzsche. I31

SECTIONIII

BIOLOGICALFACTORS

CHAPTERI

AGEANDORIGINALITY

I THEmanofaverageintelligenceproduceshisbestwork,or yieldshisbestservice,betweentwentyandforty.After fortyhispowersbegintodecline.Thisisnotanecessary decline;itisnotaninevitableoutcomeofhisage";his brainpowerlosesitselasticitybecauseasarulehetakes nopainstodevelopitoreventopreserveit. Themanwho isashadeortwoabovetheaverageisdeterminedthatthe fatalfortiesshallnotfindhimrelaxinghisefforts;anditis effortthatkeepshimmentallyfitwhenothermenofthe sameagebegintolosegrip.Areasonforeffortisthe desideratumoftensofthousandsofpeopleinthemiddle yearsoflife. Butthequestionthatconcernsushereisthis:duringwhat periodofyearsdoestheoriginalmindproduceitsbestwork? Toanswersuchaquestionsatisfactorilycallsforascientific studyofthebiographyofgenius.Apromisingbeginning wasmadebySirFrancisGalton,ProfessorSully,andothers, andrecentlybyW.A.Dorlandinhisinterestinglittlebook entitledTheAgeofMentalVirility,whereinhehascollecteda massofbiographicaldata,which,whenthrownintostatistical

*Schopenhauerarguedthat“onpassinghisfortiethyear,anyman oftheslightestpowerofmind,—anyman,thatis,whohasmorethan thesorryshareofintellectwithwhichNaturehasendowedfive-sixths ofmankind—willhardlyfailtoshowsometraceofmisanthropy.”— CounselsandMaxims,p.136. I33 ORIGINALITY form,provesthattheaverageyearsofmentalfecundity arefromtwenty-fourtofifty."Afterfiftyenergyiscon sumednotsomuchinopeningoutnewfieldsofthoughtsor actionasinprosecutingthepurposedoriginalitiesofprevious years.Caseswheregreatachievementshavebeenaccom plishedaftermid-lifearetobeexplainedbytheworkofpre cedingdecades,justasGoethe,issuinghisFaustwhenhewas quiteanoldman,offeredtheworldatokenofgeniuswhich hadtakenhimwellnighhalf-a-centurytomature.Thusthe pleathat“becauseoldage,inthepast,hasproducedsome oftheworld'sclassics,wemaythereforeexpectgreatthings fromthegreyheadsofthepresent,”is,tosaytheleast, rathermisleading.Originalityafterfiftyorsixtyisnotso muchtheoutcomeofanabilitythathasbeendevelopedsince thefiftiethyearwaspassedastheresultofthedeepand widesensuouslife,thereflectivepower,andhardworkof youngmanhood;infact,theessentialideaofaclassicwork mayhavebeenoriginatedatthirty-fiveandyetremain unpublisheduntilsixty-five:whatofKant'sfamous CritiqueandCervantes’DonQuixotepublishedwhenthe authorwasfifty-sevenTheDescentofManwaspublished whenDarwinwassixty-two;RobinsonCrusoewhenDefoe wasfifty-eight.SamuelRichardson,asaneighteenth centurynovelist,andWilliamdeMorgan,asanineteenth centurynovelist,areinstancesofmenwho“blossomedlate,” butitisnot,afterall,thelatenessthatisthesignificant fact.ItisinRichardson'scasethelongyearsspentina silentstudyoffemininemotives,and,indeMorgan's,the unionofkeenobservationwithacutereflection,applied tothelifeofasocialperiod,notforonedecadebutfor several.Everyoriginalityhasahistory,andthedateofits appearanceisnotanexactguidetothepresentabilityofits *ProfessorSullyexamined287casesofwhatmaybecalledsupreme genius,andfoundthatoutof258cases,IoI,ornearlytwo-fifths, obtainedtheirfirstconsiderablesuccessbeforetwenty-five;and 155—inallaboutthree-fifths—beforethirty.Buthealsofoundthat 31cases,ornearlyone-eighthofthewhole,didnotattaintheir distinctionuntilafterforty.Andamongthesewerenamesofthe highesteminence.—“GeniusandPrecocity.”SeeNineteenthCentury, June,1886. I34 AGEANDORIGINALITY author.Theinitialconceptionmaygofarbacktothose dayswhenfinefrenziesweremorenumerousthanthey areinmatureryears,theintermediateperiodbeingspent inthosetestings,emendations,corrections,andenlargements withwhichtheworksofgeniusareusuallyassociated.

[Thereasonwhyfiftyistheusualoutsideagelimitto originalthoughtisquiteobvious;thebodilypowersbegin tofail,imperceptibly,perhaps,butnonethelessreally,and thementalpowersfollowsuit.Physicalresistancetoweari nessanddiseaselosessomeofitsforce;thebloodisminus theelectricqualitieswhichitoncepossessed;thereisa growingdispositiontotakethings“easy”;actionhasless impulsebehindit. Onthementalsidetherearecorre spondingchanges";themindshowsa tendencytolook onthepast,andtoconsiderthelessonsofthejourney; receptivitydiminishesbecausethecircleofintellectual interestsnarrowsitselfgradually;a subtletiredfeeling insinuatesitselfintotheverycentreofconsciousness,and itisfeltthattheinsolubleproblemswhichyouthbelieved wouldbeeasilysolvedsomedayaremorethaneverbeyond solution.Suchmenarequitewillingtoletothersbreak theirpowersonthegranitewallsoftheUltimate.Theone timevivacityisreplacedbyadesireforquietcontempla tion—inaword,bodyandmindbegintoseekreposeandthe gloryofconquesthasadiminishingappeal.Thereisno exactagefortheoncomingofthiscondition;itmayarrive atfifty,atfifty-five,atsixty-five,atseventy-five;inspecial instances,likeGladstone'sorDrJamesMartineau's,itmay nothavearrivedateighty. Atsixty-fiveEdmondDeGoncourtwroteinhisDiary: “Iamattheendofmyintellectuallife.Icanstillunder stand,andevenimagineconstruction,butIhavenomore strengthleftforexecutionl’”Wemayjustlydoubt *MaxNordaupresentsastrongpictureofthesedisabilities—too strong,perhaps—inhisMeaningofHistory,pp.240-241. *Journal(Nelson'sedition),p.330. I35 ORIGINALITY

whetherthisisatrueaccountofhismentalcondition.If understanding,andpowertoimagine,werestillretainedhe couldnotlegitimatelyspeakoftheendofhisintellectual life.Inabilitytoact,toexecute,isnotasignofmental decay,otherwiseAmiel'skeenintellectwasdyingwhilst hewasyetinhistwenties.Hewasnaturallyaspectator, hencehissenseoffailure,hisself-criticism,hispatheticeffort tocultivatehumanimpulses.Buthisintellectuallifewas brilliant;indeed,apparentfailureturnedouttobehis * methodofsuccess.NowDeGoncourt'sthinkingwasthink ingforaction’ssake—forbeautyandfortruth.Hewasa symmetrist,nota hermitphilosopher;hebelievedin anall-roundlife,notinsemi-monasticseclusion.Butat sixty-fivebodilyweaknessreactedmentally;thedesire todothingsbeganslowlytodieandhebecameun contemplateur. Theyouthofgeniusandofhightalenthasadifferent storytotell.Attwenty-fourortwenty-five,andformany ayearafterwards,ambitionisavitalforce;existencehas cohesion,enthusiasm,purpose.Everythinghasitscolour, andthatcolouriswelcomewhetheritberedroseorsepia. Attwenty-fiveayoungmanhasoftenlosthis“young” illusions,andlearnedmuchbypainfulexperience,but,if anything,hismotivepowerhasgrownnotwithstanding, andithasbetterskillinfocus.Ideasareclearandvivid, andtheyexistincloseassociationwiththemotorcentres. Overallisthedominatingsenseofthefuture,itsallurements beingsuchthattheinwardurgetowardsdiscoveryand achievementhasnodifficultyinmaintainingitselfatwhite heat.Herethenisnoholdingback,nodesireforcalm repose,noretrospectivememories;itislife,movement, aspiration,conquest.Andthisisthegreatperiodofmental fertility,whentheworldhasbeenenrichedbytheadvent ofpoemsthathavebecomeclassics,romancesthatwillnever die,paintingsthatarepriceless,andinventionsthathave

permanentlyadvancedourcivilisation. - Inearlyandmaturemanhoodthelawsofassociationwork inamannerthatallowsforpossiblecreativeaction,andthis actioncomesfromtheglowoffeelingandinterest;inlater I36 AGEANDORIGINALITY years,andinoldage,associationsimplyreproducesthepast withoutaddition;memoryworksmechanically,notcreatively; ideashavelosttheirtendencytocoalesceintonewunities. Thecausemustbefoundinthelowerdegreeofphysicaland| mentalvitality.

I37 CHAPTERII

SEXANDORIGINALITY

ARISINGoutofthegeneralquestionofage,justconcluded, isthatofthesexelementinitseffectoncreativethought. Thesubjectwouldappeartobequiteaneasyonetodeal with,mainlyonaccountofcertainobviousanalogies—e.g. thattheaverageyearsofsexuallifecorrespondtotheaverage yearsoforiginalthinking—fromtwenty-fourtofifty.Even so,theanalogyisnotveryclose,fortheaveragesexuallife commencesearlierthantwenty-fourandconcludeslaterthan fifty.Further,theintimatenatureofthesubjectoccasions severaldifficulties,thechiefonebeingthelackofauthentic informationinmanycaseswhensuchinformationishighly necessarytotrueresearch. Wemaybeginatthebeginningbystatingtwofundamental facts:(1)thattherealcommencementoftheproductive mentallifesynchroniseswithpuberty;itisthetimewhen imaginationandemotionassertthemselvesandseeknew objectsandnewforms;(2)thatinoldagethelossofgenera tivepowerisaccompaniedbythelossofmentallycreative power." Thisdoesnotmeananymorethanthatthegenesisand exodusofthesexualimpulsearetimedtothegenesisand exodusofthemorecreativeelementinthinking.Itdoes notmeanthatcreativeactivityonthephysicalplane willbefollowedbycreativeactivityonthementalplane,or viceversa;butitdoesmeanthatthetwokindsofactivity havemoretodowitheachotherthanwehavebeen accustomedtoimagine.EvenifFreudhasoverstatedthe case,wemayreasonablyendorseJung'scontentionthat *SeeRibot,TheCreativeImagination,p.76. I38 SEx*NDORIGINALITY “despitealltheindignantassertionstothecontrary,the problemandconflictsofloveareoffundamentalimportance tohumanity,andwithincreasinglycarefulstudy,itcomes outevenmoreclearlythatthelovelifeisofimmenselygreater importancethantheindividualsuspects.”" Spencerwasoftheopinionthatintheorganicworldwhat wecallbeautyissomehowdependentuponthesexualrela tion;andheinstances thecoloursandodoursofflowers,and sofbirds,asthemediaofthisrelation \d thetriteobservationthattheelement ofbeautywhichgrows\utofthesexualrelationissopre dominantinaestheticproducts—inmusic,inthedrama,in fiction,inpoetry—gainsa newmeaningwhenweseehow deepdowninorganicnaturethisconnectionextends.””

Ontheotherhand,ifwestudythehistoryofasceticismwe shallnotfindmanyofitspagesilluminatedbytheevidences ofbrilliantoriginality;ratherthereverse.Themainfunc tionofthereligiouscelibatewastopreserve,aspureand undefiledaspossible,thetruthsdiscoveredorrevealedby others—ahabitofmindwhichinitselfwasnotcalculatedto promoteindependentthinking,unlessithadthestimulusof comparisonandcontrast,eitherPlatonicorAristotelean. Themonkswhomovedtheworldinwhichtheylivedwere thosewhoeithercutthemselvesadriftfromasceticpolicyor verylightlyidentifiedthemselveswithit:Luther,Loyola, Rabelais,Charron.True,StFrancisandSavonarolaexer cisedadeepinfluenceintheirday,buttheformer,likeSt Augustine,hadalreadylivedthelifeofthesenses;besides, theircontributiontothoughthasnothingverystrikinginit; bothweremoralratherthanintellectualforces. Tofightagainstnatureistofightagainstoneself.That isageneraltruthwecannotdoubt;buttoaffirmthata repressionofsexmayeventuateinarepressionoforiginality isastatementthatcallsforexplanation.Allwecansay *AnalyticalPsychology,p.364. *PrinciplesofBiology,vol.ii.,pp.252-253. I39

• * ORIGINALITY withconfidenceisthatthenaturalprocedureofloveand marriageisgoodhygieneforbothbodyandmind,andthat thisisborneoutbyastudyofthelivesofmenofgenius. OfKant,Nietzsche,andLeonardodaVinciweknowlittle exceptthatoutwardlytheywerecelibates;ofSchopenhauer weknowmore,andyethislifewouldappeartohavebeen practicallyloveless.Notwithstandingthisheisoneofthe shininglightsofGermanphilosophy,perhapsthemost brilliantofallthesystemmakersoftheFatherland.Iflove andmarriage,orlovealone,wereanabsolutenecessityfor originalthought,thenthese,andotherswhosecasescould beoutlined,mustbeconsideredasexceptions,anadmission thatwouldtendtodestroytheargument. Butifasceticismexercisedarestrictiveeffectonintel lectualgrowthagreaterfreedomoflife,evenlicence,pro motedoriginalthought.LordMorleyhasaffirmedthat “privatedepravityandpoliticaldebasementwentwithone ofthemostbrilliantintellectualawakeningsinthehistoryof theworld.”*Yes;“wentwithit’—thatis,theconnection wasassociationalratherthanfullycausal.Itisnotneces sarytobelieve,ontheonehand,thataperiodofloose moralitywillbemarkedbyalackoforiginality,orthat,onthe otherhand,aperiodofcircumspectlifewillshowitselfin dazzlingdiscoveries.Otherfactorsenterintotheprocess. Theasceticmindisseldomafertilemindbecauseitplaces itsvaluesintheunattainedgloryofanotherworld,freefrom bodilycontactsandtemptations.Therefore,insteadofde lightinginthethingsofthislifeitshowsatendencyto bemoanthem;and,bemoaningthem,itdullstheedgeand quicknessofperception;itseestheworthofthislifeonlyas apreparationforafuturelife.Therefollows,naturally,a lackofinterestinmaterialthingsandthisbegetsanother worldlinessthatbarsthepossibilityofcreativethought. NowthemenandwomenoftheRenaissancelookedupon creationinthelightofthebookofGenesis:“Andbeholdit wasverygood.”Eventhebodywithitspassionswasnot abadthing,foritwaspartofGod’sowncreation;thelust oftheeyeresultedinfinepaintings;theprideoflifewas * *Machiavelli,p.17.

* * I40 SEXANDORIGINALITY manifestinelaborateclothes,ingreatequipage,andin ornatedwellings.Itwassurelybetter,theysaid,to acquiesceinlifeandmakeagoodthingofitthantomortify it,tocrucifyitandlivegloomilyforanuncertainexistence inamerelypossibleworldtocome.Intothetheologyand ethicsoftheseviewswearenotcalledupontoenter,butwe canseeatoncehowmuchmorenaturalitwastohavea marvellousmentalfertilityduringtheRenaissancethan duringtheasceticepochs.Originalityofthoughtandaction betokensdeepabsorptioninlife,andallitsimplications, andthistheRenaissanceperiodpossessedtothefull; whereasthosemenandwomenwhosoughtseclusion,asa meansoffindingsalvation,developedamentalnarrowness thateffectuallypreventedbothfreedomandadvance;albeit theysometimesdevelopedthemildervirtuestoahighdegree. Theircrywas:“Lovenottheworld,”anditwasmetby another:“Lovetheworld,”or,inthewordsofRabelais: “AbandonyourselftoNature'struths,andletnothingin thisworldbeunknowntoyou.”

III

Love,licitandillicit,exercisesa specificinfluenceon la',actingmainlyasadynamicBurnsneverwanted towritepoetryuntilhefellinlove.ILoveawakensthemind tothepossibilityofnewexperiences:itisastimulustoall thatlieshiddenandawaitingexpression:Consequently, wemayexpecttofindthatthelivesofmenandwomenof geniusarenotdestituteoftheloveelement;weknow,indeed, thatinmanyinstancesthiselement,ifnotinexcess,was oftenpronounced.Onlyinafewcasesdoesitappeartobe absententirely—but,ofcourse,wehavenoexactinformation toguideus.GeorgeEliotwasastudent,atranslator,and a criticuntil—afterwhatseemstohavebeenalittlelove skirmishwithHerbertSpencer—shemetGeorgeHenry Lewes.Herunionwithhimwasthebeginningofthework thatisdistinctivelyoriginal.HowmuchofSwift'smasterly creationsisduetotheinfluenceofStellaandVanessa—the lovedandloving—ofhiswomenassociates?DidCowper I4I ORIGINALITY owenothingofhisinspirationtoMrsUnwin,andlaterto LadyAustinandLadyHesketh? Wemightgothrough thewholeofliteraryhistoryandcouplenamestogetherina loveassociation—maybewhatiscalledPlatonic,asDante andBeatrice;orsocial,asDrJohnsonandMrsThrale;or irregular,asShelleyandMaryGodwin. Wedonotmeantoimplythatlove,inoneoftheseassocia tions,isabsolutelynecessarytothefullexpressionofgenius orgreattalent;candourcompelsustoadmitthattoall appearancestherehavebeenlovelessmenandwomenwho aretobeclassedwiththosejustmentioned;andinsome cases,thebestworkwouldappeartohavebeenproduced beforeloveandmarriage.Ouraimistoelucidateacom prehensivefactbyshowingthatthephysicalfunctionof sex,andtheloveconnectedwithit,hasadefiniterelation tocreativementalprocesses;andthatasevereandintense asceticismisthereforenotlikelytopromoteoriginalthought. Forthemostparthistorysupportsthiscontention;celibate communities,whilstpreservinggoodtraditionsandrender ingconspicuoussocialservices,havebeenintellectually stationary.Ontheotherhand,periodsoffreedom,likethe Renaissance,followingthenaturalismoftheGreeks,have beenmarkedbygreatintellectualeminence,eventhoughfor wantofsophrosunetheyultimatelycametogrief.Never thelesstheservicewhichasceticismrenderstotheindividual mustnotbeoverlooked.Self-denial,whichmeansrepres sion,isagood;anditissignificantthatNietzsche,thegreat exponentoftheholinessofinstinctandofthegloryofex pression,didnothesitatetonaturalisetheascetictendency, atendencywhichinhisopiniontheChurchhadspoilt.In steadofself-denial,hewishedforself-strengthening;a gymnasticofthewill."Andwemayheresaythatthe psychologyofFreudandJungdoesnotseemtohavedealt satisfactorily,asyet,withthistypeofrepression.Ifre pression,asaspeciesofaction,beasdangerousasthese teachersappeartobelieve,thenthehistoryofhumanity *“Peoplehavescarcelygotthecourageyettobringtolight thenaturalutilityandnecessityofasceticismforthepurposeof theeducationofthewill.”—TheWilltoPower,vol.ii.,p.336. I42 SEXANDORIGINALITY oughttobefarmorestrewnwithmentalwreckagethanit hasbeen."

Muchhasbeenwrittenaboutthecomparativestrength ofthemasculineandthefemininemind,thesumtotalof whichhasbeenthat,speakinggenerally,thebrainpowerof womanisnotequaltothatofman.Withthisbroadquestion wehavenoconcerninthesepages;butwemayveryreason ablyaskwhetherthechargeofalackoforiginalityhasany seriousbasis.Ifwetakethegreatnamesofhistorywefind thatthoseofwomen,ascontrastedwiththoseofmen,are exceedinglysmallinnumber.Woman'scontributionto literature,art,science,andphilosophyduringthepasttwo thousandyearsisnotonethatwouldleadustosupposeshe possessestheinwardurgetoself-expressioninthesame degreeasmanevidentlydoes;andthisabsenceoforiginality throughoutthecenturieshasledtothebeliefthatthe femininemindhasnoinstinctforprogress;itisessentially conservative.Butthefactthattherehavebeenwomen whoseworkwassuperlativelygoodmustbetakenasan indicationthattherearenointrinsicdisqualificationsinthe femininebrain,asabrain”;andalthoughitwouldbetoo muchtosaythatwhatonewomanhasdoneotherwomen cando,yetthecauseoftheirlackoforiginalityinthepast

*Prof.E.B.Holt,inhisTheFreudianWish,doesnotseemto haveexpoundedthisadvantageousrepression.Prof.Dearborn, inhisInfluenceofJoy,andspeakingbothasaphysiologistanda psychologist,says:“Manyofthesemotivesforrestrainthavebrought abouthabitswhichareineffectinstincts,andsonumerousarethese thatincivilisedlandsitisuncommontofindanyemotionexpressed inthecaseofadultsinthatperfectionofnaturalnesswhichelsewhere andamongwildanimalsregularlyobtains.” *Prof.Romanessays,inhisessayonMentalDifferencesbetween MenandWomen,thatunderthemostfavourableconditionsasto culture,andsupposingthemindofmantoremainstationary,it musttakewomenmanycenturiestoproducethemissingfiveounces ofthefemalebrain.Thisissayingagooddealmorethanthefacts willlegitimatelybear. I43 ORIGINALITY shouldbesoughtinotherdirectionsthanthatofdifferences inbrainstructureortendencies. Havenotsociologicalhistoriansprovedthatintheearly daysofcommunallifewoman’sinventivenesswasresponsible forthedevelopmentofthehomeaccessoriesofbudding civilisation? TheremayormaynothavebeenaMatriarchateonthe scalesuggestedbycertainresponsiblewriters,butitisfairly wellestablishedthatatonetimewomenoccupiedahigher placeinthelifeofthecommunitymutatismutandisthan theydoto-day;andthiswasonaccountoftheirability tooriginateandcontrol.Ofcoursethesphereinthose dayswasrestricted;itwashomekeepingandmotherhood. Thereisstillthesamenarrownessaboutit;butwherewomen havehadsufficientleisure,freedomanddetachment,asin thecaseofMadameCurie,forotherkindsofwork,theyhave sometimesdonebrilliantly."

Theoneoriginaldifferencebetweenthemasculineand femininemindistoomuchlostsightof; awoman'sbrainis quicktoknowandtodecideoneverythingthatfurthersher interestsasawoman,awife,andamother.Thusatanearly agewoman’smentalfacilityisinexcessofman’s;shehas sownandreapedmanycropsofideaslongbeforemanhas evenseenthelandorbeguntoploughit.Thatiswhya quiteyoungwomanoftenfeelsthatmenmucholderthan herselfarereally“suchchildren.”.”Butthesamewoman

*InAmericathereareagoodmanywomeninprofessionsand businesseswhobysheerabilityandindustryhaveprovedtheirpower todotheworkofmen,evenmenofthehighestqualifications.Miss A.M.Durkin,asacontractor,hasbuiltsomeofNewYork'ssky scrapers;MrsA.H.Taylorhasamailorderbusinessworthaquarter ofamillion.Otherwomeninotheroccupationsearnfrom£600to £10,000ayear. *InKipling’s“TheGardenofEden*(SoldiersThree,p.180), CaptainGadsbyobjectstohisyoungwifetalkingabouthismarrying again.MrsGadsbysays:“Never,never,nevertellyourwife I44 SEXANDORIGINALITY willprobablyfeelthataboyoftwenty-three,justgraduated fromhisuniversity,completelyeclipsesherinknowledge,and isonthataccountanindividualwhowinsherhighregard. Therecanbenodoubtthatintheearlierandformativeyears thefeminineintellecthasanagilitythatissuperiortothe masculinetype;butthisagilityisfunctional;ithastodo withwoman’smissionintheworldratherthanwithknow ledgeitself.Consequentlywomenwhodevotetheirlivesto celibacyandtointellectualplansofanexclusiveandabsorb ingcharacterare,inmostinstances,playingagainstinstinct. Thefemininemindismadeforintuitiveflashesofinsight ratherthanslowandponderousinvestigationformusicand iteratureratherthanresearchinneurologyorphilosophy. Thatthereareinstanceswhichgivethelietothesejudgments wecheerfullyadmit,butthefewnessofsuchcasesmustbe takenintoaccount.Onewouldhavethoughtthatamong themanywomandoctorswecouldhavefoundarespectable numberoforiginalinvestigatorswhoseworkhadculminated ingreatandimportantdiscoveries,butneitherinmedicine norinsciencedowehearofnumerouscasesofstriking originality,eventhoughwedohearofanincreaseinthe graduatelistsofthehighestclasses.Thefactis/womenalte asyettoomuchobsessedwiththeself-consciousnessoftheir sex.]RosaBonheur,awomanoftheworldandundoubtedly agreatpainter,wasnotfreefromit. “Haveyounot noticed,”sheasks,“thatwomen,muchmoresothanmen, donotastheyapproachtheend,lettheirartisticworkfall belowtheirhighestlevel? LookatGeorgeSandandso manyothers;theirbestproductionsaretheirlatest.”" Weventuretosaythatanimmenselystrongcasecouldbe madeoutfortheveryreverseofthisplea,butthatisnot ourpoint.Itisintheself-conscioussexelement.Asmuch astosay:“IamawomanandinmyworkIhavetoshow thatwomen'sworkisasgoodas,ifnotbetterthan,thatof anythingthatyoudonotwishhertorememberandthinkoverall herlife.”TheCaptainreplies:“ByJove,howdoyouknowthat?” MrsGadsbyanswers:“Idon’t. . . butIfeelthatIknowsomuch, oh,soverymuchmorethanyou,dearest.” * ReminiscencesofRosaBonheur,pp.377-378.

K I45 ORIGINALITY men.”55 Strictlyspeaking,itissexantagonism,anditmay existinhalf-a-dozendifferentforms;but,whatevertheform, itisbound,inproportiontoitsintensity,toexerciseare pressiveinfluenceonthosefineractivitiesofmindthatlead tooriginality.RosaBonheurwasawomanofseveralloves, andherunconventionalbutnotunsociallifesavedherfrom anypermanentmischiefinthisdirection,despiteoccasional outbreaksagainstmasculinedominancy;butinitscruder andmoreviolentformssexantagonismisapotentcauseof thecomparativefailure,mentallyspeaking,ofprogressive women.Wearenotsurprisedthattheanti-mansection amongthesuffragettesisintellectuallyinferiortotheother sections. Anymindwhichismadeupinthisway: #Sympathies # Antipathies iscertaintostagnate. Sexantagonismisanti-biologicaltobeginwith; thereis anunhealthinesssomewherethatcallsforseriousattention. Thenitisanti-social;itstrikesatthefirstbasisofracepro gressinlimitingthegrowthofpopulation;finally,itisanti psychological;itpreventsthefinestandsubtlestactivities oftheintellect.Butwhenwomenceasetobesexconscious, andwhen,asaconsequence,theycaninvestigatelifewith mentaldetachment,weseenoreasonwhy,inconjunction withthenecessaryfavourableconditions,theyshouldnot achieveanimpressiverecordoforiginalities.

I46 SECTIONIV

HINDRANCESTOORIGINALITY

CHAPTERI

THESENSEOFTHEPAST

WEshoulddefineahindrance,inthisconnection,asthat whichprejudicesmentalgrowthandself-realisation;itmay beanaturallackofability,oritmaybeasubjectionof abilityintheinterestsofa creedoraprinciple;itmay arisefromthedefectiveorganisationoftheState,oroutof theunduepressureexertedupontheindividualbyagroup." Considerforamomenttheeffectofoursenseofhistory—by whichwemeanoursenseofobligationto,anddependence upon,thepast,notonlypoliticallybutineveryothersense. Ifwedesiretojustifyourselveswhenchallenged,wedoso, asoftenasnot,byanappealtohistory.Nowtherecordof .."historyisababelofopinions;italwayshasbeenandit alwayswillbe.Thefirstdifficultycentresinthequestion: , “Whathappened?”andwhilstwecanboastofa fair numberofimportantcertainties,thewrangleaboutthe thousandandonedisputedpointsisinterminable.The seconddifficultycentresinthequestion:“Why?”and *“Thepublic,collectively,isabundantlyreadytoimpose,not onlyitsgenerallynarrowviewsofitsinterests,butitsabstract opinionsandevenitstastes,aslawsbindingonindividuals.And ourpresentcivilisationtendssostronglytomakethepowerofpersons actinginmassestheonlysubstantialpowerinsocietythatthere neverwasmorenecessityforsurroundingindividualindependence ofthought,speechandconduct,withthemostpowerfuldefences inordertomaintainthatoriginalityofmindandindividualityof characterwhicharetheonlysourceofanyrealprogress.”-J.S." Mill,PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy,vol.ii. I47 ORIGINALITY herethereismorediscordthanever;eachwriterhashis pettheoryofcauses.Thethirdunrulyelementismadeup ofthehistorians’opinionsaboutevents,andtheirviewsof thelightthuscastonthepresent."Oneconsequenceis thattheimaginationoftheworldisboundbyitssubjection tothehistoricalrecord;thereligiousdevoteeswearsby, andtruststo,idealsthathavecomedowntohimfromthe ages;unscrupulousprinceslikeBismarckandtheleadersof modernPrussiafollowacrudeinterpretationofMachiavelli, believinghimtobetheembodimentofpoliticalwisdom; andworkingmenobjecttonewmachinesthatwillreduce thenumberofemployees—historyandcommon-sense(they say)areagainstsuchinventions.”Wecannotstaytodis cusstherightandwrongoftheseparticularattitudes;we refertothemsimplytoshowthatinreligion,inpolitics,and economicswe,forgoodorevil,turnoureyestothedoingsof pastcenturies,believingweshallfindguidancetherethatis superiortoanythingobtainablehereandnow.”Needlessto say,thisisthewrongmethod,becausepastconditionscan neverbethesameasthoseinwhichweliveto-day.But afterall,thatisahistorian'squestion;oursistheeffect whichthishabitofturningone'sbackonthepresentisbound tohaveontheoutputoforiginality.

Consideranexample—LordBacon,oneofthemostoriginal menofalltime.HowdidheregardhistoryHetellsus inTheAdvancementofLearning,andwewillquotethewhole

*MaxNordausays:“Therealmeaningofhistory. . . is. . . the manifestationofthelifeforceofmankindinanascendingscaleof humanadaptationtonature.”—TheMeaningofHistory,p.371. Notveryilluminating. *Disraeli'schapteron“DomesticNoveltiesatfirstcondemned” isanentertainingstudyofthissortofprejudice. *DrBeattieCrozier,oneofourmostindependentstudentsof history,haswellsaid,that“whileHistoryaccountsforthepresent, itdoesnotreallyexplainit;andwhileitenablesusinawayto anticipatetheFutureitdoesnothelpustoguideordirectit.”— CivilisationandProgress,p.22. I48 THESENSEOFTHEPAST section,wheretheargumentisonthecomparativemeritsof antiquityandnovelty. “Surelytheadviceoftheprophetisthetruedirectionin thismatter.Standyeintheoldwaysandseewhichisthe goodandrightway,andwalktherein.Antiquitydeserveth thatreverence,thatmenshouldmakeastandthereupon anddiscoverwhatisthebestway;butwhenthediscovery iswelltaken,thentomakeprogression.Andtospeaktruly, Antiquityintimeistheyouthoftheworld.Thesetimesare theancienttimes,whentheworldisancient,andnotthose whichweaccountancientbyaninvertedreckoningbya computationbackwardfromourselves.”" ToBacontheworldwaslikeanoldandexperiencedman whohadthesecretofperpetualyouthandfromwhose informedandeveralertintelligenceincreasinglygreatthings mightbeexpected.Thesignificanceoflifeliesinitspresent andinitsfuture,andwithoutundervaluingthepastwe canonlyunderstandandsolveourmodernproblemsinthe lightofthebestknowledgedrawnfromastudyoffactsas weknowthemto-day.”Thishabitoftryingtosettlethe *TheAdvancementofLearning(Cook'sedition),p.38.Bacon isequallyexplicitinhisNovumOrganum.“Asweexpectgreater knowledgeandriperjudgmentfromanoldmanthanayouthbecause ofhiswiderexperience,soitisnaturaltoexpectfargreaterthings fromourownagethanfromancienttimes,fortheworldhasnow grownoldandhasbeenenrichedwithcountlessexperimentsand observations.” *The“pull”ofthepasthasbeenwellexpressedbyLotze. “Modesofthoughtwhichunderappropriateconditionswereadopted bymenofgeniushavewithstoodprogressforcenturieswithincredible tenacity.Formsofartworkedoutbygreatminds,butnotof universalvalidity,havecontinuedtomaintaintheirpredominance whentheyhadbecomeoutofharmonywiththealtereddispositions ofmankind;andeveninscienceinheritederrorsdragonlikea slowdisease.”—Microcosmus,vol.ii.,p.189.Asimilarthoughtis expressedbyProf.JamesWardinhisessayonMentalCulture,where hesaysthatthe“habitofdeferringtoauthority,evenwhensound, hasbeenoneofthegreatestdrawbackstotheworld'sintellectual advance.”SeeEssays,MockEssaysandCharacterSketches(Rice), p.87. I49 ORIGINALITY difficultiesofdemocracybyarguingonthebasisofGreek democracyisasenselessprocedure:thissuppositionthat theonlytruephilosopherisThomasAquinas;thisnotion thatAristotlehassaidthefinalwordontheformsoflogic— these,andmanyotherquaintconceits,evinceaspiritthat canhavenoothereffectthanthequellingoforiginalthought. Atnotimemorethanthepresenthavewesomuchneeded aprotestagainstthedeadweightofhistory.Thesocialists areamongthefewwhoseimaginationsarenotgovernedby “lessons”frompoliticalexperienceinbygoneages.They standforanewregimeimplyingalmostatotalreversion ofcivilisedpractice.Unfortunatelytheyhaveinsome respectsenteredthelistsagainsthumannatureitself,and this,combinedwitha lackofreverence—touseBacon’s word—willpreventtheirbestideasfromattaininganearly measureofsuccess.Buttheirprincipleiscorrect: aremedy forpresentillsbasedonpresentfacts—notpasthistory. BrandesinhisbookonNietzsche—andweshallhaveto revisemanyofouropinionsabouttheauthorofZarathustra —saysNietzschebelievedtheracedraggedthepastabout withit,likearoundshotchainedtoaconvict’sleg;histori caleducationfettersusbothinenjoymentandaction(p.16). Takingamediateview,Brandeshimselfputsitthisway: thathistory“supplieswhatwecannotfindinone'scon temporaries.Thisiswhereitmayhelp.Butitdrives artistsintothegalleriesinsteadoftoNatureandtolife— ithasamonumental,anantiquarian,anda criticalpre judiceonourcareer”(pp.17-18).Thatisnearerthetruth asweseeit.Thepastisnotadeadweightlikearoundshot —oritneednotbe;itshouldbealivingthing,absorbed inalivingpresent,justasyouthisswallowedupinthevigour ofmaturemanhood.Wearealwaysmeasuringourselves bytheGreeksasiftheyhadembodiedeverythingthatwas great;butdidtheGreeksallowthemselvestobedominated bythepast2 Wheredidtheygetaliberaleducation—these menwhowrotetheclassics?Theylookedatthingsasthey foundthem;theyhaddirectnessofinquiryintolife; theirlookwasatthepresentandintothefuture.Tobe Greekinthatsenseistohavethewisdomofthewise. I50 THESENSEOFTHEPAST

III

Butrepressiveinfluencesaresocialaswellasphilosophical. Wecanunderstandwhyadegeneratewithanitchforburglary isnotallowedthescopethathisnatureasksfor;andwe aregladthelawissorepressiveastoallowhimnooppor tunitiesfortheexerciseofhisgifts.Butwhenareligious communityassertsitsrighttodictatethekindofbooksits membersshallreadandnotread,areweorarewenotface tofacewithaninstanceofunduepressureputuponthe individualbyasmallbutcontrollinggroup? Theanswer tothisquestionisnotaffectedbythefactthatthemembers ofsuchcommunitiesgladlyacceptandobeytheserestrictive rulesofmentalbehaviour;forresignationisnotnecessarily avirtue.Wehavetodecidetheissueonbroaderlinesand theonlyconclusionisthatindividuallibertyiscurtailed ina matterwhichthegreatmajorityofself-respecting peopleregardaspeculiarlytheirownprovince.Toproscribe theworksofMaeterlinckistoimposeintellectualrestrictions thatareboundtoaffectfreedomofthought,eventhough thedevoteekissesthehandthatthusbindshisintellect. IfsuchrepressivepoliciesbecamenumeroustheState wouldhavetointerveneandpreventtheembargoon individualthoughtfromassumingseriousproportions.That thisisnofancifulnotionmaybeprovedfromthecaseofa certainlargecitywherethereisnofreelibrarybecausethe ecclesiasticalleadersclaimtherighttodecidewhatbooks shallbeincludedandwhatshallbeleftout.Suchinfluences operatingonalargescalewouldbehighlyderogatorytothe mentalwelfareofthepopulation. ThegaintotheChurchisnodoubtappreciable;anIndex Expurgatoriushasasalutaryeffectindeepeningpeaceof mindandfidelityofdisposition.Apologistsclaim,further, thatregulationswhichresultinmoralcohesionarejustified bythatresultalone,especiallyinviewofthedisruptive forcesthatspringfromunregulatedfreedom.Thedriftcan becheckedonlybyananchor.Theyalsoclaimthatrestric tiverulesarehelpfulmentally,becauseconducivetohabits ofconcentration.Itisaffirmedthatthepowerofattention I5I ORIGINALITY ina complexcivilisationistoowidelydistributed;the newspaper,thesevenpennynovel,thepicturetheatre,the musichall,games,sports—allthesearepursuedoneafter theotherinordertopassthetime;theresultbeingthat concentrationisa lostart.Scoresofmenneverreally think; theirlivesareamassofundigestedsensationsand perceptions.Oneremedy,sowearetold,isaprescribed andproscribedreadinglist;onlybysuchmeanscanchar acterbeformedandpersonalitydeveloped. Itwouldbeuselesstodenythatthereistruthinthis indictmentofourcommonlife,orthattheremedyistotally devoidofsoundprinciple.Butiftheindictmentisonly trueinpart,theremedyiscertainlyexcessive.Besides, thepeoplewearetalkingaboutarenotwhatevangelists call“thegiddymultitude,”butChurchmembers—serious, devout,chosen.Cannotthesebetrustedtoreadwhat criticssayaboutthem? Evidentlynot.Thedangeristoo great.Thesuper-intellectsamongthemmaygeta dis pensationtoreadanybookthathasbeenputontheIndex, butforthemanythereisnosuchfreedom. Themovingcauseisfear:fearlestawriterwhoisout sidethepalemaymakeshipwreckofthebeliefsofthefaithful. Hencethesebeliefsmustbesecluded,andtheholderofthem preservedfromdanger.Theprincipleoftheactionisthat thatwhichismorallybeneficialcannotbeintellectually injurious,anargumentontheleveloftheoldclichéthat thatwhichismorallywrongcannotbephysicallyright. Fortunately,theserepressivetendencies,narrowingdown thelifeofthemindtothelimitsofmenwholivedinbygone centuries,arenotontheincrease;buttheydoexistand

theyarestilloperative. -

152 CHAPTERII

DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING

I AMONGtheinfluenceswhichaffectthepossibleoriginality ofamindnoneisdeeperormorefar-reachingthanthatof hometraining;andyetnoneismoredifficulttoanalyse. Werememberreadingsomewherethat“ifhometraining bewise,sympathetic,andindividual,thebestpossibilities ofthewholemindwillberealised;butifitbenarrow, restrictiveandcoercive—originalitywillbecrushed.”In ouropinionthisisamatteronwhichitisnotpossibleto dogmatise,andwespeakafterexaminingagoodlynumber ofcases,infinitelyvariedastoability,education,parentage, environmentandopportunity.Ofthegeneralrule—thata wisehometrainingisbetterthanonethatisunwise—there canbenodoubtwhatever;buttherearenumerousinstances wheretheveryunwisdomofparentalactionhasactedasa positivestimulusinabeneficentdirection,andlaterwe proposetostudyoneortwoofthesecasesinorderthatthat factmaybefullydisclosed. Meanwhile,thesubjectitselfisonethatmakesadirect appealtoeveryadultreader;forwehaveallpassedthrough thehome-trainingperiod,andeverymanandeverywoman canthinkandspeakofitwiththeauthorityofpersonal experience.Therepressiveinfluencesgenerallycentrein religionandtheconductwhichisexpectedtoariseout ofit. Whenaboyarrivesattheageofmentaldiscernment—and by“boy”wemean“girl”also—hesetsupinbusinessas athinkeronhisownaccount.Hiscapitalmaynotbelarge, andhisexperiencemaybenil,buthehasyouthandvigour, andthesetogetherproduceacertaintypeofconfidence,seen I53 ORIGINALITY especiallyinthequestioningofreceivedopinion.Hecannot understandwhyheshouldnotbeallowedtotakeacourse ofactionthatappealstohimasrightandproper;andheis stillmoresurprisedwhenhelearnsthatsomeofhisparticular judgmentsareparentallyviewedasrankheresy.Werehe notalreadyaccustomedtoobedience,starkrebellionwould betheinstantandnaturalresult; butfromthetimewhen hismothertaughthimtherudimentsofliving,tothepresent moment,whenheispreparedtoarguewithher,hehasbeen undertutelage;andguidanceinthoughtandactionhas becomealmostasecondnature.Howcoulditbeother wise? Ininfancywearehelpless;inchildhoodweare ignorant;inyouth,toooften,weareheadstrong.Inalmost everyhomethereisacasewhichmaybecalledFatherv. Son.Thefatherrepresentstheideasthatareoldandwhich havebornethetestofexperience;thesonrepresentsthe ideasthatarepersonalpreferencesratherthanlogicalcon clusions;thefatherstandsforthenotionsthatarepassing away—soitseemstotheson;andthesonstandsforthe notionsthatarebothfleetinganddangerous—soitseems tothefather.Thefamilyhearthisturnedintoanarena wheretheoldandthenewfightforvictory;andafamily feudisthelastwordinbitterness.

Beforewecansayhowfarthiskindofhomediscipline affectsthepossibleoriginalityofayouthfulmind,wewill investigateoneortwoinstanceswheremenofnotehave toldthestoryoftheirearlylife. Forexample,JohnStuartMill,inhisAutobiography,and MrEdmundGosseinFatherandSon,havewrittenluminously oftheeffectofparentalmethodsonthemindofagrowing boy:inthefirstcase,aboyundertheguidanceofastrong butscepticalintellect;inthesecondcasea boyslowly escapingfromtheinfluenceofafatherwithamindwherein faithwasstrongerthanaloveofthescientificmethod.The possiblecomparisonsandcontrastsofthetwocasesshould behighlyinstructive.Millwastakeninhandbyhisfather I54 DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING atanagewhenthemodernboyisbusyplayinggamesand developingbodyandmindunconsciously.Weneednot outlinetheaccomplishmentsofwhichtheyoungerMill couldboastbythetimehewassevenyearsofage.Thepoint thatisofinterestisthis:WhatdidMillthinkofhishome trainingwhenhebecamea manHethoughtitwas seriouslydefectiveontheemotionalside,butotherwise heseemstohavebeengratefulfortheattentionhisfather bestowedonhim.Thedefectontheemotionalsideisas obvioustoreadersofMill’slifeandworksasitwastohim self.Hisdepressioninreferencetotheproblemofmusical combinations;hisfailurefullytoappreciatepoetry"; theundevelopedpowersduetolackofself-expression—inits turnduetorepressionoffeeling”;andhissomewhatpathetic butridiculousposturingswhenvisitingfriendsinthecom panyofMrsTaylor—allthesearethenaturaloutcomeofa one-sideddevotiontowhatisknownaspureintellect.He confessesthatinonecrisisofhislifehehadnoonetowhom toturnforadvice;hewasafraidtoconsulthisfather, becauseitwouldbringhometothatstrenuouspersonthe unwelcomefactthathiseducationalplanshadfailed—in oneimportantparticular.”

III

ThecaseofMrEdmundGosseisonewithcertainagree mentsanddifferences.Hisfather,PhilipGosse,wasa naturalistofsomedistinction,livingduringaperiodwhen thedriftofsciencewasalmostentirelyinthedirectionof scepticism.ButhewasadevoutCalvinist,andinthebattle thatfollowedbetweenfaithandreasonthevictorywaswon byfaith.Hetookhissoninhandsomewhatinthesame wayasJamesMill,butalittlemoretenderly,devoutly,as ifinthedischargeofasacredduty.Therewas,too,an additionalfactorthatseemstohavebeenabsentintheMill household.MrsGosseexertedagreatinfluenceonherson; MrsJamesMilldoesnotappeartohavefiguredso *Autobiography,p.112. *Ibid.,p.58. *Ibid.,p.134. I55 ORIGINALITY prominentlyinmouldingthelifeoftheauthorofthe Autobiography. IntheGossehouseholdbothparentspulledtogether,but “theboywashismother's,”and,howevermuchheimbibed oftheologyandsciencefromhisfather,hisheartwastrained byhismother—tohisinfiniteadvantage.Shediedwhilst theyoungerGossewasinhisearlyteens,andthereaderof FatherandSonknowsthatthatwasthemomentwhenhe begantoemancipatehimselffromthepaternalphilosophy. Itwasaslowand,tosomeextent,anunpleasanttaskto ridhimselfofthetenetsofahardandbrittleCalvinism, eventhoughhehadnotacceptedthemwiththeconviction thatcharacterisedhisfather’sbelief.Theonefactthat assistedmorethananythingelse,asitseemstous,inthe workofdemolishingfalsegodsandsettingupnewones,was hisgoingtoliveinLondon,awayfromhome.Itmaybe ahardsaying,butitisa trueone,thattheintellectual salvationofsomeyoungmenbeginswhenhomenolonger dominatesthem;contrariwise,itisalsotruethatmanya youthbeginstodeterioratethemomentheleavestheold roofforanewoneinastrangecity.

RobertLouisStevensonhaddifficultieswithhisfather aboutthecreedsandaboutattendanceatchurch.The naturaloutcomewasthatR.L.S.tookthefirstopportunity toescapefromtheunpleasantnessesofdiscussion,even thoughabsencefromhomeseemstohaveaccentuatedthe trouble.Thedetailsaretoowellknowntocallforreproduc tionhere;andasliteraryhistoryiscrowdedwithcases— GeorgeEliot's,forinstance—wemaynowbegintheworkof analysis. Weobservethat(a)thegreatmistakeistheparental impositionofdogma;wealsonote(b)theoverplusofthe masculineinfluence;and(c)theimmediateadvantageof newsurroundingsornewlocation. (a)TheearlylivesofMillandGosse—sodifferentintype I56 DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING andoutcome—suggestthatoneofthemainconsiderationsof parentsshouldbetheavoidanceofdogma—dogmaofany kind.J.S.Millhadtounlearnagooddealinthesphereof religionwhichhadbeentaughthim,dogmatically,byhis father;thereisnotmuchofJamesMillintheThreeEssays onReligion,butthereisagooddealofMilltheyoungeras influencedbyexperienceandastronghumanaffection.The sameremarksapplytoEdmundGosse;thefearsome Calvinism,themiracles,thewholeschemeofChristianvalues respectingthislifeandthenext,astaughtbyhisfather,had tobeunlearned—sorrowfullyandwitha strainonfilial

relationship. - ItisremarkedbySirFrancisGalton,inhisMenofScience: theirNatureandNurture,thatmostofthemenwhosecases heinvestigatedhadfewdogmastoovercome;theirearly education,happily,hadbeensoconductedthatevenwhere someformofdogmaticteachingconstitutedpartofthe curriculumitwastaughtinsuchamannerastorendernew developmentseasilypossible;inmostcases,however,there wasnosuchteachingatall,anditisreasonabletosuppose that,asaconsequence,thementalpowersopenedoutmore naturally,realisingtheiraimsmoreeasily,becausenoim pedimentastoodintheway.Ontheotherhand,ifweask thequestion:“DidtheoriginalityofMill,Gosseand Stevensonsufferonaccountofmistakesinhometraining** wecangivenocertainanswer.Nomancansay,con fidently,whatdestinyanothermanhasmissed,andwhy hemissedit. WemaysuspectthatMillandGosse,even R.L.Stevenson,mighthavesurprisedtheworldwithmore brilliantintellectualresults,butwecannotproveit. That theyshouldhavefoughtagainstacceptedtruthsmaybe takenasevidenceoftheirindividuality,andtheverystrife itselfmusthavestimulatedintelligence,howeverpainful thedomesticordeal.Ofcourse,wecannotarguefromthis thattheunwiseimpositionofdogmaandthedisputation arisingoutofit,aremoreadvantageousthanotherwise; neithercanweaffirmthatMill,withabetterandmorehuman curriculum,wouldhavebecomethephilosophicandforceful statesmanparexcellence;orthatGossewouldhaveeclipsed I57 ORIGINALITY StBeuveathisbest; orthatR.L.S.wouldhavewritten thenovelthatwasabsolutelyunapproachable.Wecanonly statethattheimpositionofdogmaisanintellectualdeterrent, andthatincertaincasesitmaybehighlyprejudicialto originality.

Itwillbeurged,here,thattheprofoundreligiousconvic tionsofparentscompeldogmaticteaching.Ifafatheris convincedthattheRomanCatholicChurchistheonly sourceoftheTruthinwhichthereissalvation,ishetobe precludedfrominstillingthisdoctrineintothemindsofhis childrenTheonlypossibleansweris:“No.”Butevery other“Church"musthavethesamelibertytoteachits dogmas—theJew,theMethodist,theChristianScientist, andtheChristadelphian.Itisalibertywhichanenlightened Stateiscompelledtograntasaconcessiontoopinionona matterofaprivatenature,hopingthatanativesenseof humourwilltendtothemultiplicationofcharitablefeelings, evenifitdoesnotunderminetheegotismwhichsays:“We arerightandalltheothersarewrong;therefore,inorder thattheworldmaybesaved,weshallimposeourbeliefs onthepeople—byforceifneedsbe.”Thatisthedangerous spirit—dangeroustothebodypoliticandtothelife intellectual. Itspresenceintheparentalprogrammehasoftenbeen followedbyunexpectedresults.Therewasonceanardent Protestant—wewillcallhimMrRobinson—whoonthe birthofhisfirst-born—ason—christenedhimMartinLuther RobinsonanddedicatedhimtotheministryoftheProtestant Church.MartinLuthergrewup;read,studied,and thought;debateddoctrineswithhisparents,hisprofessors andhisfellow-students;andultimatelybecameFather MartinLutherRobinsonofthe –StreetRoman CatholicChurchatH . Itisverypiousofustosur roundourchildrenwitheverymoralprotectionandtomap

*Thereareseveralversionsofthisstory.Therealeventhappened inaSouthLondonfamily,aboutthirtyyearsago. I58 DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING outtheircompletedestinyfromthecradletothegrave, butitisalsoverypresumptuous,andnotalittleselfish. Whatrighthavewetocrampthenaturaldevelopmentsof youthfulminds,simplybecausetheyhappentobelongto ourchildren: Tocramthemfullofdogmasisnotonly askingforfuturetrouble,atanyratewherethereiscon spicuousintelligence,butitishardlydifferent,inessence, fromtheoldRedIndianpracticeofproducingflatheads. Religionisnottheonlyspherewhererepressivetendencies areatwork.Whatofpolitics?Therearefatherswhodie inunspeakablegriefbecausetheirsonsbecomeLiberals, orSocialists,orConservatives.Wehavelittleorno sympathywithsuchparents,unfeelingthoughthestate mentmayseemtobe.Itisnothingshortofimpertinence toexpectasonora daughtertoacceptandactuptothe politicalcreedthatwehaveused,howeversatisfactorily. True,itishumannaturetodesireit,especiallyifinwartime thefatherfeelscalledupontofightononesideandtheson ontheother.Buttherearefewinstanceswheresotragic adecisionmustbemade;andevenwhenithasbeenmade, asintheAmericanCivilWar,andwithAlsatiansinthe EuropeanWarof1914-1917,theyoungerman’sintellectual rightsareincontestable,eventhoughatlastfeelingmay outmanoeuvrejudgment.

Theinfusionofanenlightenedconscienceintothemental relationshipsbetweenparentsandchildrenismuchneeded nowadays.Therearemotherswhonurseasecretsorrow becausetheirdaughtersholdopinionsthatarecalled “progressive’’;andontheotherhandtherearemothers wholiveinuttercontentmentbecausetheirdaughtershave grownuptomaintainthefamilyreligion,thefamilypolitics, thefamilysocialstatus,and,mostimportantofall,thefamily wealth.Thustherearethedogmasofsociallife,someof themgood,somebad,andsomeindifferent,whichweimpose uponourchildrenwithacompletedisregardfortheirown ideas;and,whilstallsoundprogressisbasedonholding I59 ORIGINALITY fasttothesafetiesofexperience,itoughttobepossibleto allowfortheexpansionoftheindividualmind.Thiscan bedonebyusingtheprincipleofadaptationinsteadofhard anddrydogma,andbyallowingforthenaturalgrowthof intelligence.MrHavelockEllishasfurnisheduswithsome autobiographicaldetailsthatsupportourcontention,pre facinghisremarksbyastatementofhisbeliefthat“the harmonioussatisfactionalikeofthereligiousimpulseandof thescientificimpulsemaybeattainedto-daybyanordinarily balancedpersoninwhombothimpulsescraveforsatis faction.”Hethengoesontoshowthatwithoutbeingin theleastconventionalhe,inhisearlyyears,triedtomould hislifeonChristianlines.Attheageoftwelvehefeltthat likelove,religionisaprivatematter.Latercameaperiod ofemotionalandintellectualexpansion,followedbyastudy ofthecriticalliteratureoftheday.Aninwardrevolution tookplace,butitwas“sogradualandsonatural”thatthe shockwashardlyfelt.Butdaysofdepressionwereto supervene,duetotheunsatisfiedcravingsofthereligious impulse,anditwasnotuntilhere-readandre-valuedJames Hinton’sLifeinNaturethatherealisedhowlifehadsome thingtodowiththeheartaswellastheintellect.Hinton’s soul-fullpagesintroducedhimtoanewworld:“Iseemed towalkinlight—myfeetscarcelytouchedtheground.” Thechiefsignificanceofthisdevelopmentintheeyesof MrEllishimselfisthatitwasanaturalandnormalprocess, notconversion,notintellectualsuicide,butpsychicadjust ment.Everythoughtfulmangoesthroughthesestages althoughnotwiththesameresult.Thevalueliesnotinthe preciseconclusionsarrivedatbutintheeducativepower ofthecontest. (b)Thesecondobservationreferstotheoverplusof masculineinfluenceinthethreecasesinvestigated.Toput itbluntly,therewastoomuch“father”andtoolittle “mother.”Wecannotfindanyreliableinformationabout MrsJamesMill,butifshehadhadanopportunityofoff settingtheseverityofherhusband’sdiscipline,JohnStuart Millmighthavebeensavedmanyheart-burnings,many **ScienceandMysticism”—articleinTheAtlanticMonthly. I60 DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING intellectualstruggles,andmuchcriticism.Heistheclassic exampleofamanwithbrainswhowaseducatedsolelyby hisfather,himselfamanofprinciplebutminusemotions. GosseandStevensonweremorefortunate.Theinfluence ofthemotherwaspatentthoughsomewhatovershadowed duringthemostformativeyears.Butitwasthere,working tactfullyandsurely,withthatbeneficentresultwhichisthe finestfeatureofmaternalinsightandlove. VII

JamesMill,PhilipGosseandThomasStevensonwereall strongmen,buttheydidnotalwaysshineintheirtraining oftheyouthfulmind.Theywerealldogmatists,though verydifferentdogmatists;andintwocaseswehaveto thankthewivesforthewisdomofsympathy,whichthemale minddidnotpossess.Aretherenotmodernsonsand daughterswhocansay:“TheFatheristoomuchwithus. Hisviews,policy,rules,regulationsandprejudicesaretoo dominating”21 Morefeminineinfluenceuptotheage oftenatleastistobedesiredinhomeeducation;from fourteenonwardsmasculineguidancemaywelltakepre cedenceonoccasion.Thedifficultyistopersuadeparents thatthismatterisimportant,andthereasonfortheir scepticismliesintheveryfamiliarityofthesubject.But idealsarethelifeofyouthandidealsthathavepersonal embodimentaredoublyprecious.Somebodyhassaidthat thebeatificationoftheVirginMaryintroducedanewelement

*BencharaBranfordsays:“Nowincharacteristicessence,as Comteandalonglineofprophetsbeforehimhaveurged,therule oftheMotherisspiritual;theruleoftheFatheristemporal.Of spiritualpowerandofpowertemporal,itisintheirverydistinctness andequalitythatliestheopportunityofhealthyhumanemulation andnoblehumanco-operation.Thesupremacyofeitheroverthe other; theconfusionoftheonewiththeotherinideaandideal, inpurposeandinpractice;abovealltheidentificationofthetwo andtheirunioninonepersonorbody;thesearetheconditions precedentnecessaryandsufficienttodespotism,tyranny,revolu tionandconflictwhatsoeversphereofhumanactivityweconsider inwhichbothpowersobtain.”-JanusandVesta,p.121. L I6I ORIGINALITY intotheconceptionofdivinity—aMotherGodaswellasa FatherGod.Tosomethisisnodoubttrue,justastoothers itissuperfluous,buttheideaisthere:acombinationof feminineandmasculineelements,assuringthefaithfulofan understandingsympathy.Inhumanparentagethesetwo elementsshouldcombineforthesamepurpose,andany disproportionisboundtobringevilresultsinitstrain. (c)Thethirdobservationwastheimmediateadvantage ofnewsurroundingsora newlocation.YoungMill’s prolongedstayinFrance,Gosse'sescapetoLondonfromhis countryhome,andStevenson’sjourneysSouth—thesewere daysofliberationindeed.Andwhy?Forthesimple reasonthatagrowingmindofconsiderableabilityneeds freedom;andwherefreedomisdeniedinthelocalenviron mentitwillinsistentlybesoughtfartherafield.Moreover, changeinitself,asalreadypointedout,isameansofdevelop ment.Studyagroupofmen,fromdifferentlocalities,who havelivedalltheirdaysintheplacesinwhichtheywere boun.WhatcharacteristicsdotheyshowMuchdepends, ofcourse,onnativequalities,butthereoftengrowsupa decidedantipathytotravel,asortofnervousnesswhen businesscallsthemtocrowdedcities,andasupremehaste toreturnhome.Thisismorethanadistastefornoiseand traffic;itisasymptomshowinglossofthepowerofadapta tionandofgrowth.Suchmenmaybeacuteindealingwith localaffairs,butnarrowtothelastdegreeinassessingvalues outsidetheirusualrange.Migrationofsomekindwould appeartobeaconditionofintellectualadvancement.

VIII

Itmaybeurged,andjustly,thatthecaseswehavedealt witharesomewhatspecialincharacter;theyconcernmen ofnotablegiftswhofoughttheirwayoutofthemistakes ofearlytrainingintoafinerliberty.Whatofthehome trainingoftheaverageboyanditseffectonmentalgrowth? Isthemodernhomeoftheordinarytypecalculatedtopro moteoriginalityofthought,notineverycasebutincases whereoriginalityisanultimatepossibility?Isparental I62 DEFECTIVEHOMETRAINING policyfavourableorunfavourabletotheencouragement ofindividualthought2 Wemayaswellsayatoncethathomeisacentreof moraltraining;atanyrate,thatisitsfirstintentionwhether weregardthecottageofthelabourer,thevillaofthemiddle classes,orthemansionofthewealthy.Ineveryinstance behaviourintheall-roundethicalsenseistheprimaryconcern. Therearehousesineveryclassofsocietywherethisspirit isabsent—callthemlaissez-fairecircles—butthepresenceof childrenusuallydevelopsasenseofresponsibilitythatis expressedinacodemoreorlessindicativeofadesiretokeep theconventions.Thereligioushomeissomewhatpro nouncedinthisconnection,anditofferscertainsocial valuesthatarenotfoundinthemoreeasy-goingcircles. Inthefirstplace,ithasasystematicbasis;itinculcates highprinciples;itfosterspassionofasortalthoughit teachesrestrainttoexcess;andithasadestinyinview. Ontheotherhand,itscreedisoftenahandicap,andits attitudetowardsallmaterialthings,coupledwithalove ofmoney,isratherequivocal.Butfortheaverageman religionprovidesanorganisationforhomelife,albeititis strongerinmoralimpetusthaninintellectualenthusiasm. Tothinkoutsidethescopeoftheschemeistaboo.George Eliotsomewherespeaksofthetragedythatisvisibleinthe membersofafamilywhoarestrikinglyalikeinphysical featuresbutthepolesapartinreligionandpolitics. Dogmatistsinthehomehavemuchtoanswerfor.

Thenwhatkindofhometrainingshouldbegivento childrenifthecommunityistoreapthefullmentalbenefit ofourcorporatelife?Therearethreewordsexpressing thequalitiesthatareneeded;itshouldbehuman,social, andserious.Itisnotnecessarytosaymuchaboutthefirst two.Ahardandbrittlediscipline,anda codeofun restrictedindividualismarealiketobeavoided.Tosucceed lifemustbelivedonthehumanplanesociallyconstrued, andthereisenoughorganisedknowledgeintheworldtoguide youthofallages.Butgravityhasnotenteredintothe modernprogrammeasmuchasitoughttohavedone.We I63 ORIGINALITY aretookeenonpleasures;lifeisnottakenseriously.In otherwords,insteadofthetheoryandpracticeofrightand wrong,weshouldteachethicalvalues. Butasthissectionofthesubjectconcernsintellectmore thananythingelse,thekindoftrainingrequiredisalmostthe oppositeofthatwhichisusuallygiven—i.e.children’sminds shouldbe“broughtout’’—educatedintheetymological sense.To-daywearetoomuchengagedindrumming knowledgeintothem,withtheresultthatwheninmaturer yearsweexpectoriginalitywegetindifferenceorcon formity.Anewpolicyofhometrainingwoulddomoreto affecttheEmpirethanalltheschoolsputtogether;itwould createenergyandgiveitdirectionandthisisofgreater importancethanknowledgeinthemass.

164 CHAPTERIII

FALSEEDUCATION

ITisapparentlyoneoftheeasiestthingsintheworldto criticisemoderneducation.Whythisshouldbesoisnot clear,foralthoughwehavemostofuspassedthroughan educationalperiodwehavetherebygainednospecialfitness tolaydownthelawforotherpeople.Educationisapro foundlydifficultsubject,asitslonghistoryandvastlitera tureabundantlyprove;andthefactthatwearestilldebat ingsomeofitsfirstprinciplesoughttogivepausetothemost confidentofcritics.Educationconcernstheimmeasurable. TwothousandyearsagoAristotlepropoundedthequestion thus:“Whattheniseducationandhowarewetoeducate2 \Forthereisasyetnoagreementonthispoint;allmenare notofthesameopinionastowhattheyoungshouldlearn eitherwithaviewtoperfectionorthebestlife;norisit agreedwhethereducationistoaimatthedevelopmentof *theintellectorthemoralcharacter.”Wearestillbusy debatingthisquestion—butnothopelessly.Ournewer professorsofpedagogyareapproachingsolutionsatanyrate inpart;andtheyrealisethattolimiteducationtotheschool periodinsteadofapplyingittolifeasawholehasbeena cardinalerror;theyhavealsocometoseethateducation concernsthewholemanaswellasthewholetermofhis existence.SuchmenasVice-ChancellorSadler,Professors Campagnac,Dyer,andKeatingearesymbolicofabetter dispensation.Nothingcouldbebetter,forinstance,than DrSadler'sfivethingswhicheducationseekstotrainand/, develop—(1)character;(2)asenseofobligationtothe communityandtotheworld-widecommonwealthofgood menandwomen;(8)thepowerofconcentratingthemind 165 ORIGINALITY uponthetaskinhand;(4)areadymemory,includingskill inusingaidstomemoryandquicknessinfindingsources ofaccurateinformation;and(5)open-mindednesstofresh truth,fromwhateverquarteritmaycome,andcapacityto grasprapidlythegroundplanandbearingsofanewsubject." Trainingontheselineswillbedirectlyhelpfulinbringing outthelatentoriginalityofallmindsfortunateenoughto studyundersuchacurriculum.Atpresent,however,the wholeeducationalplanseemstobeorganisedinsuchaway astomakeitdifficulttocultivateindividualityofoutlook. Theoverwhelmingemphasisisstillonknowledge.Thatwe needtherightkindofknowledgeisveryevident,butwe needsomethingmore:weneedpower.Whohasnotmet menwithcommercialdegrees,possessedofgreatstoresof informationaboutbusinessprocedure,transportandorganisa tion,andyetminustheabilitytouseitinthebestway, simplybecausetheemotionalnaturehasbeenneglected? Alongwithagraspoffactstheremustbethespiritofthe pioneerwhoinitiates.”Thedynamicsectionofconscious ness,ifwemaysospeak,callsforattention;asmuch dependsonthatasontheotherqualifications,notonlyfor theindividualbutforthecommunity.Akindofeduca tionthatcompelsitssubjecttoseekalivinginwhatiscalled

*“TheFutureofEnglishEducation”—articleinTheTimes EducationalSupplementfor7thDec.1915.DrSadler'slist isalmostbetteredbythatofProf.Keatinge,whosays:“Every societyneedsinitsadultmembers(1)physicalstrengthandhealth; (2)powertoearnalivelihood;(3)powertouseleisureprofitably; (4)aninterestinnature; (5)inhumannature; and(6)inart; (7)certainqualitiesofmindwhicharevaluablefortheindividual eitherdirectlyorindirectlythroughtheirsocialimportance,e.g. accuracy,sympathy,andself-control;(8)asenseofdutyadequate tothenecessarysubordinationofpersonaltosocialwelfare.”— StudiesinEducation,p.17.Inthesamecomprehensivespiritis MrJ.M.M'Tavish'sWhatLabourwantsfromEducation. *“Whyhavesofeweminentlysuccessfulmenbeenschooltrained? Becausetheacceptanceofready-madeopinionskillstheoriginal thinkingpowerandunbiassedresourcefulnessofthemind,and paramountsuccesscannotbeachievedbydocilescholarsandimi tatorsbutonlybypioneers.”—“TheDisadvantagesofEducation” -articleinTheNineteenthCentury(1903,p.307),byJ.EllisBarker. I66 FALSEEDUCATION aneducatedmannermayresultinalossofequilibriumto thelabourmarket."

Thisemphasisonknowledgewillcontinueuntilour examinationsystemischanged.Theexaminationforthe IndianCivilServiceandClassI.Clerkshipsisprobablythe highestformofscholasticexaminationintheworld,but,as atest,itdoesnomorethansaythatthesuccessfulcandidate hasanunusualpowerofunderstanding,absorbing,and recordingfacts.Neverthelesstheprogrammeoftheolder universitiesisbasedmoreorlessontheneedsoftheCivil ServiceCommissionersbothasregardsArtsandScience; thePublicSchoolsfollowsuit,thentheprivateschools,until thewholekingdomispermeatedthroughandthrough.It mayoccasionsurprisetosuggestthatourPublicSchools layemphasisonknowledge,butitistruedespitethestate mentthattheirtradition“implantstheloveofhealthand honourbutnotthatofknowledgeandbeauty.”* The emphasisisnotontoomuchknowledge,butontoolittle.The othersideofthecurriculum,whichisbroadlymoral,is excellent;itisindeedtheenvyofothernations.Itis manifestinsplendidbehaviouronthebattle-fieldaswellas injudicialconductinthehandlingoftheaffairsofState athomeandabroad.Butthetraditionforknowledgeis this:thattoknowtoomuchisbadform.”Thereisastory *“In1914theUniversity'sbillboardatMunichcautionedthe studentsthattherewouldbenouseforthenexttenyearsintaking theteachers’examinationbecausethewaitinglistprovidedfor possiblevacanciesforthenexttwentyyears.Whatistobecome ofthehundredsofeducatedmenforwhomnocorrespondingposi tionscanbefoundP*-LeoWiener,InterpretationoftheRussian People,pp.145-146. *WhatisEducation?,p.24. *TheHon.BertrandRussell,F.R.S.,aCambridgeman,inspeaking ofEtonandOxford,and“goodform,”says:“Theevilsof‘good formarisefromtwosources:itsperfectassuranceofitsownright ness,anditsbeliefthatcorrectmannersaremoretobedesiredthan intellect,orartisticcreation,orvitalenergy,oranyoftheother sourcesofprogressintheworld.”—ThePrinciplesofSocialRecon 167 ORIGINALITY toldaboutayoungofficerwhowasvery“keen"onhis professionaladvancement.Hereadwidelyandwell;he practisedeverythinghecould.OfhimanEtonandOxford brotherofficerwhowasnotkeensaid:“J—isnotabad sort,really,buttooquietyouknow,and—and—sofullof damnedintellectl”Nowthismaybesaidtorepresent thegeneralattitudeofhundredstowardsknowledge,even necessaryknowledge,andsolongasourPublicSchoolshave aprogrammethatallowsthisspirittodevelop,solongshall wefallshortincompetitionwithotherpeoples,notonlyin sciences,butinallsortsoforiginalities.Nodoubt,changes arecoming;theywerespokenoflongbeforethegreatwar," butitwilltaketimetoeffectreconstructionsthatretainthe bestoftheoldtraditionswhilstimplantingthenew.Mean whilenewdevelopmentsareatworkinotherdirections. “Etoniansmustremember,”saysOscarBrowning,“that thereisgrowingupeveryyearinEngland,aneducated democracyfarsuperiorinseriousness,inindustry,inpiety, inplainlivingandhighthinkingtotheproductsofourpublic schoolsandreadytotaketheirplaces.Inthemthereal hopeofEngliandlies.”Someyearshavepassedsincethose wordswerewritten,andalthoughstilltrueinpart,this deliveranceisnotwhollytrue.Thecentresofhighereduca tionareseekingthenecessaryadjustments,butifanything thenewdemocracyiskeenerthanever.Itsveryinabilities areinitsfavour,forcircumstancesoftenpreventtheone sidedacquisitionofknowledgeandturntheattentioninto

struction,p.153.Speakingonthesamesubject,CharlesWaldstein says:“‘Goodform,andothercausesarecontributingtoimpoverish theEnglishlanguageinexpressionsoforiginalemotions.Wenotice theaviditywithwhichpeoplegraspatslang,becauseithassuch originallife.”—TheBalanceofEmotionandIntellect,p.213. *See“TheDisabilitiesofanOxfordCareer,”byM.Wood,in TheNationalReview(June,1909);“PublicSchoolEducation” (MonthlyReview),and“AnEtonEducation”(NationalReview, 1905),byA.C.Benson;“TheOldCultureandtheNew*(TheNew Quarterly,p.257),byOscarBrowning.Whatcouldbebetterthan thisasasymptomofthenewspiritP “Education. . . means trainingaboy'smindsothathemayknowhowtotackleanynew problemthatisputbeforehim.”—AHouseMaster'sLetters,p.143. I68 FALSEEDUCATION morepracticalchannels.Thisleavesroomforthein dividualityofthestudent,andtoofrequentlyaneducative curriculumdoesnot.Matthews,inhisPrinciplesofIntellectual- Education—oneofthebestmanualsweknow—hasputthe casesoforciblythatwecannotdobetterthanrepeathis words:“Theaimofeducationisnotknowledgebutpower —theuseofouroriginalpowersinourownoriginalway.. . . Anounceoforiginality,offreshcontributiontothethought oftheworld,isworthtonsofknowledgegatheredbyothers andsimplystoredawayinthelumberroomsofourminds, liketreasuresinachestthatnooneeversees.Tospendour timeincultivatingthoughtandnotincultivatingthe\ acquisitivepowermanifestedchieflyinmemorywouldbe . . . aninfinitegainatthecostofapparentimmediate loss.”

III

Moderneducationdoesnotgivesufficientattentionto individualtendencies.Itisverydifficultindeedtoarrange anyprogrammethatwillremedythisdefect.Boysandgirls, andolderstudentsofbothsexes,havetobedealtwithin largegroups,andhithertoithasbeenfoundimpossibleto isolateindividualsanddetachamemberofthestafftogive themaspecialformoftraining.Weregretwecanofferno practicableschemeforrelief.Buttheoneaspectthatcon cernsushereisthis:wemercifullymakespecialprovision forthecrippledandthementallydefective—wemakeno suchprovisionfortheyouthoftalent.”Inotherwords,the weakgetmoreattentionthanthestrong.Thereaderwillask incredulously:“Butdothey? Whatofthescholarship

*ThePrinciplesofIntellectualEducation,p.128.ByF.H. Matthews,M.A. *“Theideaoftheprovisioninallourlargetownsofspecial schoolsforthespeciallygiftedaswellasforthespeciallydeficientN isworthyofconsideration.Itseemsdeplorablethatwhilemoney andcarearelavishedonthosewhocanneverdomuchintheworld nothingmoreisdoneforthosewhoarecapableofthehighestand bestservicethanisdonefortheordinarycapacitieswhichwill alwaysdohodman'swork.”-Welton,PsychologyofEducation,p.123.– I69 ORIGINALITY schemeswhichenableaboylikeBenetskytogofromthe BoardSchooltoCambridge,andbecometheSenior Wrangler?”Yes;inthatwayweofferinducementstoboys ofunusualgifts;butifaboyhasremarkablepromiseinany otherdirectionthanmathematics,science,orclassicshavewe theorganisationtohelphim?"Wehavenot.Weleave suchboystochance.Ifamasterfindsaboyengagedin drawingwhenheoughttobedoingaquadraticequation, then,howevergoodthedrawingmaybe,thechancesarethat thedelinquentispunishedsooftenastomakehimun sympathetictowardstheuseofhispencil,eveninleisure hours,andespeciallyifthereisnoencouragementathome. Howmuchoriginalitydoweloseeveryyearbecausewehave noproperschemeforgettingthebestoutofourscholars? Andhowmuchdowelosebecauseour“system” isso littleadaptedtothefosteringofthecreativeattitude—that whichProfessorTaussigcallsinbusinesstheprincipleof contrivance,andwhich,generally,forthefineartsandfor commerce,meanstheadventofnewideasSomeone recentlyaskedMrW.W.Ellsworth,thelatePresidentofthe CenturyCompany,awell-knownfirmofAmericanpublishers, whetherhethoughtthereweremoreorbetterAmerican authorsastheresultofthepastthirtyyearsofhighereduca tion.Hisanswerappearstohavebeenadirectnegative. Hehadknownanumberofyoungpeoplewhoinschoolhad anapparentfacultyforcreativeliteratureandwhocameout ofcollegefamiliarwiththewritingsofmenlikeAddisonand Browning,but“utterlyunabletoexpressanoriginal thought.”Headdsthatfifteenyearsago,outof1000MSS. receivedbytheCenturyCompany25wereacceptedand 975declined.Ofthe1000MSS.receivedupto1stJanuary

*MrBencharaBranford,asanEducationalInspector,speakswith authoritywhenhesays:“Itis,surely,oneofthefundamental weaknessesofmoderneducationthat,fromafalseeconomyand othermotives,wearecompelledtoeducateourpupilsinsuchlarge groupsandbymethodstoosimilar.Theapparentlyinevitable resultis,ingeneral,thestuntingofvaluablevariationsinindividuality andtheproductionoftoolargenumbersofindividualswithclosely similarpowers.”—JanusandVesta,p.21o. 170 FALSEEDUCATION <1916,41wereaccepted,andnotoneofthemwaswrittenby a newwriter! InMrEllsworth’sopinioncollegeanduni versityeducationdoesnotdevelopthecreativepowers." True;butitisanolddiscovery.Fourteenyearsagoa Londonmorningpaperpublishedalistofauthors,journalists, painters,sculptorsandactorswhohadnotbeeneducatedat awell-knownPublicSchool—likeEtonorHarrow—andalong withthemthenamesofthosewhohad.Theformerfarout numberedthelatter,thetotalsbeingasfollows:

\ WithoutaPublic HadaPublic * SchoolEducationSchoolEducation

Authors• • • 30 3

Journalists. - e 23 4

PaintersandSculptors• 36 2

Actors - • - I5 3

IO4 I2

WeadmitthetestissomewhatdifferentfromMrElls worth’s,butitanEnglishanalogytotheconditionsand resultsofeducationontheothersideoftheAtlantic.Then arewetoblameeducation? No;blamethewayinwhich itisadministered.Thatisdifferentfromblamingeducation. Everyoneofthe104menreferredtoabovemighthave beenevenbetterforthestimulusoftherighteducational environment.Butwhatofthehundredswhosenamesdonot appearintheotherlist Twelvemensurvivedtheordeal androsetopositionsofdistinctionandhonour;whereare theirfellow-scholarswhoseindividualitydidnotsurvivethe system?

Education,tobesuccessful,mustnotonlyinformbut inspire.Ifwefollowoutallthatiscontainedinthosetwo wordsweshallneithersufferfromignorancenorfromlackof impetus.Itisthepersonalinfluence,intellectualandmoral, oftheteacherthatcountsformost—evenmorethanthe bestpedagogyeverconceived.Boyscanbetaughttothink *TheLiteraryDigest,5thAugust1916. 17I ORIGINALITY N.thingsoutforthemselves—quiteyoungboystoo—anditis thiskindoftrainingthatproveseventuallytobeofgreater valuethanstaticalinformation.MrSidgwick,whoselittle \book,OnStimulus,issogoodthatitoughttobeenlargedinto apsychologicaltreatise,isofthisopinion";andtherecould notbeabettergroupofmodelsthanthosecontainedinMr W.H.S.Jones’ScientificMethodinSchools.Boyssuitably drilledtopursueoriginalinquiriesontheselinesarebound toacquireinmanhoodatendencytothatsortofindividuality whichthenationneedsandonwhichcreativeactivity depends.Letthisquestionofinspirationbethetestof educationalschemes.Thequarrelbetweenthe“utilitarians” andthe“classics”isa wasteoftime.Itforgetsthe personalelement.Therankest“utilitarian’’weevermet agreedthathedidnotexpecthisgalleryoffineoilpaintings topayhimdividends;andthemostprejudicedof“classics” wouldadmitthatayouthwhocultivatedhismindsoexclus ivelyintheacquisitionofknowledgethathemadehimself \incapableofearningbreadforhisbodywasinvertingthe orderofProvidence.

*“Anotherpotentstimulustothoughtandinterestissupplied, bygettingthepupils,wheneveritispossible,inhoweverhumble a departmentofknowledge,toshareinanythinglikeoriginal research.”-OnStimulus,p.37.

I72 CHAPTERIV

THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING

THEpositionwetakeupinreferencetothemannerinwhich readingaffectsoriginalitymaybeexpressedthus: (a)Thatwereadtoexcess,therebypreventingthecreative powersfromattainingthatrangeofactivityofwhichthey arecapable. (b)Thatreadinghasnotyetbeenreducedtoascience. Roughly,thesecomplaintsmeanthatourreadingislacking inproportionandindirection;itisunregulatedandleft almostentirelytochance.Milton'ssaying,“Deeplearned inbooks,butshallowinhimself,”bringshometousvery forciblythemannerinwhichaplenitudeofbooksmaybe hostiletoindividualityinthought.Thequestionastohow fartheworld’sleadersinthoughtandactionweregreatreaders isnotquiteaneasyonetoanswer,partlybecausethesources ofinformationaresometimesscanty,andpartlybecause booksthemselveshavebeenfewinnumber.Ifwecould provethatsincethedaysofCaxtontheworld’stotalof originalthoughtdeclinedinproportiontotheincreaseof publishedworksweshouldstandonfirmground,andmight giveordersforaholocaustsuchasthatwhichHawthorne onceimagined.Butnosuchproofiseitherpossibleor probable.Wecanonlybeimpressedbythefactthatthe finestintellectualepochofhistorywasmarkedbyacom parativeabsenceoftheMSS.whichwerebookstotheGreeks,"

*Ferrero,afterpointingoutthattheGreekshadlittlechanceof reading,andfew“books,”says:“Andto-dayl—awolfishin satiablehungerforprintedpaperandreadingmatteristhescourge ofcivilisation.”Anextremeview.Aretherenoother—and worse-scourgesP I73 ORIGINALITY andifafurtheranalysisofthelivesofmenoflightand leadinginallagesshouldshowthattheirdevotiontothe booksoftheperiodwasslight,itwillonlyaccentuatethe suspicionthatevento-daywearestillminustherightper spectivebetweentheprintedvolumeandthethinkingmind. Buddha,Christ,StPaul,Mohammed—thesearenamesof menwhochangedthecourseofhistory.Butdothey suggestvastscholarship,oraprofoundacquaintancewith booksinanysensewhatever?Theyweregreatoriginators, eventhoughtheybuiltonothermen'sfoundations,buttheir originalitywasnotinspiredbylibraries.Canweimagine MohammedporingoverancientMSS.inordertoobtainthe requiredknowledgeandimpetusforhisnewreligion? With Buddhawasitnot1percent.papyrusrolland99percent. meditation? WhenStPaulwasstruckdownonthewayto DamascushedidnotrepairtothenearestJewishseminary toreadupprophecy.Hesays:“IwentintoArabia.”The desertsolitudewastheonlyplaceinwhichtofindarationale ofhisnewexperience.Andwasitnotinasimilarlifeof solitudethatJesus—Essene-like—cametoself-realisation. Deane'sPseudepigrapha: BooksthatInfluencedourLord andHisApostles,doesnotsuggestthattheMessiahobtained hisideasfromtheliteratureoftheRabbis,muchlessfrom Greekorothersources,indeedtheNewTestamentsuggests thatintheearliestyearsheshoweda geniusfordivine things. II

Itwillbeurgedthattorestrictthisinquirytogreatnames inreligionwouldbeunfairbecausesuchleadersarecon fessedlyindependentofliterature;indeedtheyareoftenthe creatorsofit. True;butthatfactaloneissuggestive.If greatliteraturecancomefrommeditationalone,arewenot compelledtoask:“Whereshallwisdombefoundandwhere istheplaceofunderstanding?”Isenlightenmenttobe foundonlyintheprintedwisdomofthepast?Weknowit isnot,butwealsoknowitisuselesstosetonesourceoftruth overagainstanotherasiftheywereenemies.Thesoulhas itsplaceandsohasthebook;butneeditbesaidthatthe I74 THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING soulhasdonemorewonderfulthingsthanthebook? Languageismerelythesymbol;thesoulisthereality. Butletustakeothernameswithdifferentassociations —e.g.Plato,Charlemagne,Caesar,Shakespeare,Napoleon, Bismarck.Canitbesaidofanyoneofthesethatheowed one-thirdofhisdistinctiontowhathelearnedfromMSS.or books2 WedoknowindeedthatBismarckwasa wide reader,butitwasontheselectiveprincipleasastudentof historyandaffairs.Hislibrarygrewundertheinfluence ofthecontrollingpurposeofhislife—i.e.theunificationof Germany,sothattherewasnovaguedistributionofenergy. OfShakespeare'sreadingweknowless,butthereisno evidencethathewasacollectorofbooksorthathewasa studentafterthemannerofthemenoflettersofhisday. Thebestwaytoestimatehimasareaderistojudgehimby thereferencesinhisplays,andthesedonotshowanacquaint ancewithliteraturesoextensiveasitisintensive.The impressionhemadeonBenJonson,anall-roundscholar, wasnotoneoflearning—quiteotherwise.Thequalities " thatimpressedtheauthorofTimber,orDiscoveriesupon MenandMatter,wereShakespeare’s“openandfreenature,” his“excellentfancy,bravenotions,andgentleexpressions whereinheflowedwiththatfacilitythatsometimesitwas necessaryheshouldbestopped.”And,truetohimself, BenJonsonimmediatelyadds:“Sufflaminanduserat,as AugustussaidofHaterius.”*Shakespeare,wheninthe companyofkindredspirits,showedpreciselythekindoftalk weshouldexpect—notLatinandGreekorFrenchand Italianquotations,notacommentaryonbookspastor present,butastreamofconversationmarkedbybrilliant fancy,startlingcomparison,uniquecontrastandsearching pathos,whereinlife,notliterature,wasthechiefsubject.

III Wewillnowbringtheinquirydowntothelevelofthe averageman,andaskhowfarhisreadingisahelpora 1Timber,byBenJonson(Schelling'sedition),p.23.Seealsothe sectionon“Shakespeare'sBooks”inProf.LaneCooper'sMethods andAimsintheStudyofLiterature,p.164. I75 ORIGINALITY hindrancetooriginality.Bytheaveragemanwedonot meanthemanwhoreadsnothing,andtakesnostepstode velophismind;wemeanthemanwho,atleast,hassome intellectualcuriosity—enoughtoinducehimtoreadthe newspapers,amagazineoccasionally,andabooknowand again;indeedwemightevenbrackethimwiththeindividual whoisdescribedas“ageneralreader,”or“abitofa student.”Thequestionthenisthis:Whatarethechar acteristicsofthesepeople,sofarastheevolvingofnew ideasisconcerned? Thereplyisnotdifficult;thegreat majorityofwhatareknownasreadingpeopleemploytheir leisureinbecomingfamiliarwithfactsandideasalreadyre vealed.Theyseecheapclassicsallaroundthem;fictionis superabundant;travelbooks,booksoneconomicandsocial subjectsarenumerous;everytasteiscateredfor,and readinghasbecomeasortofdailyfunction;wehavefood forthemindjustaswehavebreakfastanddinnerforthe body.Thattheaveragemanswallowseverythinghesees inprintisfarfrombeingtrue;butitistruethatinnine hundredandninety-ninecasesoutofathousandthere isnokeendesiretoarriveatnewconclusions;readingis toomuchofa recreationforthat.Life,totheaverage man,withdomesticandcivicresponsibilities,doesnot allowmuchscopeforsustainedreflection;inhisout-of dutyhoursheisgenerallya tiredman,andreadsa bookinordertoobtainchangeandrest.Butevenwhere dailydutiesarenotexhausting,andwhere,alittleafter four-thirtyP.M.,hefindshimselffreefortherestofthe day,thereisusuallythesamereceptiveattitudeofmind; theauthorofthebookisnotmetwithavigorouschallenge, theargumentsarenotlogicallyanalysed,andthereisno determinedeffortonthepartofthereadertothinkoutthe subjectforhimselfandformhisownconclusions. Askhim,attheyear'send,toshowyouthelistofbooks hehasread,thentogiveyouanaccountofhisreflections; itwillbefound,mostprobably,thathismemorywillbemore exercisedthanhisjudgment—itwillbemoreinthenature ofarésuméofwhatothershavesaidthanastatementofhis ownthoughts. 176 THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING Thusreading,atthepresentmoment,isapastimewhenit isnotadissipation.Itistooextensive—toolittleintensive. Attentioninmanyinstancesisdistributedtoowidelyinthe efforttoknowagreatdeal;orelseitiswastedinperusing fictionthatisforgottenthedayafterwards.Thegeneral readerofthemiddleclasses,whoaimsatbeinguptodate, feelsitadisgracenottohavereadthenovelofthemoment, orthelastvolumeofBergsonorCroce,orthelatestwhimof someparadoxwriterwithinitials.Hehasthereputationof being“agreatreader,”andhemustliveuptoit. Heisa gourmandofprint.Heseldomgiveshimselfthepleasure andstimulusofacreativemood;habithasconfirmedhim inareceptivenessthatisnowalmostabsolute;andhisstore ofknowledgegrowsapace. Therealworkingman,ontheotherhand,hasfarmore individuality,mainlybecausehereadslessandismuchgiven todebate.Abetterreadmanmayarguemorescientifically, andwithagreaterfulnessofknowledge,butthe“worker” hasadirectnessallhisown.Heisoftenmistaken,buteven inhismistakeshecarriesthatatmosphereofindividualcon victionwhichisfrequentlylackinginthemoreacademical methodsoftheotherman.ItwasStBeuvewhosaid: “Allpeasantshavestyle.”Onecanpredicatealmostas muchoftheworkingman.Intheetymologicalsensethere ismorewitinhiscontentions,aswellasinhismannerof expressingthem;thehabitofconsultingandusing authoritieshasnotrobbedhismindofthe“nativehueof resolution.”Wemustadmit,however,thathisuninstructed anduntrainedmindisnotamodeltobeimitated;indeedits value,fromapsychologicalstandpoint,ismainlynegative; itshowsushowwesufferfromthepressureofprintincarry ingoutoureducationalpolicies;howbooksbecomeanend inthemselves,insteadofameanstoanend;andhowin dividualityiscrushedbeneaththeburdenofmasteringother

men'sopinions. - IV

Totheobjectionthatwedonotexpectoriginalityfrom theaveragemanwecannotbutdemur.Inthebroadsense

M 177 ORIGINALITY wearejustifiedinexpectingeverymantoexpresshis individualityinsteadofsacrificingit;atanyrateheought tobeencouragedinthisendeavoursolongashedoesnot transgressthesociallawsthatprotecttherightsofthe majority.Itmaybetrue,asatheory,thattheaveragemind isessentiallyincapableofstrikingoutinanewlineofinquiry, but,asamatteroffact,originalthinkershaveoftensprung suddenlyfromtheranksoftheaverageman;indeedwe neverknowthemomentwhengeniusmayrisefromthelives ofordinaryintelligencetodazzleuswiththelightofsome greatconceptionoramazeuswithanunexampleddeed. Nohindrance,therefore,shouldbeputinthewayofdevelop ingthepersonalityofthemanfromwhomwehavebeen taught,erroneously,toexpectlittle;forwithasuperior systemofusingbooks—andweneedsuchasystem—the nativequalitiesofthemindareretained,notdestroyed,by beingmouldedinthefashionofanother.Tolookfororiginal mindsamongthegreatdevoteesofbooksisamistake,ifwe dosoundertheimpressionthatlearningisproductiveof individualviews;andacensusofgeniusinitsrelationto printedmatterwouldrevealthefactthatthelargerthe libraryofbooksreadthesmalleristheoutputoforiginality.

Thisbringsustoaveryimportantdiscussion,onethathas oftenbeenthesubjectofaddressesbyprofessorsofallkinds— therightuseofbooks.Wehaveploughedthrough—thereisno otherexpressionforit—ascoreofvolumesonhowbooks shouldbechosenandstudied,butwecannotsaywearemuch thewiser.Eachwriterspeakstoaparticularkindofreader; notoneoftheauthorsconsultedseemstoapprehendthatthe problemisbothseriousanddifficult,dealingnotmerelywith atypeofbook-man,orgeneralmethodsofstudy,butwith therelationofpublishedideastothenatureandrequirements ofagrowingmind.Inalargemeasuretheissueisstrictly educational,andcomeswithintheprovinceofpedagogics"; *InthissenseitisdiscussedbyProf.DeweyinhisHowWe Think,p.197ff. 178 THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING butitis alsoonethatconcernstheprivateperson, especiallyinthoseformativeyearsthatcomewhenthe schoolperiodisover—yearswhen,aslikelyasnot,a youthhaslittleintelligentguidanceonsoimportanta matter.Hemayfollowhisowninstinctsandusebooksin aspecialwayforsomeendwhichhepursuesardently,inwhich caseheisratherfortunate;orlateronhemayfallavictim tosomemania,suchasthedesiretoreadallthathasbeen writtenonAlchemy,PoorLaw,ortheEleusinianMysteries, becominganauthorityonthesesubjects.Wehaveno objectiontourgeagainsttheacquiringofknowledge;itis necessarythatsomebodyshouldorganiseusefulinformation onasoundbasis;butwhenthisaccumulatingoffactsis madeintoanideal,asifitrepresentedthehighestuseto whichbookscouldbeput,itistimetocallahalt. Withatouchofimpatiencethereadermaysay:What, then,isthetruerelationofthebooktothemindIn theory,andthisappliestoallexternalstimuli,thereshould benoexcessofimpressionoverexpression.Itisanoldand healthylawofthelifepsychological;andyetthemanner inwhichthousandsofpeoplelive,mentally,isthatfollowed bythefattenerofcattleforanagriculturalshow—itis “stuff—stuff—andstuffagain.”Inputandoutputhaveno scientificallyregulatedaction;evenineducationaltreatises thereisnorationallyestablishedsystemofadjustingexternal stimulitointernalneeds.Wearecertainlyimprovingin thisrespect—atleastinsomequarters—butwehavealong waytotravelbeforewecansaywehavefoundthetrue criterion.Probablythereisnocriterionthatcanbeapplied toeverymind,exceptinfundamentals;foralthoughall mindsworkaccordingtofixedlawsofthoughts,thebases areindividualinqualityandcallforindividualtreatment. TheJesuitshadtherightmethodbutthewrongpurpose. Now,asbetweenimpressionandexpressionthereisa hiatusthatcanonlybefilledbyreflection.Togather togetheravaststoreofthingsseenandheard,andtogive themsomesortofexpressioninspeech,inwriting,inart,is toobeythelaw;butthequalityoftheobedienceisdeter minedbythethinkingthathasprecededit. Thereader I79 ORIGINALITY whogoesthroughavolumeofeconomics,leavingitfora bookoneugenics,passingthencetoaproblemnovel,and closingwithavolumeonfuturism,hasbroughttogethera greatstoreofideas,suggestions,policies,andarguments; andifhebepossessedofaglibtongue,andagoodmemory, hemayhavemuchtosaythatsoundsentertaining;butin mostinstanceshehasmerelyfilledhismindwithinformation aboutwhichhehasnotreflectedinamannerworthyofthe name;hisimpressionsarenumerousandextremelyvaried. hisexpressionsarevolubleandconfident,buthisthinking ispracticallynil.Asfororiginality—well,heisonlya vociferousecho. Invaryingdegreesthisdevourerofbookshashisimitators inallclassesofthecommunity,andtheonlyremedyis (a)toreducethenumberofimpressionsfrombooks,sothat themindmaynotbeovertaxed,oritsreflectiveworkmade otherwiseimpossible;and(b)totakestepstosecureadequate meansofexpression. Nowwhoistodeterminetheserelationshipsbetween stimulifrombooksandcreativethinking? Noone,appar ently,exceptthemanhimself.Wecannotfindanauthor whohasattemptedtosolvetheproblemwithevenadegree ofapproximatesuccess.ThenisitinsolubleItought nottobe;forwhilstthereisaspecificindividualfactor thatcannotbemeasured,theotherfactorsarecertainlynot incalculable.Letusfirsttrytosimplifytheproblem.

Thefirstdefectinourmodernreadingislackofdis crimination.Wedonotknowwhatweoughttoread,nor doweunderstandourselves,individually,withsufficientful nesstoknowwhatbooksarebestadaptedtoourintellectual requirements.Wehavenotdecidedtherelationshipbe tweenhumilityandself-confidencewhenwestandfaceto *“Thetrueuseofbookshasyettobefoundandadmitted; we donotsufficientlyrecognisetheirvalueasstoresofinformationand saversofbrainwaste.”—Prof.Armstrong,inanaddressbeforethe BritishAssociationin1902. 180 THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING facewiththegreatauthorsofalltime.Whenwelearn thatNietzscheoftenregardedabookasanimpertinence, saying:“Itwouldneveroccurtometoallowanyoneto speakoreventothinkinmypresence—forthatiswhat readingwouldmean,”"weprobablytakeastepintheother directionwheremoremodestconceptionsprevail;andif westaytherelongenoughwemayendinmerereceptivity andhero-worship.Butisnotintellectualmodestycom patiblewithasinceritythatrespectstheopinionsofgreat menwithoutablindacceptanceofthem?Dowenotowe ittoourself-respecttomakeawidermarginforourown ideas—notforthesakeoftheideasthemselves,forthey maynotamounttomuch,butforthesakeofdignity,the dignityofbeingaconscioussoulinthepresenceofinfinite things2 Thatthequalityofourideaswouldimprovethere canbenodoubt,butthereisafactorinthesituationthatis morethanutilitarian.Itisnot“Howmuchdoyou know?”but“Whatdoyouknow?”Haveyouread literaturebyaprocessofselectionthathasputyouinto possessionofthebestwhichhasbeenthoughtandwritten? Haveyouhadthecouragetobeignorantofthethousand andonethings,a knowledgeofwhichotherpeoplecall culture? Andhaveyouaccomplishedthisbecauseyou haverespectedyourownindividuality,forsakingbooks altogetherforaperiodand,insolitudeaswellasinsociety, reconstructingthefabricofyourthought2 InMrS.M.Crothers’essayon“TheHonourablePoints ofIgnorance,””thereisrecordedanincidentinwhichthe writerseesaparablewithdeepmeaning.“Whatisbehind thesecretpanel?”heasked,addressinghishost,theowner ofanElizabethanmansion.“Idonotknow,”wasthereply, “andwhileIliveitshallneverbeopened,forthenIshall havenosecretchamber.”Somereaderswillsay:“How stupid!”otherswillsay—nothing.Theysee:forasMr

*EcceHomo,p.36.ThusalsoSchopenhauer:“Readingforces alienthoughtsonthemind.Thesafestwayofhavingnothoughts ofone'sownistotakeupabookeverymomentonehasnothingelse todo.”—TheArtofLiterature,p.60. *TheGentleReader.ByS.M.Crothers.Boston,1903. 181 ORIGINALITY Crothersremarks,hishost“waswiseenoughtoresistthe temptationtosellhisbirthrightofmysteryfora messof knowledge.”Withwhatshamedoweutterthephrase: “Idon’tknow.”Akeensenseofdisgrace,asifcaughtina flagrantsin,overpowersus;andweareconsciousofasad fallintheestimationofourfellows.Ignoranceismadeinto acrime;notmerelymyignoranceofthesubjectinwhich youhavespecialised,oryourignoranceofmyspeciality, butignoranceoftheexactscienceofthemoon,ofdatesin history,andoftheauthorship(chapter,verseandpage number)ofnotablequotationsfrompoetsandprosewriters. Solongastheknowledge-in-the-massidealprevails,solong willitexactpunishmentfordisobediencetoitslaws.He thatknowethshallbesaved,andhethatknowethnotshall bedamned;suchisthelaw.Isitfarbetter,then,toknow thehistoryofWestminsterAbbeyfromtheremotestcrevice tothetopmoststone,andtorestinthatknowledge,than tobecomparativelyignorantofthesedetailsandyetto bedeeplymovedbythespectacleofthestatelybuilding inwhichthepastissopotentlypresentastobealmost disturbing? Wethinknot.Knowledgegainedafter animpressiveexperienceassumesitsrightfulposition;it becomesmemorychargedwithemotion,andinthatwayis changedfromarecordoffactsintolivingconsciousness. Sucha procedureisnotpossibleineverysphere,butitis theidealtobeaimedat; andthestudentwho,afterstudying naturewithhisownsenses,therebycreatinginterest,goesto thetext-bookonPhysiographywillmasteritmorequickly, rememberitmoreunfailingly,andappreciateitmorefully thanthemere“reader.”

VII

Thesecretistomaintaintheneededbalancebetween subjectiveimpressionsandobjectiverealities.Ifwestudy thestarsforlongperiodswearegladtogetbacktoearth againforarubberofwhistoraroundofgolf;butwhen earthlytroublesoppressusthereisnothinglikeastronomy forbelittlingmountainstotheiroriginalmolehills.The I82 THELACKOFASCIENCEOFREADING emphasishereisnotontherangeofourknowledgebuton theeffectithasonourimagination—theextenttowhichit inspiresus.Hencetheliteratureofinspiration,whatDe Quinceycallstheliteratureofpower,musthaveafirstplace inthereadingcurriculum.Andbecausemorethanonekind oforiginalityspringsfromimitationthereshouldbeaneffort toindividualiseone’sownexperience,notwithaviewto enlargingthewisdomoftheworld,butasadutycarriedout inthespiritofself-respect.Bookswillthenbegintoassume theirtrueperspective,andknowledgewillonlybeknowledge whenitcanbeassimilatedintothegreatunityofconscious ness.Physiologiststellusthatstoredmaterialandsuper fluousfatarealmostsynonymousterms.Andaretherenot manycorpulentminds,unwieldywithbulkymassesofun usedinformation? Theseflabbyandmonstrousproducts aretheoutcomeofwrongmethodsofreading,wherebythe lifeoftheintellectbecomesaperpetualgourmandising; indeed,tocarrythefigurestillfurther,suchmenliveinthe dining-roomandneverhavethetablenapkinsoutoftheir hands.Andthedishisalwaysthesame—InformationPie. Thereshouldbeagreaterefforttowardssynthesisthan analysis;thatisanotheraspectoftherelationbetweenthe subjectiveandtheobjective.Nowadayswearemostly analysts;weusethemicroscopefreely;wetakethingsto pieces;welovetobescientific.Butsynthesisisjustas scientificasanalysis,andalthoughsomeofourpresent-day synthesesareoftenhasty,showingscampedanalysis,that isnoreasonwhyweshoulddiscouragethethirstforunities. Allthegreatageshavebeensynthetic,andallthebestminds havebeenpositiveandconstructive,evenSchopenhauer's. Readingcarriedoutinthisspiritwillintroducealmost unconsciouslyanartofsélection,aprincipleofguidance,

*“Ifoneweretoendeavourtoexpressinasinglewordthefunda mentaldifferencebetweenancientandmodernwaysofthinking onemightsaythatthekeynoteoftheformerissynthesis,thatof thelatteranalysis.Theancientdelightedinwholes;themoderns delightinresolvingawholeintoitscomponentparts.”—TheVitality ofPlatonism,byJamesAdam,p.222.Alittletoosweeping,but withanunderlyingtruth. 183 ORIGINALITY amethodwithcreativepossibilitiesinit;anditwillthere foredestroy,automatically,thetendencytoreadforread ing'ssake;allmentalprocesseswillhavearightdirection becauseapurposehasbeenfound. Thesegeneralprinciples—i.e.(a)thebalancebetweena knowledgeofexternalfacts,andanappreciationoftheir inwardmeanings;and(b)theproperrelationofsynthesis toanalysishavetobemadepersonalinordertobesuccessful, andinthatrespecteveryreadermustbehisownjudgeand guide.Butsinceithasbeenpossibletoproduceevidence thatthemodernreadingofbooksinthemassistosome extentrepressiveofindividualqualities,andthereforeof originality,itoughtnottobedifficultforanintelligent mantoedithisbooklistinsuchawayastopreventthein efficienciesofthepast.Theonesaferuleforeverybodyis: Followyourinterestsintelligently.Theadverbisimportant. Tofollowone’sinterestsexclusively,riotously,andaggres sivelyistoallyoneselfwiththedevoteewhoneverthinks outsidehisrigidlittlecircle: buttofollowone’sinterests wiselyistoseeasphereofknowledgeinitsintimaterelation shipswithallotherspheresofknowledge,thusavoidinga fatalnarrownessofoutlook.Butthereareotherfactors atwork;interestmeanssympathy,joy,admiration,and, aswillbeevidentlater,theseareamongthequalitiesthat leadtodiscoveryandoriginality.

184 CHAPTERV

LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT

ITwouldbepossibletooccupyagooddealofspace,quite interestingly,indiscussingtheoriginandoperationof standardsinhumanaffairs,butthisisoutsideourpurpose. Weshallbecontenttodrawattentiontooneaspectofthe subject—namely,theinfluencewhichdefectivestandards exerciseoncreativethinking.Itmustbeevident,evento thebitterestopponentofNietzsche,thatourstandardsof meritneedoverhaulingperiodically.Thebestofliterary criticshasafar-away,half-hopelesslookinhiseyeswhen youaskhim:“Whatisthedifferencebetweenagoodbook andabadone2* Heknows,ofcourse,butitissodifficult toputitintowords!Besides,therearesomanykindsof books,andeachkindhasitsownstandardofvalue.Value! Ah!thatisthekeyword.Ifwecandefineitweshallget nearthetruth,forallstandardsdependonthesenseofvalue. Hewhohaswrittenthemostscientifictreatiseonbrick laying—onethatissoundineveryinstruction,andtested bymuchexperience—hasproduceda standardworkfor buildersbecause,ofallsuchworks,itcontainsthemost value.Value,then,issomespecialformofserviceinthe interestsofman;forthewriterwho,onahigherplane thanbricklaying,createsanidealvalue,isalsoservingthe interestsofman,albeitinadifferentway—inpoetry,in music,inart.Thisviewdoesnotcompelustolookforour standardssolelyinthepast: theyarebeingrecreatedand renewedallthetime.Onceweusedtolookexclusivelyat Greekmodels,"andwhilstweshallneverceasetoreverence *MrR.W.Livingstone,inhisilluminatingbookonTheGreek Genius,says:“Greeceneverlearnt,likethesymbolists,toindicate I85 ORIGINALITY theirachievementsweshallnolongerbindourselvesby theirstandards.Valueshavechanged.Wethinkwehave amorecomprehensiveviewoflifethantheyhad—onewith moresympathyandjusticeinit—consequentlythemeasures theyappliedtoliteratureandcivilisationaretoofreeinsome instancesandtoonarrowinothers.Wemightstudythe evolutionofvaluesandstandardsthroughouttheages,but allthatisneedfulhereandnowistoremembertheyare alwayschangingeventhoughthereareelementsthatare permanent. Unfortunatelytheysometimeschangefortheworse. Thepermanentelementsbecomeobscured;thenewer additionsareperhapstawdryandevanescent.Onemain reasonforthisdeteriorationistheraisingoftheaverage standardofmeritatatimewhenthereisatworknooriginal mindofthefirstorder.Aperiodofcreativeactivityis usuallyfollowedbyatamerperiod,inwhichwesaywhata wonderfulagetheagewasthatwentjustbeforeourown; andwewritecriticalvaluationsandissuecheapeditions oftheclassics.Thefewcreativemindsthatremainusethe principlesofimitation,and,intheabsenceofthesuperman, theseimitatorsarehailedasmenofgenius.Thatishow standardsfallbecausethesenseofvaluehasbeenlost.

Ifwetakeupamodernliteraryjournal—onethatappeals tothegeneralreaderaswellastheprivatestudent—we aresurprisedtofind,fromthereviews,whatanumberof geniusesthereareintheworldwhosenamesareabsolutely thevagueemotionswhichhoveronthevergeofconsciousness:it ignorestheinfinitemysteryofthingsorreducesittoaminimum. Itsclarityfallsonuslikethetransparentatmosphereandvivid coloursofSwitzerland,tillwelongformistieroutlinesandbluer distances.Andmore.Itishostile,acriticmightargue,tosenti mentaswellassentimentality.Awholerangeofthoughtandfeeling iswantinginHellenism.Thereishardlyatraceinitofthatpoetry offailureinwhich,writingofweaknessanddisaster,apoetsotreats hissubjectthatwealmostfeeltheweaknesstobeavirtueandthe disasterasuccess”(p.97). I86 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT newtous."Thediscoveryischasteningtoourbeliefthat wekeepintouchwiththetimes.Evidentlywearequite outofdate,forhereisanovelbyGeraldHerriter“fullof thesamefireofgeniusaswashisfirst. . . theperfect portrayalofcharacter. . . thecohesivemovementof theplot,sureasNemesis.. . ”:allthisisbewilderingtoa readerwho,ifhewouldnotmissthebestofnewthings,feels compelledtogothroughtwonewnovelsinorderthathe maynotbeconversationallyimpotentamonghisfriends. IfHerriterhadbeenasecond-raterwecouldhaveignored him;geniusweareobligedtoknow. Butthematterdoesnotendhere.ThereisAloway,the newpoet,whoafterphilanderingwiththeCubistsand FuturistsjoinedtheImagistes,feelinghisrealcallwas poetry,thenbrokeaway,andpublishedhisVoicesfrom Italy.Wehavetoreadhimalso,togetherwitha new philosopherwhoissaidtoout-BergsonBergson.Feverishly webegintostudytheseexpressionsofthemodernspirit; andif,intheinterim,weareaskedforouropinionofHerriter, wereply,loftily,that,likeEmerson,weneverreadbooks untiltheyareayearold.. . .

Thenthetruthdawnsuponus.Herriterturnsouttobea second-raterafterall;hehasexploitedasexproblemwith arathernewplot—nothingmore.Alowayismerelyade signerintheuseofcolourwords,andthethinkerwhohas putBergsonintotheshadeisprovedtohaveclimbedon Bergson'sshouldersinordertoobtainhisownelevation. Thesediscoveriesbringusbacktothenoticesinthejournal, andwehaveanaturaldesiretocross-examinethereviewing staffabouttheoriginoftheirstandardsofcriticism.We ask:“Whyhaveyoudescribedsecond-rateworkasifit weretheoffspringofgenius: Whatdoyoumeanbytelling HerriterthatinsomewayshisbookissuperiortoHardy’s JudetheObscure,initsinsightintohumannature? andthat evenStevensongavenobetterexampleofwizardryinthe

1Wehavebeforeusaliteraryjournalwithareviewofthree novels—certainlygood—butnotmeritingtheheading“Novels ofGenius.** 187 ORIGINALITY useofwords?”Perhapsthereviewershonestlybelieve thesejudgments.Ifso,thensinceHerriterisonlyafacile scribe,handlingaproblemthathasallitsattractivenessin itself,theneedofhigherstandardsisasclearastheday; iftheydonotbelieveinthesejudgments,well,thenwe requiremoreconscienceaswellasabettercriticism.

III

MrEdmundGosse,writingofhisfriendthelateMaarten Maartens,offersanappositecriticism.“Maartenswasa greatloverandbuyerofbooks,buthelivedinthedepths ofHolland,andhadnomeansofseeinghispurchasesbefore hand.Hewasinthehabitofappealingtoacquaintances inLondontoassurehimwhatwas,andwhatwasnot,worth buying,becausehefounditimpossibletodiscoverbymerely followingtheleadoftheEnglishreviews. “Somuchtradeinterest,somuchlaxityofjudgment, sogreatafearofgivingoffence,enteredintothewritingof thesearticles,that—SoMaartenMaartensavowed—itwas hopelessforaforeigneratadistancetobeguidedbythem. Thereviewerfollowsthelineofleastresistance,whichisthe idlelineofindiscriminatepraise.”" Considertheeffectofundeservedpraiseonthefuture workofHerriter.Heisnowasatisfiedman,andtherein lieshisdanger.Hefeelshehasattained.Furthereffortis unnecessary.Heneeddonomorethantrytopreservethe standardhehasalreadyachieved.Worstofall,itisalow standard;andthechancesarethathisnextbook,the offspringofsmugself-satisfaction,willnotbeevenasgood astheothertwo.Notonlyso,butcontemporaryand perhapsyoungerwriters,knowingHerriter'sreputationasa genius.andbelievingtheycanachievegreaterresults,enter theliterarytournament;andeventuallywehaveagroup ofmenandwomenwhoform“theYoungerSchool”of this,thatandtheotherart.Canwewonderthatliterary andartisticvaluesgetintoatangle,thatattainmentbecomes *TheAthenaeum(No.1,MonthlyEdition). I88 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT cheapandeasy,andthatareputationfororiginalityis \obtainedbyfollowingtheprevailingfashion? Primarilythecriticistoblame,especiallythecriticas reviewer.Therearethreetypesofreviewer.Heiscom petentbuttookind;orheisincompetent;orheisnot hisownmaster.Inthejournalsthatcountforanything thecriticgenerallybelongstothefirstclass:theothertwo classeshavetheremainderoftheliteraryworldintheircare andkeeping,andbookvaluesoftendependontheamount ofadvertisinggivenoutbythepublisher.Allthemore credit,therefore,isduetothosepublicationswhichaimat thepreservationofhighstandards,andarepreparedto sacrificeapageofpublicityratherthanpromiseafavourable reviewinadvance.True,therearejournalsthatcarrythe spiritofindependencetoanextremedegree;theonlytrue standardofcriticism,inanything,isafootrulethatappears tobekeptintheeditor'sdesk;and,seemingly,abookis neverwrittenthatisequaltothisstandard.Animpossible standardisnotquiteasmischievousasa lowstandard, butitisessentiallyuncritical: itseeksnottoappraise butto destroy.Nevertheless,theexistenceofthis typeofpublicationisanecessity;foronesetofcritics discoverssomanygeniusesthatwerequireastrongbandof “slashers”tokillthemoff.The“slasher”canbewickedly “exaggerated”andunfair,attimes,butwithouthimwe shouldlosetheneedfulbalance,andourvalueswouldsink tonothing. Wehavehearda manstate,withuttercomplacency (duringa railwaytrainconversation),thatheconsidered himselfafirst-classmusician:“’E’dgivenfiveyearstoit, andtherewasnotonethingamongthehundredsofSankey’s hecouldnotplay—’e'devencomposedtwo'ymnsof'isown —saidtobebetterthanWillyoumeetmeattheFountain** Thismanclearlyhadastandard;healsohadoriginality ofakind,butthelowvalueofitdecidedthestatusofhis creativework.HewasaskedwhathethoughtofWagner, Strauss,Debussy.He“’ad'eardof'em,but'adnousefor 'em—notinmaline!”Hesaiditquitesympathetically— asthoughhewasrathersorryforthem.Now,to-day,in 189 ORIGINALITY artworkofallkinds,thereistoomuch“Sankey.”The Sankeystandardinfiction,inpoetryanddrama,perhapsin painting,too,willhavetobedestroyedifwearetoincrease thekindoforiginalitythatisworthwhile.Whatpasses asmeritoriousisquitefrequentlyeithermediocreormerely mechanicalbrillianceoftheparadoxicalorder.

Thereis,forinstance,themethodofbeingoriginalby turninga truthoveronitsback.OscarWilde,inhis earlierdays,wasoneofitsshininglights.Tosay:“Dis cretionisthebetterpartofvalour”wastootasteless, tooobvious,tooplebeian;sohesaid:“Indiscretionis thebetterpartofvalour.”Howsubtleitsoundedtohis contemporaries—andhowclever! Indeedthecriticssaid itwasclever,andwhentheyfurtherreadsuchaluminosity asthis:

“Theamountofwomenwhoflirtinpublicwiththeirown husbandsisscandalous.Itissimplywashingone’scleanlinenin public,” theytalkedofbrilliance—evenofgenius.Havingfound hismarket,Wildesupplieditwiththenecessary“sparkles”:

“DivorcesaremadeinHeaven,” and

“Icanbelieveanythingprovideditisincredible,” butifthecriticshadtoldhimthetruth—thathewasonly actingthepartofaliterarytrapezeartist—theywouldhave savedhimfromtheyearsthatwerespentinposturingbefore thepublic,orinpolishingthepebblesofspeechandcoining literarycouplets;theywouldhavehastenedtheadventof thehigherworkofwhichhewascapable.Lessflattery, strenuouscriticism,andloftierstandardsgenerallymight I90 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT havesavedOscarWildefromagoodmanymisfortunes." Hispossibleoriginalityneverreacheditsmaximum,not evenintheremarkablequalitiesofDeProfundis;andthe possiblemaximumwasveryhighindeed.

Forsomeyears,onoccasion,MrG.K.Chestertonfollowed themethodofinvertingfacts;indeedwearenotquitesure thathehas,evennow,altogetherrenouncedit. Aspecimen ofhisprocessisseeninhishandlingofthequestion:“What istyranny?”Hereplied:“Broadlyspeaking,thecommon theoryoftyrannyisthis:thatmenhavegroanedundersome systemforcenturiesandhaveatlastrebelledagainstit; butIthinkthatmenhaveactivelydonequiteotherwise; theyhaverebelledagainstthesystemunderwhichtheyhave notgroaned.”Hethenproceedstoshowhowtheworld hasbeenmistakenforsomehundredsofyears,untilhis articleinTheDailyNews(fromwhichwequote)discovered therealtruthtoagratefulpublic.Washefooling? Most likely;butanyonewithnimbleintelligencecanmakeout a casefortheflatcontradictionofacceptedopinionby postulatingtheopposite,thereby“proving”thatoptimism isreallyrankpessimism,andthatappearancesaremore substantialthanrealities.”Thisisthesortofworkthat fallstothemanwhotakesthenegativeintheMutual

*ItisonlyfairtosaythatJeyes,oftheStJames's,warnedhim aboutDorianGray.“Whatistheuse,”hesaid,“ofwritingofand hintingatthingsyoudonotmean?”“Iassureyou,”replied, Oscar,earnestly,“ImeaneverywordIhavesaid,andeverything atwhichIhavehintedinDorianGray.”“ThenallIcansay,” answeredJeyesgrimly,“isthatifyoudomeanthemyouarevery likelytofindyourselfinBowStreetoneofthesedays.”Afew criticismsofthatkindmighthavehadacumulativeeffect,evenon avanityasgreatasthatofWilde. *MaxStirner,inTheEgoandhisOwn(p.60),quotesfromFeuer bach:“Ifoneonlyinvertsspeculativephilosophy,i.e.alwaysmakes thepredicatethesubject,andsomakesthesubjecttheobjectand principle,onehastheundrapedtruth,pureandclean.”Yes; Germanyoftenputthecartbeforethehorse. IQI ORIGINALITY ImprovementSocietydebate;anditistoberegretted thatawriterofMrChesterton'spowerseverwastedhistime playingwiththesefireworks.Buthere,again,thecritics aretherealsinners.Theyappraisedthedisplayas “brilliant,”andtheauthorpursuedhiseffortsaccordingly untilripeningexperiencerenderedhimaservicethatought tohavecomefromotherquarters—andmuchearlier.

Thereisoneothermethodofobtainingareputationfor originality,andthatistochallengeacceptedtruths—and denythem.Thisispre-eminentlythemethodofMrShaw. InthenewprefacetoTheIrrationalKnot,hesays: “Idefinethefirstorderofliteratureasconsistingofthose worksinwhichtheauthor,insteadofacceptingthecurrent moralityandready-madereligion,withoutquestionasto theirvalidity,writesfromanoriginalmoralstandpointof hisown,therebymakinghisbookanoriginalcontribution astomorals,religion,andsociologyaswellasbelles-lettres.” Nomoreineptutteranceonavitalissuewaseverdelivered. Thefirstorderinliteratureissurelythatofgenius,andthe worksofgeniushavenot,inthemain,beenconcernedwith thetruthsofeitherreligionormorality,noteveninthe widestsense;theyhavedealtwiththehumanmindand heartineveryphase,notmerelyinrelationtotheuniverse andpersonaldestiny.Andtheirfirstprinciplehasnotbeen thatofchallenge—anantagonismtothetruthsacceptedat thetime—buttheinsightofsympathy.Ageniusisnot pre-eminentlyanIshmaelitewhosehandisagainstevery man;heisratheramanwithasuperlativegiftofseeing intoandbehindphenomena,andoffeelingwithhisfellows.” *ForinstanceMrJamesDouglas,inreviewingMrJuliusWest's Chesterton:aCriticalStudy,says:“Thecentraltruthtobeuttered aboutMrChestertonisthatheisthegreatestprophetofourgenera tion.HeisasgreatasTolstoyorIbsen.”-TheObserver,20th February1916.MrChestertonisprobablynotcomfortablewhen hisfriendstakeuptheirpens. *SpeakingofShakespeare'scomprehensivesympathywithlife asheknewit,Bagehotsays:“Tohimmorethantoanyoneelsehas I92 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT Thesecretdoesnotlieinantagonismbutinvision.Hence Nietzschehasitthatoriginalityisseeing“theold,well knownthing,whichisseenandoverlookedbyeveryone,as somethingnew.” MrShawaffirmsthatagenius—amemberofthefirstorder ——ispre-eminentlyachallengeroftheprevailingreligionand morality.Ifthatweretrue,inthesensedescribed,the literatureoftheEthicalSociety,representingspecificattacks onacceptedreligionsandmoraltruth,wouldtakeashigha placeinbelles-lettresasitdoesintherecordofprogressive philosophy.Weknowitdoesnot;itsaimistoteachpeople tothinkonwhatitbelievestobebetterlines;andalthough someofitspublicationsarewritteninexcellentEnglishthey cannotclaimtobeclassics.AndyettheyfulfilMrShaw's conditions:theychallengethevalidityofcurrentbeliefs aboutreligionandconduct;thewriterswritefrom“an originalstandpoint’’oftheirown;theyofferinconsequence anoriginalcontributiontotheologicaltruthandtosociology, buttheyarenotincludedinbelles-lettresandtheauthorsare notgeniuses:theyaremoralreformers. Itisnotsurprisingthatwiththisnotionoforiginality,as amotive,MrShaw'sownworksareessentiallylackingin thatquality;wecanneverthinkoftheminassociationwith belles-lettres.Thatsomeofthemhavepiquancywemay admit;indeeditisthiswhichhasgiventhemtheirpopularity. Themanwithnimblewitandglibtonguewhomakesithis businesstoshout: “You’realiar,”toeverythingandevery body,iscertaintogetattention.InallfairnesstoMrShaw itmustbeadmittedthathehasdonehisshoutingwithagood dealofskill;and,havingasenseofhumour,hemusthave laughedquietlytohimselfwhenanAmericanprofessorwrote abookonShavianhistoryandphilosophy,andassociatedthe itbeengiventoseethatthey(i.e.life'svariedaspects)wereagreat unity,agreatreligiousobject;thatifyoucouldonlydescendtothe innerlife,tothedeepthings,tothesecretprinciplesofitsnoble vigour,totheessenceofcharacter,towhatweknowofHamlet, andseemtofancyofOphelia,wemight,sofaraswearecapableof sodoing,understandtheNatureGodhasmade.”-LifeofWalter Bagehot,p.217.

N I93 ORIGINALITY nameofShawwiththatofIbsen.Weshouldnotwonderif, inamomentaryfitofanguish,thewords:“PoorIbsenl” escapedtheShavianlips.ForShawknowshimselfasfew mendo;andheknowsthatwhilstskilfuladvertisingand themethodofchallengehavemadehimdifferentfromothers, Ngivinghimaneccentricindividuality,thereisnothinginhis workthatisdistinctivelyoriginal.

VII

Weclaimthata dispassionateanalysisofthetypeof brillianceassociatedwithmuchoftheworkofOscarWilde, G.K.Chesterton,andG.B.Shaw—takingthemasspecimens ofsomemodernliteraryfashions—provesittobetheresult ofartificialmethods;itdoesnotspringfromgreatnessof mindsomuchasskillindialectics;inshort,itismerelythe outcomeofatrick.Thepopularityofthiskindofwriting is,inpart,duetothelowstandardofmeritbywhichour literaryoutputisjudged.Thecriticiscontenttoregarda bookasagreatachievementwhenitisnothingofthekind. Helivestoomuchintheatmosphereofthemediocre,and doesnotaskhimselfasoftenasdidStBeuve: “Whatisa classic**Ifhedid,theword-pyrotechnicsandtheself consciousartofto-daywouldnotreceivethegratulations bestoweduponthem,andtherisinggenerationofwriters wouldhavewhattheyneedmostofall: ahigherideal. Thatourattitudetowardsthethreemenisnothard, unjust,ill-informed,orincompetentwillbeevidentifthe thinkingreadercarestomakeafewinquiriesintotheartistic qualityandpossibleimmortalityofsuchworkastheyhave produced.Wildeisgreatlysuperiortotheothertwo,and hisDeProfundiswilltakeitsplaceamongthegreatCon fessions.Butthecriticsdidnothelphimtowriteit;he isindebtedtosufferingforthatservice.Haddisasternot overtakenhim,thepossibilitiesarethathewouldneverhave producedanythinghigherthanalittlegroupofbrightplays, andafewpolishedessays.ChestertonandShawremain wherethecriticshaveplacedthem,andonecannotthink ofanyworkoftheirsthatwilllast.MrShawissteadily I94 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT advancinginyearsandwillprobablyonlyrepeathimself. MrChestertonisyoungerandpossessesanemotionalquality thatmayyetresultinsomethingtrulydistinctive.Buthe hasnotyetreachedthatlevel.

VIII

ThequestionsopenedoutinMordell’sTheShiftingof LiteraryValues(1912)andhislaterbook,Dante,andother WaningClassics(1915),arenotsomuchconcernedwithlow standardsaswithfalsestandards;butbothbooksmaycon venientlybeconsideredinthisplace.Thestandpointofthe firstisthusstatedintheauthor'spreface.Heundertakes toestablishthefact“thatchangesinmoralitymustaffect literaryvalues;thatsomeoftheclassicsidealiseviewsof lifenowobsolete;thatthesebooksarethereforeresponsible fortheexistenceofsomeofourmoralandintellectualstag nancy;andthatanewcriticaloutlookuponthemiscalled for.”Thekeynoteisstruckinthefirstcontention;forif changesinmoralitymeanchangesinliteraryvalues,theother contentionsnecessarilyfollowinlogicalsequence.Butwhat proofhavewethatmoralvalueschangeinsuchawayasto affecttheprinciplesofliteraryart?ThemoralityofGreece inthetimeofSophoclesisseparated,inpointoftime,byover onethousandyearsfromthemoralityofEnglandinthedays ofShakespeare.Inwhatsense,therefore,hastheprocessof centuries,consideredmorally,affectedtheprinciplesofthe drama2 Religionandethicspassedthroughawholeseries ofrevolutionsduringthosetenormorecenturies,butour valuationofdrama,asaformofliteraryexpression,isstill largelyinfluencedbyGreekmodelsandbytheteachingof Aristotleonthatsubject.IndeedwehavescannedMr Mordell’spagescloselyforthekindofevidencerequiredto supporthismaincontention,butwehavenotfoundit. On theotherhandwehavediscoveredmanystatementsthat aredecidedlycurious.Forinstance:“Onecannotreally admirethebookwithoutacceptingtheleadingideasofthe *TheAcropolisPublishingCo.,Philadelphia. I95 ORIGINALITY book.”"Thissuggestsaninabilitytodistinguishformfrom contents;butletustakeanillustration.Referringto Bunyan’sPilgrim’sProgress,MrMordellsays:“Itreeks witherrorandfalsehood,couchedinalluringimages,. . . thereislittlewonderitappealstoaborigineswhoaredeficient inintelligenceandmorals.”*MrMordellisnotaChristian, thereforeanybookcontainingChristianideasisnauseous tohim,andcannotbegoodliterature.Butitisnotneces sarytobeaChristianinordertoseetruthandbeautyin Bunyan'sideasandliterarypower.Thefactis,MrMordell haslittlesympathy—intheGreeksenseoffeelingwith,not for—andpracticallynosenseofhumour.Hesays:“Letus firstexaminethedangerousplacesthroughwhichChristian passed.WecometotheSloughofDespond,butwedonot fallintoit,foritismadeupofthedoubtsandfearsafflicting repentantsinners.Onlythosewhohaveupontheirbacks theburdensofsinsagainstreligionstumblehere.”Clearly ourcritichasneverthoughtthattheremaybeotherSloughs ofDespond;Bunyan’sparableofhumanprogressthrough efforthasbeenlostuponhim.Butwhen,withseeming annoyance,hewatchesthefightbetweenChristianand Apollyon,andpassescommentsonthecontest,weare inclinedtolaugh.“Weobservewithindifferenceandin credulity,”hesays,“thatthoughChristian'sstrengthis spenthepicksuphisswordanddrivesApollyonaway.” MrMordellisentitledtohisindifference;itspenaltiesare manifesteverywhereinhispages.

- IX

InthisspirithecastigatesDante,Milton,àKempis,St Augustine,andPascal,claimingthattheyhavebeenover praisedandoughtnottoberegardedanylongerasclassic authors.Evidentlytheyhavelosttheirreputationsbecause theirideasarenowoutofdate;andhowevermarvellously theywrotethelanguageofspiritualthingsthemarvelhas departed,forthechangeinmoralvaluesdecidesthechange \inliteraryvalues.“ThebringinginofGodhasspoiled *LiteraryValues,pp.14-15. *Dante,etc.,p.83. 196 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT StAugustine'sConfessionsasapieceofliterature,”says MrMordellplaintively.Reallyourcriticisalmosthopeless; and,asoftenhappens,hedefeatshisownaimseventually. Foronpage66ofhisLiteraryValueshesaysthat: “All literarycriticismisreallysubjective.Ourcriticalestimate ofabookdependsuponourprejudicesandbeliefs,uponour pastexperience,uponourphysicalandpsychologicalcon stitution.”Thisdeliverancecomesasasurprise,forMr Mordell'smethodsarenotImpressionistinanysense;they aimatmeasurementandvaluationbyascientificanalysis whichcanbeusedbyalmostanyone.Abeautifullywritten bookaboutthelifeofMoses,settingforththeideasand customsoftheEgyptofthePharaohs,wouldbeanim possibility,fortheideasofsuchabookwouldbeuntrue,and nofineliteraturecanbewrittenthatdoesnottellthedry truth.Poetry,wesuppose,ismereimagination.Butthe pointisthis:thatthedespisedChristianhasasmuchright toaffirmhisvaluationsasMrMordellhastoaffirmhis: and apparentlyoneopinionmaybeasgoodasanother.That uncertainty,however,is theweaknessofImpressionist criticism.JulesLemaitremaydescribehisadventures amongbooksanddenytheoldrulesofvaluation,butallthe timeheisobeyingthem,inspiritifnotintheletter.And, onMrMordell'sindividualisticview,thepeoplewhostill believeinDanteandMiltonasclassicsarejustassoundin theircriticismasheis. Theonlydifferenceisthattheyhave astandardandkeeptoit;hehasoneanddepartsfromit, forhestartsoutwiththeintentionofusingtheobjective method—i.e.exacttruthandbeauty—andheclosesbyad mittingthatafteralltheliteraryjudgmentissubjective. Iftruth,intheexactsensemadeclearinthesetwobooks,is thetruecriterion,thenEuclid'sElementsofGeometrymust bethegreatestbookintheworld.Thedemonstrationsare beautiful. X

NowwearedisappointedthatMrMordellhasnotmadea bettershowing.Wereadhispagesavidly,hopingthathe wouldprovehiscasebyintroducingustosomenew,startling, I97 ORIGINALITY andbeneficentprinciplesofliterarycriticism.Nothing bettercouldbedesired.Weareofhisopinionthatthere shouldbeaperiodicaloverhaulingofourclassics,andwith someofhiscriticismsofåKempiswefindourselvesinfull sympathy;butthereisarightandawrongwayoftaking downaclassicfromitspedestal.Weoughttobegladif, afteracloseinspection,wehavetoputitbackagain:sorry, ifwemustlookroundforanothertotakeitsplace.Mr Mordell’swayistoknockdownbothpedestalandclassic, andthentorejoiceashesurveysthedébris.Histemperis militant,notjudicial.Heisanevangelistwhopreaches againsttheotherpreachers,andhehassomeoftheother preachers’vices.Heisahotgospellerwhowillshowno mercytoanauthorwithChristianideas.Mordell,among hisbrokenidols,islikeaCrusadersurroundedbythebodies oftheunholypaganshehasslain.

TotalkofBritishlowstandardsinbusinessisalmostto talksacrilege.TheBritishpeoplehavewonforthemselves areputationforgoodgoods,andforatrustworthinessof dealingthatissecondtonoother.Inwhatsense,therefore, canwe,withoutimpropriety,talkofapossiblelossoforigin alityduetoalackofproperideals2 Theansweristhis: becauseintheseislandstherearetoomanybusinessmen whohavetobeforcedintoaprogressivepolicy.Wedonot sayitisconductthatistypicallyBritish: howcouldwehave heldourownaswehavedoneiftheBritisherhadbeenas inefficientasrumourhaspaintedhim Buttherearestill agoodmanywhoaretoocautious,andlackingininitiative; andthisisduetotheirlowstandardsofmerit.Oneof thewatchwordphrasesis:“Whatwasgoodenoughfor myfatherisgoodenoughforme.”Anotherandmore dangerousphraseis:“Itwilldo.”Theycastabrilliant lightonthepsychologyofthemanufacturerandthe trader.Reverenceforthepast,personalorotherwise,is initselfa commendablequality,buttheworldoftrade neverstandsstill,anditissafertosaythat“whatwas 198 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT goodenoughformyfatherwillmostlikelynotbegood enoughforme.” Fiftyyearsconstituteaperiodinwhichahundredvital changesmaytakeplace,andhewhowouldbesavedcom merciallymustenterthroughthestraitgateofadaptation —oftenwitheffortandaftermuchexpenditureoftime. Butthephrase:“Itwilldo,”isafatality.Theadvertise mentcopythatisnotquitesatisfactory,andcallsfor anotherhour'srevision,isthrustintotheenvelopeandsent offtotheprinters.“Itwilldo”—besides,youhavethe golftraintocatch.Thoseaccountsthathavebeenwaiting foraweekalready—afterhalf-an-hour'scursorystudy—are filedfora futureopportunity:itisSaturday,andthe matineecan’tbemissed.Thephilosophyof“Itwilldo’’ followsuseverywhere,anditbecomesahabit.Ourbusiness idealsarenotcrispenough; ourstandardofworkis—orwas —becomingtoolow;theca'cannyoftheworker,andthe FridayeveningtoMondaymorningweek-endofthewealthier man,offseteachother.

Whosetsupthestandardthen? HisnameisCompetition. ToworkandtoJhaveareasonablemarginforrecreation seemstoustobethetrueideal.Butifothernationsare preparedtoworkharderthanwedo,forlowerwages,and withasmallerrecreationalmargin,howarewetokeeppace withthem? Onlybyfallingintoline.Weshouldprefer tofollowourmorepeacefulmethodsofdoingthings—sans excitement,sansstruggle,sanscut-throatprices,andsans everythingthatdoesnotsuitourcomfort;butiftheothers arecapturingourforeignmarketsandgettingourhome businessaswell,theonlypolicytopursueistofight. AmericaandGermanysetthepaceandweobjectedtoit; weweredoingalargebusinessanddidnotwanttobedis turbed.Buttheyinsisted,andgrumblinglyweagreedto contestthemfortheworld’smarkets.Nowthepointis this:thatwhatevervaluetheconservativeinstincthas— andithassomerealvalue—wearelosingagreatdealin tellectuallyandeconomicallybecausewearenotsufficiently alivetotheneedsofthemoment.Morethanthat—we

I99 ORIGINALITY arenotasgoodasourforefathers,theMerchantAdventurers, forinstance.Theyweremenofimaginationinthosedays. TheyweretherealfoundersofEngland'scommercialgreat ness.Theycreatedthetradition,andalthoughwehave notlostit,wehavedevelopedakeenloveofsport,ofgames andofthepleasantnessesoflifegenerally.Itisathousand pitieswecannotcontinuethisspirit,inamodifieddegree; forthepresenthungeraftermeremoney,andbusiness expansion,hasadeadeninginfluenceonthesoul.Butif othernationspressuscloselyandthreatenbycompetitive methodstotakewhatwehavewon,thentheonlysensible actionistocutdownthemarginofrecreation,tomakethe businessidealmoretenseinitsappeal,andtointroduce conscienceintotheeffortstorealiseit. Anditcanbedone withoutlosingoursenseofproportion.Businesspursued withtheinterestandzestofagameacquiresadignityand attractionallitsown.Theradicalweaknessisthattoomany peopleregardworkasanecessarynuisance,athingthatis contemptibleinitself,andonetobedispensedwithassoonas possible.Thereisnoneedtopreachahomilyonthesacred nessoflabour;thosewhopreachitmostlustilyareas readytoretirefromit,atanytime,asthosewholookupon itasacurse;butisacommunityofmenwithsuchviewsof itsvariousoccupationslikelytobeguiltyoforiginalideas inrelationthereto? Certainlynot.Anditisthelop-sided manwhohasbeenourgreatestbusinessbenefactor;the manwholivedlikeahermitthathemightmakeavaluable discovery;themanwhoneglectedhimselfandhisfamily thathemightbringoutaninvention;themanwhostarved bothmindandsoultospreadhisbusinessallovertheworld. This,moreoftenthannot,wasthetypeofmanwhosework ledtonationalprosperity,providedworkforimmense populations,andhelpedtopromoteourforeigntrade. Nowadaysweaimatabetterperspective.Webelievein workandwebelieveinplay;indeedwebelievetoomuch inplay.Weareindangerofbecominglop-sidedinanew mannerquitedistinctfromthatofthemenjustreferredto, whowerecontenttoremaininignoranceofathousandfine thoughts,andtoloseallthebenefitsofagreatculture,so 200 LOWSTANDARDSOFMERIT longastheycouldcompassaworldlyambition.Weare raisingsporttothedignityofasmalldeity;andwenever tireofsayingthatthebattleofWaterloowaswononthe playingfieldsofEton.ProfessorTaussigremarksthat “theexperiencesoftheAmericanCivilWarandofthe Franco-GermanWarof1870throwdoubtonthevalidity ofthispronouncement,eveninthemilitarysphere.Still moredoesmodernindustrialdevelopmentintheUnited StatesandinGermanythrowdoubtonitsapplicabilityto thatofeconomics.Thetruthwouldseemtobethatmuch \play,elaborateplay,isaresultofindustrialprosperity, ratherthanacauseofindustrialefficiency.Itisaconcomi tantoftheampleincomeandtheleisurewhichfollowsuccess ineconomicactivity,butnegligibleamongthecausesof success.”*Therecanbenodoubtthatthousandsdonot taketheirworkhalfsoseriouslyastheytaketheirrecrea tions;then,whentheforeignerstealsamarchbyworking longerhoursandsometimesmoreintelligently,thereisa mightygrumble.Thefactis,theBritishbusinessbrainis notgivingusevenfiftypercent.ofwhatitiscapableof, anditneverwillimproveitsoutputuntilithasreconstituted itsideals.Thereconstructionisgoingonslowly—tooslowly. Laisscz-faireprincipleshavegrippedusuntilwecanhardly shakeourselvesfree.Webelieveintheself-movementof thingswithapatheticassurance,andweactasifourbusi nesshadindividualrightswhichoughttobe“respected.” Freedomisournationalidol,andweinsistoniteverywhere— evenintrade.Freetradeispopular,orithasbeen,because itsuitsourtemperament;butinthenextfewyearswemay havetopipeanothertune.Themenwhodoourtrading willnotbelabelledwiththisorthat:theywillbemenof scienceactingaccordingtoneedsandnotaccordingto politicalshibbolethsofanykind. Abetterandahigherstandardofcommerciallifeisneeded, otherwiseourlonghistoryoforiginalenterpriseswillcease. 1InventorsandMoney-Makers,p.10.ByF.W.Taussig,Ph.D., ProfessorofEconomics,HarvardUniversity.1915.

2OI CHAPTERVI

INCOMPLETEEIFFORT

Todiscussthehindrancetooriginalworkthatliesinincom pletenessofeffortmayseemtobechurlishinspiritwhen ourexampleshavebeenstudied,inasmuchastheworkswe shallnoticehave,insomecases,morethanatouchoforigin alityinthem.Ourcomplaintisthattheauthorshavegone farbutnotfarenough,andthatthishesitation,withapossible lackofhighmethod,hasprobablypreventedthemfrom producingvolumesofuniversalvalue.Weshallconfine ourselvestoaseriesofvolumesdealingwiththecreative spiritofanalogy,andthefirstisTheRomanceofMathematics, beingtheOriginalResearchesofaLadyProfessorofGirtham College,byP.Hampson,M.A.,OrielCollege,Oxford."The playfulelementleadsustoexpectamerelyhumoroustreat ment,butMrHampson,whoeverhe(orshe)maybe,isintent onsuggestingseriousanalogieswhichhehasnotthecourage toputbeforeuswithgravity.Histhemeisstatedthus: “Wehaveonegreatproblemtosolve: andallquestions, social,political,scientific,orotherwise,areonlyfragments ofthatgreatproblem.Alltruthsarebutdifferentaspects ofdifferentapplicationsofoneandthesametruth;and althoughtheymayappearopposedtheyarereallynotso; andresemblelineswhichruninvariousdirectionsbutlovingly meetinonecentre.”Thefirststudyis“TheTheoryofthe BrainWave,”andhefindstheexactanalogyinraysoflight whichtravelinwaves.Theequationis:

Ol . o7T – sin2"(vt–r y-; X( ) *ElliotStock,1886. 202 INCOMPLETEEFFORT yistheinitialdisturbanceoftheether,atheinitialamplitude, r thedistancefromthestarting-point,Athewavelength andvthevelocityoflight.MrHampsonarguesthat“the wavesofthoughtaregovernedbythesamelawsandcanbe determinedbyanequationofthesameform.”Butthe expositionisfinishedattheendofthefourthpage(afterthis introductorymatter)andjustwhenthereader'sappetite hasbeenwhettedbythefindingofAinmesmerism,the authorconcludeswithsomeplayfulverses.“Precisely,” saysthecynic;“heisfooling.”*Wearenotofthatopinion, andafterreadingthelaterchapterson“TheSocialProperties ofaConicSection,”“PolemicalKinematics,”and“The LawsofPoliticalMotion,”weareconvincedthatMr Hampson,believinginthereignoflaweverywhere,triedto suggesttheinteractionofphysicsandpolitics,notinthe mannerofBagehot,butasatraceableconnection.He tremblesoccasionallyontheveryborder-lineofanewand strikinganalogy,anditisourcriticismofhiswork,fromthe standpointoforiginality,thatifhehadpersistedonsuch linesasarelaiddownintheprecedingpageshewould haveproducedavolumeasnewasitwasinstructiveand entertaining. II

ThenextbookonourlistisGratryandBoole'sMathe maticalPsychology.”Itsavowedaimistheinvestigation, mathematically,ofquestionsofgeneralpsychology.Amore directstatementisthis,that“ifwewishtothinkoutfor ourselvesthemeaningofphenomena,i.e.toreceivewithout humaninstructionnewlightaboutfactswealreadyknow, thenwemustkeepmathematicalorderinoursequenceof mentaloperations,oradelusionmaycomeuponusandwe shallbelikelytobelievea lie,andperhapsfixitonthe textureofourthinkingmachinery.”Gratry,whoin1863

*Theextensionofmathematicalideasintospheresapparentlyalien tothemisbynomeansonthedecline-Haret'sMécaniqueSociale (referredtoinLynch'sPsychology,vol.i.,p.191)isacaseinpoint. *SwanSonnenschein,1897.(BasedontheworksofGratryand Prof.Boole,byMaryE.Boole.) 203 ORIGINALITY wasProfessorofMoralPhilosophyattheSorbonne,followed thismethod,whichisclaimedtobethatofthecalculus,and designedtodevelopbrainactioninnormalsequence.“He studiedseveralsciences. . . andformedthehabitofsitting alone,onceaday,andsofaraspossibleatthesamehour, peninhand;hesuspendedthought,makingsilencewithin thesoul,andthenwrotedownwhateverthoughtscameto himabouttheunityofNature.Whatissowrittenisfound fruitfulofsuggestionsofsyntheseswhichproveusefulfor futurestudy.Whenthehabitisfullyformedthebrainwill dosyntheticworkevenduringsoundandrefreshingsleep.” Verywell.Nowletusturntotheexposition.Theydeal with“GeometricCo-ordinates,”“TheDoctrineofLimits,” “Newton,”“TheLawofSacrifice,”and“Practical Examples.”Herethereisnoplayfulness:thewholetreat mentisgrave.Butitisbynomeansacleartreatment,and somepointsthatareworthyofextendednoticereceivethe briefestmention."Letus,however,takeanillustration fromthechapteron“TheLawofSacrifice.”JamesHinton hadbeentalkingaboutfluxions,andhetalkedsowellthat evena littlegirloftenbecameinterestedandshesaid: “Dotellmeaboutthefluxion.”Sohebegan.“Multiply 17by3.. . . Weget3times7=21—i.e.1andcarry2;3times 1=3,and2=5—i.e.51.Nowdoyouseewhatyouhave donewiththe22Youhaveputitdownandthenrubbed itout;itwasnecessarytohaveit,butnottokeepit. Now afluxionisthis:itisathingweusedtohave,butarenot intendedtohold;athingwerightlymake,butinorderto unmake.”Theexplanationmightnotsatisfyaprofessor, butatanyrateitmakesthefundamentalnotionquiteclear; itischangeorprogressbyaformofsacrifice.Nowwhat tracehaveweofthisinpsychologyMrsBoolehas attemptedtoanswerthatquestionbythestudyofadiagram ofadust-whirlasrepresentingthethoughtcurrentsofthe time.“Aman. . . cannotlethimselfbeblownaboutby *Forinstance,thereferencetoBoulanger'sOrigineduDespotisme Oriental,wherehesaysthatnotyrannycouldkeepitselfinexistence werenotthemindsofthepeoplesweakenedbysomeformorother ofthepracticeofputtingaconcreteidealintheplaceofGod. 204 INCOMPLETEEFFORT everywind;hemustorganise,formulate,translatemomen tarydirection—impulse—intodefinitetangentialdirection.” How2 Whenhe“seesthatanotherhasbeenblowninthe directionexactlyoppositetotheoneinwhichhehimself isdrifting,hehastheclueherequiresforfindingoutwhere liesthestillcentreofcalmandorderlyprogress”;andhe willreachthisby“steeringtowardshisabsoluteopponent— notinthedirectiontowardswhichtheopponentisdrifting, buttowardshimself.”Therankcapitalistandtherank syndicalistnowknowwhattodo.MrsBooleaffirms:“The sacrificeappropriatetoanygivensituationofdifficultyor doubtisthatwhichconvertstheforcewhichistakingthe individualalonghishabitualpathintoenergyofunionwith opponents.”Itisallveryinteresting,butwhatofthemen whoconscientiouslypursueastraight-linepolicyandignore theiropponentsentirely2 WefearMrsBoolehasnotbeen fortunateinherchoiceofillustration;forinspiteofevery thingtheideaofthefluxion,asanelementofprogress everywhere,strikesusasonethatisworthworkingout. Henceourcomplaint;theenthusiasticauthoresshasnot gonefarenough.Ifshehadshemighthaveproducedabook ofrareinterest.

III

TheCurvesofLife,byMrT.A.Cook,isperhapsoneofthe mostdistinctiveillustrationsofincompleteoriginality.The comprehensivenessofhisaimisseeninthesub-title,which reads:“Anaccountofspiralformationsandtheirapplication togrowthinnature,toscience,andtoart.”Aperusalof thefourhundredoddpagesisapleasureinitself,andwhenwe closethebookwefeelthatanotheraspectofthevastunity oflifehasbeenunfoldedtousbyacompetentrevealer.But thereisalsoa feelingofdisappointment.Thecurvein nature,inscience,andinarthasprovedsodeeplyinterest ingthatwearecurioustoknowwhetherMrCookcantell ushowfarallprogressmovesinthespiralformation.That wearenotexpectingtoomuchisevidentfromtheauthor's Preface,for“spirality(ifthewordmaybeallowed)isa 205 ORIGINALITY generalisationoffar-reachingimportance.”Istheascend ingarcoflifeamerefigureofspeechorarealprocess?Can wespeakofadvanceasaforwardmovementinastraight line,orisitbettertoincludeitunderspirality?Andas toMusic—doessoundspiraliseitself?Therainbow’scurve isoneofthemostbeautifulthingsinnature,butisthere arealcolourcurve2 andhaveanyartistsfolloweditasa principle?ThenthereisThought.Canweimaginethatthe syllogismtakesontheformofanarc: Anabsurdquestion? Bynomeans.LafcadioHearn,inhisOutoftheEast,says: “TheOccidentalmindappearstoworkinstraightlines; theOrientalinwonderfulcurvesandcircles.”Whata fieldfortheexperimentalpsychologist! Theseandmany othernotionscometousaswereflectonMrCook'spages; wefeelasifthewritermighthavediscoveredsomenewunity hadhegivenhimselffurthertimeandpatience.Asitis, hehasgatheredtogetherthephenomenaandwemustwait forthefullrationale.Perhapsinanotherbookhewilltell uswhythecurveissuperiortothestraightline.Itsounds verymuchlikethequestion:Whyisasquaremorallybetter thanacircle2 buttheredoesappeartobeinnaturea progressionthatusesthecurveandnottheprism. CHAPTERVII

THEPROFESSIONALMIND

INtheprofessionsoftheArmy,theNavy,theChurch,the Law,andtherestofthem,wemeetwithatypeofmind whichhasatendencytothinkaccordingtoacceptedprin /ciplesprecedents,fashions,orusagesratherthanaccording tofreedom;indeedtheprofessionalmanisamemberofan intellectualcastewhohas,sotospeak,“signedon”tothink andactinaparticularway,atanyrateaboutcertainthings. Therearemanyandjustreasonswhyheshoulddoso,but hemustnotbesurprisedifthehabitofthinkingandacting accordingtoruleunfitshim,tosomeextent,forfreethought onhisownaswellasonotherplanes.Suchanoutcomeis notinevitable,butithashappenedoftenenoughtojustify awarning;indeed,thejealousiesofprofessionalmenshown towardsaprogressivebrotherformaveryunpleasingchapter inthehistoryoftheprogressofknowledge.Itisusually supposedthatthepriesthasexcelledallothersintheart ofpreventingadvancesinscienceandcivilisation,but, althoughthismaybetrueinsomerespects,wehaveto rememberthatlawyers,menofscience,doctorsandpoliticians havelookedaskanceatoriginalthinkers,beingblindedby theprejudicewhichthetrainedacceptanceofreceivedtruth seldomseemsabletoevade.Theradicalevilhastwofacets: (1)abeliefthatinspecifiedmattersthebestisalready known;and(2)abeliefthatnewtruthcanbearrivedat onlybyastudyofthepast,orbytheuseofthescientific method.Onthefaceofitthereisnothingmuchtocomplain ofinthesesimplecontentions,anditmaybepuzzlingto knowinwhatsensetheyareanevil.Butwhenwecometo studytheprofessionalmindinaction,weshallseehowa 207 ORIGINALITY healthyconservatismbecomesreactionism,andhoweven thescientificmethodmaybenullifiedbybrittleprejudice. 'orinstance,ifamedicalmanseesanon-medicalman evidencingaknowledgeandskillinparticulardiseaseswhich hehimselfdoesnotpossess—afewsuchinstanceshave occurred—hewillrefusethenewknowledgebecausethe discovererofitisnotaqualifiedmanandcannottoethe professionalline.Thereisnocaseonrecordthatismore strikingthanthatofMrH.A.Barker,themanipulatorof bonesandmuscles,orwhateverhecallshimself;fordespite thesupportofdoctorswhomhehascured,ofaristocrats anddemocrats,ofnewspapereditorsandotherchampions, hehasbeensteadilyrefusedanyrecognitionfrommedical menasawhole.Onecannotbutadmirethevigourwith whichthedoctorshavedefendedtheirrulesandregulations, butreallytheirattitudeinthisinstanceistoomuchlike thatofaChurchCouncilintheMiddleAges.Menofthe worldrespecttheconcernofaprofessiontokeepitsmembers uptotherequiredstandard,andtopreservethepublicfrom quacksandimpostors,butthisBarkercaseisquitedifferent. Hereisamanwhowantscreditforavaluablediscovery, theprinciplesofwhichheiswillingtoplaceatthedisposal oftheprofessionfreeofallcharges.Butno;tolearnfrom alayman,evenasmartlayman,whohasmasteredasection ofdiseaseasfewhavedone,isimpossible.Theteacherisnot ascientificman;heisnotaphysician;heisastrangerto surgery;hehasneverwalkedahospital,orpassedan examination;andifanyqualifiedmanisfoundconsorting withhim—well,thesentencethatwillbepassediseverlasting destructionfromthePresenceoftheG.M.C.Itisjustasif aSalvationArmycaptainhaddiscoveredinPalestineanew SinaiCodexthatcompletelychangedtheinterpretationofa partoftheGreekTestament,butwhichanAnglicanparson refusedtorecognisebecausetheSalvationArmycaptain hadnotbeenepiscopallyordained!

II Isthisthetypeofmedicalmindthatislikelytobefruitful inresearch,inadaptingitselftonewmethods,and,generally, 208 THEPROFESSIONALMIND infurtheringthehealthofthecommunity?No;atany ratenotsofarasitaffectsthemenwhosebusinessitisto fosterprogressiveprinciples.Therewasalibelcasebefore thecourtssomeyearsagowhereadistinguishedM.D.of LondonUniversityveryproperlycomplainedthathehad beencalledaquackbyoneofhisconfrères—andallbecause hisideaswerenotconsideredorthodox.Theseebullitions domorethanprovethatdoctorsarehuman;theyprove thatdoctorsandpriestshaveoftenagooddealincommon becauseoftheirprofessionaltraining.Ata congressof alienistsheldinBaden-Baden,a yearortwoago,the ProfessorofPsychiatryatFreiburgdescribedtheFreud movementasanoutbreakofinsanityamongdoctors| SimilarlyaFrenchneurologistsaid:“ItistrueIhavenot readFreud’sworksbutasforhistheoriestheyarenothing buta mauvaisaplaisanteriel’’ Howlikethepriest whohasneverreadtheworksofVoltairebutwhoknows Voltaireis“quitewrong”fromcentretocircumference. Truthfromasourcebannedasheretical,evensciencefrom a Galileo,mustbesuppressed;truthformedicalmen, fromanunofficialandunrecognisedquarter,mustbe ignored. Itisbythepurestchancethatwehavethusbegunto illustratetheworkingoftheprofessionalmindonitsdefective side;anyofthespheres,exceptperhapsone,wouldhave supplieddatasimilartothatofmedicine.Wewillbegin withthepriest.

III

Thepriest—whomustherestandforeveryleaderof Christianityineveryage—isamemberofaprofessionwhich isthereactionaryprofessionparexcellence.Fromthedays oftheearlyChurchuptomoderntimeshislackofintellec tualsympathy,bothwithinhisownborders,andoutsideof them,hasoriginatedcontroversiesofapeculiarlyembittered *Jung,AnalyticalPsychology,p.355.Asimilaroutbreakofangry commentisrecordedbyDrE.F.Bowers(U.S.A.)inreferenceto DrW.H.Fitzgerald'szonetherapyandrelievingpainbypressure. O 209 ORIGINALITY character,oftenendinginwarsthathavedevastatedentire populations.Thecynichasfullscopefortheexerciseof hisgiftswhenhedealswithwarandChristianity,forif thereisonethingtowhichtheMessianicJesuswasopposed itwastheuseofforceagainstforce.Butthestoryofthose warringcenturieshasbeenwrittenmanytimesalreadyand weneednotdwelluponithereexceptsofarasitisan expressionoftheclericalmind.Therewillalwaysbetrouble intheworldwherewehavetodowithmenwhobelievethat theyalonehavetheTruth,andthatitistheirdutytocompel otherstoacceptit,thecompellingforcebeingmoralsuasion ortheseculararm.Weseethistypeofmindatwork to-day,bothmateriallyandspiritually.TakeKultur.This wasagospelofcivilisationinventedbythePrussians,and theybecamesoinfatuatedwithitthattheybelievedtheir oldGermangodhadcommissionedthemtoimposeKultur onthewholeworld,otherwisetheworldwouldsinkinto decay.Sothefiatwentforththatalltheworldwastobe kultured.RationalpeopleinEuropesaidtheywouldmuch ratherbedamnedaltogether,andtheyresistedthethreatened impositionsuccessfully.Nowwhenweturntothereligions whichhaveactedinthesameway—i.e.byfire,swordand persecutionhaveforcedwholepopulationstoacceptanew creedfortheirgood,whethertheywanteditornot—the story,bloodyasitis,hasnotthesamereekingconceitas thatwhichmarksthePrussianinfamy.Otherwisethe analogiesarefairlyclose.TheRomanCatholicputthe hereticontherack;thePrussiansgatheredthegirlsfrom thehousesinasquareinLiègeandrapedtheminpublic. TheProtestanthasburnedtheRomanCatholicatthestake, andtheRomanCatholichasreturnedthecomplimentwith interest;butthePrussianputsmen,womenandchildren togetherandturnsamachinegunonthem.Theseand a thousandotherabominationshavebeencommitted throughouttheages:butto-daytheChurchesarewiser thantheywere,andcharityforallworshippersofGod, knownbywhatevername,is growing,eventhough dogmatictheologyintheolderChurchesshowsfewsigns ofadaptation. 2IO THEPROFESSIONALMIND

Whereistherooterror? Itliesintheignorancethat *posesasfinalknowledge,plusthespiritthatriotsinforced conversions.Theignorancemanifestedinthenotionthat GermanyhasbeencalledofGodtodominatetheworldfor theworld’sgoodisabysmaltothepointofinsanity;itisa delusionunspeakable,foraTeutonworldisthelastthing conceivableintyranny.AndyetChurchesandpriests haveclaimedandstillclaimtopossessfinalknowledge, perhapsnotindetailbutinboldoutline.Inscience,Prof. ErnstHaeckelassumesthesameposition:andifwewere toputhimandahustlingbishopsidebysideweshould findthatbothmenwereapostolicintheirardour,andin *theirdesiretoproclaimTruthastheyunderstoodit.Haeckel preachesmonismsoearnestlythatheventuredtoattack thetheologianswhoopposedhim,evincingtheslipshod 1.1ethodswhichtheclergysometimesdisplaywhenthey attackscience.LoofsshowedtheJenaprofessortobea very,veryamateurtheologian,andhardlyhonestorsincere atthat.Butthetheologiansarenotalwaysinbettershape. Howcantheybe2 Ifalltruthonimportantissueshasbeen revealedalready,everynewattemptto“discover’’itis animpietytoberebuked,perhapstobedealtwithmore severelystill.Anyman,scientistorecclesiastic,whosays: “I,alone,havethetruth,”closesthedoortonewideas: originalityisoutoftherangealtogether. Butbetterdaysaredawning.Whenonthebattle-fielda JewishRabbiholdsupacrucifixbeforetheeyesofadying soldierofChristianfaith—andthisactuallyhappenedinthe GreatWar—weseehowareligionbecomeshumanwithout losingitshistoricidentity;andweseealsotheapproachof atimewhentheemotionsoftheinfinitewillhelp,nothinder, theproductionoforiginalthought.

Whomakesourlaws—thelawsthatcontrolourcommercial prosperity,ourrelationswithothercountries,andour 2II ORIGINALITY domesticaffairs? Thenaturalansweristhatlawsare madebytheHousesofParliament,andthatifwewish toinsinuatethatlawsaremadebylawyersthereisasufficient refutationinthefactthatlaymenpreponderateinboth Houses.Yes;butwhatofleadership! Amajorityof lawyersinaCabinet,andinitscloselyassociatedgroupof officials,cannotberegardedwithcomplacencybythose whohavestudiedthelegalmindinaction.Thereissome thingaboutatraininginlawwhich,unlessamanisblessed withhighidealsandgreattalent,unfitshimforlargeviews; theprevailingmotiveinhismindisadministration,not creation.Tobeagoodleaderofthepeopleheneedsboth qualities,butifheshouldhavethefirstonly—asisthecase withmostlawyers—acomparativelyfruitlessperiodofoffice isthecertainresult.whetherthatperiodbeConservative, Liberal,orsomethingelse.Consider,foramoment,thevast responsibilityofaCabinetinrelationtothepast,thepresent, andthefuture.Itmustconservethegoodanddispense withthebad—weusecommontermsadvisedly—andcreate newpoliticalunitiesthatwillanticipatetheneedsofthe yearsahead.The“legal” Cabinet,however,ismore concernedwithpolicy,law,agreements,treatiesandhistory ingeneral:itdoesnotcomedowntothelevelofthepeople forwhomitislegislating,nordoesitenterintothedetails oftradebeforeannouncinglawsforitsgovernance.These areseriousstatementstomake,buttheyareunfortunately true.GreatBritainowesitspositionnottoskilfulmanage mentbuttogoodluckmorethananythingelse,unlessitbe akeenrespectforhonour.Andthebadmanagementisdue totheoverplusoflawyerswhohavecontrolledouraffairs. Theydidtheirbest,andafewofthemsucceeded,butagood manyhavefailed.ItmightbetoomuchtoincludeMrLloyd Georgeamongthem,butwefearweshallhavetodoso,at anyrateuptoAugust,1914.Heshowedakeeninterestin thewelfareofthecommonpeople,andinthishedidwell, fortheTorieswereseldomorneverconstructiveintheir policy:theiractionsalwayshadtheappearanceofmodify ingRadicalBillsandpassingthemastheirown.ButMr George'spleaforthepeople,asseeninhisLandandInsurance 2I2 THEPROFESSIONALMIND policies,had“lawyer”stampedalloverthem.Heseems tohavesaid:“MyclientistheBritishpeople;my opponent'sclientisVestedInterestinlandandpropertyand capital.I willdefeatmyopponent.”Andhedid.But eventshaveshownthatthejudgmentheobtainedwasnota soundone;itwasnotcreativeinthesenseofdealingwith theneedsofthecountryasawhole;itwaspenal,causing loss,injustice,andevenrealsufferingwherehisgenerous dispositionneverintendedsuchthingstohappen.Mr George,indeed,isessentiallynotalawyer.Hisdisregard forprecedentwasalwaysasourceofconcerntohisfriends intheCabinet. Nowthescopeforgenuineoriginality,forgreatand movingconceptionsrespectingthegovernmentofa vast community,isaswideinmattersofStateasitisinliterature, science,andart;butthelastmanintheworldwhooughtto beallowedtoattemptitisthelawyer,behedistinguished ornot.Thereasonsaretwo:(a)thatthelegalmindhas toostronga tendencytowardsguidancebyprecedent; and(b)thatitisaccustomedtoaformofmentalprocedure whichisethicallyinjurious.Noprofessionalmenareso lackinginoriginalityasthemenoftheLaw.

(a)Thesearchforaprecedentisfataltooriginality.If somenewshippinglawsareneededthelawyerhasnotendency tostudymodernshippingitself:helooksbackintothepast, reviseshisknowledgeoftheHanseaticLeague,consultsthe firstshippingActs,comparesandcontraststhemwiththe presentActs,withforeignActs—indeedhedoesalotofhard work,butmostofitinthewrongdirection.Schemesthat haveworkedwellinyearsgonebycertainlydeserverespect: themenwhoformedthemwerenodoubtaheadoftheir time.Butisnotthatastrongreasonwhymodernlegis latorsshouldformulatelawsthatspringoutoftheneeds expressedratherthanoutofastudyofthepast?Our presentlaw-makingishide-boundbyhistory,anditalways willbeuntilanewspiritandanewandunfetteredtypeof 2I3 ORIGINALITY intellectisbroughtintoaction.Probablythatistoomuch tohopefor. Theparliamentarypushfulnessofthemodernlawyerand barristerisduetoseveralfactors:likeothermenofambition, theylovethelimelight,andtheytakeprideinallformsof power;butthemainfactor,behindeveryother,isthis— thatpoliticsisthebestmethodofadvertising.Ordinary tradepublicityisodiousandcouldnotbetolerated;andyet publicityisneeded.TheHousegivesit,plusausefulsalary. Consequentlywehaveaplenitudeofthewrongkindof mindsattheheadquartersofGovernment:menwhosetrain ingisinmostcasesthereverseofthekindwewant.The originalitiesoftheCommonshavenearlyalwayscomefrom laymen.Ifsuchmenhadhadtodealwiththeinitiative andcontrolofparliamentarybusiness,wouldtheyhavetaken nearlyaquarterofacenturytosettleHomeRule2

VII (b)Thesecondpointmaybeillustratedbyquotinga portionofLordBrougham'sspeechatthetrialofQueen Caroline.Hesaid:

“Anadvocate,bythesacreddutywhichheoweshis client,knowsinthedischargeofthatofferbutoneperson intheworld—thatclient—andnoneother.Tosavethe clientbyallexpedientmeans,toprotectthatclientatall hazardsandcosttoallothers,andamongotherstohimself, isthehighestandmostunquestionedofhisduties:andhe mustnotregardthealarm,thesuffering,thetorment,the destructionwhichhemaybringuponanyother.Nay, separatingeventhedutiesofapatriotfromthoseofan advocate,andcastingthemifneedbetothewinds,hemust goonrecklessoftheconsequencesifhisfateshouldun happilybetoinvolvehiscountryinconfusionforhisclient's protection.”

Thisisapointofviewthathasstronganalogieswith Treitschke'stheoryofwhattheindividualowestothe 2I4 THEPROFESSIONALMIND State,orofBethmann-Hollweg's“necessityknowsno law.” Thetruthis,alawyer'shonestymaybemerelyprofessional. Incaseswhereheisabsolutelyconvincedthathisclient hasa justcase,thehonestyisasrealasanyotherman’s honesty;butinothercircumstancesalawyermaybecome soeasilysincere—noonehasraisedself-suggestioninbusiness tosofineanartashehasraisedit,andinpoliticshecan persuadehimselfthatanypolicyheespousesisright:his mindhasbeenmadethatwaybythetraininghehashad. Heisthemodernsophist,andquiteunsuitedtodealingwith thepracticalneedsofavastpopulation,withthemysteries offoreigntrade,orwiththeconstructionofabattlefleet. Thesematterscallforexpertknowledgeandsympathetic insight.Wewhohaveseenthelawyer-politiciancross examineaninnocentandtruthfulbutnervouswitness, flayinghimalive,andthenholdinghimuptoridicule,have leftthecourtwithafeelingofdisgustfortheiniquitiesof anout-of-datecourtprocedure,andwithafeelingofcon temptforthebarristerwhocandrawfatfeesforprostituting hisconscienceintheserviceofhisclient.

VIII

ReadersofLordAlverstone’sRecollectionswillrecallan instancelessbrutalbuttypicalofwhatwemean.Anthony Trollope,thenovelist,hadtogiveevidenceinaPostOffice prosecution—hewasaPostOfficeofficialhimself.Counsel fortheDefencerosetocross-examinehim.Askedforthe titleofhislastbook,Trollopegaveit,andCounselthenin quired:“Isthereawordoftruthinitfrombeginningto end?”Trollope'sanswer,ofcourse,wasthatthebookwas aworkoffiction.“Fictionornofiction,isthereawordof truthinit!”demandedCounsel.“Well,ifyouputit thatway,thereisnot,”repliedTrollope.Willitbebelieved thatCounsel,inaddressingthejury,askedthemtoacquit theprisonersonthegroundthatMrAnthonyTrollope,the principalwitnessagainstthem,hadadmittedwritingabook inwhichtherewasnotawordoftruthfromthebeginningto 2I5 ORIGINALITY theend? Noeducatedman,nota lawyerorbarrister, wouldeverstoop,inapublicaddress,tosuchlowsophistry asthat.TheBarhasoftenaireditsmoralindignationin courtwhensomeover-ambitiousmanofbusinesshasbrought himselfwithinthelaw,butwhatofthemoralityoftheBar itself?WhenCounselinveighsagainst“thiswickedperson who,withalackofscruplethatisascynicalinitsspiritasit iscriminalinitsresults,robbedhisemployersofafive-pound note”—istheprisonersosinfulandthebarristersosinless2 IstheBarnevercynicalandneverunscrupulous! Thatit isbetterthantheBarofothercountrieswecheerfullyadmit, butitoughttobeashamedofitslegaldodges,itstrumperies, itshalftruths,itsdissimulationsanditsprofessionalin sincerities. InAmericatheconditionsofbusinessandgovernmentgive thelawyer-politicianastrongposition,forAmericanshavenot thesamefaithingovernmentonbusinesslinesaswehave; thephrasemeanssomethingdifferenttothem.ACabinetof businessmenwouldberegardedas“outforbusiness”: whereasalawyerwouldbemorelikelytoupholdtheinterests ofthepeople—thelawyerclasshas“thewidervisionand thesmallestequationofpersonalinterestobtainableany where.”*HenceanambitiousAmericanuseslawasa meanstoanend;itisinitselfasecondarymatter,andhe isneversubduedbyit,neverallowsittodominatepersonality ortobecomeahabitofthought.

IX *

TheintellectualidiosyncrasiesoftheCivilServicecall forsomeremarkinthisconnection.Inmostdemocratic countriestheworkofgovernment,partlyinregardtoits policyandalmostwhollyastoitsadministration,isperformed bythepermanentstaff.Speakingbroadly,thisworkiswell done,althoughitcostsagreatdealmorethanthesame amountofworkcarriedoutinbusinessconcerns,where disciplineisknownandwhereerrorsofaseriousnaturemean *ArticleinWestminsterGazetteon“LawyerPoliticians,”by J.D.Whelpley. 2I6 THEPROFESSIONALMIND instantdismissal.Thecallfororiginalityismetbythe permanentheadsofGovernmentDepartments,andasthey havebeentrainedinServicetraditions,theyarenotlikely tomeetthatcallwithanythinglikefreedom.Toooftenthey, likeotherprofessionalmen,leanonprecedent,andthisis oneargumentforthebringinginofaSecretaryofStatewho isnothide-boundbytradition,butlooksatthematterof legislationfromawiderandnationalstandpoint.Cabinet changesareouronlyhopeoforiginalityinpoliticsbothasto itsprojectsanditsmethodsofmaterialisingthem.Ifwe werelefttotheofficemenweshouldbeinapoorplight.The officeminddealingwithnativequestionsindistantcolonies hasoftenbeenwoefullyinept;dealingwithsuchimportant itemsasthedelimitationoftheCanada-Alaskafrontierit hasbeenatragedy.Andnothingcouldhavebeenmore humiliatingthansomeoftheweaknessesandilliteraciesof theLondonWarCensorship,1914–1916,especiallyinits earlierdays,andinsomeofitslaterdevelopments.Things weredonewhichwereabsurdtotheverylimit.Thewrong menwereused—the“system’’again—buteveniftheright menhadbeenputincommand,theywouldhavebeenright onlyinthesensethattheyhadagoodServicerecord.What waswantedwasamindthatcouldfaceanewsituationwith confidenceandgrip,andveryfewServicemenhavehada trainingthatwouldenablethemtoperformsuchatask. Consequentlyfixednessofthoughtandactionisthestaple elementoftheCivilServicemind. But,itwillbeasked,inwhatsensecanyouhaveorigin alityinaGovernmentDepartment? Youcannotchange Whitehallfromademocratictoanautocraticrégime.What possibleroomistherefornewnessintaxationwhenthe onlydifferencein,say,theincometaxismadebyaddition orsubtraction?Yes;theoldquestionsandtheoldspirit. AcleansweepofthechiefServicemen,replacedbymenof commercialefficiencywhowould“fire”subordinatesfor seriouserrors,wouldsavethecountrymillionsayear.Isnot thatanoriginalityworththinkingabout2 Eveninoffices whereprofessionalmenareengaged—lawyers,engineers, andsoon—thereisthesameroomforspeedingupandfor 2I7 ORIGINALITY profitablechange.TheServiceisregardedasasafeport, ahavenofrefuge,aplaceforthedulldailyroundthatbrings securityandapension.Weneedanewerafortheservants oftheState,andonlythelivingvoiceofapeoplecalledupon tomakegreatsacrificesforthecommunityisstrongenough toinauguratethisera,withanewidealofcompetence,a betternotionofspeedandcourtesy,atruerconceptionof straight-linemethods,andfinallyasaneunderstandingof theWhat-Am-I-Here-For? text.

Thosewhohave,observingly,mingledwithArmyand Navyofficersknowthatpsychologicallythereisaperceptible differencebetweenthem,butitisadifferencethatisnot easytoputintowords.Thebrainymanwhowearsanaval uniformseemssomehowtohaveafreermindthanthebrainy manoftheArmy;heisnotsohide-boundbyprecedent; heismoreopentoconsideranewideaoranewmethod; thereiswithhima greaterexpectancyofdevelopment. Bothmenwillprobablyhavemasteredthesamenumberof text-books,andbothmaybegoodtechnicalscholars— possiblythenavalmaninthisrespecthastheadvantage, histrainingbeinglongerandhissubjectsrathermore abstruse.Butthearmyofficer'sstudies,hisdisciplineand hisdependenceonmilitaryhistory,appeartomakehis intellectlesssupple.Wehererefer,ofcourse,tothegener ality,nottounusualindividualswhohaverisenabove theordinarylimitationsofthesystem.TheGreatWar wasa yearoldbeforeBritishofficersallowedthatthe Germanuseofheavyartilleryonthebattle-fieldhad justifieditself. Inanotherandpreviouswarfarewehadasimilarillustra tionofdevotiontotheory.GeneralBuller,heldupbythe Boers,suggestedinadispatchthathewouldtrytoengage theenemyonaterrain“moresuitedtoourtactics.”The ungallantfoehadactuallychosengroundfordefencethat didnotsuittheinstructionsoftheBritishtext-book;indeed 218 THEPROFESSIONALMIND itwasgroundthatmadethetacticaltheoriesveryconfusing. Theremedy,clearly,wasnottoadaptthetheorytothe groundbuttochangethegroundonbehalfofthetheory. Bullerwasamanoffinecharacteristics,andpopularwith hismen,buthisveryconsiderablemilitaryknowledgeof warfarewasnotequaltothepracticalwisdomofthefarmer generalwhoopposedhim.Andourcriticismsareofferedin nocarpingspirit;theydonottouchthesoul,forthereis nonebetterthanthatoftheBritishsoldier.Weconfineour stricturestotheeffectofprofessionaltrainingonthemental powers;andwesayitisnarrowing.Theveryexactitudeof militaryscience,and(theneedfordecisionofmindandinstant action,provokeakindofimpatiencewithanythingthatis inexact,uncertain,mysterious,elusive,indistinctandin active.)Weremembertakingshelter(fromastorm)inahall whereacolonelofhighreputewasgivinganaddressonthe Bible.TheHigherCriticsneverhadsuchadressingdown intheirlives.Ifthecolonelcouldhavegotthemtogether hewouldhavecourt-martialledthelot.“Thesetraitors,” heexclaimed,“oughttobedealtwithaccordingtotheir deserts.DrumthemoutoftheChurchtowhosefaiththey havebeenutterlydisloyal.”Hewasequallysevereonthose teachersofreligionwhocastdoubtsontheeternityoffuture punishment.“IbelieveinaHeavenforthegoodanda Hellforthewicked.Thesefancytheologiesaboutfuture probation,universalism,andthelargerhopeareallwrong andmischievous.DeathandlifearetheScriptureterms. Don’tmonkeywiththem.Acceptthemastheinspiredword andavoidtheplausibleteacherwhowouldhaveyoubelieve thatthereareplentyofchancesforsalvationafterdeath. Afterdeath—thejudgment.”Yes;hehadanexactmind, andonthebattle-fieldwouldhavebeenabrilliantcom mander.Hecouldseethingsclearly,generallyoneata time;heactedpromptly;but,whenasubjectwithremote boundarieshadtobesurveyedandappraised,hismental limitationswereimmediatelyrevealed.Therewereno shadings:whiteandblack,orgoodandevil,werethechief realities;thehalfgoodorthehalfevilwereoutsidehis radius. 2I9 ORIGINALITY

Itwouldbeunfairtotakethisinstanceasanillustration ofthegeneraltype.Itisnot; forarmyofficersarevarious, justasotherprofessionalmenare.Butthecasedoesillus tratethenecessarilynarrowingtendencyofcertainformsof mentaltraining,notsomuchformilitarysubjectsbutfor otheranddifferentsubjects.Anditmustbeso—always. Toobtainagoodsoldieraspecifiedmentaldispositionisa pre-requisite—i.e.thefightingspirit;andthisisintensified byscientificinstruction.Actionispre-eminent.Ifthe armyofficer'strainingwereofakindtogivehimalikingfor comparingandcontrastingideas,andif,whendecisiveaction wasanimmediatenecessity,hesawsixpossiblewaysof attackordefence,alternatingbetweenthefirstandthe fourth,andthethirdandthesixth,withaffectionateglances attheothers,weshouldcondemnthesystemintoto.A soldiermustnotseetoomanysidesofacampaign;hehas hisownandtheenemy’s,andthesearequitesufficient.The lessofthephilosopherthereisinhimthebetter,atanyrate solongasheisonactiveservice.Afterretirementhecan givehimselfmorelatitude,andhehasoftendoneitwith goodresults,althoughitmustbeconfessedthatthenumber ofinventionsforwar,emanatingfrommilitarymen,isnot solargeasonemightexpect.Retiredofficers,asawhole, showdisinclinationtomentaleffort,andiftheydotakeup asubjectenthusiasticallyitisoftenofa“cranky”nature, orelseitisapracticalbusinessinwhichtheyachievenota littlesuccess. InGovernmentthemilitaryminddoesnotshowto advantage.Abarracktrainingisgoodfororderand efficiencybutnotfordealingwithciviliandifficultiesand thethousandandonelittleproblemsofavastpopulation. Thesoldier'smindisonethataimsataquicksolution,and ratherfavoursadrasticremedy.Thosequalitiesareun suitableinstatecraft,andhowevergreattheDukeof Wellingtonwasonthebattle-field,andhewasgreat,hewas neverguiltyoforiginalityinhisfunctionsasa political leader.

22O THEPROFESSIONALMIND

XII

Thenavalofficerbelongstoanothergrouping.His trainingislonginpointofdurationandintricateastoits details;andyetheneverseemstobe“narrowed”inquite thesamewayasthearmyofficer.Heshowsagreater readinesstowelcomeandadoptnewideas,evenwhenthey concernguns,torpedoes,submarines,orarmourplates.Of course,hewillhavehispreliminarygrumble,andanew Dreadnoughtissuretohaveacrowdofdeficienciesatfirst, justaseverynewhoistneverworksliketheoldoneuntilit hasbeeninuseforaweek.Butthisisbecauseheisan Englishman.Itissurfaceirritationuntilthenewthinghas beenmastered.Deepdowninhisinmostselfheismoreof a progressivethanaconservative,andthequestionarises astowhetherthereisanythinginhistrainingthatbrings aboutthisresult.Yes.Firstthereisthevastnessofthe seaandagreatsenseofspace.Hisschoolistheocean;the broadexpanseoftheheavensisneverwithoutameaning, andheisonintimatetermswithitsfriendlyaspectsaswell aswithitsuglymoods;theplanetisnotanundiscovered country;heoftenvisitsforeignports,seesotherformsof humanlife,learnsinafundamentalsensewhatitmeansto liveandletlive:inaword,hiseducationisthatofanopen airacademy,plustravel,plusdiscipline,plusaperpetual

spiceofdanger. - Andthatbringsustoanotherpoint:histraininghasa responsibilityinitthatisprobablynotfoundinanyother formofnationaldefence,theairserviceexcepted.Thenaval manoeuvresconstituteamorewonderfulperformancethan thearmymanoeuvres.ThecommanderofaDreadnought, a destroyer,orasubmarinemustnotmakeamistakeor heendangersthesafetyofhisvesselandcrew.Isthereany armyoperationanalogoustothepossiblelossofa£2,500,000 ironcladwithhundredsofvaluablelives2 Asenseofresponsibility—anditiseverywherethechief agencyfordevelopingmentalability—addedtotheeducation ofseaandspace,isresponsibleforcreatingthepsychologyof thesailor.Helivesamorecomprehensivelifethanthe 22I ORIGINALITY soldierbecausehehasnootheroption;hismindhasacon stantchangeofenvironment;arigidsystemofinstruction hasitsoffsetinoceantravel,andtheinfluenceofpasttradition iscounterbalancedbyanever-progressivepresent.Theeffect isvisibleinthementaldeportmentofthenavalofficer,taking himinthemass.ThephysicalhandinessofJackhasits complementinthementalreadinessofhisofficers.Anew situation,suchastheunscrupulousmethodsofGermanU boatsduring1915-1917,wasnotmetbyconsultingthetext books,orfallingbackontradition;instantadaptationto circumstanceswastheneed,andinafewweekstheNavy wasdoingsomethingonascaleithadneverbeforethought ofdoing.TheUboatsweresenttothebottominun orthodoxways.Tobeoriginalisnottheaimofthenaval officer,buthetakestoiteasilyandeffectively,becauseexact traininghasnotgroovedhisintelligence.

XIII

Asurveyoftheprecedingsectionsmightleavetheimpres sionthatthereisnotmuchhopefororiginalityintheranks ofprofessionalmenasawhole.Thatimpressionisright, andyetitiswrong.Itisrightsofarasthetendencyto uniformityisconcerned;professionalprestigeismoreoften wonbyexcellenceinthingsastheyarethanbynewcon ceptionsofthingsastheymightbe,oroughttobe.Acareful training,extendingoveryearswhenimpressionsaredeep andabiding,cannotbutresultinafixityofmentalhabit,a fixitywhich,aswehaveseen,hasundoubtedmerits.Butthe trainingistoodogmatic;itdoesnotmakesufficientallow anceforfuturedevelopments,exceptinscience,andeven therewefindroomforateachingwithlessconfidentaffirma tionandmoreencouragementtoresearch.Wemustnot expectagreatdealoforiginalthoughtfromtheranksof professionalmen,butwemayexpectmostfromthosewho canholdfasttoascertainedtruthwithoutlimitingtheir expectationofgreaterdiscoveriestocome. IsaacTaylormadeoutagoodcasefortheoriginalityofthe laymindasagainsttheprofessionalmind,atanyrateinthe 222 THEPROFESSIONALMIND realmofinvention.“Almosteveryoneoftheoriginal moderninventions,”hesays,“andalargeproportionalso ofthosesupplementalimprovementswhichhavefollowedin thetrackoftheprincipal,havebeentheoffspringofminds whichwereuntrainedintheprofessions—undisciplined— untaught;ortosayallinaword. . . itislaymenwho haveplacedthenineteenthcenturysofarinadvanceofits predecessors.”Thenfollowsarathersurprisinglistof achievementsduetolayoriginality:andTaylordevoteda specialchaptertolaytheologians,somanyandsodistinctive werethey.Itisliketheolddivisionbetweentheclassicand theromantic: themindoftheprofessionalmanishelddown byrule,andprecedent,andideal;themindofthelayman, ontheotherhand,hasafreedomwhich,evenifitsometimes resultsinridiculousmistakes,isneverthelessatypeofin tellectwecannotaffordtodowithout; indeedweowemore toitthanwecanpossiblystate.Withoutundervaluing theprofessionalmindorover-estimatingthelaymind,we mayembodythetruthinsuchaphraseasthis:thatboth typesofmindarenecessary,butnoelementofexactitude,of conservatism,orofexperience,noruleorregulation,isso importantasthefreedomwhichallowstheintellectsufficient impulsetodiscovernewprinciples. *Chapteron“ModernAdvancements,”inhisUltimateCivilisation, p.193.1860.

SECTIONV

LOOKINGAHEAD

CHAPTERI

ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE2

THEpossibilityoffurtheroriginalitiesofeverykindisbound upwiththelargerquestionofprogress;consequentlyitis difficulttodiscusstheoneapartfromtheother.Ifthere benosuchthingasprogresstherecanbenooriginality worthyofthename.Assumingthatprogressisanykindof changethatbringsadvantage,externalorinternal,itwould bedifficulttodenytheexistenceofsuchchanges,justasit wouldbefutiletodenythattherehavebeenchangesleading todeteriorationanddisaster.Unlesswearetoabolishall thedistinctionswhichthoughtandexperiencehavesetup,it isimpossibletoreadtherecordofhistorywithoutacknow ledgingtheexistenceofaplanofoperationgovernedbylaws ascertainasthoseofinanimatenature;norcanweintelli gentlydenythatthechangeswhichhavetakenplaceare suchastojustifytheuseofthewordadvance. Bythepracticalmanthequestionislookeduponasabsurd. Tohimeverynewdevelopmentisanoriginality,andthere foreapartofthegreatschemeofprogress.Heisvery certainaboutmostthings,andthisisnoexception.He knowswhathehasreadandwhathehasseen.Someyears agohewenttoamotorexhibitionandsawoneofthefirst motorcarsevermade.Hegotsomebodytosetthemachinery working,andastheoldcarshudderedandshookintheearly mannerhelaughedlongandloud:thethingwassofoolish, sopitiable,sopathetic.Progress2 Well—heisangrywith

P 225 ORIGINALITY scholarswhodenyit;indeedhewillconfutethemoutofthe pagesofanotebookhekeepsinhisoffice.Hereisthefirst extract:

SirHenrySavile,oneofthemosteminentmathematicians ofhisday(whodiedinthesameyearasShakespeare),closed hiscareerasaProfessoratOxfordwiththewords:“By thegraceofGod,gentlemenhearers,Ihaveperformedmy promise.Ihaveredeemedmypledge.Ihaveexplained, accordingtomyability,thedefinitions,postulates,axioms, andthefirsteightpropositionsoftheElementsofEuclid. Here,sinkingundertheweightofyears,Ilaydownmyart andmyinstruments.”

“Havewemadenoprogresssincethen?”heasksgleefully. “Orsincethis?”andhereadsanotherquotation:

PopeAlexanderVI.oncedividedtheunexploredportions oftheglobebetweentheSpaniardsandthePortugueseas thetwocontrollingnationsoftheearth.

“HowaboutEuropenow**heexclaims. Well,thepracticalmanhastoyieldapointortwoduring cross-examination,buthehasmoretosayforhimselfthan philosophershavehithertoallowed.Forinstance,Professor Münsterbergsaysthatwhenamanofsciencespeaksofpro gressanddevelopmenthethinksofthetransitionfroman acorntoatree;butthat,tobeconsistent,hemustacknow ledgethattherewouldbenothingworseandnothingbetter ifthetransitionshouldbefromtheorganismtothelifeless andfromthecosmostochaos."Thepracticalman,un accustomedtothiskindofthinking,andbelievingthatitis subversiveofexperienceintheactualityofwhichtheProfessor himselfreposeshisdailylife,imaginesareply;andhehas beenknowntoconstructanargumentinamannerrude, rough,butstrenuous.Hemight,forinstance,saythatif theProfessorreceivedaroyaltyoftwentypercent.onhis firstbookandonlytenpercent.onhislast,wouldthatbe *TheEternalValues,p.11. 226 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE* “worse”or“better”?Indeed,whyreceiveanythingatall ifthelifelessisasgoodastheliving? EventheProfessor mighthavetoyieldapointortwoduringcross-examination. Whetherwearemonists,ordualists,oranythingelse,we havetoadmitthatlifeontheplaneoftherealisnotthesame asthatontheplaneoftheideal;atruthinthoughtmay notbeatruthinaction,andphilosophieswhichrefuseto takethisintoaccountwillbeasdivertingastheyareuntrue. TheChristianScientistdeniestherealityofmatter,buthe knowstherightchangeoutofafive-dollarnote.

Butletusreturntothemoredirectquestionofthepossi bilityoforiginality.Theanswersgivenbyscholars,phil osophers,andhistoriansarebynomeansunanimous,indeed theyformahighlyinterestingstudyinevasion,uncertainty, andcontradiction;andalthoughattheendofthedebatewe mayrangeourselveswiththeoptimists,itwillnotbebecause theargumentsontheothersidehavebeenfeworlackingin significance.Forinstance,thereisthewell-knowncriticism ofC.H.PearsoninhisNationalLifeandCharacter.

“Certainkindsofpoetryhavebecomeimpossible;certain othersarebeingrapidlyexhausted.Cananyoneconceive thatanepicpoemcouldbewritteninthisage2 . . . The pastoralisdoomed.. . . Thesatire,asHoraceandJuvenal, BoileauandPopefashionedit,hasfallenintocomparative disuse.. . . Humannature,variousasitis,isonlycapable afterallofacertainnumberofemotionsandacts,andthese asthetopicsofanincessantliteratureareboundafteratime tobeexhausted.Wemaysaywithabsolutecertaintythat certainsubjectsarenevertobetakenagain.TheTaleof Troy,theWanderingsofOdysseus,thevisionofHeavenand Hell,asDantesawit,thethemeofParadiseLost,andthe storyofFaustarefamiliarinstances. . .”(p.298).

Itwouldbepossibletoaddagoodmanytestimoniesof likecharacter,butwewillbecontentwithtwowhichdeal 227 ORIGINALITY withthefutureofart.First,wehaveadeclarationfrom MrW.H.Mallockthat“inart. . . afteracertainpoint hasbeenpasseditcanhardlybesaidthereisanyprogress atall.”*Next,wehaveaprophecyfromMrGeorgeMoore, dated17thDecember1912,totheeffectthat“artisgoing tocease.Infiftyyears’timetherewillbenoart.Every bodywillpaintexactlythesameashisfellow,unlessyou stoptherailwaysandthemotorcars,andIdon’tseeany possibilityofthat.. . . Peoplehadbettermakethemost ofmodernartwhiletheycan,foritisgraduallypetering Out.”* III

Analysingtheseopinionscloselyweareledtoaskthe questionwhysopessimisticanoutlookshouldbepossible withmenwhoarestudentsofhistoryorkeencritics—or both.Theansweristwofold:(a)becauseadvancingyears, inconjunctionwithhistoricalstudy,predisposethemindto doubttheexistenceofcontinuedprogress;and(b)because, withinitslimits,theopinionistrue.Itisatthispointthat originalityandprogressmustbediscussedtogether. (a)Theeffectofadvancingyears,andofdeepreflec tion,onthedecisionsrespectingtheproblemsofthefuture is,likemostinquiriesintomentaloperations,noteasily measured.Allwecandoistocollectimportantfactsand trytomastertheirinwardmeaning.Afterfifty,sometimes before,thereisatendencytotakeratherpessimisticviews oftheworld—wearespeakingofleadersofthoughtaswell asofmenofaveragemind—notunhappyviews,butviews thatareprobablyexpressedwithascepticalsmile.“You willneverseeanythingbetterthanthis,”theysay--not gloomily,butsomewhatsorrowfully.Theyhavedeveloped afearthatprogressiveforceshavereachedtheirlimitof action;theymayevenhaveassuredthemselvesthatall movementisinacircle,andthataftersomecenturiesofeffort wefindtheworldprettymuchasitwasinancientdays, exceptintheconveniencesofcivilisation.Howfarissuch *AristocracyandEvolution,p.253. *InterviewinThePallMallGazette. 228 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE2 anattitudeattributabletoadvancingage,andhowfarisit theoutcomeofcarefulinvestigation?foronemustremember thatastudentofthehistoryofthoughtandachievementis pastmiddlelifebeforehecanbesaidtohavemasteredthe detailsandarrivedatanintelligentconclusion.

Letustakeafewillustrations.HerbertSpencer,ina lettertoTyndallin1893,said:“Ilookatthestateofthe worldindismay;butIhaveforalongtimepastseenthein evitablenessofthetremendousdisastersthatarecoming.” Hewasseventy-threewhenheexpressedthisview;andit willbeobserveditwasnotarecentview: hehadprobably helditsincehewasfifty-fiveorsixty.Forourpurposeswe willsupposehewassixtywhenhefirstdeliberatelydecided thatcivilisationwasheadingfordisaster.Weturnnowto a verydifferentman,withaverydifferentkindofmental training:GugielmoFerrero.HeisabrilliantItalianauthor whosepiquantviews,historicalinsight,andliterarystyle havegivenhisbooksaworld-widereputation—bookswhich standforlongyearsofclosestudyanddeepreflection.In hisAncientRomeandModernAmericahesays:“Theauthor . . . hasnotsomuchconfidenceinhisownwisdomasto trytodiscoverwhethermanisreallyprogressingornot; whetherheismovingdownthevalleyofthecenturiestowards afixedgoal,ortowardsanillusionwhichretreatswitheach stephetakesinitsdirection.”Notacheeringoutlook,truly. WecannotsupposethatFerrerodisbelievesinthepossi bilityofsomegreatdiscoverybychance,oreveninthefuture outputoforiginalworkinthefineartsorinvention;but hiswordsconveytheimpressionthatinthemaintheworld canhardlybedescribedaschangingforthebetter.Another earlierstudentofhistory,ProfessorF.A.Lange,takesaview thatisrathermorefavourable.Hesaystheprogressof mankindisnotcontinuous,andthateverypageofhistory supportsthisclaim;but“itisstillpossibletodoubtwhether thereexistsuponthewholesuchaprogressasweseeunfold itselfatsomeparticularpointandthendisappear.Although 229 ORIGINALITY tomeitseemsunmistakableinourpresentepochthat, besidestherisingandfallingofcivilisationwhichweso clearlyseeinhistory,thereisatthesametimeacontinuous advance,theeffectsofwhichareonlyveiledbythisfluctua tion,yetthisideaisnotsocertainasisthatofprogressata particularpoint;andwefindablethinkersversedinnature andhistory,likeVolger,whodenythisprogress.”"

Thisisastepinadvance.Progressmaynotalwaystake place,butitdoestakeplaceperiodically.Lotzewouldnot evengosofarasthat; hesays:“Inhistoryprogressis hardlydiscernible””;andLeibnitzisnotquitecertain. “Thehumanrace,”heremarks,“maypossiblyobtaininthe courseoftimeahigherdegreeofperfectionthanwecanat presentimagine.”MaxNordau'schapteron“TheQuestion ofProgress”isausefulsummaryofopinionsonthismatter, anditalsocontainsanintelligibletheorythatisworthyof consideration*;butwehaveproducedasufficientnumber ofjudgments,bydistinctivewriters,forthepurposewehave inview.Theagesofthesemenatthetimetheyissuedtheir worksfromwhichtheopinionshavebeentakenwereas follows:—

H.Spencer• • . 60

C.H.Pearson. • . 63

W.H.Mallock. • . 49

G.Ferrero• • . 50

F.A.Lange. e . 45

Leibnitz. • • . 64

Theaverageage,itwillbeseen,isfifty-four.Somereaders, doubtless,areunabletobelievethatagehasverymuch

*HistoryofMaterialism,vol.iii.,p.261. *Microcosmus,vol.ii. *TheInterpretationofHistory.ByMaxNordau. 230 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE* influenceoncriticaljudgments,otherthanagoodinfluence, buttheinstinctivehopefulnessandexpectancyoftheyoung brainisabsentfromtheolderbrain—whichhasbecome fixed,moreorless,initsmethods,withlosstotheconstructive imagination.Justasmemoryafterfiftytendstodwellon theperiodofboyhood,soitshowsadispositiontofindits chiefvaluesinthepast.Whateverbetheabilityshown duringthefirsthalf-centuryofaman’slife,andhowever muchofthatabilityhemayretainbeyondthatlimit,it seemstobeafactthathewillbegintoregardthefuture apprehensively";hemaynotsinkintopessimismbuthe certainlyisunabletoretaintheoptimismofearlymanhood. Butageisnottheonlyfactor.Thereisthelong-continued studyofhistory,anditdoesnotappeartoencourageahope A. fuloutlook.Doesthisscepticismarisefromthemanifest difficultyofinterpretingpastevents?orisitbecausethe truthisonlytooplaintotheseeingeye—namely,that “progress,”sofarfrombeingonanascendingarc,isona levelcircle2 Whateverbethereason,thefactisclear:few historiansafterfifty,whoarefullyacquaintedwiththesocial andpoliticalrecordofEuropeandAsia,expressthemselves withstrongconvictionastothedefiniteadvanceinintel lectualandmoralthingswhichtheworldmayhopetosee. ForthesesentimentswegototheUtopiansandidealistsof allschools,butnottothehistorian,critic,orphilosopher. Sofarfromseeingprogressaheadofus,thesewritersare oftendoubtfulastoitsexistenceatanytime;/apro foundknowledgeofthepastappearstocreateadisbeliefin

*DrAlfredRusselWallacesays:“Inoneofmylatestconversa tionswithDarwinheexpressedhimselfverygloomilyonthefuture ofhumanityonthegroundthatinourmoderncivilisationnatural selectionhadnoplayandthefittestdidnotsurvive.”SeeStudies, ScientificandSocial. MrBenjaminKidd,atthirty-nine,havingstudiedhistorythrough thelensofatheory,seeslifeinrosecolours.“Progress,”hedeclares, “isanecessityfromwhichthereissimplynoescapeandfromwhich therehasneverbeenanyescapesincethebeginningoflife.Looking backatthehistoryoflifeanteriortomanwefindittobearecord ofceaselessprogressontheonehandandceaselessstressandcom petitionontheother.”-SocialEvolution,p.35. 23I ORIGINALITY advancement.)Probablythedecidingfactorisneitherage norstudyentirely,butthepersonalequation.Thehistorian whoisacynicbynaturewillfindmuchtoentertainhimand towarphisjudgment,justasthespecialistwithChristian ormaterialisticpresuppositionswillfindeverythinghe looksfor.Thebiologyofthebraincelldeterminesour thinking. Butistherenopossibilityofescapingtheinfluenceofage, ofshakingourselvesfreefromthedeadweightoflearning, andofadjustingdifferencesduetothepersonalequation? Apparentlynot.Unlessamanhasformedaworkingtheory oflifeandprogressbeforetheageoffifty,then,however muchheprobesthepast,heisfairlycertaintobeeithera mildorapronouncedpessimistastothefuture.Andthe determiningfeature,afterall,isnothisageorhisknowledge, buthistemperamentandthereadinesswithwhichheaccepts anidealisticcreed.Christianphilosophynecessarilyviews theworldastemporaryandprobationary;itseesnogreat hopeforauniversewhichwillbeconsumedinviolentheat; and,naturally,itsexhortationis:“Lovenottheworld”*; buttheeyeoftheChristianbeingsetonthebeautiesof anotherlifeafterdeath,thefateofearthlycivilisations,their decayanddeath,donotcreatethehopelessnesswhichmust ariseinthemindofastudentwhoseviewsareborderedby thelimitsofthegrave.TheChristianviewofprogressis thatofthefulfilmentofaDivineprogramme,whereinsome developmentsareregardedasinimicaltothespiritoffaith,” andmustbeeradicated.Butthegeneraltendencyistosay, withBrowning:

“God’sinhisheaven—. All'srightwiththeworld.” ConsequentlytheChurchmembersareoptimists,evenat seventyoreighty,notbecausetheybelieveinprogressso muchasbecausetheybelieveinProvidence.Withother *CardinalNewmansaid:“Ourrace'sprogressandperfectibility isadreambecauserevelationcontradictsit.”—IdeaofaUniversity, p.73. *ProtestantismandProgress,byProf.E.Troeltsch,p.128f. 232 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE* idealistsweobservesomethingofthesameresultbutfor differentreasons. VI

AsaneviewisthatofMrA.J.Balfour,whoinhisDecadence affirmsthatsincedecayisasnaturalasgrowthwecannot butexpecttoreachinmanydirectionstheboundariesof progress.“Iftherearewholegroupsofnationscapableon theirowninitiativeofacertainmeasureofcivilisation,but capableapparentlyofnomore,andifbelowthemagain,there are(asIsuppose)otherraceswhoseemincapableofeither creatingacivilisationoftheirown,orofpreservingunaided acivilisationimpresseduponthemfromwithout,bywhat rightdoweassumethatnoimpassablelimitsbarthepathto Westernprogress?”"Thematterisarguedatsomelength, buttheconclusionisthatsofarthereare“nosymptoms eitherofpauseorofregressionintheonwardmovement whichformorethanathousandyearshasbeencharacter isticofWesternCivilisation.”MrBalfourwassixty-fourat thetimeheissuedhisopinionsondecadence,anditisnotice ablewithwhatdefinitenessheascribespossiblelimitsto developments.Butheisequallypositiveinhisfinalstate ment;the“onwardmovement”showsnosignofpauseor retrogression.Herecognisestheexistenceoffinalitieshere andthere,butthewholeworldmovesforwards.MrBalfour believesinarationaluniverse;hehasateleology;thelife oftheplanethasatraceablehistory,andaprogressivedestiny. Otherinstancesoftheconfidentspiritofprogressare foundintheattitudeofmenlikeSirWilliamCrookesand thelateAlfredRusselWallace.Ofthelatteritwassaid thathewasessentiallyareformer,andthat“nothingdis turbedhischeerfulconfidenceinthefuture,andnothing madehimhappierthansomeplanforreformingthehouse, thegarden,thekitchenboiler,ortheuniverse.”*The former,ateighty-four,says:“Ihavenofearswhateverabout thefuture.Thewholeobservationofmylifehasbeenthat whateverhappensisalwaysprogress.”Boththesemenlong *Decadence,p.38. *LettersandReminiscences,vol.ii.,p.108. 233 ORIGINALITY agoacceptedthedoctrinethatpersonallifeiscontinuous, andthatafterdeathittakesupthestoryagainonanother plane.Theyarenothistoriansintheordinarysense,but theymaybesaidtoknowthehistoryofthephysicalworld atitsbestandworst;and,knowingit,theybelieveinits progress.Nevertheless,temperamentexerteditsinfluence, forbothhavebeenledbyanidealismwhichispartoftheir nature. VII

MrEdwardCarpenter,inhischapteron“HowtheWorld LooksatSeventy,”proveshowadistantidealaffectsone's estimateofmundanethings:“Thewillingsacrificeoflife, andtheecstasyofit,wouldbeunintelligibleifdeathdidnot indeedmeanTransformation.Inmylittleindividualway Iexperiencesomethingofthesamekind.Ifeelacurious senseofjoyinobserving—asatmyageoneiscompelledto do—thenaturalandinevitabledecadenceofsomeportion ofthebodilyorganism,thefailuresofsightandhearing,the weakeningofmuscles,theaberrationsevenofmemory—a curioussenseofliberationandofobstaclesremoved.I acknowledgethattheexperience—thesatisfactionandthe queersenseofelation—seemutterlyunreasonableandnot tobeexplainedbyanyoftheordinarytheoriesoflife;but itisthere,anditmay,afterall,havesomemeaning.” Oncemore,idealismchangestheearthlyscene.

Weconclude,therefore,thatalthoughthereareoptimists ofthreescoreyearsandten,thegeneraltendencyafterfifty istoexpectlittleadvanceinthefinerphasesofcivilisedlife, unlessthepersonaloutlookisprofoundlyaffectedbyinward experiencesofanidealnature.Itsometimeshappens, however,thateventheseidealistshavenodeepinterestor beliefinthedevelopmentoftheworldandworldlythings; thislifetothemis“avapourwhichappearethforawhile thenvanishethaway.”Weretheytostudyhistoryas othershavedone,they,too,mightrealise£ immersioninbygonecenturiesisa disqualificationfor *InMyDaysandDreams 234 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE2 estimatingthefuture.Atanyrateitwouldseemtobe betterineverywaytobelieveinthelawoftheunexpected ratherthanintheviewthathistoryrepeatsitself.Forthis reasononeisinclinedtoagreewithHavelockElliswhenhe says:“Menhavenever,knownwhattheworldismoving to.Whoforesaw—tosaynothingofolderandvasterevents ^—theCrucifixion?WhatGreekorRomaninhismost A fantasticmomentsprefiguredourthirteenthcentury2 WhatChristianforesawtheRenaissance2 Wecannotbe toobold,forweareeverattheincipientpointofsomenew manifestationfarmoreoverwhelmingthanallourdreams.”" Dreams? Ifin1913someardentfollowerofLordRoberts hadharanguedacrowdtotheeffectthatwithintwoyears 5,000,000Britishsoldierswouldbeenlistedtofightagainst /Germany’sassaultonthefreedomofnations,weshouldhave laughedderisively,reflectingsorrowfullyontheUtopian andfearfulimaginationofthescaremonger,orelsescoffing athisignoranceofhisfellow-men.

VIII (b)WeallowedthatMrC.H.Pearson'spleawas,within itslimits,true.Thegreatpoetsanddramatistsofthepast arestillunapproachable;atanyratetheyhaveneverbeen excelled.Homer,Euripides,Dante,Goethe,Shakespeare— itcannotbesaidthatnameslikethesehavebeeneclipsed, andwillanyoneclaimthatPhidiashasbeenleftbehindas asculptor,orthattheworksofmodernpaintershavemade theartistsofformerageslooklikeamateurs?Letusadmit, then,thatincertainwell-definedspheresitishighlyimprob ablethatweshalleverseeanybetterworkthanthatwhich hasalreadyappeared.Butwhatdoestheadmissionmean: Itmeansthatasthekindoflifewhichgavebirthtoexpres sionsofgeniusinthepastisalifethathaspassedaway, artisticembodimentofitisnolongerpossible.Takethe epic.Ifourhighlymentalisedcivilisationhasmadean epicimpossible,therewill,ofcourse,benoepictocompare withthosethataroseduringthedaysofinstinctandpassion. *ImpressionsandComments,p.229. 235 ORIGINALITY Theepic,assuch,hasreachedfinality.To-daylifeislived withmostofitsintensitiesdirectedinwards;ourloveisfor ideasratherthanaction,andthepsychologicalnovel,the characterstudy,andthestatictheatremakeasuccessful appealtous.Artandlifeareinevitablyboundupwitheach other;and,maybe,someoftheartists,sculptors,andpoets oflatergenerationsmaybejudgedtobeasgreatintheir interpretationofthelifetheyknewasthoseofearliertimes wereintheembodimentofthelifearoundthem.Should thisverdictbedenied,thenwemustcheerfullyconfessthat incertainofthefineartstheapexwasreachedlongago— unlesstheGreatWarshallproducetheepicofalltime., Thisattitudeneednotdisturbourconfidenceinthefuture. AprofoundstudentofthethoughtofGreecehassaidthat “Platonism,ifweunderstandthewordinabroadandliteral, andnotinanarrowandpedanticsense,isnotyetdeadand cannotdie,becauseitsrootsarestruckdeepinuniversal humannature.”*Wemayboggleatsuchastatement,but wearecompelledatlasttoacceptit. Plato,asEmerson said,makeshavocamongouroriginalities;heplumbedthe depthslongbeforeweknewtherewereanydepthsatall. Heinsists,andwecannotsayhimnay.Isitnotsowiththe founderofChristianity?Solongashumannatureexists,so longshallwebeunabletounsaymanyofthethingshesaid; theirvitalityliesintheirtruthforalltime.Theseadmis sions,however,donotconstituteadenialofprogress;they affirmfinalityonlyinspecificcases. Literaryforms,totakeaverydifferentsphere,arenota fixedquantity.Thedramaofactiongivesplacetothe dramaofideas,butitisstillthedrama.Letlifebevigorous, internallyorexternally,andweshallfindtheformsofex pressionthatweneed.Wemaynotfindthematonce,but eventuallyweshall,andineveryartsphere,too.Thefirst crudeandblunderingsymptomsareseenintheworkofthe Futurists,theCubists,theVorticists,theImagistes,and others.Toregardtheseschoolsofeffort,sopositiveandso partial,asfinal,isjejuneintheextreme;theyarethefore runnersofnewdevelopmentswhoseoutlineisevennow *TheVitalityofPlatonism.ByJamesAdam. 236 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE2 hardlydiscernible.MrA.J.Eddyexpressesthetruthwhen hesaysthat,“broadlyspeakingwearechangingfromthe perfectionsofImpressionismtotheimperfectionsofPost Impressionism;fromtheachievementsofaschool,amove mentthathasdonethebestitcould,totheattempts,the experiments,thegropingsofnewmenalongnewlines.”

DX Thenewmanwiththeyoungmind—andmindisyoung uptoforty-five—isinstinctivelyprogressive,hopeful,ex pectant;originalityisalwaysthegreatpossibility.Opti mismismoresurelygroundedinyouthandmaturitythan inmiddleageandoldage.Thedispositiontoregardany achievementasfinalisalmostrepellent. True,anumberofyoungmenandwomen,mostofthem abnormalinsomeway,haveoccasionallybeendisposedto indulgeinpessimism,butthispessimismastothenewlight andbrilliantworkoftheyearsaheadhasseldominterfered withtheirownprogress.GeorgeEliotisacaseinpoint. Attwenty-nineshewasafraidoriginalitywasbecoming increasinglydifficult.Shelamentsthefactthat“great subjectsareusedup’’andthat“civilisationtendsevermore torepressindividualpredominance,highlywroughtagony, orecstaticjoy.””EightyearslatershecommencedAmos Barton,andelevenyearslatershesurprisedtheworldwith herAdamBede,andfoundtherewerestillgreatsubjectson whichtowrite.Hadshe,atconsiderablelength,expressed herviewsonthepaucityofhighthemes,andembodiedthem intheformofanessay,supportedbyopinionsfromancient andmodernauthorities,herlatersuccesseswouldhave *InCubistsandPost-Impressionists.Seealsoanarticleon“The ImpulsetoFuturism,”byH.W.NevinsoninTheAtlanticMonthly (1910). *SeeLifeofGeorgeEliot,byJ.W.Cross.Itisonlyfairtoadd thesubjoinedquotationfromGeorgeEliot'sEssays:“Itisfoolish tobeforevercomplainingoftheconsequentuniformity,asifthere wereanendlesspoweroforiginalityinthehumanmind.Greatand preciousoriginationmustalwaysbecomparativelyrare”(p.394). 237 ORIGINALITY disposedhertodisavowthescepticismofherthirtieth year. Somewriters,basingtheirestimatesofthefutureontoo closeastudyoftheanalogyofNature,arewonttoregardthe destinyofmanaslimitedbytheblindforcesaroundus. ThatwedependonNatureforourveryexistenceisobvious, butthereisanelementinourdevelopmentinwhichthe purelymaterialfactorhasnopart. Wecannot,indeed,acceptNatureasanysortofguideto theintellectualfuture.Whyshouldwe? Sofaraswecan see,theplanethaspassedthroughitsmostchangingperiods andisnowawaitingitslastandfinaldestiny.Everyaspect ofitspasthistorycompelsustorealisehowveryoldtheearth is,andthestoryofevolutionisthestoryofNature'sorigin alities;hownewspecieswereevolvedandhowtheolderones eitherdiedoutorwereincludedinthesurvivalofthefittest. Butnewspeciesarenotevolvedto-day,atleastnotby Naturealone.WegotoLutherBurbanktoseethenew flowersandthenewfruits.Natureherselfhasceasedtobe original.Perhapsitisbetterso.Weshouldnotcarefor asuddendeparturefromthelawofgravity,andevenifnew flowersandfruitswerealwaysinaprocessofbecoming,the advantageofanincreaseinfloramighteasilybediscounted byanunpleasantincreaseinobjectionableinsects,and reptileswithaviciouscunningforejectingpoisons.The physicalworldhasreacheditslimitssofaraswecansee; onlyintheworldofmind,andofmatterascontrolledby mind,canwelookforthatwhichwecallprogress.Forthe Universeasawholethereisboundtobechange,butits scopeisbeyondimaginationandthereforeitisoutsidethe narrowerfieldofplanetarydevelopment. -

X Ontherealplaneoflife:business,laws,socialdevelop ments—inshort,whatwecallcivilisation—therehasnever

*Ithasbeensaidthateverysunsetisoriginal,andintheaesthetic senseweagree.Butinsciencenaturallawswouldappeartohave nomorevariationsinview. 238 ISORIGINALITYNOWIMPOSSIBLE2 beenanydoubtastothepossibilityoforiginality.New ideasandnewadaptationsflowinaceaselessstream.Not allofthemarevaluedattheirworth.Thesewingmachine ideaofHowewasbandiedtoandfroacrosstheAtlantic beforeitgrippedtheimaginationandbecameacommercial reality.ThePatentOfficeofeverycivilisedcountrycon tainsproofofsteadyindustryininvention.Asinother spheres,soinbusiness,andthepracticalartsgenerally, finalitieshaveapparentlybeenreachedinseveraldirections. Iftheepicofthepastisunapproachable,maywenotsaythat itisunlikelyweshalleverseesuperiorapplicationsofsteam asamotivepower? Andyetnewmotivepowersarenot impossible.Theexplosiveengineprovesthecontrary,and thenewpumpatChingfordWaterWorksisatriumphof imagination.Thebrainofmanisnotyetattheendofits tether;indeedwhilsttheliterarycriticdiscussestheques tion“IsLiteratureDying?”theengineerandthebusiness manaretryingtoawakentheirfellowstothegreatpossi bilitiesofdevelopment.BenedettoCroceaffirmsmosttruly that“thereisprogresswheneveranactivitydeclaresitself, whenever(nottoleavethecircleofthepractical)wepass fromirresolutiontoresolution,fromsuspensetoaction.”” Anditisthepracticalpersonwhointhisrespectisour salvation.Hedoesnottheoriseovermuch.Historyfailsto dominatehim.Heknowsthepresentandworksforafuture. Thereisalwaysthechanceofsomegoodthingahead.His maybearathernarrowworld,measuredintellectually,but itisarealworldallthesame;andthatanyconjecturesbased onthepastshouldgovernpresentactionpessimisticallyis nottobetolerated. Lookingbackonthedifferentaspectsoftheargumentwe havetoconfessthatwebelieveinthepossibilityofprogress ingeneralandoforiginalityinparticular.Newlifemeans newthought;andashistoryceasestodominateussoshall wecultivateaGreekdirectnessandindependenceofinquiry, thankfullyusingthelaboursofthosewhohavegonebeforeus, butrefusingtobeboundbythem.Wecanonlybelievethat *ArticleinTheContemporaryReview,byHerbertPaul. *ThePhilosophyofthePractical,p.97. 239 ORIGINALITY theachievementsofpasterasareaprophecyofgreater achievementstocome.Theremaybesectionalfinalitiesin history,buthistoryitselfhasnofinality.

“Guestsoftheages,atto-morrow’sdoor WhyshrinkyeP Thelongtrackbehinduslies, Thelampsgleam,andthemusicthrobsbefore Biddingusenter,andIcounthimwise Wholovessowellman’snoblememories, Heneedsmustloveman'snoblerhopesyetmore."

£40 CHAPTERII

ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE

Toestimatethetrendoforiginalityinthefutureisatask ofsomemagnitude,andwehesitatetodealwithit;butour effortwillnotbemisunderstoodifthereader,howevercritical, willrememberthatweareseekingtendencies,notattempting toformulateprophecies. Whateverbethecause,therecanbenodoubtaboutthe factthatthethoughtmovementofthepresentandofthe futureis,andwillbe,profoundlyextensiveandintensive— tousethelanguageofthelogician."LongbeforetheGreat Warthisextensionhadbeguntoshowitselfintheuseof words:weawoketothefactthatmanywordshadcom pletelylosttheirboundaries,andotherwordswerebeing affectedinthesameway.MennowadaysbelieveinGod, buttheyhavenosortofbeliefintheYahwehoftheJews, ortheFatherofJesusChrist,ortheFirstPersonofthe Trinity.Surveyingthebeautiesofnature(andfilledwith Clifford’scosmicemotion),thesouloftheobservercompels anacceptanceofafirstcausewhoiscalledGod—thegodof *Progresshasbeenone-sidedhitherto,atleastinsomerespects. Prof.Marvinsays:“Ateachofthepreviousgreatmomentsinthe historyoftheWestdevelopmenthasbeensecuredbyemphasison onesideofournatureattheexpenseoftherest.Visionsofmankind incommonprogresshaveflashedonindividualthinkers,a Roman Emperor,aCatholicSchoolman,aRevolutionaryprophet.Butthe thingachievedhasbeenone-sided,andtheneededcorrectionhasbeen givenbyanothermovementmoreone-sidedstill.Thegreatesthope ofthepresentdayliesinthefactthatinallbranchesoflife,in governmentaswellasinphilosophy,inscienceasinsocialreform, inreligionandininternationalpolitics,menarenowstrivingwith determinationtobindthethreadstogether.”—“TheIdeaof Progress,”inMarvin'sProgressandHistory,p.17. Q 24I ORIGINALITY pantheism.Thisindeedisnonewthing,butthemodern versionofitisnew.Immanenceismorethanthepantheism ofthepast.AndtherearemenwhosegodisanIdea:the IdeaoftheBesttheyknow;othersacceptGodasRight— Hewhowillseejusticemetedouttotheplayerswhenthe gameisover.Verilywehavea Pantheonto-dayinall civilisedcountries,andsomegoodpeoplehaveneverrecovered fromtheshockofhearingthatGermanyhasarealGerman god—withafewoldbutinferiordeitieslikeWodenand Thor. Takethewordlife.Thereusedtobethelifeoftheplant, oftheanimal,andofman:butnowwehavelifewherewe neverexpectedtofindit. Lifeinthestone;lifeinthein organic;lifeinforcesthatwecallblind;lifeeverywhere— butwhatkindoflife?Thatquestionisthecentreofacute discussionandtheboundarieswhichwefondlyhopedwere fixedarebreakingaway."Semblancesoftheorganiccoming directlyfromtheinorganicareinteresting,butconfusingto ourscience.Tosomeextentthesameconditionisfound in mathematics.Webelievedwehadinthephrase “mathematicallyexact’’atruthasincontestableasany externaltruthcouldbe;butdoubtisbeginningtoassert itself.”Exactitudecanneverbeabsolute;itisalwaysre lative,butitismorerelative,apparently,thanitusedtobe.

Progress* Wehadthenotionthatwedidunderstandnot onlythewordbutthething;andyetwehavebegunanew quarrelaboutit. Somecontendthatthereisnoessential superiorityincomplexityoversimplicity—orinthehetero *“IamwillingtoconcedetoProf.Haeckelthatallnatureis alive.”—DrPaulCaruson“PanpsychismandPanbiolism,”inThe Monist,vol.iii.,p.235. *Prof.Schubert,attheendofhischapteron“TheNatureof MathematicalKnowledge,”says:“Theprecedingreflections deprivemathematicalknowledgeofthatdegreeofcertaintyand incontestabilitywhichiscommonlyattributedtoitwhenwesay athingis“mathematicallycertain.”*-MathematicalEssaysand Recreations,p.37. 242 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE geneousoverthehomogeneous;othersaffirmthatevolution ismerelythecarryingthroughofaplanetaryprogramme andisthereforeneitherprogressnordecline:others,again, contendthathappinessislife’saim,consequentlyanad /vancedsocietywhichislesshappythanonelessprogressive isnotinastateofprogressbutofdevolution.Whenwe debateprogressthewordconnotesdifferentconceptions, becauseitsboundarieshavebrokendown.Itisthesame withmanyotherwords:law,morality,aristocracy,democ racy,rights,"andahundredmore. Whatisthetrueinwardnessofthisphenomenon? It meansthatsomeofourlittlesystemshavehadtheirday andalreadyhaveceasedtobe.Notonlyhasthetheologian toprepareforaneraofbroadenedideas,butthemanof sciencewillhavetobestirhimselfalso.Frontiersarebeing pushedbackbecausetheboundarywallshavebeenbroken

down.Wordsworthsang: \ “Death,life,andsleep,realityandthought, Assistme,God,theirboundariestoknow.” Thatwasthenineteenthcentury.To-daythereisaslumpin dividinglines.WerealisethatlifeandtheUniversearea whole,andwearehotonthetrackofunities.Wearetrying tofindtheformulaforeconomicandpoliticalcohesion,and slowlyweareperceivingthattheissueispartlymaterialand partlyspiritual.Butweapproachtheconsummationsteadily. WhenMrGoslingwasleadingthebigstrikesomeyearsago, theeditorsoftheLondonpapersthirstedforhisscalpasa plotteragainsttheState;to-day,oneofthoseeditorsrefers toMrGosling'slatestaddressasa“wiseandstatesmanlike speech.”Thateditorhaslearnedsomethingofthehigher unity;sohasMrGosling.

Inscience,inphilosophy,inart,inbusiness,theideaof extensionisbeingpursued.Specialismhasoverreached itselfandwehaverevoltedagainsttheworshipofdetail. Section-workwillbecontinued,butaspartofawhole-work. 1Wecoulddowithanup-to-dateeditionofCornewallLewis’s UseandAbuseofPoliticalTerms. 243 ORIGINALITY Distances,bothlongandshort,ceasetoimpressus.Instead oflookingforthecauseofepilepsyinthebrainwegofarther afield,sotospeak,anddiscoverthemischiefintheintestines. Unityisall-embracing,andalthoughProfessorJevons' notionthatsunspotsaffectcommercemaynotbetrue,the tendencytolookforoperatingcausesatgreatdistancesfrom theeffectsisdistinctlyhealthy.Howlonghavewebeen tryingtoclassifythesciences?Ourdifficultiesrespecting theirboundariesoughttohavetaughtusagooddealmore thantheyhavedone:butindulllabourweploddedon— andwithnoimagination.Thereisnoexactclassification ofthesciencesorofanythingelsebecausetherearenoexact linesofdemarcation.Weusedtodogmatisethatsoundis sound,andcolouriscolour,twoabsolutelydistinctand differentsensationsandperceptions.Andnow?Well,we aregivingseriousattentiontothecoloursofmusic.Soon wemaybediscussingtheidentityofperfumesandideas— quaintnotionswhichstiruptheangerofthecircumspect, whodislikethekindofresearchthatbreaksdownthefences socarefullysetupbythescientistsofthepast.

III

WhatwasitthatgaveFroebelhisholdupontheworldof education? Justthis,that“thedesireforunityisthebasis ofallgenuinelyhumandevelopment.”Hefoundthat subjectsweretaughtassubjects,andnoonesubjecthad anythingtodowithothersubjects—e.g.LatinwithBotany. So,hesays,“Isoughteverywhereforrecognitionofthe quickeninginter-connectionofparts,andfortheexposition oftheinnerall-pervadingruleoflaw.”Wecoulddowith moreofthisspiritinpresent-dayteaching.Boundariesare beingsetupinsomedirections;knockeddowninothers. Forinstance,EducationalValuesandMethodsisabookthe mainobjectofwhichistoshowthatwecannottransferthe efficiencyacquiredbyonementalpowertoanothermental power.Theniseachmentalpower—memory,forexample— definitelymarkedofffromeveryotherpower? Ifso,and if,further,itseducationcanbeadvancedwhilstthatof 244 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE neighbouringfunctionsremainsstationary,thenweareback againintheworldof“faculty”psychology;indeedwe mightaswellcallinGallandSpurzheimatonce,anddevelop ourminds,bumpbybump.Hereisanallegedscientific result:“Specificmemorytrainingisspecificinitseffects; thereisnogeneralmemoryfunctionwhichcanbedeveloped, byfeedingituponanyonematerial.”Butanexperiment conductedonschoolchildrenandyoungstudentsisnot sufficienttojustifysoimportantaninference;moreover, experimentsconductedwithadultspointquitetheother way.Andwhy?Becauseinterestisdeeper,andactingon amoreacuteintelligenceitisfoundthatconcentrationand methoddeveloprecollectivepowerforfaces,facts,figures, andwords—thingsverydifferentinthemselves.Thereare noboundarylinesbetweenmemoryandthereproductive imagination,ormemoryandattention,ormemoryandan actofvolition:themindworksasaunity,anditisitschar acterassuchwhichdeterminesthetendencyandthescope ofitsdevelopment.AsMeumannsays:“Ourgeneral capacitytoretainandtoreproducedepends. . . uponthe developmentofotherfunctionsofconsciousness,especially uponconcentrationandpersistenceofattention,theeffort ofwill,theemotionalconditionandthelike.””

Anothermarkofthespiritofunityisthecommunisingof knowledge,especiallyintheformsofnaturalscience.”Fora

*EducationalValuesandMethods,p.72.ByW.G.Sleight,M.A., D.Litt. *ThePsychologyofLearning,pp.6,356.Münsterbergisofthe sameopinion.“Ourgeneralretentiveandreproductivecapacity isstrengthenedandimprovedbyeveryactofmemory.”—General Psychology,p.168. *“Theeffectoftheseinternationallabourshasbeentodestroy theclearlymarkeddifferencesofnationalthought.Atleastinthe domainofsciencethepeculiaritiesoftheFrench,GermanandEnglish schoolsarerapidlydisappearing.Thecharacteristicsofnational thoughtstillexist;butinordertofindtheminthepresentagewe 245 ORIGINALITY longtimemusichasbeeninternationalised,ornearlyso: nowscienceisfollowingsuit,and,erelong,wemayseeatrue cosmopolitanismwhichallowsthenationalspirittoexpress itselfwithoutgratingonthefeelingsoftherestoftheworld. Andthistendencytoabolishfrontiersisnowheremore markedthanintherelationshipbetweenEastandWest. Strictlyspeaking,thereisnofrontieratall,andtherenever hasbeen; neverthelessthedividinglinebetweenthemind oftheOrientandtheOccidenthasalwaysbeenrecognisable. Butthereappearstobeaspiritofgiveandtakeinboth directions;theWesternintellectgoesEastandsympathetic allyentersintoitsmysticism,itscivilisation,anditsother worldliness;andtheEasternintellectcomesWestwithas fewprejudicesasmaybe,beholdingourhasteandhurry, andtryingtofathomourmaterialism.Whatthen? Well, wegetanewkindoflittérateur;Kipling,LafcadioHearn, RabindranathTagore.Perhapstheoriginalliteratureof thefuturewillcomefromafusionofEastandWest."Life isnotallofitcontemplation,neitherisitaction:itisa unionofthetwo.Andwhenwecometoreflectonthis thought,lookingbackwardsmeanwhile,weseehowmuch weowetotheEast;theformalandinformalphilosophers havedrunkdeeplyatthewellsofOrientalthought—Spinoza, Berkeley,Hegel,Schopenhauer,Emerson,Nietzsche.Their successlayintheirsearchfortheuniversal;itwastothem shouldhavetostudythedeeperphilosophicalreasonings,thegeneral literature,andtheartisticeffortsofthesenations.”—J.T.Merz, HistoryofEuropeanThought,p.305. 1Prof.Dowdenhasthusilluminatedthisprinciple:“Nofolly canbegreaterthanthatoffancyingthatweshallstrengthenour literarypositionbylivingexclusivelyinourownideas,andshowing ourselvesinhospitabletothebestideasofotherlands.Noristhat hospitalitythefinestwhichconstrainstheguesttoassumethegarb andadoptthemannersofhisentertainers.Theshockofstrangeness isinspiriting.EverygreatliterarymovementofmodernEurope hasbeenbornfromthewedlockoftwopeoples.Sothegreat Elizabethanliteraturesprangfromthelove-makingofEnglandand Italy;thepoetryoftheearlypartofthenineteenthcenturyfrom theardourarousedinEnglandbytheopeningpromiseoftheFrench Revolution.”—“HopesandFearsforLiterature,”inTheFortnightly Review(1889). 246 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE afinerthingtodiscovertheoversoulthantodiscoverthe soul.EastandWest,asterms,losttheirhardexactitude. ProfessorE.A.Rossoffersusaninterestinglistofboundaries intheworldofinterpretation,anditshowsthattheyareas delusive,finally,asthosewhicharemorematerial.“St Augustinemakesthehistoryofhumanityturnontheanti thesisofthepre-Christianandpost-Christianepochs; Bossuet,onthecontrastofthechosenpeoplewiththe heathenpeoples;Cousin,ontheoppositionoftheFiniteand theInfinite.Amongthecrudeattemptsatthedifferenti atingofsocialphenomenaareHegel’sbalancingofOrient againstOccident;Renan’soppositionofSemiteandAryan; StSimon’salternationof‘organicwith‘critical’; Buckle'sbroadcontrastoftheAsianwiththeEuropeanen vironment;Benloew'sdivisionofhistoryintoperiodsruled respectivelybytheidealsoftheBeautiful,theGood,andthe True.”"Thatsuchprovisionalboundariesmayrendera temporaryservicewedonotdeny,andapproximateclassi ficationsarearealneed;butwehaveoftenusedthemas iftheywerefinal,andnewknowledgehasbeenrejectedin consequence. W

Ithasbeendeclaredthatman’soriginalityisduetohis perceptionofnewunities.Fromthisitfollowsthatthe pullingdownofbarriersofallkindsislikelytoassistinthe developmentofcreativethought;forsharplinesofdemarca tion—armedfrontierswherepassportsaredemanded—tend torestrictintercourse,topreventthegrowthofknowledge, andconsequentlytocauseanabsenceofintellectualstimulus. Alongwiththemoreelementaryfactswehavejustnoticed therearethefavourableinfluencesofthewar.Weshall knowourAlliesbetterthaneverbefore.Alongwithgreat industrialactivitywillcomeaRenaissanceofamorespiritual kind:Russia,Italy,Belgium,GreatBritain,andFrance willhaveafreetradeinthoughttheeffectsofwhich,confused atfirst,mustendinmuchmorethanmereenlightenment. Theleastgoodachievedwouldlieintheabolitionofracial *FoundationsofSociology,pp.76-77. 247 ORIGINALITY prejudice;andyetthatisaveryimportantchange.Pre judicekeptusapart,butthedefenceoflibertybroughtus together.Outofthatstrugglewillissueatrueunderstand ing.Theboundariesoncesodefinitehavebecomeindefinite, andfromtheeaseofinterchangethusestablishedwemay hopetoseeabroadermentalhorizoneffectinggreatthings inorganisedknowledgeandstillgreaterinthecreativesphere. Butalongwiththisextensiveinfluencethereworksthe intensive.Enlargementwithoutisaccompaniedbyenlarge mentwithin.Inthenineteenthcenturythewordsoulwas forlongmostunfashionable.Noneofushadasoul.But nowadaysevenEuropeitselfhasone—accordingtoMr M‘Cabe."Nationshavesouls;andMrGibbs*thinksthe warhasone.WhatdoesitallmeanItmeansthatthe innerlifeofmaniscomingintoitsown,andthattheoutward thingswhichrepresentman’saspirationsarecomplimented bybeinggivenananalogoussoul.Aboutfortyyearsago psychologybecameaseriousstudyinthiscountry,notonly onthepartofuniversitystudentsandteachers,but,slowly, onthepartofthegeneralreaderofbooks.Theeffecton theologicalthoughtwas,atfirst,notsalutary;somereligious phenomenaofallegeddivineoriginwereseentobequite explainableonnaturalisticgrounds,andthis,asmightbe expected,wasnotawelcomeretreatforthedogmatists.But thelaterdevelopmentsofpsychologyhaveallbeeninfavour ofreligion,andeventhedogmatistshavefeltmorecomfort ablethantheydid.Truthtotell,thetheologianowesa debttothepsychologistwhichhehasnotbeentooreadyto pay.Both,however,bearwitnesstothenewintensitywith whichtheinnerlifeislived,perhapsnotwiththemanybut certainlywiththefew—thefewthatwillsoonexpandinto themany.Letusbeplain.Thelifeofthemind,andof mindasitconcernswhatwecallsoul,isalifethathasre ceivedanamountofattentioninfinitelygreaterthanitdid whentheinnerlifewasconfinedmostlytomeditationonsin,

*TheSoulofEurope.ByJosephM'Cabe. *TheSouloftheWar.ByPhilipGibbs.Inallabouttwenty-five bookswerepublishedin1916dealingwiththeSoulofNationsand Things. 243 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE forgiveness,andlifeafterdeath.Wearenotsuperfine idealists,andyetwearemenandwomenwhostandinthe presenceofintellectandsoul—thoughtandemotion—witha newreverence.Manmaybea tremblingreed,asPascal said,butheisareedthatcanthink,andthoughthesun shoulddestroyhimhewouldbegreaterinhisdeaththanthe sunwouldbeinitsvictory—forhewouldbeconsciousofhis experience:thesunwouldnot.Inthisold-worldthought wearediscoveringnewmeanings.Consciousnesshasranges, evenontheplaneofintellection,whichwehavenotyet reached;andmaybethemystics,whenwecanbringthem downtohardpanandbrasstacks,willshowusthetruthof realitieswhichwehavehithertodenied.

IsitthemessageoftheEastonceagainItmaybe. Allthedeepthoughtmovementsthathaveprofoundly affectedmankindhavearisenintheEastandmovedWest wards.ApparentlythemovementsfromWesttoEasthave notbeensosuccessful:thecurvebeginsatthewrongend, sotospeak.JapanwasnevermoreJapanthanitisto-day: thesuperficesarechanged—thedepthsremain,andthose depths(inIndiaalso)givethechiefvaluetotheinwardlife ofbeing.Manmustalwaystranscendreality,ifhecan, andthethoughtworldishisopportunity.Wecannotstay toanalyseandillustratethisphenomenon;ourobjectis specific—weaskinwhatwayitwillaffectoriginalityinthink ingandinaction.Takeninconjunctionwiththeextensive movementalreadyreferredto,thisintensiveaccompaniment mustissueinmultiplyingconditionsfavourabletothe creativemood.Toputitconcretely,scienceandpoetrywill liveandgrowtogether.Weshallnotberealistsoridealists, menofscienceorpoets,materialistsortranscendentalists; barrierswillhavebeenburnedawayandtheimpulsetowards *Oneaspectofthetendencytodetailisseeninthenewschoolsof artandpoetrywherementalimpressions,consideredsectionally, appeartobethechiefconsideration.TheImagistes,forinstance, takeapartandmakeitintoawhole. 249 ORIGINALITY comprehensivenesswillbeasnaturaltousasitusedtobeto theGreeks.Therewillbelessdispositiontoworshipone sectionoflifeattheexpenseofothers,ortoderideall materialthingsinfavourofthespiritual.WhenPindarsaid: “StrivenottobecomeZeus:ahumanlotbecomesaman,” hebuiltbetterthanheknew.Everyefforttocramexistence intoaformula,whetherreligious,scientific,oreconomic,is anefforttobecomeZeus—todeifyasectionoflife,andthus degradetheothers.Lifeisawhole,andinspiteofthe obviousdifferencethatasystemofvaluesisboundtomake inourappreciationsofmindandmatter,itcannotbedenied thatallourwarsandpersecutionshavebeenduetosectional idolatry—i.e.wedeclareaschemeofsalvationandpunish thosewhowillnotacceptit;weannounceatheoryofgovern mentandimprisonthepeoplewhorefuseit;orwesetupan economicgodandstartarevolution.Theseactionsspring fromidealtendencies;theyendeavourtoremedyevilsand promotehappiness,andtothatextenttheyareright.But theyareoftentoodrastic,likethedeedsoftheRussian Skeptsi,whogetridoftemptationbymutilatingthemselves. Inthefuturetherewillbenoslackeningofidealeffort,butit willbemorerationalandsympatheticthanhithertobecause theinnerlifeitselfwillbemorereconciledtothehumanlot —reconcilednotbyaweakyieldingtounpleasantfactsbut byseeingthroughandbeyondthem.

VII

Oneoutcomeofthecombinedextensiveandintensive movementwillbethecreationofanatmospherefavourable totheactivityoftalentandgenius.Itmustnotbesup posedthateverymanofpartshashisopportunity;indeed itmaywellbetruethatgeniusisnotalwaysself-assertive, ratherthereverse;anduntiltheconditionsarecongenial, somemenofgreatabilitywillremainmuteandinglorious." *ThisisarguedbyProf.C.H.CooleyinhisGenius,Fame,and ComparisonofRaces.Hesays:“Everyableraceprobablyturns outanumberofgreatlyendowedmenmanytimeslargerthanthe numberthatattainstofame*(p.3). 250 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE Thoseconditionsareanamalgamof(a)sympathyon thepartofthepublic,(b)opportunityfortheindividual, (c)sentimentonbehalfofprogress,and(d)practicalfacilities fordevelopingthebesttalent.Thelastphrasesuggests eugenics,butformanyyearstocomeeugenicscandolittle morethanpreventinefficientandimperfectlivesfromre producingtheirkind;acenturywouldbenecessarytoprove /ina satisfactorymannertheideathatHighMasculine talent+HighFemininetalent=genius,oranythinglikeit. Wedonotknowhowchanceworksinthesematters,and analogouscasesamongcarefullybredanimalsdonotfoster anyconfidencewhatever."MrWhetham,agreeingthat goodqualitiestendtobeinherited,admitstheyarecomplex incharacter.“Itneeds,”hesays,“theconjunctionof manydifferentfactorstoproduceamanofability,awoman ofbeautyandcharm.Hencewecannot,atpresentatall events,tracethedescentofability,moralcharacteror beautyinthesameprecisewaywecanfollowfromgenera tiontogenerationcertainbodilydiseasesormentaldefects.”” Wearethereforeallthemoredependentonthoseconditions whichexperiencehastaughtusarefavourable:soundhealth; personalhygiene;intelligentvocationaloversight;love guidanceandcontrol;publicesteem.Eventhenwemust expectasenseoffailure,forthegreatmenofpasteras,as wellasthemenofmark,havesprungupsuddenlyand withoutapparentreferencetoconditions,preparedorother wise.Andyetreasontellsusthatifthegroundiscultivated, theyieldwillbegreater,”andthereisnothingsosuccessful

*Awriterwellacquaintedwiththepedigreeofrace-horsessays, aftergivingmanyillustrationsofuncertainty:“Itistheaimofthe /figuretheoriststoprovethereisnosuchthingaslotteryinbreeding. Thecasesherecitedwillnothelpthemtoforcetheirpragmatic lessonshome.”SomeofthecasesconcernSceptic,PrettyPolly, Hammerkop,LaFleche. *“TheExtinctionoftheUpperClasses,”inTheNineteenth Century(July,1909).AmorepositiveviewisfoundinSchuster’s Eugenics,p.135. *Prof.W.James,inhischapteron“GreatMenandtheirEnviron ment,”says:“Sporadicgreatmencomeeverywhere.Butfora communitytogetvibratingthroughandthroughwithintensely 25I ORIGINALITY assuccess.Letthenationallifebelivedasitcouldbelived —withafinebalancebetweentheclaimsoftheRealandthe Ideal—andthetendencythussetupwouldreachitsgoalin aphalanxoforiginalleadersasdistinctiveasanygroupof whichhistorycanboast.

VIII

Buttomanyobserversthefutureisnotsoeasy,sorosy, orsoprobable.Someofthemareobsessedwiththeeffect ofgovernmentsonintellectualgrowthandadvancement. TheyechoHeine'ssaying:“Ifdemocracyreallytriumphs itisallupwithpoetry.”Or,adoptingamorephilosophic view,theysaythatdemocracyandoriginalthoughtarein completeopposition;thatknowledgeisnotobtainedby thepeopleforthepeople,butbythearistocracyofintellect forthecommongood;andthat,therefore,democracywhen all-prevailinghasablightingeffectoneverykindofsuperi ority.Evena writerlikeMrJ.M.Robertsonadmits: “Itistruethatifademocraticsocietyto-daydoesnot makeexpresseconomicprovisionforascholarlycultured classitislikelytolacksuchbecausetheleisuredoridleclass inallcountriesgrowslesscapableofandlessinclinedtosuch intellectualproductionasitcontributedtotheseriouslitera tureofEnglandduringthenineteenthcentury.Butsuch economicprovisionhasbeenstillmorenecessaryinmonarchic communities.”Thedebate,then,isastotherespective activelife,manygeniusescomingtogether,andinrapidsuccession, arerequired.Thisiswhygreatepochsarerare—whythesudden bloomofaGreece,anearlyRome,aRenaissance,issuchamystery. Blowmustfollowblowsofastthatnocoolingcanoccurinthe intervals.Thenthemassofthenationgrowsincandescentand maycontinuetoglowbypureinertialongaftertheoriginatorsof itsinternalmovementhavepassedaway.Weoftenhearsurprise expressedthatinthesehightidesofhumanaffairsnotonlythe peopleshouldbefilledwithstrongerlifebutthatindividualgeniuses shouldseemsoexceptionallyabundant.Thismysteryisjustabout asdeepasthetime-honouredconundrumwhygreatriversflowby greattowns.”—TheWilltoBelieve,p.243. *TheEvolutionofStates,p.139. 252 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE meritsanddemeritsofaristocracyanddemocracyinfoster ingoriginalminds.Ifwetakehistoryasaguide—always uncertain—weshallfindthebalanceveryslightlyinfavour ofaristocracy,butthemarginofsuperiorityishardlyworth talkingabout.Indeed,youmightfinda monarchical countrysoimmersedinpoliticsastopreventtheblossom ingofitsbestintellects,justasto-day,inatleasttwoofour foremostrepublics(Englandmightalsobeincluded),the wasteofenergyconsumedingoverningiscolossal. Nowdemocracyandaristocracymakeverylittledifference totheprogressandexpressionofmind;butthetimecon sumedingoverningisanothermatter.Irelandisasad illustration.Ifthatcountrycouldhaveforgottenpolitics forfiveyears—anyfiveyearsinthelastcentury—itwould— well,nooneknowshowbeneficialtheefectwouldhavebeen. Englandhasnotgonescatheless,andAmericaisstillinthe bondsofanelementarysystemofelectingaPresident,judged bythestandardsofefficiencyofwhichthatcountrywasthe primeoriginator.Stewart,Gilbreth,HarringtonEmerson, andotherscouldinventamethodlesscostly,lessinvolved, briefer,andmoresatisfactoryineveryway.Talentthus consumedintheroundaboutwaysofmodernpoliticswould bearmuchfruitinliterature,science,andindustry.But thereisverylittleintheformofgovernmentitselfthatis repressiveoforiginality.

Thisoutcryagainstdemocracyhasnosoundbasis.Lord Bryce,whohasmadeaspecialisedstudyofAmerica,says: “Allthingsconsidered,Idoubtwhetherdemocracytendsto *“Somuchofthenationalenergyspentitselfinpolitics,religion, andscience,duringtheReformerathatlessremainedavailablefor imaginativeliteratureandhistory.Brieflyrics,brilliantreview articles,andnovelsofepisodicalratherthanconcentratedinterest weremostinrequestamongreadersoflitteleisureandmostreadily suppliedbywritersonwhosetimethereweremanydemands.”— ModernEngland,vol.i.,p.201.Prof.L.P.Jacks'articleon“A BadSchoolforStatesmen”(seeLandaniWater,15thJune1916) isanexcellentcriticismofmodernparliamentarianism. 253 ORIGINALITY discourageoriginality,subtlety,refinementinthoughtand inexpression,whetherliteraryorartistic.”Professor BranderMatthewsismorepositive:“Norisdemocracy hostiletogeniusorslowtorecogniseit.”*ProfessorDowden inarguingthisquestiongaveprominencetoopposingviews suchasthoseofDeTocquevilleandScherer.Theformer said:“InAmericathemajoritydrawsaformidablecircle aroundthought.Withinthedeterminedlimitsamanis free;butwoetohimifheshouldpassbeyondthem.” Scherersaid:“Thegenerallevelriseswithdemocracy. . .; andbyaparallelmovement,allthatissuperiorislowered andtheaverageofwhichIspeakistheresultofthelowering oftheminorityaswellastheelevationofthemasses** Dismalnotions,butquitewrong:itisnotthenumberof votesinacountrythatcausesthemischief,butthecan vassingofthem,printingforthem,speechifyingtothem, reportingforthem,countingthem,andkow-towingtothem. Theonewriterwhohas,inouropinion,arrivedatthetruthis DrJ.BeattieCrozier.Hehadhisdoubtsandfears(hesays), “butongoingontoinquirehowthebalancestoodbetween AristocracyandDemocracyintheirpowertopushon civilisationtohigherandhigherstages,Iwashamperedby avastarrayandcomplicationofconsiderationswhichde tainedmelongandgivememuchtroubletoresolve;but inthelongrunIendedbyperceiving,asIhavesooftendone inotherlinesofspeculation,thatwhatactuallyhasoccurred intheworldonalargescaleinanygivenepochorperiod,was thebestthing,therightthing,thethingwantedthere:and thatalthoughDemocracywould,inaworlddestinedtostand stillandbecomestereotyped,givegreaterenergy,range,and expansiontothespiritthanaristocracy,whichconfinesits finersenseofpersonaldignity,itsmorerefinedcultureand standardofmanners,tothefew; inaworldintendedto advance,andwithProgressasitsendandnotstagnation,

1TheAmericancommittau,p.828. *“LiteratureintheNewCentury”–articleinTheNorth AmericanReview(1904). *“HopesandFearsforLiterature*-articleinTheFortnightly Review(1889). 254. ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE thisneednotbeso,butonthecontraryallformsofgovern mentmustbebroughtintorequisitioninturnaccording tothenecessitiesoftheplaceandhourandtheobstructions thathavetobeclearedaway—nowamilitarydespotism,now alimitedmonarchy,hereanaristocratic,thereademocratic regime.”Precisely.Akingmayfostereducationorhe maynot;apremiermaybereactionaryormerelyneglectful ofhisopportunities;anda referendummayhaveagood resultoraverybadone.EnglandmaybeaRepublicin disguise,touseBagehot'sphrase,anditisprobablytheone thingthatissuitedtous;centurieshenceitmaybetheone thingthatisdangeroustoourunity. Webelievethattheintensecultureofclass-consciousness ofanykindisthereallyseriousevilsofaraspoliticalfeelings areconcerned.Werememberlisteningtothediatribesof aworkingmaninHydePark,ayearortwoback,and althoughhespokewellhespoiledthewholethingbyadvocat ingthedevelopmentofclass-consciousness.Thiscompound wordseemedtohypnotisehim: herolleditoutlovingly andunceasingly,failingtoobservethathewasurginghis hearerstoforma rulingconceptiontheexistenceofwhich inthearistocracyhehadsoseverelycriticised.”There canbenodoubtthatinthepastthearistocratshavelost halftheirpossibilitiesofinfluence,simplybecausetheywere outoftouchwiththemiddleandworkingclasses;butif thoseclassesintendtorepeattheconductofthearistocrats wearenotlikelytomakemuchprogress,indeedthepossi bilitiesofsocialmischiefwouldbeconsiderablyincreased. Howridiculousitsoundsto-daywhenwereadthatTycho Brahe,ofnoblebirth,apologisedtohisaudienceforthe

*MyInnerLife,pp.482-483.DrCrozierwillhavemodifiedhis viewson“amilitarydespotism.” 2MrP.G.Hamertonrightlysays:“Isitnotthattheloveand pursuitofcultureleadeachofusoutofhisclass,andthatclass viewsofanykind,whetherofthearistocracy,orofthemiddle class,orofthepeople,inevitablynarrowthemindandhinderit fromreceivingpuretruth? Haveyoueverknownanypersonwho habituallylivedinthenotionsofacaste,highorlow,withoutin capacitatinghimselfinagreaterorlessdegreeforbreadthand delicacyofperception?*-TheIntellectualLife,p.277. 255 ORIGINALITY affrontheofferedthembytakinganinterestinastronomy? Authorship,too,itseems,involvedhiminathreatofsocial degradation.But,asMrHamertonpointsout,Robert Burnswasindangerofgoingtotheotherextreme,byre ferringto“honestrusticity”andbytellinggentlefolkthat he“wasbredtotheploughandindependent.”

Amoreserioushindrancetothewelfareofthementallife, andallthatitmeans,isthepredominanceofsportsand recreations.Thispredominancehasitsgoodside,andits drawbackshavenotbeenasmischievousassomeofour pessimistsprophesied: butinthenewera,wherewarwill betransferredfromthebattle-fieldtothecounting-house, thefactory,andtheworkshop,weshallneedabetterper spective.Menwhoareengagedinoccupationswherethe foreignerhasagripwillhavetoputmorebrainsintoaffaires thantheyhavedone,andlesstimeintosportandrecreation. Wedonotadvocatenosportorrecreation—thekill-joyhas noplaceinourschemeoflife;butwedoadvocateabetter time-tableforworkandplay.Howelseisthiscountryto keeppacewiththeprobableandactualoriginalitiesofother peoples2 Theseotherpeoplesaremuchlessaddictedto vicariousathleticsthanweare;theywillnotstandforhours intherainwatchingafootballmatchandcallitphysical culture."Suchcriticismisnotverywelcome,weknow,but, afterall,thatisnotagrievousmatter.Indeed,weshall venturetoaggravatetheremarkbyaddingafurthercriticism: thiscrowdinterestinsport—thisworshipofphysicalfitness andskillinothermen—isasignthatthereisnoabilityto enduresolitudeortoprofitbyit.”Herearetwoextremes:

*VidearticleinTheQuarterlyReview(July,1910),on“Sportand Decadence.” *Nietzsche'snotionthatthereshouldbe“Retreats”forallofus, notmerelyforthepious,isexcellent.Hearguesfor“detachment fromthetyrannyofstimuli”andfor“severeseclusionfromall letters,”andinfavourof“akindofprofoundintrospectionand self-recovery.”—TheWilltoPower,ii.,p.337. 256 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE the40,000crowdshoutingitselfhoarse,andthesolitary individualmeditatingathemeofhighimportanceashe treadsalonelycountrylane.Wearenotsettingupthe contrasttobringdiscreditonthegroupandtoexaltthein dividual;wesimplyaskthequestionastowhethertheman inthecrowdorthemaninthecountryisgettingthebetter formofrecreationandrest; andwhether,inaddition,the maninthecountryislikelytoproducesomethingofgreater intellectualworth.Therecanbebutoneanswer.England inthepast,priorto1914,hashadtoomanyinthecrowd; wewantafewmoreofthethinkingsolitaries,andweshall havetogrowthem.Onceinthecrowd,alwaysinthecrowd. Asksuchmentositinaroomwiththeirownthoughtsfor companyandyoupunishthemwiththeutmostseverity. Theyareafraidofthemselves.IttakesaBunyanora Raleightoendureconfinement,andeventheyhadbooksand visitorstosolacethem.Besides,wearenaturallygregarious (itisclaimed),andwithoutsocietywecouldnotlive.All verytrue,asthequaintZimmermann"toldusahundredyears ago,butaswehaveoscillatedtoofarinthecrowddirection, itishightimewebegantocurvetheotherway.Themerit isnotinsolitudeitselfbutintheleisureandsilenceitgives formentalenlargement,andforthemorepracticalbenefits ofmaturingplansforprofessionalandcommercialadvance ment.Wehavewatchedmanytypesofbusinessmenin action,andhavelearnedtorespectthesortofman whoknowshowtorestandtoprofitbyafewsilenthours awayfromhisfellows.Theyalwaysbeatthe“bangers” eventually. b XI

Butletuslookatthismatternationally.Thecrowd istoomuchwithus:getting,spending,welaywasteour powers.Wecangotoameetingofamostdeservingkind everynightintheweek:wehavethousandsofleagues, societies,guilds,clubs,centresandwhatnot,theresultbeing *ZimmermannwroteabookonSolitudeconsideredwithRespect toitsDangerousInfluenceuponMindandHeart.1798.

R 257 ORIGINALITY thatwearelosingtheinestimablebenefitsofourownfiresides, orthemorerigorousandapparentlyselfishsolitudeofourown four-walledstudy.Weareobsessedwiththesocialspirit. Wemusttalkorwedie.Now,overagainstthis,weurge anotherplea: itisthatifwetalkedlessweshouldthink moreandtobetterpurpose.Thesemeetingsandlectures areonlyhalfefficientincarryingouttheirallottedtasks; notenoughtimeisspentindigestingmaterialandformulating rightconclusions.Take,forinstance,thevarioussocio logicalsocieties.Theydonotappeartodomuchmore thandiscussthemesinanacademicmanner;andthemen whoare,sotospeak,makingsociology—CabinetMinisters, forexample—areseldomaskedtocontributefromtheir experiencetothescienceofsociety.Stipendiarymagistrates arelearnedinhumannaturebecausetheyarestudyingit everyday,andyetwhatsociologicalsocietyhaseverhad theaudacityortheoriginalitytocanvassstipendiarymagis trateswithaviewtotestingsociologicaltheorybypractical experience? Hereisa question:“Arepeoplemorehonestinthe morningthantheyareinthelaterhoursoftheday?”It isaquestionatonceinterestingandrathersurprising,and wemuchdoubtwhetheranyonebutastipendiarymagistrate couldanswerit. ButMrCecilChapmanoftheTowerBridge Courtwasabletodoso.Hetriedacasewhereamanwas allegedtohavestolensomerings,andwho,whenindanger ofcapture,hadthrowntheringsintoacrowdcomingoutof amusichall.MrChapmansaidinCourt: “Thecrowdwas sohonestthatoutofnineteenortwentyringsscatteredin thestreetonlytwowerereturned”;buttoaPressrepre sentativehedivedmoredeeplyintothesubject:

“Itisnotatallaquestionofdrink;withlatehoursa speciesofsubtlechangeseemstocomeoverpeople'schar acter.IfIweretodroptensovereignsinafrequentedspot ofLondonIshouldquiteexpecttoreceivebackanumber decreasingwiththehour—eight,perhaps,intheforenoon, sixlaterintheday,andsoontillIwonderwhetherIwould gettwobackatmidnight.” 258 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE Thatissociologicalmaterialwhichistoogoodtobelost, butunlessamagistrateispersuadedtowritehisreminiscences, andtostatehistheoriesbasedonCourtexperience,such materialdieswiththemanwhocreatedit. Henceourplea thatthewastageofsuperfluousmeetingsshouldbestopped andthatmoresolidresultsbeobtainedbyindividualand groupinvestigations.

XII

Wehavehadasurfeitofarchaeologyandofthestudyof modernconditions:wewantmoreprophecy.Hereisa questionintheimmeasurable:Howmuchmoreimagination hasbeenspentinreconstructingthelifeofRomeandAthens thaninforecastingthefutureofLondon? Noonecansay. AthensandRomehaveanundyinginterestforus,but Londonisimperative.Itishereandnow.Wehaveto takepartinit,payitstaxes,endureitsfogs,preserveitsart treasures,andensureahealthylifeforitsinhabitants.And yetwearesurethatthepastofAthensandRomehashad, andstillhas,moreimaginationspentuponitthanhasbeen giventothefutureofLondon.Itisanotherinstanceofthe dominanceofthesenseofhistory.Therearebooksgalore thattellusoftheGreeksandoftheRomans;onlyonceina whiledoessomerathershymanventureforthfromhisstudy topaintapictureoftheMetropolisahundredyearshence. SirAstonWebb,inhisaddresson“LondonoftheFuture” (20thJanuary1914),toldhishearersthatinA.D.2014 therewouldbea salmonweiratLondonBridge,that thereweretwogreatrailwaystations,onefortheNorthand onefortheSouth;thatthegreatroadsoutofLondonwere 120feetwide,withtwodivisions,oneforslow-movingand theotherforfast-movingtraffic;thatahugebeltofgreen fieldssurroundedtheLondonofto-day;thattherewasa MinistryofArt,andthatascoreofotherdevelopments,real andideal,hadbeencompassed.Weneednotpausetodis cussthese,onebyone;thepointisthatoriginalityintown planningandinremodellingcommunallifecanonlycome fromtheexerciseoftheconstructiveimagination. 259 ORIGINALITY Ofcoursethereisnothingnewinthatcontention:itisas oldasthehills,butlikemostcommonplacesitisoverlooked becauseitisacommonplace.Thetowncounciliselected onapoliticalbasis—atanyrateitistoooftensoelected. Willthetimeevercomewhencivicimaginationwillbea requisiteinthementaloutfitofacouncillororanalderman2 Agroupofsuchmenwouldneverallowthecontinuedexist enceofthatfrightfulanachronismcalledCoventGarden. Itisadisgracetothefirstcityoftheworld.Theoriginal buildingsbecametoosmallfortheimmensebusinessthat hadtobetransacted,sothemarketwasallowedtoslopover intotheadjoiningstreets,whichnowuntilelevenA.M.are apictureofuncleanlinessanddisorder.Itisnoargumentto saythatwemanagetorubalongsomehow; thereisnodoubt wedo;buthowmucharewelosinginotherways?How doweknowthatthetransitandsaleofproduceisasgoodas itcanbeandthatthepresentarrangementscouldnotbe bettered? ItistheoldEnglishcryof“Itwilldo"—the crythatcomesfromthenativeloveoftheruleofthumb. Forgreaterefficiency,forthesakeofdignity,forthesavingof ournationalreputationincivicthings,thiseyesoreshouldbe blottedoutandanewandsatisfactorybuildingsetupworthy ofthemostdenselypopulatedofworldcities.

XIII

Ifallprogressisgovernedbythesamelawsthenwemay atanytimeexpecttoseeanewoutburstofintellectual activity.Periodicadvancesareeasilytraceableinthe recordsofhistory,andtheyhavegenerallyoriginatedinthe transcendentabilityofoneindividualorofagroup;indeed allAdvancewouldappeartobeonthebasisoftheplateau. Onpage261isafigureroughlyrepresentingtheidea. AtAthereisanupwardandprogressivemovement; Xstandsfortheuniformlevelofaperiodinwhichthereis nochangeofnote;Brepresentsanotheroutburstoforigin ality,andYforafurtherlevelofcomparativemediocrity. Educationalpsychologistshaveobservedthisgradualascent intheindividualdevelopmentofmanualskillandmental 260 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE ability";andmathematiciansandphysicistslikePoincaré havenoticedseemingdiscontinuitiesintheevolutionof naturalforces—progresshasakindof“leap’’init. “A physicalsystem,”weread,“issusceptibleonlyofafinite numberofdistinctstates;itleapsfromoneofthesestates tothenextwithoutpassingthroughaseriesofintermediate states.”*Wemaynotknowthecauseofthissuddenleap, butitisnotwithoutanalogiesinhumanevolution.Varia tionsannouncethemselvesandwedonotknowhow,except thatthefactorsresideinthespeciesitself.Verywell:in

Naturetherearesuddenappearanceswhichinsomemysteri ouswayhaveforalongtimebeeninpreparationandwhich quitesuddenlyburstuponusasfaitsaccomplis.Maythere notbesimilarperiodsofhiddenpreparationinthemental lifeofpeoples,timeswheninertiaismoreapparentthanreal2 Iftherebenosuchthingasslowandleisurelyprogressbut firstanascent,thenaplateau,thenanotherascent,arewe notjustifiedincultivatingaspiritofhopefulexpectancy withregardtotheimmediatefuture?Thepresentagemay be,probablyis,thebeginningofoneoftheperiods,A,B,C, OrD. Theanswertothequestionisaffectedbythepersonal equationsofage,ofeducation,andofexperience,butevery opinionmustsurelybeaffectedbythethought: Inwhatway shallwecomeoutofthecrucibleofwar?Wecannotexpect *Swift,MindintheMaking,p.169. *RevueScientifique(24thFebruary1912). 26I ORIGINALITY tobethesamepeople,governedbythesamestandards,con trolledbytheoldvalues,howeverunchangeablehuman naturemaybe.Ourcharacterwillhaveundergoneachange, andachangeinthatrespectmeanssomethingofamental revolution."Therewillbefirstofallanewandlong-continued impulsetowardsachievement.Thespiritofthepeoplewill beconquestinthebattlesofpeace—afairfight,butstilla realfightandnofavour.Foradecadeweshallbemore awakethanwehavebeenforcenturies,andafterthefirst hardperiodofreadjustmenttocivillifehasbeencompleted, thenewera,despitecharacteristicweaknesses,willbeginto be.Theoriginalities,orthechangeswhichpassfororigin alities,willcomefirstineconomics,theninscienceandin education.Perhapsitwillnotbewisetoexpectverymuch untiltheneweducationshallhavehaditschance,butwe neednotbesurprisediftheoldermenwhodidnotfight(as wellastheyoungermenwhodid)jointheyoungestofallin a rebirthofthenationalspirit.Suchforcescannotbe measured,buttheirprimaryfunctionistoliberateintellect. Manyamanwillaspireto-daywhoneverhopedformuch before.Scatteredintelligencewillgetafocus.Driftwill giveplacetodestiny.Half-a-centuryofthisendeavour shouldyieldaharvestofnewandwonderfulresults,notfor theirownsakebutforthesakeofourcommonlife. Butevenifthisprogressisnotofakindwitha“leap’’ init,therearediscoverieswhich,thoughimprobableinthem selves,tomanyofusatanyrate,areneverthelessnotim possible,andnotabsurdaspropositionsforseriousdiscussion. Oneisthescientificproofofalifeafterdeath;anotheristhe obtainingofsatisfactoryevidencethatotherplanetsare inhabited.Further,ifcommunionwiththedeadshould becomeincontrovertible,andif,moreover,theknowledgeof thephilosophyofanotherplanetcouldbepassedontous, isitnotclearthatsuchanaccessofwealthtoourspiritual *“Itischaracterandnotintelligencethatgoestothefounding ofsocieties,religions,andempires.Characteritisthatenables peopletofeelandact.Theyhaveneverderivedmuchadvantage fromtoogreatadesiretoreasonandthink.”-LeBon,Psychology ofPeoples,p.34. 262 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE naturewouldnotonlyrevolutioniseourthinkingbutexercise aprofoundeffectonourconductInoneshortyearwe shouldmakeanadvanceequaltocenturiesundertheregime ofsteadyprogression.Thesagesandmysticssayweare notyetreadyforthesethings.Perhapsnot.Wearehardly readyforuniversaltelepathy;forifeverymaninbusiness couldread“theotherfellow’s”mind,behebuyerorseller, howcouldcommercecontinue2 Andifineverydrawing roomthewomenkneweachother'sthoughtstothevery last“notion”—well,sociallifewouldcollapse.

XIV

Leadersofthought,especiallyourprofessors,areinneedof abetterforwardlook.Wehavefewuniversityexponents ofsociologycomparedwithAmerica,France,Germany,and otherEuropeancountries,andthosewehaveareasyetin theregionsofanalysis:theirworkistoorecenttohave reacheda reallyconstructiveperiod.Butchairsofphil osophyandsciencehavebeenestablishedforcenturies,and yettheirholdersarenotnotable,withfewexceptions,forthe mannerinwhichtheyusetheirlearningtobuildupthelife ofthefuture.Themenofscienceare,indeed,muchbetter thanthephilosophers,butbothwouldbenoworseforalittle moreenthusiasm.Wedonotmeanthattheyshouldimitate theGermanprofessors,butthattheyshouldbemoreclosely identifiedwiththelifeofthepeopleandwithadvancemove mentsingeneral;fornosafeactioncanbecarriedoutwith outsoundknowledge,andweexpecttheuniversityprofessor tosupplythis—nottheimpetus:thatwillalwayscomefrom below.Itisperhapsinvidioustousenames,andifwedo soitmustbeunderstoodasbeingwithoutprejudicetoother namesunmentionedwhosecharacterandworkwehighly esteem.ProfessorPatrickGeddeshasalwaysappealedto usaspossessingtherighttemperamentandtherightmethod foreffectingahappyunionofthreethingsnotoftenfound together—namely,thescientificmind,theconstructive imagination,anda geniusforcommunication.Welook uponhisviewsonCyprusasalmostamodelofthoughtat 263 ORIGINALITY itsbest.InTheContemporaryReviewforJune,1897,he expressedhisideason“Cyprus,ActualandPossible,”and inconnectionwiththisarticlehesaidtoaninterviewer: “‘Ihavebeenspeciallyinterestedinthehistoryofthe Mediterraneanlandsandpeoples—e.g.intheassociationof thedeclineofancientRomeandofmodernSpainand Turkeywiththegradualdeteriorationoftheirsoil.’ “‘Inwhatway?’ “‘Chieflybythecuttingdownoftrees,whichhasaltered notonlythesoil,buteventheclimate,ofthecountries borderingontheMediterranean.Itiseverybody’sobvious interesttocutdowntrees,soforthesakeofimmediategain theinterestofthefutureissacrificed.Underthegreat maritimecivilisations,fromthePhoeniciantotheVenetian, thecountrywasrecklesslystrippedofitsforests.The peasant,too,didittomakeaclearing,theshepherdtofind grass.Thencamethetorrentialrainsofeveryautumn andspring,thesoilwaswashedaway,andtheslopeswere completelydenuded,sothatnowwefindbarrenrockwhere oncewasfertilesoil.’ “AtthispointtheProfessorshowedmeanumberofvery curiousphotographsofCyprus,showinghowbythedestruc tionofforeststherockshavegraduallybeenlaidbare.The workofafforestationinCyprusortheEastgenerallywillbe, ofcourse,aslowaffair,but,sohesays,aholywar,awar lastingovercenturies,butonewhich,asitgoeson,willbring backwealth,health,andhappinesstotheimpoverishedand degenerateEasternraces.”" AndProfessorGeddesthusbeganhisworkintheisland. Thephilosophyofnaturalhistoryformedthebasisofanew principleofregeneration.Howoftendoprofessorialthink ingsendinsuchreasonableandusefuloriginalities?

IfwearetodoourbestfortheEmpirewemusthavesome kindoforganisationwherebythebestmenareputtothe *BritishWeekly(8thJuly1897). 264 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE rightkindofwork,consistent,ofcourse,withournativelove oflibertyandoffreedomofaction.Thefutureoforiginal thoughtinscience,forinstance,mustnolongerbeleftto chance.Wemustorganise.Organisationisoftwokinds: mechanicalanddirective.Goodresultsarepossiblebythe former,butthelatteryieldsasupplyinfinitelyhigherand better.Itdoesnotmakemenintomeremachines:it avoidstheevilsofarigidsystem,anditallowsfreeplayfor individuality.TheStateshoulddiscoveritsmostpromising sciencestudentsandsetthemtoworkontheproblemsthat urgentlyneedsolutionforcommercialandotherreasons. Theruleofthumbisintolerableina spherewherethe scientificmethodislikeadivinecommandment. TheStateshouldalsohaveastaffofpsychologistswho candiscernmentalabilityofanunusualkindandtakead vantageofitbeforeschooldaysareover.Aschoolmaster cannotalwaysdothis,norcanapsychologist,unlesshehas trainedhimselftodiagnosementalandmoralcharacter. Theneedofsuchastaffispatheticinitsurgency.The LondonCountyCouncilhasappointedapsychologisttoserve itsschoolsinanadvisorycapacity,but—strangecomment onoursenseofvalues—hegivesfarmoreattentiontothe feeble-mindedthanthosewhoarehighlytalented.Arethe latterunworthyofanyguidance,andwhyisitbetterfor thecountrytohaveapsychologistforthedullardsandnone forthegifted? XVI

Themodernbusinessman,strangeasitmayseem,uses hisimaginationmorefully,andperhapsmoresuccessfully, thanwouldbeconcededbytheaveragecritic.InAmerica, andinallnewcountries,thisisparticularlytrue: thecon structiveimpulseisdeepandrangesfar.Theoutcomemay inpartbenoveltyratherthanoriginality,butwhenthatde ductionhasbeenmadethereisagoodmarginoforiginality left.Abusinessmanwouldadmittheresultbutnotthe method.Hehasarathercheapwayofdepreciatingany kindofabilitythatisnotbusinessability:hespeaksof “thenewspaperchapsthatwrite,”andof“theB.Sc.analysts 265 ORIGINALITY whoareneverworthmorethantwoquidaweek.”But changesarecomingfast.Heisalreadyenamouredofthe psychologyofbuyingandselling,anddoesnotobjecttothe formalanalysisofapropositionashisfatherdid.Hisfather was“guidedbyexperience—andbedamnedtoyourphil osophy.”Thesonisdifferent,andisgrowingstillmore different.Heknowsthatinopeninganewbranchhemust takeashopontherightsideofthestreet.Whichisthe rightside2 Hisinstinct,confirmedbyobservation,willtell himthat,butheiscurioustogodeeperdown.Heonceread inanewspaper—hetreasuresthesecuttings—that“itisa peculiarunexplainablepsychologicalfactthatthereisa rightandwrongsideofthemainthoroughfareineverybig cityandtheCaféSorgonhappenedtohitthewrongside. Thecaféhadtobecloseddowninconsequence.”Theold fatherwouldhavesaid:“Bosh”;thesonsays:“Iwonder?” HethinksofPiccadillyandtheStrand;ofKingswayand OxfordStreet.Onwhichsidedoshopschangehandsthe morefrequentlyOnwhichsideoftheStrandaretobe foundthemostprosperouscafés,andwhy?Whatisitthat givesthenorthernsideofOxfordStreeta“pull”overthe otherside2 Doesthesuccessofonemancausetrafficto moveonhisside,thuscreatingothersuccessesnearby? or isthereahelpfulfactorintheplanningofotherstreets2 Whyshouldahouseagentbelievein“lucky’’streets2 Theseareinterestingquestions—notsuperficialorfanciful. Butthebusinessmanisnotlikelytolosehimselfinstudy ingthedeeperaspectsofhisaffairs.Thenewspiritis practicalaswellasphilosophical.TheDesignsandIn dustriesAssociation,whetheritliveslongordiesearly,isa goodsign;itshowswhatisgoingonmentallywhenan associationoftraders,manufacturers,designers,andcon sumerscanbefoundtoimprovethequalityofmerchandise andofeverythingthatissoldatapricewithaviewtoprofit. Notaversetomachineryorthefactory-madearticle,itis keenonbetterdesignandjustassolicitousforbetterrewards fortheworkers.Theintentionistocreatea waveof idealismthatshallraisethestatusofallproductionsinregard tooriginalityandbeauty,andthatshallbringanewzest 266 ORIGINALITYINTHEFUTURE andhappinessintowork.Ambitious?Yes;properlyso. Theschememayneveraffectthehugefactorywithordersfor 50,000ofthisorthat,tobeshippedinamonth’stime;but itwillbeginwiththesmallermanufacturer,andgradually extenditsinfluenceuntilthelargerdemandwillinevitably producethelargersupply. Thecriticwillsay:“Areyougoingtodoallthisbetter mentworkbymeansoffactoryregeneration?”No;by meansoftheindividual.Youdonotobtainoriginalityfrom afactory.Ifyoueverbychancefindadepartureitwillbe easilytracedtoanindividual.Wemetafriendonedayto whomweputthequestion:“HaveyoureadWilson'sOn Workmanship?”Hesaid:“No;therearesomanyWilsons andthereisnothingexcitinginworkmanship.”Wedis agreed,andhandedhimacopyforperusal.Hebroughtit backaweeklater,declaringitwasapamphletthatought tobeinthehandsofeveryworkerengagedinproduction,no matterwhatkindofmaterialhehandled.MrWilsonisan idealistwhobelievesthatalltheearlierandgreaterworksof manwerebeautifulandthatwehavelostthetradition. “Thefirstworkerswerethefirstthinkers,”hesays,“and becausepoetandworker,singerandshaper,seerandwork manwereoftenoneandthesame,theirpoetrywaslike etherealisedsculptureorgem-work,theirpaintingandsculp turelikepoetrymaterialised.”Hedevotesmanypagesto theexemplificationoftheseclaims.Hearguesthatbeauty ofexpressionorsupremeworkmanshipispartofthecosmic processboundbythesamelawsasthosewhichroundthe dewdropandshapethecrystal.“Theyarelawswhose operationswecannotescape,”declarestheauthor.“We mustcreateorperish;developordisintegrate;shape,or beshapenfrom.Wholives,labours;wholaboursnot,is dead,isastrueofthesimpleorganismasofthecomplex being.”DoBritishworkersfeeltheyareinfluencedbysuch beliefs?Wefearnot.Noraretheyblameable.The systemmustbearthatresponsibility.Untilbetterlifeis madeeasierofattainmentworkwillbeanecessarynuisance, andonlyacomparativelysmallnumberofpeoplemaybe expectedtorisetothedignityof“creation.”Butthe 267 ORIGINALITY numberwillincrease,slowlyyetsurely.AndtheEastern spiritwillinpartberesponsibleforthechange:weshall battlewiththemodernspiritofhasteintheendeavourto securesufficientreposeofmindtoconceiveandproduceart worksinthesphereofindustry.

XVII

Wedonotthinkthatintheserandomguessesatthe futurewehavebeentoohopeful,andithasbeenouren deavourtoofferreasonablegroundforsuchoptimismaswe haveexpressed.Ifthenationsbecomepossessedofnew ideals,heldvitally,thensincethoughtsarerealforces,ruling theworld,wecanexpectnewmanifestationsoftheindividual mind;fortheconditionswillfavouroriginalpersons,ofboth sexes,despitetheprobablegrowthofthedemocraticspirit. MrKipling,inamostinterestingadventureinconstructive thought,hastoldusthatinalittleovertwohundredyears— tobeexact,inA.D.2150*—weshallhavesofaradvancedin scientificdiscoveriesthatciviclife,thepoliticsofthenations, andthegovernmentofcontinents,willhavebeencodifiedon auniversalbasis.TheAerialBoardofControlistheworld’s armyandnavycentralised,anditsubjugatesrecalcitrant populationsbyusingphysicalforces,especiallyunendurable lightandnoise.War,assuch,hasdisappeared.Itisan ageofscience,alittleunromantic,thesortofscientificworld whereaprayerlessmanmightdroponhiskneesandaskfora doseoftheunexpected;butstillaworldwithoutstarkevils, andonewheresufferingisreducedtoaminimum.Forour selveswehaveimaginednosuchlineofdevelopment,butwe confidentlybelieveindevelopment,andthatitwillfindits firstandlastimpetusinthebrainoftheoriginalthinker. *TheLondonMagazine(April,1912).

268 SECTIONVI

PRAXIS

SOMEREFLECTIONSONMENTALATTITUDESAND METHODS

I Tosupposethatoriginalityofthoughtcanbemadethe subjectofacurriculumistosupposeanimpossibility.Itis asifoneattemptedtoteachpersonalityitself—i.e.howthe individualismofaremarkableintellectcanbereproducedin anothermindbyacourseoflessonsundertheguidanceofa tutor.Aman’sliterarystyleisasmuchapartofhimselfas thecolourofhiseyesorthemannerofhiswalk;andinthe samewayhisoriginalityishisown—noonecantakeitfrom him.Wecanimitateit,butimitationistheverythingwe wishtoavoid.Tobeoriginalistobeoneself,andalthoughour originalitymaynotbeofmuchvalue,itisneverthelessours. Suchphrasesas“Thepoetisbornnotmade"havealways seemedtousbesidethemark.Thatsomemenareborn withgreatgiftsisundoubted,but,bythistime,itisclear thatthosegiftsaretrainedbyexperience,andthat,inconse quence,eventhepoetismadejustashehimselfisamaker. Thisefforttoestablishgeniusassomethingoutsidemental laws,andasaqualitythatdescendsfromGodfullywrought andreadyforuse,isa psychologicalsuperstition.Sofar frombeinglawless,geniusisthelawofmindinthevery perfectionofitsfulfilment.Thereforethequestionwehave nowtoanswerisnot: Howmayoriginalitybetaught?but: Whataretheconditionsoflife,mentalandphysical,which willenableamantoproducetheoriginalitythatisinhim, beitdistinctive,orotherwise? Itisnotapuerilequestion: itis,onthecontrary,oneof 269 ORIGINALITY theutmostimportancebothtotheindividualandtothe nation.Muchintellectualwealthhasbeenlosttotheworld becausewehavemadenoefforttodevelopit—noeffort,that is,ofa trulyscientificcharacter.ProfessorGiddingshas producedsomeremarkablefiguresshowingthesmallnumber ofdistinguishedmenandwomenduringthelasttwenty-two centuries.Tohimtheworddistinguishedappliestothose “whoareofsuchintellectualabilityandofsuchdeveloped socialnaturethattheysucceedinmakinggreatcontributions tohumanwell-being.”Heestimatesthat45,000,000,000 peoplelivedanddiedbetweentheageofPericlesandA.D. 1870.Howmanyoftheseweredistinguished?Heanswers: “1inevery450,000”;addingthat,“inthesestartling figuresthereisapracticallessonofthegreatestimportance. Innothingwhatevercananationsoillaffordtobewasteful asinhermenandwomenwhocombinegeniuswithhighly developedsocialnature.What,then,shallwesayofthose governmentsthatintimespasthavedeliberatelydestroyed suchelementsinthepopulationbydeath,imprisonmentand otherformsofpersecutiononaccountofdifferencesin religionandpoliticalbelief?”"

Forourselveswedonotapprehendlossesinthefuture onthesamegroundsasinthepast;nordowethinktrue geniusiseverlikelytobewhollyobscured.Wefeartheloss notonlyofahigheraveragebecausewearecontentwitha loweraverage,butofthehighlytalented,andofthewhole geniuswhomourneglectcondemnstobeahalfgenius.We haveapitifulfaithinthenotionthatabilitywillinevery caseannounceitselfandmakeaplaceforitself;webelieve thatwehavenoneedtoseekforit,tonurtureit,andtosee thatitgetsajustreward.Therealtruthisthattwenty fivepercent.ofournationalinventivenessineverysphere— literary,artistic,andcommercial—escapesuscompletely; henceasystematicplantodiscoveritandputittonational serviceisadutythatoughttobeaspleasantasitshouldbe *ElementsofSociology,pp.114-116. 270 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS successful.Wecannothopeinthesepagestodomorethan statetheneedforsuchaprogramme,althoughweshalltry tooutlinesomeofthosemoresubtleconditionsoforiginal thinkingwithwhicheducationhasnotimetoconcernitself. Wemayhavetosufferafewgibesintheattempt,but,after all,trainingisawordthathashigherconnotationsthanit hadinthelastandsomeprecedingcenturies.Wearegoing backtotheearliernotionofwhichProfessorButcherspeaks, whenheremarksthat“theGreekpoetsthemselvesseemto havethoughtoftheirownaptitudemoreastheresultof trainedskillthanofabnormalinspiration.Itisremarkable howthewordropia,“wisdom,’‘skill,’isselectedbythemto denotethepoeticgiftwhereweshouldbedisposedtospeak ofgenius.”*True,andwhocandoubtthatthereisacroqbia ofmindtowhicheverymancanattain,andbywhichhewill achieve—itmaynotbesuperlativeends,but—endsthat otherwisehewouldneverhaveaccomplished,duetoignor ance,lackofconfidence,orofhope2

III

Therearetwofactors,physicalandmental,andthey constituteapartnership.Astowhichistheseniorpartner theremaybesomedoubt.Destroythebodyandthemind isalsodestroyed.Thereisnomentallifewithoutphysical life,fromwhichwemightsupposethatthebodyisthechief partnerinthecombination.Andyetthemindexertsthe realcontrol,anditcanwieldunusualpowereveninlives wherethephysicalelementisweak.Thatisacommonplace ofourexperience.Butperhapsthetruthaboutthesenior partnershipisnotimportant;atanyrate,amorepertinent questionisthis:Canonepartnerincreasehispowersatthe expenseoftheother?Forinstance,doestheseveretrain ingofanathleteprejudicethedevelopmentofhismental ability?Wearecompelledtoreplyintheaffirmative. Observationscarriedoutforanumberofyearsseemtoprove conclusivelythattheSpartanregimeofphysicaldiscipline \usesupthereserveenergythatwouldotherwisebeavailable *HarvardLecturesonGreekSubjects,p.129. 27I ORIGINALITY formentalculture.Areservecannotbeusedtwice,buta periodofrest,andofabstinencefromgreatexertion,will createa newreservethatmaybeusedforintellectual advancement.Neverthelessthegenerallawstillholds: thatsuper-excellenceinathleticspreventstheathletefrom developinghismindtothefullatthesametime.Violent exerciseforstudentsisthusaseriousmistakeinhygiene; recreativepursuitsshouldbethoroughbutnotexhausting. Theoxygenatingofthebloodisofdeeperimportthanthe strengtheningofmuscle;thetenseactionofveryvigorous andlong-continuedexertionsusesupthereserveforce neededforphysicalenduranceduringmentallabours.Con sonantwiththegeneralpositionwehavetakenupisthe findingofSirWilliamR.Nicoll,acloseobserverofstudent life.Heremarksthat“ithasbeensaidverytrulythat vitalityishardlycompatiblewiththestudentlife.The literarymansoondiscoversthatifheistodoanythingwith hisprofessionhemustobserveaverystrictroutine.Ihave noticedthatmenwhoareveryvitalintheirwritingsare generallyveryquietincompany,slowtospeak,andunin terestingwhentheydospeak.Theirwitseemstolielike fireinaflintandtoneedastrongevocation.”Speakingof Hazlitt,whowasavitalwriterbutwhosephysicalvitality wasdryandscant,SirWilliamsaysthathis“wasperhapsa casewheretherewasplentyofvitality,butitwentinone channel,anditneededtimesofsilence,timesofreposc,in ordertorenewitself.””

* *WewereinterestedtofindasimilarviewinMrW.R.Greg's EnigmasofLife.“Nooneofthethreeelementsofourcomposite beingcanreach. . . fullestdevelopmentexceptattheexpenseof theothers.. . . Letthepractisedstudentorthetrainedliterary manexaminehimselfastothetimesandconditionsinwhichhe findshimselfcapableofthehighestflight,orthemostsevereand sustainedtoil.Isitwhentheanimalpartofhimisinthehealthiest andmostnaturalcondition. . . whenlimbsareweariedwith salutaryexercise? . . . Onthecontrary. . . hefeelslesscapable thanusualofconcentratedthought,lessdisposedforpatientand prolongedresearch,morereadytoenjoy,lessreadytocontemplate andtosoar.”JamesHintonlosthisabnormalmemory,asayouth, afteranultra-strenuousgameofcricket. *TheBritishWeekly(12thJuly1906). 272 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS Theattentiongiventophysicalcultureinrecentyearsis sogoodapolicythatitseemsimpertinentifnotdangerous tocriticiseit;andyetweareboundtosaythatithastoo oftenoversteppedthemark,endinginmuscledevelopment, inspeedefforts,andweightlifting.Butalongwithexcess— thatis,excessincaseswherespecialaimswerenotenter tained—therehasbeenamorerationalmovementinfavour ofhealthculture;andalthoughscoresofpeoplehavebeen injudiciousintheseveritytheyhaveinflictedonthemselves, anequalnumberhavereceivednothingbutgood.Theideal istosecureenoughexercisetokeepeveryorganinahealthy workingcondition,andtopreventsuperfluousweight.Thus equippedonthephysicalsideamanmayjustlyexpecthis braintogivethebestofwhichitiscapable.

Butsupposethatinsteadofbecominganathleteaman devotesallhisleisuretothebuildingofhisbrain,willsuch acourseadverselyaffecthisphysique* Doesitnotfollow thatifphysicalculture,pursuedwiththeutmostardour, resultsinloweringmentalpower,mentalculture,pursued withthesameardour,willendinloweringphysicalpower? Inonesenseitdoes,andover-studyhasbeenknownnot onlytodestroyhealthbuttodestroytheminditself.And yetitisalsotruethatwemaydevelopmentalability,tothe limitsofwhichwearecapable,withoutinjurytohealth, providedwetakerationalexercise,andconformtophysical laws.Indeed,theall-roundvitalityofthebrainworker hasbecomeacommonexperience;andifmenandwomen weretocontinuetheireducationsystematically,asoppor tunityserved,uptosixty,orevenoverthatage,theywould findthatmentalindustryincreasedthechancesofprolonged goodhealth,aswellasdevelopedmind-powermorefully." Thenotionthatuseenfeeblesordestroysthepowerusedhas *ThementalsideisinterestinglysetoutinanarticlebyMr ArchibaldMarshall(DailyMail,4thSeptember1913),called *“LearningbyHeartatForty.”Howmanymeneverattempt suchafeatP

S 273 ORIGINALITY beenprovedtobeadelusion.Usedevelopsandenlarges. Itisdisusethatbringsdecayanddeath,andthereisevidence toshowthatthereflexinfluenceofintellectualactivityonthe bodyisnotonlypromotiveofthebestinterestsofthepartner ship,buttendstolengthenthetermoftheirjointaction."

Buteverymanshouldhavehisphysiquevaluedinrelation toanyworkhehastodo.Inthisrespectwearesadlyun scientific,exceptinthemilitarysphereandinmattersof insurance.JohnStuartMill’sschemefora scienceof ethologydoesnotappeartohavebeencarriedout,although asocietyforitsdiscussionis,orwas,inexistence;asfora psychography—thereisnosuchthing.Andyetwearein absoluteneedofboth: forinbusinessandtheprofessions thereareliterallythousandsofmisfits,allofwhichcould havebeenpreventedhadwepossessedameansofgauging physicalandmentalpowersinrelationtooccupations. Americamakesabettershowing.”Thayer,inhisLifeof Garfield,saysthatthePresident-to-be,whenayouth,went toadoctorandrequestedthatprobablysurprisedmedico togivehimanestimateofhisphysicalandmental possibilities.Thedoctorcomplied,andGarfieldleftthe consulting-roomtoworkouthisdestinywithconfidence. “VeryAmerican,”thereaderchuckles.Yes;butvery sensible,providedamedicalmancanbefoundwhohasthe requisiteknowledgeandsympathy.Howmanyyouthsof eighteentotwenty-fivecanrenderafairstatementofwhat theycandomentally,andendurephysicallyHowmany knowthemselvesastotheirlimitsandpossibilities?Only

*“Useisthegreatpreservative,notdestroyer,ofstrength; andtheuseofthebrainprotectsanddevelopsthenervepowerof whichitisthereservoir,andonwhich,inpart,longevitydepends. Themanwhohasusedhisbrainallhislife,sayforsixhoursaday, hasinfacttrainedhisnervepower,andplaceditbeyondthereach \.earlydecay,orthatkindoffeeblenesswhichmakessomany apparentlyhealthymensuccumbsoreadilytoattacksofdisease.” —Spectator(15thApril1893)—articleon“TheEffectofCulture

onVitality.” - *WerefertotheworkoftheBostonVocationBureau,and Prof.Hollingworth’sVocationalPsychology. 274 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS asmallnumber.Thegreatmajoritydrift;theytakechance asitcomes.Atthirtyorthirty-fivereflectionshowsthat someofthebestyearsoflifehavebeenlivedonaruleof thumbmethodinregardtobothmindandbody.“IfI hadonlyknownwhatIknownow’’—thatisthecommon phraseofdisillusionment.Asearlyaspossible,therefore, menandwomenshouldknowthemselves—thatis,they oughttounderstandtheirpowersandusetheminthose directionswherethebestworkcanbeaccomplished.In theabsenceofexpertguideswehavetofollowmethodsof ourowndevising,poorandinadequatethoughtheymaybe. By-and-bythevocationprofessorwillarrive,and,equipped withafullknowledgeofmindandbody,hewillsavetheworld frommuchwastedandmisspenteffort.Hispopularitywill beinstantaneous—thevogueofthephrenologistisbuta strongtestimonytothefeltneedforprofessionaladviceon thedirectionofability.Meanwhilewehavetousethe Questionnairewhich,asthenameimplies,isaseriesofques tionssoformulatedandstatedthateventothereaderhim selftheyarealmostself-revealing.”Itisnotnecessaryto discusstheories—likethoseofDrThooris—thatphysiologic allywearebytemperamentcerebral,muscular,respiratory, ordigestive,althoughthereisagooddealtobesaidinfavour ofthenewclassification.Allthatweneeddoistobecome acquaintedwithphysiologyandthelawsofhealth,thenlearn fromexperiencewhatareourmentallimitationsandadvan tages—thatis,learnthesethingsproperlyandnotleavethem tochance. W

Forinstance.[canyouthinkbetter,ineverysense,when

1Individualdifferencesinmentalconstitutionarenowreceiving someattention,butasyettherearefewresultsofservicetothe public.Prof.E.B.Titchenersaysthat“thecreationofascientific psychologyofthesedifferencesis,inmyopinion,oneoftheprincipal achievementsoftheexperimentalmethod.”—ExperimentalPsy chologyoftheThoughtProcesses,p.7.Butitisonethingtotracethe differences;anotherthingtoapplythem. *AcopyofthisQuestionnairewillbesentonapplicationtothe \publishersofthisbook. 275 ORIGINALITY recumbent,whensittinginaneasy-chair,orwhenwalking!) Wehaveaskedmanyastudentthatquestion,andonlyfou werereadywithaninstantreply.Awisemanmakes experimentsandactsaccordingly.DrRusselWallacewas notasoundsleeper,buthedidnotallowhimselftobe dominatedbyoccasionalinsomniauntilitbecamefrequent; somepeoplebecomesleeplessbyauto-suggestion.He thoughtoutandplannedsomenewwork;indeedhefound thelyingdownpositionhelpfultoreflection.Hissonsays that“heoftentolduswithkeendelightofsomenewidea orfreshargumentwhichhadoccurredtohimduringthose wakinghours.”*LeVasseur,onavisittoDescartes,found thephilosopherinbedateleveninthemorning,raisinghim selfatintervalstowriteandthenlyingbacktomeditate.” Businessmen,moreaccustomedtoaction,perhaps,finda lonelycountrylanefulloftherightstimulus,orasharpwalk, insteadoftheusualdrivetothecity. Again,doesnotLeffingwell’sInfluenceoftheSeasonson Conductsuggestthatthosesameseasonsmustalsoinfluence brain—elsehowcouldtheyinfluenceconduct: “Iwork moreeasilywhenthebarometerishighthanwhenitislow,” saidGoethetoEckermann.Perhapsgeniusismoresensitive toatmosphericinfluencesthantheaverageintellect,but brainworkerswhohavetoworkwhethertheseasonishelpful ornotarebetterpreparedtocombattheheavinessofamuggy dayiftheyhavebyexperiencediscoveredsoundmeansof circumventingphysicaldepression.Thenthereis the subjectoffatigue,sofullyinvestigatedbyMosso*:Dowe

*Thackeray'samanuensissays:“Hewassometimesindoubtand difficultyastowhetherheshouldcommenceoperationssitting,or standing,orwalkingaboutorlyingdown.”-E.T.Mason,Personal TraitsofBritishAuthors,p.292. *LettersandReminiscences,vol.ii.,p.121. *Descartes.ByJ.P.Mahaffy. *AninvestigationconductedbyProf.E.G.Martin,ofCambridge (Mass.)hadresultstowhichmenwhopersistinworkingonSundays shouldtakeheed.Experimentsconductedonninestudentsshowed that“fromMondaytoSaturdaytherewasatendencyforthenervous toneofthesubjectstodiminishprogressively.Therewere,ofcourse, occasionaldeparturesfromthistendency,but,onthewhole,the 276 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS knowwhatfatiguesusmorethananythingelse,andwhy? Havewetracedtheeffectofmusiconthought,andhowfar soundsingeneralunconsciously,aswellasconsciously,affect ourconcentration? Theseandothermattersarebeing scientificallyinvestigatedintheinterestsofmanuallabour, butwedonotappeartoinvestigatethemforourselves.We useartificiallight,andyetwehavenoexactknowledgeof theinfluenceoflightonthethinkingprocess,orwhyitisthat darknessoftenbringswithitaspiritofcreativeness.Is therenoexplanationoftwilightasthemoodforpoetising, forfancies,forthoseapprehensiveglimpsesofworldsfaroff2 Itmaybesaidthattheknowledgeoftheconditionsfavour abletothebestresultscomestousfromexperiencewithout ourseekingit.Acquaintancewithafewconditionsno doubtcomesinthisway,butsomeofthemostserviceable escapeus:wehavenotformedthehabitofobserving, classifying,andsummarisingourmentaleffortsandtheir OutCOme.

VI Theimmenseimportanceofthephysicalelementinthe lifeofthoughtisexpressedbyProfessorFraserHarris,who tracesmostmentalexcellenciestothequalityofthenervous system,andthatquality,ofcourse,ispartlyaninheritance andpartlyatraining.“Weshallincreasinglyrecognise,” hesays,“thatbreeding,finenessoftemperandamenability totheinfluencesofculture,areasmuchtheoutcomeof neuralmoleculardispositionsastheyaretheresponsesto appropriatesurroundings.Styleinallitsindividualityand inimitableness,whetherthatofthepainter,thepoet,the downwardtrendwasunmistakable.BetweenSaturdayandMonday ontheotherhand(restperiod)thenervousstateshowedmarked improvement.. . . Asinglenight'srestdidnotsufficetoprevent thenervoustonefromshowingadecline,thelongerintervalof Sundaynotonlyarrestedthedeclinebutrestoredthenervous systemtoitsnormalcondition.”—“TheDayofRestinNature andHumanNature,”intheBibliothecaSacra(April,1916).We cannowunderstandwhysomanybusinessmen,byinstinct, orexperience,orboth,arrangetheirimportantinterviewson Mondays. 277 ORIGINALITY preacher,themusician,theactor,ortheorator,isinherent intheirnervoussystems,andisbeforeandbeyondthe teacher'sart.”Wemaydemuralittletothesmallplace allowedfortheeffectoftraining,andstillmoretothelarge placegiventoinheritance—asortofnervefatalism—butthe viewisotherwisesound:andeverymanshouldregardhis physicaleducationanditsrelationtohismentalefficiencyas partofhisreligion.ProfessorJ.L.Myreshasoutlineda schemefora “BureauofBiometry,”* excellentinitself, stillmoreexcellentinitsspiritofadaptingmeanstoends. Oneofthesedaysman-measurement,physicalandmental, willcomeintobeing.

VII

Theinnerproblemofknowledgemaybeinsoluble,but thereisnodifficultyinunderstandinghowknowledgeitself comestous:itarrivesbywayofthesenses,chieflythrough sightandhearing,andanydiscussionofwaysandmeansof enlightenmentmustthereforeconcernsensibility.Theword itselfneednotpresentadifficulty.Itmeanspractically thesamethingassensitiveness;aneuralgicarea,wesay,is sensitivetothetouch—i.e.ithasgreatsensibility,responsive nesstoexternalpressure,howeverlight.Inthemental spherethissensibilitymeansapeculiarsusceptibilityto impressions:aglorioussunsetisnotmerelysomethingwe haveseen—itbecomesapotentmemory;andthedawnseen fromamountain-topischangedintoaninspiration.Suffer ingisnotmerelyapictureofwantorthespectacleofapain ravagedbody—itisamessagefromthegods.Tobedeeply affectedbyphenomenaofallkindsmeansthatconsciousness issensitive—likeaphotographicplate.Tobelackingin sensibilityistomissthetrueinwardnessofsuchthingsas weexperience;wearementallydullwiththedullnessthat canseethemoonreflectedinthelakewithoutanyother emotionthanthatofcuriosity—it“dodders”:thedull nessthatcanwitnessthepathosofstrugglewithnomore

1 Neyves. *OxfordandCambridgeReview(June,1907). 278 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS philosophythan“thatishowtheworldwags”;orisonly responsivetothekindofmusicthatpleasantlyjanglesthe InerVeS. Wearebroughtbacktothepreviousstandpoint—namely, thatthedecidingfactoristherangeofconsciousness;and thisisnowheremoremarkedthanintherangeofsensibility. Allourinquiriesuptothepresenthaveprovedthefunda mentalimportanceoffeeling;genius,inallthatiscreative asdistinctfromthatwhichisdiscovery,hasalwayshadan emotional,anaffectivebasis.Thereasonisnotfartoseek. AsProfessorJastrowsays,quaintlyandtruthfully:“Feel ingisolderthanknowing.”"Whenweexaminelifeourfirst impulseisnottoreasonaboutit; wevalueitaccordingto itseffectonus.Attractionandrepulsionareearlierfacts thanlogic,andallattemptstofoundasystemofliving,or areligion,onReason(withacapitalR)havebeenfailures, andalwayswillbe.Feelingisfundamental,notsinfully,as manyrationalistswouldhaveusthink,butrightfully;it isalawofhumannature.Syllogismsarementalrulesto guideourstepsthroughdarkanduncertainplaces,but beyondthistheytellusnothingaboutthoseplaces;they aretheinstrumentsofthesurvey,notthepromisedland itself.”Educationhasoftenfailedbecauseittaughttheuse ofinstrumentsbutsaidlittleaboutthemoreimportant things.|Perhapsweexpectedtoomuchofthepedagogue, forgettingthathehadlittletimeforthemanytaskswhicha systemimposeduponhim;buthoweverthatmaybe,the

*TheSubconscious,p.26.ThisprimarynatureofFeeling, severaltimesreferredtoinourpages,hasaninterestingillustration inBergson'sTheMeaningoftheWar(p.17).“Comprendreetnepas s'indigner: thishasbeensaidtobethelastwordofphilosophy.I believenoneofit;and,hadItochoose,Ishouldmuchprefer, wheninpresenceofcrime,togivemyindignationreinandnotto understand.” *“Itcomes,therefore,tothis,thatifwearetothinkfluentlyand harmoniouslyuponanysubjectintowhichchangeenters(andthere isnoconceivablesubjectintowhichitdoesnot)wemustbeginby flyinginthefaceofeveryrulethatprofessorsoftheartofthinking havedrawnupforourinstruction.”—SamuelButler,Luckor Cunning,p.30. 279 ORIGINALITY trainingoftheemotionshasbeenlefttotheChurches,to poets,andtoreformers.Ingoodhands?Yes,sofar; butchancehasruledhereaselsewhere,orifnot,thelifeof feeling—weusethewordsfeelingandemotionsynonymously forthemoment—hasbeenwarpedbyconnectingitwith dogmasthatcannolongerbedefended.

VIII ! Wewillsupposethattheimportanceofsensibilityhasnow beenunderstoodandthatadesirehasbeenarousedto becomealerttothepossibilitiesoffinerimpressionsthan haveheretoforebeenrealised.Whatisthefirstdanger? Thatsensibilitywillbeconfusedwithobservation.Itis possibletoseemuchandtorememberit,andyethaveno insight,novision,noenlargementofsoul.Theaimisnot toamassinformationsoastowriteaguide-booktoexistence: thatwouldbeuseful,nodoubt,asorganisedknowledgealways is,butitwouldnotbeindividual;itwouldbestored material,noteyesight."Whatweneedmaybeexpressedin threewords:wonder,£Theseare thethingswecannotteach,buttheyareprimarymental conditionsofalloriginalthought,becausesuchthoughthas itscommencementinfeeling./ LeonardodaVinci,oneofthe sixgreatintellectstheworldhasproduced,oftenbrokeout intoapostrophe,butifwethinkthiscameafterhisachieve mentsandnotbeforethem,wehavedrawnawrongcon clusion.Whenheexclaimed:“Owonderful,Ostupendous Necessity,thoubythylawconstrainestalleffectstoissue fromtheircausesinthebriefestpossibleway,”*thewonder *Wearesofarfromdecryingtheneedofkeenobservationthat wedeplorethelackofit. Prof.JamesWardhaswellsaidthat “Asafirststagetowardsawell-orderedminditisdesirabletosecure asvividandasvariedanexperienceaspossibleofthefactsonwhich ourmindsaretobeexercised.”Herefersalsoto“thefaintness andunimpressivenessofideasthathavenotbeenderiveddirect fromthings.”—“MentalCulture,”inEssays,MockEssaysand CharacterSketches(p.91). *ThoughtsofLeonardo.ByE.M'Curdy.Speakingoftheten dencyofthesubconscioustoactaccordingtoaestheticprinciples— 28O MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS didnotbeginwiththerevelation;itwastheprimarycause ofit.Ifthatclaimshouldneedfurthersupportletusgo backtoAristotle,whodeclaredthat“Wonderisthefirst causeofphilosophy,”–infact,thespiritofwondergave Greekthoughtitsinitialimpetus.Goetherealisedthe truthwhenheaffirmedthat“hewhodoesnotbeginwith wonderandadmirationwillneverfindhiswayintotheHoly ofHolies.”Isthisthespiritinwhichtheintellectualsof to-dayapproachthemysteriesofexistence2 Inafewcases itis,butwiththemajoritythespiritofwonderhasgoneout offashion.Itistoosimple,toochildlike,tooyielding. Sotheygototheotherextreme,andwegetthespiritof antagonism.Butwhereverweseeitatworkitneversatisfies us.Themenwhomouthitsparadoxesorscribeitsspiteful nessesarepalpablymissingthemark.Theirattitudesuggests artificiality—alackofthehumantouch—theyareposeurs.

Tomeasurethepossiblerangeofconsciousness,calculate thedegreeofitsspiritofwonder.Ifthedegreeislowthe rangewillbecircumscribed;ifitbehigh,thenselfwillnot beprominentforitwillbemergedinwonder.Needwebe surprisedthatgeniusisoftensoimpracticalandsoother worldly? ncentrationintheformofabsent-mindedness onlymeansthatself-consciousnesshasbeenlostinthe consciousnessofphenomena.]ThisiswhatTürckcalls disinterestedness.I “Thegenius,”hesays,“isdistinguished fromtheordinaryaveragemanonlybybeingpermanently andintensivelyinthisstateofdisinterestedabsorption, whereastheaveragemanisableonlytransientlyandusually forsomespecialreason,sofartoforgethimselfandhisearthly needsastobecarriedawaybycontemplation,byhearing, andthetendencydoesexist—Poincarésays:“Itisthisspecial aestheticsensibilitythatplaysthepartofthedelicatesieveofwhich Ispokeabove,andthismakesitsufficientlyclearwhythemanwho hasitnotwillneverbea realdiscoverer.”-ScienceandMethod, p.61. *Metaphysics,I. 28I ORIGINALITY orbyimaginativeimpressions.”Itisnotanabsorption duetofear,oranxiety,buttoadmiration.Thatisanother importantwordinregardtosensibility.I Maeterlinckhas itthat“ifwetakecarenottomakeouradmirationsub ordinatetosomanycircumstancesofplaceoroforiginwe shallnotsooftenmissthechanceofunclosingoureyestothe wonderofthings,andnothingismorebeneficialthansoto unclosethem.”Besides,itisamentallawthatwetendto becomelikethatwhichweadmire;atanyratetheadmired objectexercisesashapinginfluenceuponus:thebeholding ofthetransfiguredisitselftransfiguring.Hencethefeeling ofrapturewhichisthefinaleofallgreatsensibility.Have notourmoralistsmissedafineopportunityhere—missedit becausetheyhavediscussedsolelythetheoryofrightand wrong,thusgivinglittleattentiontotheimpulsetowards ecstasy2 ThedevoutChristian,theharddrinker,the sensualist,themiser,andascoreofothersareallseekingthe momentofrapture;soaretheinventors,themenofscience, andthereformers.Itisadifferentkindofraptureineach case,butinanothersenseitisthesame; theaimisan elevationoffeelingaccompaniedbywarmthandillumina tion.Theelevationmaycomewhenafewdropsofalcohol passthelipsandtinglethenerves;orwhenthesordid spiritischeeredbytheadditionofanotherfiftypoundsto analreadyexaggeratedincome;oritmaycomewhenafter yearsofeffortthegloryofadiscoveryrevealsitselftoa hard-workingscientist,orwhenthemystic,leavingtheearth behindhim,realiseshisfirstexperienceoftheEternal. Sensibility1 Yes,itisfundamental.| Jastrow,whohasdug deeplyintothesubject,affirmsconfidentlythat“first,last andthroughout. . . sensibilitymakestheman.””| *TheManofGenius,p.12.Türckbasesmuchofhiscontention onthefollowingdeliveranceofSchopenhauer:“Geniusissimply thecompletestobjectivity,i.e.theobjectivetendencyofthemind, asopposedtothesubjective,whichisdirectedtoone’sownself inotherwordstotheselfishwill.” *QualitiesofMen,p.142.

282 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS

HereinliesoneofthesecretsofWalterPater.Nothing whichhaseverinterestedlivingmenandwomen—hesaid— canwhollyloseitsvitality.Hewasamanofbooksanda recluse,butalsoamanofrareandfinesensitiveness;indeed thestimulusofhisartcriticismlayinhispowertoexpress andelaborate“allthosevivid,humanintimations,vague halfreminiscences,orvisionaryhistoricadministrationswhich withmostofusformthegroundofourdeepestpleasures, butwhichinmostcasescanneverbecomearticulate.”" ButifwerecallPater’sownwordsfromthefamous “Conclusion”aboutwhichheoncehaddoubtsastoitspos sibledangers,”weshallseehismindinitspurposeandopera tionalike;notchallenge,notantagonism,butappreciation, valuation,theevocationofthegreatnessthatliesinsimple things,especiallytheoverlookedandforgottenthings.To somehewasaHellene,toothershewashalfHelleneandhalf Hebrew,”butto-dayArnold’stermshavelostmuchoftheir meaning.And,afterall,whyshouldweattachlabelsto ourminds2 Classificationsofmentaloutlookaremore hopelessthananyotherclassifications.Oncewewere eitherPlatonistsorAristotelians;nowadaysweareneither, despiteColeridge'sassertionthatwemustbeeitheroneor 1WalterPater.ByFerrisGreenslet,p.52. *“Everymoment,”hesays,“someformgrowsperfectinhand orface; sometoneonthehillsortheseaischoicerthantherest; somemoodofpassionorinsightorintellectualexcitementisirresist iblyrealandattractivetous—forthemomentonly.Notthefruit ofexperience,butexperienceitselfistheend.Acountednumber ofpulsesonlyisgiventousofavariegateddramaticlife.Howmay weseeinthemallthatistobeseeninthembythefinestsenses? Howshallwepassmostswiftlyfrompointtopoint,andbepresent alwaysatthefocuswherethegreatestnumberofvitalforcesunite intheirfinestenergyP Toburnalwayswiththishard,gem-like flame,tomaintainthisecstasy,issuccessinlife.”—TheRenaissance, p.239. *Prof.T.G.Tuckergivesanilluminatingyetpopularaccountof thetwostandpointsinhischapteron“HebraismandHellenism.” SeePlatformMonologues,p.68.Melbourne. 283 ORIGINALITY theother.OncewewereKantiansorHegelians;thenwe wereNeo-ThisandNeo-That.WebecamePragmatistsand Anti-Pragmatists,andastothefutureitdothnotyet appearwhatweshallbe.Butwedoneedalargernumber ofmenandwomenwhodeclinetobelabelled,notbecause alabeliswrong—itisnot—butbecausetoattachoneself toa schoolofthoughthasa narrowingandrestrictive influence. Weareremindedofthequeerintellectualstraitsinwhich theologiansofallcountriesfoundthemselvesduringtheGreat War,andofthestraineddefencewhichProfessorMuirhead hadtoofferwhen,asaHegeliananda Briton,hetriedto showthatPrussiaandHegelwereverydifferentthings.” Wewantlessofthedogmaticspiritandmoreoftheattitude ofSirThomasBrownewhenhesaid:“Iamofaconstitu tionsogeneralthatitconsortsandsympathisethwithall things.”Oursensibilitieshavethenachanceofcomplete activity,andwearenotcalledupontodefendaposition (whichsecretlywefeeltobeweak)becausewehaveidentified ourselveswithapeopleorasociety,andmustperforcefight forthesystemthatisinvolved.

Moods,asmentalphenomena,havenotreceivedtheatten tionwhichtheirimportancedemands.Amoodisthatwhich givestemperatureanddirectiontoconsciousness.Usually ithasaphysicalorigin—witnesstheirritabilitythatcomes withcertainformsofnervousdisorder;butessentiallya moodisathingofthemind—itmaybepleasurableorother wise;itmaybecreativeorstagnant.Toknowthesecret

*ThepassageinhisTableTalk(p.102)says:“Everymanisborn anAristotelianora Platonist.I donotthinkitpossiblethat anyonebornanAristoteliancanbecomeaPlatonistandIamsure nobornPlatonistcaneverchangeintoanAristotelian.Theyare thetwoclassesofmen,besidewhichitisnexttoimpossibleto conceiveathird.Theoneconsidersreasonaqualityorattribute; theotherconsidersitapower.” *GermanPhilosophyinRelationtotheWar. 284 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS ofone’sbestmoodsistoknowthebestofwhichweare capable;tohavenomoodsatall—ofanelevatingkind— meansaseriousintellectualloss;itshowsthatconscious nessisbeingrestrictedinitsrangeofactivity. Thegreatenemyisthehasteofmodernlife.Hasteis" quitenaturalinitself.Itisourefforttokeeppacewith therapiddevelopmentofthoughtandofmaterialprogress. Butwhatapricewepayforthateffort.Weseldomdiscover ourselvesinquietmeditationbecausewesoseldomgivethe factorsachancetoformamood."Weare“inaction”all thetime—money-making,pleasure-seeking,recreating, working.Andyetitisoftenwhenwearetemporarilyout ofaction—walkingbythestreamoronthemountain,or talkinginthehalflight,thatthenewestandbestthoughts “come.”| Art,music,rhythm—thesewillsurelyfindaplaceinour feeling-consciousness?Wesaysurelybecauseweare afraidsomepeopleseethedangersofaestheticismandhave noeyeforitsgreatopportunities.Theysaythatdecadence alwaysovertakestheartisticspiritmorequicklythanitdoes inanyothersphereofemotionallife—whichisnotatrue statement;besides,whatofancientandmodernAgapemones —andwhydosocietyandtheChurchestoleratethecom munityatSpaxton? Asweshallshow,everyidealistimpulse needsbalance,theropposivnoftheGreeksasappliedtomore mundanethings,butwecannotaffordtodispensewithim pulsesonthataccount.Plato,inthatwell-knownpassage intheRepublic,says:“Isnotthisthereason,Glauconwhy musicaltrainingissopowerful,becauserhythmandharmony findtheirwayintothesecretplacesofthesoul?”Heis referring,ofcourse,totheeducationoftheyoungasaffected *Prof.G.T.W.Patrick,oftheUniversityofIowa,whohasgiven muchattentiontothesubjectofrelaxation,saysthatallcivilisa tionsneeda morerestfulpolicy—e.g.moreoutdoorlife,more walking,andlessriding,theindividualisingofsportandplay,more holidaysandfestivals,lessreading,moretranquilmusic,moreart, andmorereligion.Thenoteworthyfeatureofthispronouncement isthatheisnotthinkingofpromotingthehighermentalactivities, butofconservingthehealthofthecommunity.SeeThe PsychologyofRelaxation,p.258. 285 ORIGINALITY bybeautifulsurroundings,especiallyeducationconsideredas movementoraction. RememberingwhattheGreeksmeantbymusic,onecan hardlyrealisetheobjectionswhichhavebeenurgedagainst Plato'sdoctrinebyAdamSmithandmanyothers.Itmay bethataestheticcannotnowadaysbeaprominentfeaturein theschoolcurriculum,butitoughttobeaprominentfeature inthelifeoftheadult.Beforethedaysofhugefactories, withtheirear-splittingnoiseofmachinery,itwaspossible touserhythmandsongasanaccompanimentoflabour— perhapsinaratherutilitariansense—butmodernworkhas becometoomonotonousandtoomechanicalforsong.The manattheofficedeskhasnoillusionsabouthisduties; evenwhenheiswellpaidthosedutiesareadrudgeryunless heisworkingtoachieveanambition,inwhichcasethemusic arisesfromaknowledgeofthefactthatsomedayhisfriends willhailhimwithSeetheConqueringHeroComes.

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Buthowcantheaestheticspiritbebroughtintothelife ofmenandwomenofsoundhealthandmentalability,even thoughtheircircumstancesarenotpropitious! Itiscon fessedlya difficultquestiontoanswer,althoughGoethe attemptedit. “Everyday,”hesaid,“weshouldhearat leastonelittlesong,readonegoodpoem,seeoneexquisite picture,and,ifpossible,speakafewsensiblewords.”*There isnothingessentiallyimpracticableinsuchaprogramme, despitethepessimismofthecriticswhoclaimthattwenty threehoursofdrudgeryandsleeparemorethanamatchfor

*“Butwhattheancientscalledmusicinthewidersensemustbe heldtoincludeaknowledgeandrecitationofgoodpoetryasproper traininginthatfigureddancingwhichwasthemostusualservice ofthegods.Indeed,agoodmusicaleducationinGreece,muchin contrasttoours,includedeverygracefulaestheticalandintellectual accomplishment.”–OldGreekEducation,p. 41. ByJ.P. Mahaffy,M.A. *Darwinsaid:“IfIhadtolivemylifeoveragainIwouldhave madearuletoreadsomepoetryandlistentosomemusicatleast onceeveryweek.”-LifeandLetters,p.Ioo. 286 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS onehourofidealism.Itneedsbutasmalloutlaytopossess thebestpoemstheworldknows,andtohavegoodcopiesof thegreatestpictures;asforsongandsensibleremarks,the oneishardlyeverquiteoutofourreach,andtheother. . . wedonotthinkitisunattainablewhenwehaveswallowed Goethe'scynicism.Atanyratesomesuchscheme—the practicalpietyofaestheticismshallwecallit?—isboth possibleandnecessaryifthefinerforcesofthemindareto reachtheirhigheststandard"—thatis,thehighestofwhich theindividualiscapable. Wehavestudiedcloselywhatmaybecalledthementality ofuneducatedmenwhohaveneverthelessobtainedpositions ofimportanceintheworld.Lookeddownuponbythe scholarasignorant,theirsuccess,whateveritis,hasbeen explainedbyluckorsheerphysicalenergy.Thisistheusual andsuperficialview.Butisitnottruethatthemenwho havenotfilledtheirmindswithfactsandthoughtsgathered frombookshavegiventheirintellectsachancetolive,pro vided,ofcourse,theyhaveanyintellectatall? Toour surprisetheuneducatedmanwho,inhistalk,mademany slipsingrammarandcouldneverspellthewordpsychology, knewsomeofthedeepertruthsofthemindthatdonotmake muchshowinourtext-books. Butbecausetheyhaveusedtheirknowledgecommercially wehavedeniedthemthepossessionofit,allegingthattheir successwasduetothewhimofchance.Itisnot.They havegaugedthetasteofthepublicpartlybythedryfacts ofbuyingandsellingpricesbutmorebyasensethatcomes closetointuition.“Ihadafeelingthepublicwouldcome backtothissortofgoods,”theywouldsay,ifyoupinned themdownbyclosequestions.Theyhavenosystemby

*“Fewthingsaremorestrikinginadultlifethanthenumberof personswhohavenomeansofartisticexpressionorappreciationat all; whoaredrivenforrelaxationtofutilepursuitssuchascard playing,andwho,astheirhigherfeelingsatrophy,become,in success,fonderoftheirfoodanddrinkandpossessedofamor bidcravingforrapidmotion; or,infailure,gloomy,listlessand irritable.”—StudiesinEducation.ByM.W.Keatinge,M.A., chapteron“EducationandAEsthetic,”p.103. 287 ORIGINALITY meansofwhichtheydecidewhentofollowsuchfeelingsand whennot—whereintheyarewise.

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Itwillhavebeennoticedthatuptothepresentwehave dealtwithvariousaspectsoftheemotionallife—i.e.sensi bility,wonder,admiration,rapture,andmoods.Ahintwas thrownoutthattheemotionallifeneedsastabiliser;we finditinbalance.Thisispartlyagift,partlyanacquisition. Inhisinterestingchapteron“Education,”Professor Campagnactellsusthedifferencebetweengoodandbad rhythms.“Inbothwearetorecognisetheactionandre actionoffreedomandofcontrol;butinthegood,control andfreedomarekindredfromthefirst,andtimeandexperi encediscovermoreandmorefullytheintimacyoftheir relation;whereasinthebad,controlismerenecessityand freedommerelicentiousness.”*Balance,then,mustbegood rhythm—akindofgyrometerthatsilentlyandinevitably restoresa movementthathasbeenlostfromthecentre. Thenotionisprimarilyethical,andthepower,asjustin timated,ispartlyinbornandpartlytheoutcomeofexperi ence;thereisatendencytoseekcompensations.Muchof theeccentricityofgeniusisduetodefectiverhythms. Rousseauliterallywallowedinfeelingsofallkind,buthad apenchantfortears—orhesaidhehad;DeMussetlived forrapture,andmanyamanhasfollowedinhissteps,to reapthesamereward.Probablyallofuswouldliketobuild charmingchaletsontheMountofTransfigurationandlive inecstasy;butifwedidourfinaldestinywouldbethe asylum.Weneeddrudgeryasabalance,notmerelyina moralsensebutasamentaladjustment.Tocomedown fromtheMountandpullalongfaceaswescanthedemands oftheSurveyorofTaxesisexcellenthygiene.Toleaveour booksandsitonthemagistrates’benchistohaveashock thatbringsstrength.OfMachiavelli,LordMorleysays: “LikeBaconandsomeotherswhohavewrittentheshrewd estthingsonhumanconductandtheartsofsuccess,he *ConvergingPaths,p.84. 288 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS madeasorrymessofhisownchancesandgifts.”*Bacon livedthelifeofthoughttooardently;Machiavellihad educatedhimselftoofreelyawayfromprinciples—bothhad lostthatfinebalancewhichissodifficulttoholdwhenmen occupypositionsofleadership.Allmoralerrors,indeed,are primarilyalossofbalance;andallintellectuallimitations thatarenotcongenitalspringfromthesamecause.We haveknownmenwhohaveresolvedtodevelopwhatthey calledtheirwill-power,ortheir“minds”—perhapstheir aestheticsense.InoneinstanceWillbecameaDeity;force wasworshippedforitsownsake,andasaconsequencethe man’scommon-sensesanktoaminimum.HewasaBoanerges indoinganythingheundertooktodo,butthenhenever knewthedifferencebetweenwhatwasagoodthinganda badthing.Hewasunbalanced—likeeveryothermanwho hasbeendevotedexclusivelytoonecult.Thelittlecrowd whoindulgetheartistictemperamentneverarrive;theyare toonarrowinlife,toodisdainfulofaveragethings,seeking beautyandoriginalityintheartificiallynewandinthat alone. XIV

Will-worshipcropsupin unexpectedquarters.Mr CluttonBrock,inafineessayonProgressinArt,”suggests thatasallprogressisduetotheexerciseofthehumanwill inarightdirection,thereforeprogressinartwillcomeabout bythatagency.ButtheWill,apartfromelevatedfeeling anddisciplinedthought,ismerelyblindenergy.Whyshould wesplituptheforcesofintelligenceasifonealonecould effectgreatchanges2 Evengrantingthatthepowerof actionisfinal,andthatwithoutitnothingwouldbeaccom plished,thereisnotsufficientjustificationfortheisolatingof WillasaThing-in-itself.MrBrockhimselfadmitsthat “nomancanmakeascientificdiscoverybythepureexercise > ofhiswill.Itjumpsintoonemindandnotintoanother justlikeanartisticinspiration.”Surely,then,thereis lesschanceofprogressinartbyWill? Thefactisour * Machiavelli,p.15. *InMarvin’sProgressandHistory. T 289 ORIGINALITY newdevelopmentsofallkindsdependlessonWillthan onIllumination; andthisinturndependsfarmoreon sensibilitythanonthemotivetendencies.

Themoresubtleconditionswhichfavourilluminationhave alreadybeenhintedat,andwemaynowsuggestoneortwo considerationsofamoreobviousbutstillimportantchar acter.Willitbeforgivenusifweuseawornphraseand insistontherightenvironmentasasinequanonofmental developmentinallitsforms? Howeverindividualweare, wecandolittleuntilwecomeincontactwiththesurroundings thatareneededforthecreationofnewideas.Wearenot referringtotheadvantagesofachangefromsocietytosoli tudeorfromsolitudetosociety,buttothemorepermanent associations.Theyoftenmakeormarus,becausetheygive ustheatmospherewearecompelledtobreathe.Some peopleseemtodepressus—theysilentlybutunconsciously stealourphysicalvitalityandsmileamiablywhilsttheydo it;inaliteralsensetheymakeustired,andweareneverat easeintheirpresence.Someplaces,somestreets,some housesareimpossible:whenthere—wecandonothing. Othersituationsarequitethereverse.Wefeelatourbest, forweareenrapport.Thissenseofdependenceisnotabit ofignoranceorawilfulupholdingofafancyasifitwerea truth;itisrealityitself.Musiciansunderstanditperhaps betterthananybodyelse.Thepianistwhoononeoccasion says:“Isimplycouldnothelpplayingwell—theaudience mademedoit,”willsay,onanotheroccasion:“Theywere likestones—theywouldnotletmeplay.” Allexcellenceismadeupofselfplussurroundings.Do wenotreadthatJesusChristwenttoaplacewhereHecould notperformanyofHismightyworksbecauseofthepeople's unbelief?\Eventhegreatestgeniusfindsalimit;super lativepowercannotbeexercisediftheenvironmentiswrong orunready. ProfessorYrjöHirn,inhisOriginsofArt,hasprovidedus 290 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS withaninterestingillustrationofthisfact.Art,hesays,is, initsinnermostnature,asocialactivity.Thereisanatural tendencyineveryfeeling-statetomanifestitselfexternally, andthisexternalisingeffectcreatesasimilarfeeling-state intheconsciousnessoftheaudience;“thesympathetic feelingactsupontheauthoroftheoriginalmanifestation, heighteninginhimthefeeling-statewhichgaveriseto it’’(p.302).Verytrue;theaudienceis,inpart,creator ofthework;minusitssympathyandresponse,even geniusishalfimpotent;itcannotblossomina frosty atmosphere." Therearenoself-mademen.Therehavebeenmenwith tremendousinitiative,andthatistotheircredit;butin amassingwealthoracquiringfameandpositiontheyowe muchtotheirfellows—tothestaffwhostoodbythemin thosedarkdayswhenthecreditorsheldthekeysoflife anddeath—ortothekindlyfriendwhopaidthepromising scholar'suniversityfees,askingfornoreturn.Theun fortunateman,themanwho,thoughcleverenough,never seemstomakeheadwaydespitehisdiligence,themenwhose lifeisaseriesofmisfits—theseareoftenthevictimsofthe wrongenvironment.Oneofthemmighthavebeenastar ofmagnitudeif. . .; theothermighthavebeenaCabinet Ministerif. . .;athirdchangedhisoccupationsooftenthat healmostlosthisidentity,andyetif. . . ? Weclaimto haveascienceoflife,butwhereisitwhenalltheobvious futilitiesofthiskindarebeforeus?Ifgeniusisdependent onitsaudience,soistalent,andsoisaverageability.We haveheardsermonspreachedinobscurecountrychurches andchapelsthatvastlyeclipsedthedeliverancesusually

*“Originalityinart. . . isanaffairofindividualendowment andthought,andofsocialrecognitionandconfirmation.Itisnot thattheartimpulseisexhaustedinself-exhibition. . . thesocial judgmentwhichaworkofarthastosustainfindsitscorrelative impulseintheself-exhibitionoftheproducer.Onlythuscanhis ownjudgmentbeinstructed.Thereactionofthissocialrecognition upontheproducerisnotalonethefountainofhisstimulusandthe testofhissuccess;itisalsotheverysourceofhistestofvalues.” —J.M.Baldwin,SocialandEthicalInterpretationsinMental

Development,p.150. - 29I ORIGINALITY heardinStPaul'sortheMetropolitanTabernacle;these preachers(wegathered)weremisunderstoodbytheircon gregations—actuallytheyhadnotfoundtheirtrueaudience. Wehaveseenanorganinacountrycottage,cunninglyde visedandconstructedbyashyyouthwhoabsentedhimself whentheinstrumentwasplayed,andwho,bywayofdaily toil,hoedturnipsandmilkedthecows.Hisshynesswasin partduetothecriticismoffriendswhointheearlierstages ofhisorgan-buildingcomplainedofhiswasteoftime. Truly,heneededanaudience,andwithitssympathetic supportwhatmighthenothavedone* Somedayourintellectualeconomymayfindawayof avoidingwasteinabilitybyprovidingsuitablesurroundings foritsnurtureandgrowth.Meanwhileeverymanwillhave todiscoverhisownrightenvironment.Noonecantell himexactlyhow;hemustfollowhisowninstinctsand theguidanceofintelligentfriends.Hisgreatenemywillbe theSocietyforRepressingAmbition—brancheseverywhere. Ifhecanovercomeitsmachinationshemayhope,afternumer ousmistakes,tofindhimselfintruecorrespondencewiththose peopleandthoseconditionsthatfavourself-expression. *

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Ofthepurelymentalhabitswhichfavourillumination onethatisworthyofnoticeisthealternateuseoffocusand distributiveobservation.Itislikeleavingthestudyofan atomforthestudyoftheheavens—renouncingthemicro scopeforthetelescope,theinfinitelylittlefortheinfinitely great.Aminuteanalysisofpartsfollowedbyacompre hensivesurveyofthewholeisthesecretofmanyadiscovery. Itisalsothemethodofallfineinterpretationsoflife.The lawoftheminutethingmayprovidethekeytothevaster thing;andthecomplexmaybeamysteryuntilthesimple hasbeenthoroughlyunderstood.Tooeasilywepassbythe simple,theusual,thefactthatisalltoofamiliar;andyet tofocusonitmaybringtherevelationweseek.AsProfessor Deweysays:“Ourprogressingenuineknowledgealways MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS consistsinpartinthediscoveryofsomethingnotunderstood inwhathadpreviouslybeentakenforgrantedasplain, obvious,matter-of-course.”Butthewidesurveyisequally necessary.TheuniverseismadeupoftheManyintheOne; theplanhasdetailsbuttheschemeitselfisinfinite.Itis welltowatchthefallingapple;letusalsoconsidertheorbit oftheplanets. Again:toseekthehigheststandard,thentolookforsome thingbetterbeyondit—that,surely,isoneoftheunconscious methodsofgenius.Talent,seeingastandard,emulatesit, andtriestoequalit;tosurpassitishardlyeverconsidered seriously.Thatiswhysofewofthetalentedevercrossthe border-lineandbecomemenofgenius.Theylacktheim petuswhichcausesotherstobedissatisfiedwithattainment andwhichresultsineffortstoadvancebeyondit. Thenare wejustifiedinencouragingtheaveragemantogoforward wherethemanoftalentfails?Wearejustifiedinurging everymantomakethebestuseofhispowers;andthebest useistheenlighteneduse.Noteverymanwillsucceed,but effortitselfiseducative,andwithouteffortwe,asacountry, areboundtolosea certainpercentageofmentalability becauseofignoranceandinactivity,andtheindividualis minusapercentageofpossiblewealthandculture.

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Afinalword.Lookingbackoverthegroundwehave covereditmaytruthfullybesaidthatwehavenomessagefor themanofgenius.Hefollowshisownlight,discoverstruths forhimself,andsetsuphisownlawsofconsciousaction. Butwehaveendeavouredtoshowthatinhismostinspired moments,thosemomentswhenheismoststrikinglyoriginal inthefullestsense,heisnotabovelaw,butisthefulfilment ofit. Heisasupermanandyetaman.Hismindworks likeothermindsbutinamannerthatissuperlative.Hisis notamindplusamentalhalocalledgenius. Wefounditpossibletobasecertainconclusionsonthese findings,supportedastheyarebyknownfactsinphysiology, *HowWeThink,p.12o. 293 ORIGINALITY psychology,sociology,andthedataofgeography.Wehave venturedtooffercounseltomenandwomeninthebeliefthat iftheywouldleaveawidermarginforindividuality,con ventionalitiesneednotbethelesssecure,andoriginalitiesof valuemightbemultiplied.Astowhetherwehavejustified ourselvesinthisenterprisemustbelefttothejudgmentof others.Butthatthesocial,commercial,andpoliticalcondi tionsofthefuturecallforanewemphasisonthecreative functionofthemindwillnotbedisputed.IsBritain,and theEmpire,tobebehindtherestoftheworldinenterprise ofeverykind?Itisnotprobable,butitisnotimpossible. Measuredbythelikelihoodoforiginalproductsinother countries,Britain'schancesareasgoodasever,ifshewill risetothem.WhenthecallwentforthtoserveKingand Countrytheresponsewasstartlinginitsreadinessandim pressiveinitsmagnitude.Thecallnowisfortheserviceof thehighlytrainedmind,notmerelythepossessionofapplied science,buttheabilitytocreate.“Whatcanyoudo?” isatrulyseriousquestionforeveryexecutiveindividual; butaquestionjustasseriousis:“Howfarcanyousee?” Weneedmoremenwithvision,notforthecommercial spherebutforeveryothersphere,andwebelieveweshall getthem. Eighty-threeyearsisthelifetimeofaveryoldman,and yetitisaperiodthatdoesnotstaggerusbyitslengthwhen wereadthedailyobituarynoticesinthePress.Butineighty threeyears’timeweshallbeipA.D.2000.Whatmay happenbetweenthenandnow2 (Whowillhavediscovered thewarweaponsthatwillmakewarimpossible2JTowhat nationshallweowetheabolitionoffrightfuldiseases,and whowillhavedonemosttosolvetheproblemsofcapitaland labour2 Canwehopeforanewphilosophyandforthead ventofbrilliantdeparturesinliterature,drama,andthearts? Ifso,fromwhencewillcomethegreatinspiration?These arequestionsnomancananswerconfidently,butsuchisthe catharticpowerofawar-cataclysmthat,despiteitssordid residue,thereistheglimpseofaworldredeemed.Every nation,smallandgreat,maycontributeitsshare,andall nationswillbeunfeignedlyglad;foranewhumanitywith 294 MENTALATTITUDESANDMETHODS truecosmopolitanfeelingswillhavebeenborn,andtheglory ofonecountrywillbethegloryoftheothers.Thenational spiritwillnotdie,ratherwillitbeenlarged;butitwillbe enlightenedalso,andinsteadofconflictweshallexpect harmony.Everyoriginalitywillthenbewelcomedinthe serviceofman.

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INDEX

A Bagehot,Walter,113,192-193 Bain,Prof.A.,108,113 ABILITY,35,36,37 Baldwin,Prof.J.M.,38–39,291 Abstraction,mental,129,130,131 Balfour,A.J.,73,233 Ackermann,Carl,27,1Io Balzac,32,131 Activity,physicalandmental,138Barker,H.A.,caseof,208 Adam,Prof.J.,onPlatonism,183,Barker,J.Ellis,166 236 Barrie,SirJames,113 Adams,4 Beauty,elusivenessof,41 Addison,Io? Bellarmine,doctrineof mental AEstheticsensibilities,46 reservation,15 *::ticism.allegeddangersof, Benson,A.C.,168 285 Benson,RobertHugh,31 Age,affectsideasofprogress,228;Bergson,philosophyof,27,50–51,

itseffectuponbrainpower,133; 84,177,279 - andoriginality,134;andpessiBerkeleyonmathematics,4o mism,231 Berlioz,87 Alfieri,128 Billiaonpsychologicalfailures,23 Alverstone,Lord,Recollections,215Binet,Prof.A.,49 Amiel,136 Bismarck,148,175 Analogy,Io8,115 Blake,William,91–92,131 Angelo,Michael,12 Bloomer,Mrs,16 Antagonismv.sympathy,281 Böhme,29 Anti-warsuffragettes,146 Booksandtheaverageman,176 Aquinas,Thomas,89,150 Boole,Prof.G.,III Aristotle,Io,37,72,128,150,165 Bonheur,Rosa,145 Arkwright,16,72 Bosanquet,C.,19–20 ArmyandnavyofficersandoriginBossuet,107 ality,218–222 Boutroux,22,42,51 Armytraining,mentaleffectsof, Brandes,Georg,131,150 2IQ,22O Branford,Benchara,Janusand Arnold,Prof.Felix,85 Vesta,161,17o Arnold,Matt.,96,97 Brett,G.S.,26 Art,asocialactivity,291;originBrill,Dr,57,114 alityin,291 Brinton,D.G.,17 Artistictemperament,vagariesof, BritishWeekly,264,272 Brock,A.Clutton,willandart,289 95,96,289 - - Asceticism,itseffectsonoriginalBrontë,Charlotte,46,47,9o thought,139,140,142 Brougham,Lord,ondutytoclients, Associationofideas,85 2I4 Athleticsandmentalefficiency,271B:”.SirThomas,onsympathy, Atmospherefavourabletotalent284 andgenius,250,251 Browning,Oscar,oneducation,168 Austin,Lady(Cowper),142 Browning,Robert,129 Avebury,Lord,72 Bryce,Lord,ondemocracyand originality,253 Büchner,24 B Buddha,174 Buffon,107 Bacon,8,105,148,289 Buller,General,andBoertactics, “BadForm,”167–168 218 297 INDEX Burbank,Luther,onnewflowers,Cooper,Prof.Lane,175 238 CoventGarden(ananachronism), Burns,141 26o Businesslowstandards,effectof, Cowper,141 198-201 Creativemind,theneedofthe Butcher,Prof.S.H.,6 Empire,294 Butler,S.,ontheartofthinking,Croce,B.,31,177,239 II.3,279 Crookes,SirWm.,30,233 Byron,IoS Crothers,S.M.,onthecourageof beingignorant,181-182 G Crowd,dominanceof,257 Crozier,DrBeattie,148,254 CAESAR,175 Cunningham,Prof.,27 Campagnac,Prof.,oneducation,Curie,Madame,Ioo,144 165,288 Campbell,R.J.,31 D Carlyle,4,96 Carpenter,DrW.B.,84 DAGUERRE,116 Carpenter,Edward,onold-ageDailyMail,273 optimism,234 DailyNews,191 Carr,DrH.Wildon,49,51 DanteandBeatrice,142 Carsononmathematicaleducation,Darwin,12,13,8o,82,92,IoS,134, 85 286 Carus,DrPaul,39 Daudet,Alphonse,118 Case,Professor,ofOxford,23 Deane'sPseudepigrapha,174 Cerebration,77 Dearborn,Prof.,143 Cervantes,134 Defectivehometraining,153 Chapman,C.,onpublichonesty,Defoe,134 258 DeGoncourt,135,136 Charron,139 DeMorgan,William,134 Chateaubriand,93 DeMusset,128 Chesterton,G.K.,191,194 DeQuincey,47,114,126 Christianscientistandmatter,227Descartes,24,95,107,111,276 Christianityas comparedwithDewey,Prof.,26,121,178,292 Judaism,6 Dickens,131 Christianityandoptimism,232 Diderot,Io4 Civilserviceandoriginality,216–DiodorusSiculus,IoS,106 218 Discoveries,accidental,115,116, Classconsciousness,evilsof,255 117,118 Coleridge,Lord,122 Disraeli,38,148 Coleridge,S.T.,38,1o1,283 Dividinglines,disappearanceof, Competition,199 243 Complex,57,58 Doctorsandprejudice,208 co:ntation.95,I29,I30,I31,Dogma,mistakeof,156,158 2öI D'Orbigny,117 Conditionsfavourabletogrowthof Dorland,W.A.,133 talent,251 Dostoievsky,93 Confessionofanopiumeater,47 Douglas,Jas.,192 Consciousaction,suspensionof,88 Dowden,Prof.,onliterarymove Consciousness,essentialinscrutments,246,254 abilityof,23;finerreachof,33;Drummond,113 governedbytemperament,31;Durkins,A.M.,Miss,144 growthandreductionof,21; Dwelshauvers,Prof.Georges,46 rangeof,32,35;:of,53,Dyer,Thiselton,165 ; unityandtrinityof,25 co:T.#on“£ofLife,” E II2,205 Cooley,Prof.C. H.,onracialEAST,messageofthe,249 genius,250 Eccentricity,12 Coomaraswarmy,127 Eddy,A.J.,onImpressionism,237 298 INDEX

Eddy,Mrs,30 Gibbon,8,120 Educationandinspiration,171;Gibbs,Philip,onsoul,248 modernsystemof,4; andGibson,W.R.Boyce,49 originalityinAmerica,17o Giddings,Prof.,ongreatmen,270 Effort,lawofleast,69,7o Girard,Prof.,66 Effortinrelationtoreligion,71 Gladstone,135 Eliot,George,Ioč,129,141,237 Godowsky,97 Ellis,Havelock17,110,111,160,Goethe,37,38,52,59,81,Io4,134; 235 ondailyaestheticism,286;on Emerson,7,17 wonder,281 Energy,mental,48,56 Gogol,93 Environment,290–292 Goreondiscovery,50,82,111,116 Erichsen,107 Gosling,MrH.,243 Ethicsofcross-examination,215,Gosse,Edmund,FatherandSon, 216 I54,155,188 Ethology,274 Gosse,Philip,155,161 Etrich,Igo,111 GratryandBoole'smathematical Eugenics,251; Schuster's,251 psychology,203 Expressionandimpression,lawof, Greg,W.R.,onconditionsofmental 179–18o efficiency,272 Extensionandintension,243 Gregory,R.A.,116

F H

FALCKENBERG,Io2 HAECKEL,29,43,211 Falseeducation,165 Halleck,Prof.,81 Faraday,M.,III Hamerton,P.G.,65,95,255 Fechner,IIo Hamilton,SirW.,115 Feminineinstinct,143;intellect,Hampson,P.,202,203 agilityof,145 Hardy,Thomas,107,131 Ferrero,68,72,173,229 Harris,Prof.D.F.,52,277 Finerforcesneedinvestigation,Hartmann,vonEd.,115 277 Harvey,13,IoS F#,79,8o Hasteandmodernlife,285 Flaubert,92,IoA,130 Haydn,87 France,Anatole,41 Hearn,Lafcadio,206 Freud,24,44,57,58,61,76,138,Heine,125 I42,209 Henslow,IoS Froebel’ssearchforlaw,244 Heredity,65 Fuchsianfunctions,88 Hesketh,Lady,142 Functions,elliptical,88 Hiddenoriginality,123,124 Futuristsandothers,236 Highstandardsandeffort,293 Hight,C.A.,98 Hindrancestooriginality,147 G Hinton,Jas.,160,204,272 Hirn,Prof.Yrjö,onart,290 GALILEO,IoS Hirsch,63,128 Galton,SirFrancis,36,37,44,64, Historicalprecedents,theirdanger, 75,93,I.33,I57 I49-150 Gaskell,Mrs,90 Höffding,37 Gaskell,W.H.,55 Hoffmann,Prof.,44 Gautier,107 Hofmann,Joseph,97 Geddes,Prof.Patrick,onCyprus,Hollingworth’svocationalpsy

263-264| chology,274 Geniusandanalogy,Io9;aspectsHolt,Prof.E.B.,143 of,5,60,63,76,79;consciousHomelifeandoriginality,162 nessof,37–38;natureof,18;Howto“reckon”antiquity,149 psychologicalsuperstition,269,Hugo,Victor,119 292-293;universallawof,19 Hume,Io:5,116 299 INDEX

Humphrey,H.A.,5,6 JudaismascomparedwithChristi Hunt,Leigh,34,37 anity,6 Huxley,Julian,15 Jung,Prof.C.G.,8,24,50,57,61, 138,139,142,209

K IBSEN,107 Idealismandoptimism,232—233KANT,35,IoS,107,134,140 Ideas,movementsof,82 Keatinge,M. ., oneducation, Idiosyncrasiesofwriters,107 165–166 Idleness,necessityfor,95 Kesner,P.,9 Ignorancev.finalknowledge,211 Kidd,Benj.,onprogress,231 Illativesense,definitionof,28;Kiplingstoryquoted,144;view individualactionof,29 ofA.D.2150,268 Illuminations,sudden,89,290 Knowthyself,274 Imaginationinbusiness,265-266;Kostyleff,23,62 onpastratherthanfuture,259;Kreisler,97 subjectedtohistory,148,149 Kukulé,Prof.,88 Imitationamethodofprogress,Io, Kultur,abominationsof,21o II,I22 Impression,internal,82 Incompleteeffortandoriginality, L 2O2 Independenceofthought,119,120,LACKofascienceofreading,173 I2I,I22,123 Laissez-faireprinciples,201 Indexexpurgatorius,151 Lamb,Charles,107 Individualities,hidden,13 Lange,Prof.F.A.,onprogress, Individuality,socialaspectof,16 229-230 Industryandinspiration,96 Larfarge,Paul,98 Inference,79 LaRochefoucauld,92 Inspiration,artificial,phenomenaLawyersandoriginality,212-216; of,125,126;aspectsof,77,124; andpoliticalvogueof,214 howevoked,91;lawsof,86,87 Leacock,Stephen,113 Intellectuallyrepressivegroups,151LeBononfeelingandaction,262 Intelligence,originsandgradesof, Lecky,6 2O Leffingwell,Dr,on“Influenceof Intensivedevelopmentandorigin Seasons,”276 ality,248 Leibnitz,105,Io8,115,230 IntercommunionbetweenconsciousLeisureinthinking,98,99 andsubconsciousmind,66,73,74 L'dodaVinci,64,97,IoS,140, Intuition,basisof,83–85 28O Inventiveness,lossof,270 Leverhulme,Lord,34,35 Isaiah,Io:5 LeVerrier,4 Lewes,GeorgeHenry,22,129,141 Lifeafterdeath,whenprovedby J science,262 Lifecannotbemadeaformula,250 JAMES,Prof.,22,23,42,54,98,IIo,LindsayA.D.,26 251 Lipps,Prof.43,44 apanandtheinwardlife,249 Literaryforms,futureof,236 astrow,38,87 Livingstone,R.W.,onGreek Jevons,Prof.W.S.,115 genius,185 Johnson,Dr,Io.7 LloydGeorge,andthelegalmind, Jokai,107 212-213 LloydMorgan,Prof.,49,Ioo Joly,99 - -- Jones,W.H.S.,onscientificLocke,John,56 Lodge,SirOliver,4o method,172 * Jonson,Ben,175- Lombroso,37,68,72,87,128 Jourdain,P.E.B.,67 LoofsonHaeckel,2II 300 INDEX

Lotze,H.,on progress,23o;Mood,thecreative,249 Microcosmus,149 - Moods,psychologyof,284 Love,itseffectonoriginalthought,Moore,George,onart,228,230 I4O-I42 M:"LiteraryValues,etc.,195 L'standardsofmerit,effectof, I9 185 Morley,Lord,onMachiavelli,14o Loyola,139 Morrill,J.S.,on“Self-consciousness Luther,139 ofGreatMen,”38 Lynch,Arthur,90 Mossoonfatigue,276 Moulton,Lord,93 Mozart,83,88 M Muirhead,Prof.,onGermanphil osophy,284 MAARTENs,Maarten,188 Mulford,H.S.,84 M'Cabe,Joseph,onsoul,248 Müller,K.O.,6 M‘Dougall,conceptionof psyMüller-Lyerillusion,the,56 chology,48 Müller,Max,III Mach,Prof.E.,I18 Münsterberg,2,43,226,245 Machiavelli,148,289 MusicaccordingtoPlato,285–286 Maeterlinck,1oo,117,151,282 Musset,119 Mahaffy,Prof.,6,38,95,286 Myers,F.W.H.,73 Malesherbes,Io4 Myres,Prof.J.L.,onbiometry, Mallarmé,41 278 Mallock,W.H.,onart,228,230Mysticism,39,123 Malthus,92 MarcusAurelius,IoS Martindale,C.C.,31 N Martineau,DrJames,135 Marvin'sProgressandHistory,241 Masculinefactorinhometraining,NAPIER,92 156,160,161 Napoleon,99,175 Matthews,ProfessorBrander,Io, Nature,heroriginalitiesatanend, 238 254 Matthews,F.H.,169 Navytraining,expansivenessof, Maupertuis,68 22I Maxwell,Clark,89 New,Charles,17 Mayer,Robert,5o Newman,Cardinal,26,28,29,74 Mendelssohn,129 Newman,Prof.F.W.,29 Mentalactivity,bestperiodof, Newsurroundingsandintellectual 136;creation,speedof,92; growth,156,162 efficiencyandvitality,, 273;Newton,SirIsaac,13,79,98,112, inertia,75;range,75;virility,I30 yearsof,134 Nicoll,SirW.R.,onvitalityandthe Meredith,G.,17,131 studentlife,272 Mertz,J. T.,oninternationalNiepce,116 thought,243 Nietzsche,9,Io-II,17,99,131, Meshtrovic,Ivan,I2 140,142,150,181,185 Metaphor,111 Nordau,Max,MeaningofHistory, Meumann,Prof.,onmemorytrain 135,148,230 ing,245 Meynell,Mrs,IoI-103 Mill,James,29 O Mill,JohnStuart,84,147,154 Milton,John,3,107 OBSERVATION,importanceof,82; Misoneism,68,72 v.focus,292;v.sensibility,28o Mitford,IoG OmarKhayyám,40 Modernpsychology,weaknessof, Opposition,spiritof,17 I,2 Organisationfororiginality,265 Mohammed,174 Originalthinkersfromunexpected Montessori,3 sources,178

- 3OI INDEX

Originalityandaristocracyv.demo Q cracy,253;cannotbe“taught,” 269;foundintheuneducated,5; QUINCEY,Quatremèrede,12 hinderedbylowstandards,188 190;inthefuture,225;isit nowpossible2,241;islimited, R 228;newoutlookfor,239;of workingmen,177;wherenowRABELAIs,139,141 possible,135 Raptureatestofmind,282 Originsofart,290 Read,Carveth,Io9 Ostwald,Prof.,49 Reade,Charles,8 Reading,excessof,173 Reasonandfeeling,279 Reed,Dr,126 P Reich,DrEmil,34 Religionandrepression,153 PADEREwsK1,97 Renaissance,periodof,140,142 Pascal,24 Reviewing,ethicsof,186,190 Pater,Walter,27,92,97,283 Rhythm.SeePeriodicity Patrick,Prof.,onrelaxation,285 Ribot,14,51,68,83,Io'7,115,128, Paulhan,87,116,118,119,130 I3 Pearson,C.H.,227,235 Richardson,Samuel,134 Pearson,Prof.Karl,117 Rightuseofbooks,178 Pebody,9o,106 Robertson,J.M.,ondemocracy Periodicity,IoI,Io2,103 andintellect,252 Personality,individualityand,5 Romanes,Prof.,143 Pfister,57 Ross,Prof.E.A.,oninterpretative Phillips,Wendell,114 contrasts,247 Physicalandmentalfactors,271 Rossini,Io8 Pillsbury,Prof.,26 Rousseau,37,IoA,106,Io7 Pindar,Io5 Pitman,SirIsaac,shorthandsystem of,5 Plagiarism,7,8,9 S Plato,26,27,37,42,74,77,128,175 Poincaré,45,46,47,88,91,93,95, SADLER,Vice-Chancellor,165,166 26I,281 StAugustine,139 Pope,8 StBeuve,177,194 Poulton,Prof.E.B.,andtheStFrancis,139 theoryofnaturalselection,82,83 StPaul,60,71 Praxis,269 Sand,George,145 Precedentsandoriginality,213 Sandeau,131 Priestsandoriginality,209-210Santayana,Prof.,39 Professionalmindandoriginality,Savile,SirHenry,226 2O Savonarola,139 P:essinart,289;andhistory,Schäfer,Prof.,43 289;intheplateaumethod,Schelling,115 260-261; whatisit 255 Schiller,107 Psycho-analysis,24,57,58,59,60 Schofield,Dr,22 Psychologiststoguidemenof Schopenhauer,21,30,38,115,122, abilityaswellasthementallyI33,I4o defective,265 Schubert,Prof.,onmathematical Psychology,animal,45;and certainty,242 common-sense,42.;introspectiveScott,SirWalter,89 andexperimental,48;knowScott,W.Dill,2 ledgeofbytheuneducated,287;Scribe,119 scienceof,42 Seeley,SirJohn,17 Publicschooleducation,167,171 Self-consciousnessofwomen,145 Pushkin,93 Self-mademen,291 Pythagoreanmystics,40 Selfplussurrounding,290 302 INDEX

Selfridge,Gordon,1oo Taylor,Isaac,andlayinventions, Seneca,Io5–Io6 223 Senseofhistory,147;past,147 Tennyson,92,1oo,129 Sensibility,Jastrowon,278,279;Thackeray,131 needof,278 Thayer,W.R.,onGarfield,274 Sera,L.G.,96 Theoria,definitionof,26 Sex,antagonismof,146;influenceTheta,Fuchsian,88 of,61; repression,138-139Thomson,Prof.,89 Shakespeare,Io,II,36–38,59,81, Titchener,Prof.,42,7o 128,175 Tolstoi,59 Shaw,G.B.,onliterature,192,193Torricelli,6 Shelley,83,107 Trainingtheemotions,28o Sheridan,Io7 Training,theGreekideaof,271 Sidgwickonstimulus,172 Transition,subconscioustocon Sidis,Prof.B.,43,54,61 scious,90,93,95;unconscious Sleight,W.G.,onmentaltraining,toconscious,90 248 Trollope,Anthony,215 Smith,R.H.,Io2 Tucker,Prof.T.G.,Hebraismand Socialistimagination,150 Hellenism,283 s'gy.modern,tooacademical,Türck,ongeniusasdisinterested 25 ness,96,281 Socrates,42 Tyndall,83 Solitudeandsociety,257 Soul,newpopularityoftheword, 248 Souriau,91,103,119 U Speedofthought,66,73 Spencer,Herbert,50,139,141,229UNconsciousactivity,trainingof, Spiralformation,112 94 Sports,hindrancesof,256 Underhill,MissS.,123 Stephen,SirLeslie,28,29 Uniformity,tendencytowards,222 Stevenson,R.L.,Io7,126,156 Unities,searchfor,243-244 Stewart,Prof.H.L.,73 Universityprofessors'needof Stimulus,81,Io4,Io:5,107,Io8, originality,263 I26 Unwin,Mrs,142 Studyofhistoryandviewsonpro ress,231 Sturt,H.,67 Subconsciousness,activitiesof,46; V educationof,45;originof,44; rangeof,43 VALENTINE,7o Subjectiveandobjective,lawof,in Valueaskeyword,185-186 reading,182,183 Vanessa(DeanSwift),141 Success,philosophyof,34 Veblen,Prof.,99 Suggestion,autoandhetero,3, Voltaire,8 Io6 Sully,Prof.,66,133-134 Swedenborg,37 Swift,Dean,8,141 W Syllogisms,imitationsof,279 Symonds,J.A.,126 WAITINGforinspirations,1oo Waldstein,Chas.,168 Wallace,DrA.R.,30,80,96,231, 233,276 Wallace,W.,129 T Wallas,Graham,onwill,94 War,theGreat,andoriginality, TAINE,131 247,261-262 Talent,neglected,169 Ward,Prof.Jas.,onmentalculture, Taussig,Prof.,170,201 149,28o 303 INDEX

Wartmann,III Woman,brainpowerof,143;in Webb,SirAstor,onLondonofthe ventivepowerof,144;mental Wfuture,259 facilityof,144;andoriginality, hewell,116 I43 Whitby,DrC.J.,104 Wonderasasourceofideas,281 Whitehead,Prof.,68 Wordswithlostboundaries,241 Whitman,14 243 Wiener,Leo.,167 Wordsworth,81,85 Wilde,Oscar,190,194 Wundt,I,2 Willasblindenergy,289 Will-power,94 Will-worship,289 Wilsononworkmanship,267 Wit,113 ZOLA,107

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