WOMEN AND THE 1979 REVOLUTION

by Barbara Harrell-Bond

he marketplace - and the traders who icwnate it -was a focus of rage for ,ard-oressed Ghanalavs Destruction of AaMa Market Nunber One may also be ,een as part cf a long Drocess directed cward l,m*tingtbe economic field in whlch vomen can effectively compete w~thTen SqB 1 - 801 The American Universities Field INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS American Staff, Inc., founded in 1951, is a non- profit, membership corporation of University of Alabama American educational institutions. It Brown University employs a full-time staff of foreign Universities Dartmouth College area specialists who write from abroad and make periodic visits to lndiana University Field Staff member institutions. AUFS serves University of Connecticut the public through its seminar pro- University of Kansas grams, films, and wide-ranging pub- Michigan State University lications on significant develop- Ramapo College of New Jersey ments in foreign societies. University of Pittsburgh University of Wisconsin

AUFS Reports are a continuing Associates of the Field Staff are series on international affairs and chosen for their ability to cut across major global issues of our time. the boundaries of the academic dis- Reports have for almost three ciplines in order to study societies in decades reached a group of their totality, and for their skill in col- readers- both academic and non- lecting, reporting, and evaluating academic-who find them a useful data. They combine long residence source of firsthand observation of abroad with scholarly studies relat- political, economic, and social trends ing to their geographic areas of in foreign countries. Reports in the interest. Each Field Staff Associate series are prepared by writers who returns to the United States periodi- are full-time Associates of the cally to lecture on the campuses of American Universities Field Staff the consortium's member institu- and occasionally by persons on leave tions. from the organizations and univer- sities that are the Field Staff's spon- sors.

THE AUTHOR BARBARA E. HARRELL-BOND is a the Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden. Ap- social anthropologist who has conducted pointed a Senior Research Fellow at the research in England and in West Africa. School of Law, University of Warwick, in Her special interests are family, urban 1976, Dr. Harrell-Bond joined the Field problems, law, and the history of the im- Staff in 1978 to report on West Africa. position of alien law in colonial Africa. She received a B. Litt. and D. Phil. in Anne Fraker is an administrative assis- anthropology from the University of tant with the lndiana University African Oxford. Her publications include Modern Studies Program; she traveled with Marriage in Sierra Leone: A Study of the Barbara Harrell-Bond through parts of Professional Group and Community West Africa during the summer of 1979. Leadership and the Transformation of Freetown (1801-1976), the latter being co-researched and written with two historians, Dr. Allan Howard and Dr. David Skinner. She has also published widely in academic journals, lectured in a number of universities including the Uni- versity of Illinois (Urbana), the University of Helsinki, and the University of 0 1980, American Universities Field Warsaw, and was a Visiting Scholar at Staff, , NH 1980INo. 4 by Barbara Harrell-Bond WOMEN AND THE 1979 Africa and Anne Fraker GHANA REVOLUTION [BHB-1-'801

In a recent article on the roles of their aim of eliminating women as Calabully (feminine Kalabule) is a African women in literature, economic competitors. well known figure; an identifiable personality in the Ghanaian society. Professor Kenneth Little comments During the period of transition to . . Calabully is described as a person that "the general characterization is civilian rule that began in January . who has inordinate propensity to not consonant at all with 1979 and before the June coup! grab and cheat, and does in fact stereotypes of African wives as there were many calls in the press grab and cheat his fellow man and spiritless downtrodden creatures" for Ghanaian women to participate country through deceit and trickery. (WestAfrica, September 17,1979). actively in the political process and KALABUL E is more prolifio [sic.I The validity of such stereotypes is to support the government's efforts dynamic, volatile, and more equally challenged by events in to improve the quality of life. dangerously devastating than Ghana after the June 4 coup d'ktat, Among the many political parties CALABULL Y, the male led by Flight Lieutenant Jerry that emerged then was the Mother counterpart.. the English words Rawlings on behalf of an Armed of Ghana Solidarity Party. While the . . CALAMITY and BUL Y [sic.] are the Forces Revolutionary Council party was primarily intended to origin of CALA BUL L Y. Its female (AFRC), which climaxed in the provide an avenue for women to . . . counterpart KAL A BUL E derived destruction of 's Makola exert political leadership, its aims from two Ewe words KALE and Market No. 1 on August 18,1979. extended to specific social and BUL U. KALE means "overbearing The evidence suggests that economic reforms. Ghanaian women are regarded (and strength and braveryr'such as shown regard themselves) as equal with After General Acheampong's by David in tearing lions into pieces men, their economic power being overthrow in Julv 1978. the Akuffo and overpowering and killing clearly demonstrated through their government made numerous official Goliath. BUL U means "one who can control of trade and food supplies. inquiries into corrupt practices or be made a fool, or who can make "kalabu1e"-a term coined by fools of others through cheating, Given the extreme shortages that Ghanaian author Joyce Addo to grabbing deceit and tricks.". . . prevailed at the time, it is not describe a range of illegal activities. Calabully has brought a great surprising that traders were under These commissions put most of the misfortune, deep distress and severe attack by the public and the blame for Ghana's economic disaster to Ghanaians as individuals military, and fairly extreme maladies on officialdom, particularly and to the country as a State. (July punishments were meted out in an the military-in other words, on 29, 1979)' attempt to eliminate hoarding and institutions controlled by men. After profiteering. That the vast majority the AFRC assumed power and One of the first "Kalabule" incidents of these traders were women meant began its "clean-up" operation, we heard about soon after arriving that women were a major target for however, not only were traders in Ghana in late June 1979 revolutionary "action." Attacks on obviously singled out for concerned a woman in Kumasi who those who control the marketplace revolutionary "action," but even the had allegedly purchased a piece of frequently accompany a revolution term "kalabule" came to be cloth at the control price and sold it and as such are not unusual. This invested with new meaning. A almost immediately for a much Report argues, however, that the writer in The Standard invented an higher price. The soldier who attack on traders during the etymology for the word which arrested her was reported to have "revolution" in Ghana had more included gender distinctions. It is asked here where she came from. significance because the traders significant to note that, according to The woman, it was said, named her were women. Men seized upon the this view, women are more powerful home village. The baby that was tied crisis as an opportunity to further and more wicked than are men: to her back was removed and she was killed with a bullet on the spot. sweeping and was bound over for 6 course simply got carried awa y by While the punishment in this case months to keep the peace greed and avarice and plundered was more extreme than most, it was (Ghanaian Times, August 3, 1979). Ghana shamelessly.. . . The not an isolated example of women "Graphic" would be the last to being "disciplined" for hoarding and We personally observed many cases advocate a preferential treatment profiteering in the marketplace. The of women being brought from the for female criminals. It is obvious following accounts in the Ghanaian market at gunpoint to military however that the types of press illustrate the severity with camps for interrogation and punishment being meted out to which women's economic "crimes" punishment. At the naval base women and publicly too, must were treated. women were laid across stacks of outrage every decent norm. If they old car tires for caning. At Burma must be flogged, need they be One woman "contractor," a Madam Camp, three women came to Margaret Domson, was given 24 stripped naked?. . . It is bad enough complain to the AFRC about having that some very few soldiers. . . strokes of the cane after a dawn raid been arbitrarily beaten by soldiers, by the military had uncovered "large indulge in such acts, but the crying their swollen heads and faces shame for the whole country is that quantities" of hoarded essential bearing mute testimony to the commodities. These included two crowds look on and cheer. (July 27, severity of their punishments. 1979) cartons of corned beef, two cartons Throughout July and August, of Omo detergent, toilet soap, reports of such "disciplinings" of The dominant position of women in whiskey, and building materials women traders continued. the market economy of West Africa (Ghanaian Times, ,1979).A is well known. In 1976, for example, later issue of the paper carried a But even the Ghana Women's it was reported that in the largest of photograph of the woman standing League for Social Advancement did Accra's 11 markets, Makola Market with the soldiers in front of her not question the justification for No. I, there were 12,000 women "hoarded" items just before she punishing the women when it traders, and even when the count was caned. The same report suggested that those guilty of included the second largest market, described the case of Madam Ofori crimes against the revolution should Makola No. 2, there were only 8 who was found guilty and similarly be sent to farms to help in the harvest rather than being male traders (Africa Women, No. 5, punished for hoarding buckets, bed 1976).The editorial notes that sheets, towels, and saucepans, administered the "unpleasant forms of punishment currently being "Besides women traders in the together with 68 cartons of markets, there were hundreds of schnapps. In both cases the meted out" (Ghanaian Times, August 18, 1979). other Ghanaian women who are quantity of hoarded items (with the also engaged in keeping shops, possible exception of the schnapps) Even when Elizabeth Ohene, the stores, and kiosks." Observing that appears to be no more than the newly appointed acting editor of the the women of Makola Market "are minimum stock required for a Daily Graphic, joined the outcry, it indeed a force to reckon with as market stall. Four other women was against the type of punishment there is a strong bond of unity were arrested in the same swoop being inflicted; she did not question among them, which makes them and it was noted that "Sources the women's guilt. rally round to protect their close to the military hinted that a interests." Africa Women in 1976 shooting range was being . . . the enterprising nature of the already regarded women as prepared.. .for the execution of Ghanaian woman has often been responsible for creating artificial persons who might be found guilty mentioned with praise.. . . It must be shortages of essential commodities of offences against the revolution by this enterprising spirit which led to and for other trading malpractices: the People's Court." The report our women assuming such powers "Market women in particular and continued by describing how 200 in the economic life of this country. traders in general have over the past women "queue contractors" It is not strange therefore that when three years been a thorn in the flesh (people who stand in line to buy the economic problems of the of both the government and the items for resale rather than for their country soared, the women came to public as a result of hoarding, own personal use) were made to lie be identified as part of the problem. profiteering, conditional sale, refusal flat on their backs facing the sun for They were the ones who, to sell, and smuggling." 15 minutes and were then given one predominant in the retail trade, stroke each before being released came to be regarded b y the public One of the AFRC's first actions was (Ghanaian Times, July 19, 1979).In as the group responsible for the high to attempt to enforce price controls Ho it was reported that 15 persons, prices. The economic realities of the Market women in particular and traders including women, were given a 4 day forced many of them into new in general have over the past years been total of 324 lashes of the cane in fields and we saw the emergence of a thorn in the flesh of both the public, and 3 other women were female contractors and government and the public as a result of sentenced to sweep the streets of straightforward crooks.. . women alleged hoarding, profiteering, the town for one week, while a sought avenues fair and foul to look conditional sale, refusal to sell, and fourth woman had to do a day's after homes. Many of them of smuggling! ... --

Whrn tho through policing the market with in Accra. Speaking to them in market with which they were all too soldiers. That there were almost no English, Ga, Twi, and Ewe, he said, familiar. On one occasion, however, foodstuffs available in the market "It is workers and you who have to Madam Allotey, speaking on behalf was blamed on the women who, in dictate the destiny of the country.. . of the Makola Women's press reports, were accused both of the entire workers and soldiers Association, attempted to remind diverting goods and of discouraging cannot do without the services of everyone that women were not the producers from selling. the food sellers." He stressed that only culprits. She appealed to the they must therefore "not do government to take steps against As usual, t/~e"makola " mammies anything that would make the the managers of commercial and their accomplices have gone to workers go hungry," that the power houses-all of whom were the villages with the alarming story to make revolution succeed was in men-whom she accused of being that with the soldiers checking their hands. Members of the AFRC the sources of kalabule. She also prices, it is unsafe for anybody to addressed women traders at similar called on the AFRC to educate the send foodstuffs to the markets for meetings all over the country, farmers, the producers of perishable direct sales. By such clever appealing to their loyalty on the one foodstuffs, on the aims of the methods, the greedy, get-rich- hand and delivering a stern message revolution so that the market quick traders could soon with the other: price controls must women would get foodstuffs at monopolize the foodstuffs trade be observed or offenders would be reasonable prices to sell. She also instead of leaving it in the hands of publicly flogged.2 cited the high cost of transport from the farmers themselves. (Ghanaian the farms as another factor in the Times, June 25,1979) Since hoarding was very arbitrarily unreasonable price of food, and, defined, the presence of the military This notion that there could be a indeed, the AFRC did attempt to in the market and the continual take steps to reduce these costs. food distribution system which did arrests and punishments caused not require the market women (or food supplies to diminish even Still, the attack on women as the anyone else) as intermediaries, is further. The AFRC was finally chief cause of food shortages and echoed in a Ghanaian Times convinced that it would have to interview with a local farmer. He high prices continued. Their withdraw the soldiers from the asserted that "Farmers in the rural seeming ability to elude the market to entice the women to areas are prepared to contribute regulations inflamed the public. cooperate in selling food. But since their quota towards the general When it was found that women the stark reality was that there was exercise in bringing down prices but were selling food during almost no food in the country (the so long as the market queens unconventional hours, Lieutenant harvest had barely begun), the continue to deny us the right to sell Edward Awuah visited food women found themselves caught in direct to consumers there is very marketing centers and announced an insoluble situation. little that can be done to bring down that henceforth 6 A.M. would be the prices of foodstuffs" (, There were few opportunities for hour for beginning sales. He said it 1979). women to explain to the angry had come to the notice of the public the complexities of the authorities that because the food The revolution thus provided an opportunity for attacking women's traditional dominance in the marketplace. Justification for the attacks was based on a simplistic view of a market system: there was no food in the market because women had so intimidated the producers they would not sell. The solution was equally simplistic: producers should sell directly to the consumer so as to eliminate the middlemen, the women traders. At the same time, the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council was keenly aware of the importance of women traders in the distribution network. On June 25 Rawlings addressed a crowd of over 10,000 market women

Women, predominant in the retail trade, came to be regarded by the public as the group responsible for the high prices. sellers wanted to sell their wares at social institutions, the latter The public was informed that, with cut-throat prices, they did so at requiring that the AFRC control the effect at 8 A.M. the next morning, dawn and left for their homes as widespread intimidation of the Saturday, traders would no longer quickly as possible (Daily Graphic, public by the military. That this be allowed to sell nonperishable July 13, 1979). But after-dark balance became seriously disturbed goods at Makola markets (the trading continued and the AFRC in mid-August, with at least one implication being that food would organized meetings to warn women faction of the military becoming still be for sale). Women were that it was aware of their activities restive and demanding more direct advised to collect their wares by 6 and that anyone caught would be revolutionary "action," is illustrated A.M. on Saturday: failure to comply treated as "an enemy of the State" by the spectacular and violent would result in "severe" (Ghanaian Times, July 27, 1979). destruction of Makola Market No. 1 punishment. The warnings were in Accra. Once again the traders Addressing another public meeting, published in the newspapers on (women) were the scapegoats. an AFRC spokesman maintained Saturday and repeated throughout that women were partly to blame for Makola Market had already been the day on the radio. the economic chaos which had identified as the "nerve center" of But the soldiers had already taken precipitated the revolution and all malpractices. up their positions around the market "advised them to desist from using It later came to light that Makola on Friday evening and tanks and their 'lustrous feminine positions to Number One was the center which bulldozers arrived early on Saturday influence men in high positions' " dictates prices of foodstuffs in morning. By Saturday evening (Daily Graphic, August 7, 1979). In Accra. Makola Market No. 1 had been Kumasi, the AFRC urged students demolished. That the situation could to "be bold to advise the trader to According to the women whenever easily have become even more sell her wares at stipulated prices, the middlemen brought in the violent is suggested by the remarks adding that where their advice failed foodstuffs, they would consult of one driver to a journalist who was they [the students] should organize certain women at Makola Number standing by: themselves and sell the goods to the One, known as "market queens"on This military driver said that there public" (Ghanaian Times, August 7, how much to sell the produce. Until was really going to be action now, 1979). the "queens" had been consulted, and that after the Makola operation they claimed, the foodstuffs would Throughout the period of AFRC rule they were going to begin moving not be distributed among the sellers. it was generally recognized that (Ghanian Times, July 27,1979) from house to house in Accra in Rawlings was a moderating order to deal with all the hoarders influence on more radical elements It was thus no surprise when an and profiteers. He said they had a within the military. A delicate AFRC release broadcast on radio special map of Accra and that ''we balance had to be maintained and television on the evening of know where to move to." ( West between satisfying the revolutionary August 17 noted that certain Africa, August 27, 1979) fervor expressed in the "clean-up" persons were still known to be The event clearly served two exercise and preserving existing hoarding goods at Makola markets. functions: it released the mounting tensions within the ranks of the military who were dissatisfied with the degree of revolutionary zeal being manifested by the AFRC; and it destroyed an important symbol of economic exploitation, an action which the public clearly welcomed. In a chat with newsmen during an inspection tour of the market,. . . Flt. L t. Rawlings said the Council had been forced to take the decision because traders had turned deaf ears to appeals requesting them to bring their goods for sale at control prices. Flt. L t. Rawlings who rode a police motor bicycle to the market was cheered b y a teeming crowd

Women were regarded as responsible for creating artificial shortages of essential commodities and for other trading malpractices. which had gathered to witness the the country can be sold out by these power of the women traders. It was historical event. (Daily Graphic, traders [i.e., the women]" (Daily said that when the bulldozers August 20,1979) Graphic, August 20, 1979). ground their way through the rubble of the market, soldiers unearthed The demolition of Makola Market Selling locally grown perishable underground chambers containing was intended to be a lesson to all foodstuffs has been a traditional live snakes, charms, fetishes, and persons engaged in economic prerogative of Ghanaian women and other symbols of women's ability to malpractices in the country, for the moment at least, men do not control supernatural forces. In an according to remarks of other appear to be prepared to challenge editorial entitled "The Snake Affair" military personnel as reported in the it. But nowhere in West Africa are the Ghanaian Times related: same editorial. One AFRC member women's economic activities limited expressed the hope that market to trading in food: their businesses The hundreds of people who left women all over Ghana would take a include the sale of manufactured their homes and converged at the cue from what had happened at goods, both locally produced and Makola Square to witness the much Makola and refrain from their imported, and it is here they talked about demolition of the "nefarious activities." The soldier compete directly with men in an famous 'bower house of the who had led the operation said it economic activity where the economy," had one aim in mind: to was the AFRC's aim to stamp out, greatest profits are to be realized. confirm or deny rumours that items once and for all, hoarding and Seen in this context, destruction of like air-letter cards had been selling above control prices because the Makola Market is consistent hoarded there. The stalls were unscrupulous traders were hiding with a number of regulations broken into by the soldiers and the their wares, waiting for the imposed in recent years which have rumours were confirmed. But one establishment of a civilian regime so had the effect of excluding women thing the spectators did not prepare that they could once more embark from trade in manufactured goods. themselves to face were "objects" upon "kalabule." "Let them be These include limiting the sale of of the "other world." warned," he said, "that they will be certain items to license-holders and sorry if they revert to their evil granting monopolies over the sale of The "Times " was told of practices." It was disclosed later other merchandise to state-owned manifestations of the devil while the that the AFRC intended to replace companies. Men control both the demolition exercise was on. There the market with a modern car park, state-owned enterprises and was, for instance, the tale told of a and some even suggested that the license-granting authority. The snake which turned into a mouse women who had been trading in market women's response has been with its young ones, and another Makola No. 1 should not be given ingenious circumvention of the which vomited money in C50 new stalls in other markets. regulations and continued denominations. (August 20,1979) participation in the lucrative trade in Evidence for the argument that me)I Men's belief in women's control nonperishable commodities. seized upon the political crisis as an over supernatural powers, together opportunity to eliminate women as Supernatural explanations were with their experience of women's economic competitors may be even trotted out to explain the ability to manipulate them through found in the distinction Flt. Lt. Rawlings made between those selling perishable or nonperishable items. Rawlings said at the time that traders would be "screened" and genuine ones allocated stalls elsewhere to sell perishable commodities. (Recall also that the first announcements concerning Makola Market had been directed against those selling nonperishable commodities.) In the course of the razing of the market, Captain Boakye Djan was reported to have expressed great shock at finding a bale of Ghana flag for sale at Makola and to have remarked, "If the Ghana flag is being sold at the market then

That there were almost no foodstuffs available was blamed on women, who were accused of diverting goods, and of discouraging producers from selling. "feminine wiles" (a pervasive theme by commenting that it was the Anybody who commits an offence in African literature), not only women who were the cause of all should be ready to damn the provided men an explanation of the suffering in Ghana and it was consequence. 1do not see any women's dominance in the market high time they paid for their reason why Mrs. Odumala should place but also a justification for the misdeeds. not be executed. After all she had use of violence against them. the aim of harming those poor Other women also appear to tenants before hiring armed thugs. It could justifiably be argued that on sanction punishment without Let her suffer for her sins. As a many occasions during Ghana's concern for gender, judging by the woman in particular she should be a economic "housecleaning," the responses to the death-by-firing- good example to others. AFRC failed to "make the squad sentence passed on a Mrs. punishment fit the crime." Certainly Odumala in Lagos, Nigeria, after she Examples of women playing the soldiers policing the markets was found guilty of armed robbery. powerful economic and political used an extremely arbitrary Although her sentence was later roles in West Africa are not confined definition of hoarding, to cite just commuted to 14 years' to Ghana or to contemporary times. one example. For the "Western" imprisonment, interviews Colonial history is replete with observer, however, there is another conducted by Drum magazine incidents in which women took question raised by the Ghana () indicate that Nigerian initiative to protect their interests. In experience-should women be women from all walks of life did not the 1929 Women's War, for spared the same extreme in this case support special example, thousands of lgbo women punishments that are given men treatment for their sex. Two in Nigeria organized a protest guilty of the same offense? In responses are illustrative of the against the imposition of a tax: in Ghana, although there were some opinions of many who were the subsequent confrontations who protested that women should interviewed. One, a "high executive many were killed by the police and be treated with greater deference officer," said, soldiers in retaliatory punitive than men, this does not seem to expeditions (organized, it should be have been a very general sentiment. She deserves no option of fine or noted, by the British administrators imprisonment. She should be rather than lgbo men)3 At one point, extremely shocked by executed straightawa y. This year seeing women treated so roughly by being an international year of the In recent times, too, action by soldiers, we put the question child when women in particular are women has resulted in a dramatic directly: "Don't these soldiers have expected to show good examples political and economic change. The sisters and mothers? How can these for our children to emulate.. . this is recent liberalization of Sekou young men be so cruel to women?" a disgrace to the woman's race. She TourB's Guinea, for example, was Our male audience, however, was must be shot to serve as a deterrent precipitated, at least in part, by interested only in hearing the details to other women. women's demands for economic of how these "guilty" women had freedom. On August 27, 1977, after been apprehended and they Another woman, described as an a policeman had attempted to seize dismissed our misdirected sympathy African herb seller, put it this way: the goods of a woman who was illegally selling tomato paste which had been smuggled in from Sierra Leone, a large crowd of women from the Conakry market demonstrated against police interference in their trading activities. The ~olicereacted with force and somk of the women were shot and killed. The women marched to the President's house, carrying their dead, and demanded immediate change in the economic restrictions that were part of the "revolution." Their spokesmen reminded President Tour6 that it was the women and the poor for whom he should be fighting, but that it was they who were in fact struggling and suffering. Toure was Stallholders are the most powerful group of market women in terms of fheir influence on prices. reported to have been "shattered" In Togo, too, women traders are an elsewhere in West Africa, most of by this confrontation, for indeed it essential link in the economy. Called the women have no formal was the women, together with the "Mama Benz," the market women education. As the report in West youth, who were the principal pillars are said to be "courted as much by Africa attests, this seems to have of the Guinean revolution. After the the state as by major importing little effect on their trading skills. march he ordered that the dreaded firms, usually Europeans" (West Many of the Mama Benz are economic police be withdrawn from Africa, October I,1979). They illiterate and can only sign cheques the market and that the women be "serve as the driving force between written out for them by the granted permission to deal in the importing companies, which supplying firm. They also have little imported goods (nonperishable have no infrastructure in the country idea of accounting, market research commodities). Further liberalization and the traditional retail outlet. If or annual reports. Their skill is in of Guinea's political and economic they did not exist, they would have their natural business instinct. Few system has proceeded from that to be invented." Like their lose money. event. counterparts in Ghana, Guinea, and Indeed, illiteracy can even be regarded as helpful in their successful evasion of modern state regulations. For example, the same report noted that, in Togo, "Apart from low-cost trading licences and a one percent tax on purchases.. . the Mamas pay no taxes. To do so they would have to keep accounts and make an annual return." Still, these same women are able to raise letters of credit, negotiate loans, and organize supplies with wholesalers. Similarly, Anna Dodoo, President of the Market Women's Association of Ghana, responding to a question about how she managed her business without knowing how to read or write, explained, I have worked with foreign companies for a long time and this has enabled me to read figures on receipts. 1 manage to recognize figures so that no one would cheat me. 1 also speak and understand English. However, I have employed an accounts clerk for my business. He sees to all the financial aspects of the business and once in a while we go through the books together. (Africa Woman, July-August 1976) In the course of her travels in West Africa in the 1950s, Elspeth Huxley also observed the dominance of women in the marketplace, noting that "Stallholders are the most powerful group of market women in terms of their influence on prices and their control over who is allowed to trade in the market." She also commented on their business

Ghanaian women, far from being spiritless and down trodden, are regarded and regard themselves as equal with men. acumen: "Nearly all the mammies who only happened also to be left Accra women fighting to hold 6 are illiterate and carry in their heads women suggests that, far from onto their economic independence. being "spiritless and downtrodden," intricate multiple sums.The trading In short, the deteriorating status of Ghanaian women are regarded as firms have no security beyond the African women is bound up with the equal with men. But leaving the woman's reputation; often they do disruption of African society as a argument here begs the question of not even know their address. Yet it whole, dating back to the how it is that women hold such a is the rarest thing in the world for imposition, during colonial times, of dominant role in the market one of them to defauk"4 In less a social structure based upon economy and ignores the emphasis complimentary terms, she describes stratification by sex and class. As placed on gender during the Yoruba market women in Nigeria: the continuing process of "housecleaning." As a focus for "These women would sell their Westernization progressively limits hostility and aggression, women mother's milk at a profit."5 the range of women's activities, the were, in this case "more equal" than *X**f percentage of total economic men. activity represented by the The events that occurred in Ghana We would argue that the attack on marketplace decline^.^ women during the Rawling's between June 4 and September 24, An example from Sierra Leone 1979, when the AFRC handed over revolution may also be understood clearly illustrates the process. Until the reins of government to Hilla as part of a long process which has very recently women controlled the Limann and the People's National been directed toward narrowing the sale . fish caught by local economic field in which women can Party, might be considered less a fishermen, who use nets and effectively compete with men. revolution than an outbreak of civil canoes. Fresh fish was available During the colonial period, women's unrest, which was first contained by only from these traders who sold in dominant role in agricultural the overthrow of the Supreme the market or at the seaside. production was undermined by Military Council and the executions Women also controlled the sale of Europeans who were blinded by a that took place in June and was smoked fish. Now there are a then channeled by the AFRC's belief in the superiority of men in number of frozen fish shops in "housecleaning" exercise. Such an farming and who lacked the Freetown which are owned by a analysis is supported by the fact that imagination to recognize the Lebanese who has hired Russian it was those who controlled the traditional economic and political trawlers to supply the catch at a marketplace who were the main importance of women in African price that gives him a competitive targets for the pent-up rage of the societies. To survive, women found advantage. Moreover, the fish in the average person. it necessary to find some other shops is already cleaned, filleted, sphere of economic activity which As one person put it: "Ordinary and neatly packaged in plastic. would enable them to earn income Market women cannot compete people do not understand banks and to meet their responsibilities in areas multinational corporations. What financially with such an operation traditionally assigned to them: their nor cou!d they ever hope to acquire they know is places like Makola and success in the retail trade how hard it is." ( West Africa, the capital to embark on such throughout West Africa is evidence ventures themselves. August 27,1979) of their skills and adaptability. It is tempting to argue that a major It was in the market, where one The coming of independence to struggled to buy one's daily food, aspect of the appeal of Western African colonies did not radically institutions to the West African man where all the costs of Ghana's alter conditions for women; rather is the edge they give him in his institutionalized ills were finally the process of deterioration of their competition with women. On the passed on to the defenseless status has continued and may even common citizen. That so much of plus side, however, West African be accelerating. Writing of the Ga women are surely better described the "housecleaning" was devoted women traders in Accra, Nancy as "a force to be reckoned with" to the marketplace does suggest, Hafkin and Edna Bay concluded than "spiritless and downtrodden," however, failure to understand the that, regarding themselves and seen by fundamental institutional changes As the male dominated modern others as equal with men. which would be required to effect real reform. commercial sector has grown.. . increased importation of () The importance of the marketplace manufactured products has reduced as the focus of the general suffering cooperation among women and of the Ghanaian public may be a between spouses. Trade capital has sufficient explanation of the rage been increasingly difficult to amass, and violence directed against the and the result of Western education women traders who dominated it. If has been a reduction in the scale of that is so then the severity of the business among traders. The punishments inflicted on traders deteriorating eionornic situation has NOTES

1. For background on the period, mansions and big names you seek 5. lbid, p. 181 see my "Politics in Ghana, 1978" are vanities," this ruler warned 6. Nancy J. Hafkin and Edna G. I BHB-3-'781 AUFS Reports, No. 49, them. Bay, Women in Africa - Studies in 1978; and "Ghana's Troubled 3. Judith Van Allen, "'Sitting on a Social and Economic Change, Transition to Civilian Government" Man': Colonialism and the Lost Stanford University Press: Stanford, I BHB-7-'791 AUFS Reports, No. 48, Political Institutions of lgbo 1979. California, 1976, p. 17. Women," Canadian Journalof 2. At one meeting called by a African Studies, 6, No. 2, 1972. 7. Sidney W. Mintz, "Men, Women and Trade," Comparative Studies in traditional ruler, women were again 4. Elspeth Huxley, Four Guineas- urged to bring their hidden goods Society and History, 13, 1971. A Journey Through West Africa, out to the market and to sell at The Reprint Society: , p. reasonable prices. They were 92, 1954. admonished to think less about how to amass wealth overnight. "The AUFS Reports by Barbara Harrell-Bond

BHB-7-'79 "Ghana's Troubled Transition to BHB-2-'79 "Africa's Dependency and the Civilian Government" Remedies" . This Report reviews events from The 4th International Congress of January 1, 1979 up to the days African Studies just preceding the AFRC (Armed The 4th lnternational Congress of Forces Revolutionary Council) African Studies, convened in coup in June, an event which re- Zaire in December 1978, analyzed flected the extraordinary condi- the multifaceted phenomenon of tions of poverty and frustration "dependency." The Congress Ghanaian citizens have long en- resolutions reveal Africanists' dured. acute concern with problems of the continent. BH B-6-'79 "The Unofficial Urban Courts in Freetown" BHB-1-'79 "ECOWAS: The Economic Com- Part IV: The Types of Cases munity of West African States" The indigenous legal system as The Economic Community of applied in the unofficial courts West African States seeks to rests on the premise that man is a create a viable, integrated eco- social animal and his actions nomic unit out of a subregion very always affect others. The concern rich in natural resources but poor for justice goes far beyond puni- in capital. The 16 member coun- tive considerations; rather, the tries differ dramatically in area, goal is to restore social harmon y. clima te and topography, culture, BHB-5'79 "The Unofficial Urban Courts in history, population, and economic Freetown" potential. Part Ill: Organization, Procedures, BHB-3-'78 "Politics in Ghana, 1978" and Financial Practices In March 1978 Ghana held a refer- In Freetown's unofficial courts, rendum on union government and presided over by tribal headmen, in November it lifted the ban on arbitration and reconciliation take political party activity. But the precedence over determination of attempt to reintroduce civilian guilt and responsibility. rule is plagued by economic prob- BHB-4-'79 "The Unofficial Urban Courts in lems of long-standing. Freetown" Part II: Conditions of Life and the BHB-2-'78 "Freedom of the Press in Nigeria: Culture of the Urban Poor The Debate" Part 11 (of the four-part series) de- The debate over press freedom in scribes the character of social re- Nigeria has raised such issues as lations and other aspects of the government financial control, bias indigenous culture of the urban in the news, ethics or moral code poor. Three Freetown residents for the press, national security, report their observations of con- and the more difficult question, ditions that produce the need for who is competent to define 'pub- litigation. lic interest. " BHB-3-'79 "The Unofficial Urban Courts in BHB-I-'78 "A Window on an Outside World": Freetown" Tourism as Development in the Part I: The Institutionalization of Gambia Tribal Headmen Promotion of tourism as it is Freetown's unofficial courts, pre- occurring in the Gambia raises sided over by leaders of the vari- issues at the core of many "ex- ous ethnic communities, admin- pert" assumptions regarding the ister "customary" law and follow objectives and requirements for procedures characteristic of the Third World developments. indigenous legal system. Although Papua-New Guinea's effort to illegal, they are a practical re- pursue "another development" is sponse to the unmet legalneeds examined as an alternative orien- of the urban majority. tation.