MS 006 Wood Based Composite Materials FINAL

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MS‐006 Wood Based Composite Materials

Instructor: Ivan Jelic, Ph.D., P.E., LEED AP, MIStructE, CEng Course ID: MS‐006 PDH Hours: 3 PDH

PDH Star | T / F: (833) PDH‐STAR (734‐7827) | E: [email protected]

CHAPTER 11

Wood-Based Composite Materials Panel Products, Glued-Laminated Timber, Structural Composite Lumber, and Wood–Nonwood Composite Materials Nicole M. Stark, Research Chemical Engineer Zhiyong Cai, Supervisory Research Materials Engineer Charles Carll, Research Forest Products Technologist

The term composite is being used in this chapter to describe Contents any wood material adhesively bonded together. Wood-based Scope 11–2 composites encompass a range of products, from fiberboard Conventional Wood-Based Composite Panels 11–2 to laminated beams. Wood-based composites are used for a number of nonstructural and structural applications in prod- Elements 11–2 uct lines ranging from panels for interior covering purposes Adhesives 11–3 to panels for exterior uses and in furniture and support struc- Additives 11–5 tures in buildings (Fig. 11–1). Maloney (1986) proposed Plywood 11–5 a classification system to logically categorize the array of wood-based composites. The classification in Table 11-1 Oriented Strandboard 11–7 reflects the latest product developments. Particleboard 11–10 The basic element for wood-based composites is the fiber, Fiberboard 11–12 with larger particles composed of many fibers. Elements Speciality Composite Materials 11–15 used in the production of wood-based composites can be Performance and Standards 11–15 made in a variety of sizes and shapes. Typical elements in- Glulam Timber 11–17 clude fibers, particles, flakes, veneers, laminates, or lumber. Figure 11–2 shows the variation and relative size of wood Advantages 11–17 elements. Element size and geometry largely dictate the Types of Glulam Combinations 11–17 product manufactured and product performance. Perfor- Standards and Specifications 11–18 mance standards are in place for many conventional wood- Manufacture 11–19 based composite products (Table 11–2). Structural Composite Lumber 11–20 A variety of wood sources are appropriate for use in wood- Laminated Veneer Lumber 11–21 based composites. Wood with localized defects (such as Parallel Strand Lumber 11–21 knots) can often be used effectively in wood-based compos- Laminated Strand Lumber and Oriented Stand ites. Reducing wood with defects to wood elements miti- Lumber 11–21 gates the influence of these characteristics in the manufactured products. Recovered wood from construction waste or Advantages and Uses 11–21 industrial manufacturing processes, and wood derived from Standards and Specifications 11–22 small-diameter timber, forest residues, or exotic and inva- Wood–Nonwood Composite Materials 11–22 sive species, may also be effectively used in wood-based Inorganic-Bonded Composite Materials 11–23 composites. Because natural wood properties vary among species, between trees of the same species, and between Wood–Thermoplastic Composite Materials 11–25 pieces from the same tree, solid wood cannot match com- Literature Cited 11–26 posite products in the uniformity and range of properties that can be controlled.

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Table 11–1. Classification of wood- based compositesa Veneer-based material Plywood Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) Parallel-strand lumber (PSL) Laminates Glue-laminated timbers Overlayed materials Laminated wood–nonwood compositesb Multiwood composites (COM-PLYc) Composite material Fiberboard (low-, medium-, or high-density) Cellulosic fiberboard Hardboard Particleboard Figure 11–1. Wood-based composites used in the new Waferboard Centennial Research Facility at the Forest Products Flakeboard Laboratory. Glulam timbers support composite I-joists Oriented strandboard (OSB) and plywood sheathing. (Photo by Steve Schmieding, Forest Products Laboratory.) Laminated strand lumber (LSL) Oriented strand lumber (OSL) Wood–nonwood composites these categories, and the constraints of this chapter necessi- Wood fiber–polymer composites Inorganic-bonded composites tate that the discussion be general and brief. References are provided for more detailed information. aAdapted from Maloney (1986). bPanels or shaped materials combined with nonwood materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass. Conventional Wood-Based cRegistered trademark of APA–The Engineered Wood Association. Composite Panels Conventional wood-based composites are manufactured products made primarily from wood with only a few percent Scope resin and other additives. A useful way to classify conven- This chapter gives an overview of the general types and tional wood-based composites based on specific gravity, composition of wood-based composite products and the ma- density, raw material, and processing methods is shown in terials and processes used to manufacture them. It describes Figure 11–3, which presents an overview of the most com- conventional wood-based composite panels and structural mon types of commercial panel products discussed in this composite materials intended for general construction, chapter and a quick reference to how these composite materials compare with solid wood from the standpoint of den- interior use, or both. This chapter also describes wood– nonwood composites. Mechanical properties of these types sity and general processing considerations. The raw material of composites are presented and discussed in Chapter 12. classifications of fibers, particles, and veneers are shown on Because wood-based composites come in a variety of forms, the left y-axis. Specific gravity and density are shown on we briefly describe several of the most common commercial the top and bottom horizontal axes (x-axes), respectively. products. The right y-axis, wet and dry processes, describes in general terms the processing method used to produce a particular This chapter is organized into three sections. The first sec- product. Selection of wood elements, adhesives, and pro- tion covers conventional wood-based composite panels. cessing techniques all contribute to product performance. Materials, adhesives, and additives common to conventional Figure 11–4 shows examples of some commercial wood- wood-based composites are summarized. Specific products based composites. addressed include panel products such as plywood, oriented strandboard, particleboard, and fiberboard. Specialty Elements composites are also discussed. The second section covers The primary component of wood-based composites is the structural composite lumber, including glued-laminated wood element, often 94% or more by mass. Common ele- timber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, ments for conventional wood-based composites include laminated strand lumber, and oriented strand lumber. Wood– veneers, strands, particles, and fibers. The physical charac- nonwood composites are discussed in the third section, teristics of common elements can be seen in Figure 11–5. including inorganic-bonded composites and wood–thermo- Properties of composite materials can be changed by chang- plastic composites. Books have been written about each of ing the size and geometry of the elements and by combining, reorganizing, or stratifying elements.

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Table 11–2. Commercial product or performance standards for wood-based composites Product category Applicable standard Name of standard Source Plywood PS 1–07 Voluntary product standard PS 1–07 NIST 2007 construction and industrial plywood PS 2–04 Voluntary product standard PS 2–04 NIST 2004 performance standard for wood-based structural-use panels HP–1–2004 Voluntary product standard HPVA 2004 HP–1–2004 hardwood and decorative plywood Oriented strandboard PS 2–04 Voluntary product standard PS 2–04 NIST 2004 (OSB) performance standard for wood-based structural-use panels Particleboard ANSI A 208.1–2009 Particleboard standard CPA 2009a Fiberboard ANSI A 208.2–2009 MDF standard CPA 2009b ANSI A 135.4–2004 Basic hardboard CPA 2004a ANSI A 135.5–2004 Pre-finished hardboard paneling CPA 2004b ANSI A 135.6–2006 Hardboard siding CPA 2006 ASTM C 208–08a Cellulosic fiberboard ASTM 2008c Glued-laminated ANSI/AITC 190.1 American National Standard for Wood AITC 2007a timber (glulam) Products—structural glued-laminated timber Structural composite ASTM D 5456–07 Standard specification for evaluation ASTM 2008b lumber (including of structural composite lumber products laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL), and parallel strand lumber (PSL))

Adhesives industrial practice, used to attain adequate resin cure with- Bonding in most conventional wood-based composites out greatly extending press time. Significant heat exposure is provided by thermosetting (heat-curing) adhesive associated with pressing of phenolic-bonded composites resins. Chapter 9 provides a more thorough discussion of commonly results in a noticeable reduction in their hygro- thermoset adhesive resins. Commonly used resin–binder scopicity. Cured phenolic resins remain chemically stable systems include phenol-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde, at elevated temperatures. Their bonds also are sometimes melamine-formaldehyde, and isocyanate. referred to as being “boil-proof” because of their ability to maintain composite dimensional and mechanical properties Phenol-Formaldehyde under wet conditions. The inherently darker color of PF res- Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins are typically used in the in compared with other resins may make them aesthetically manufacture of construction plywood and oriented strand- unsuitable for product applications such as interior paneling board where exposure to weather during construction is a and furniture. concern. Other moisture exposure situations, such as tem- Urea-Formaldehyde porary weather exposure, occasional plumbing leaks, or wet foot traffic, may also necessitate the use of PF resins. PF Urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins are typically used in the resins are commonly referred to as phenolic resins. Phenolic manufacture of products used in interior applications, pri- resins are relatively slow-curing compared with other ther- marily particleboard and medium-density fiberboard (MDF), mosetting resins. In hot-pressed wood-based composites, because moisture exposure leads to a breakdown of the use of phenolic resin necessitates longer press times and bond-forming reactions. Excessive heat exposure will also higher press temperatures. Hot-stacking of pressed material result in chemical breakdown of cured UF resins, therefore shortly after emergence from the press is a fairly common UF-bonded panels are typically cooled after emergence

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Figure 11–2. Basic wood elements, from largest to smallest (Kretschmann and others 2007). from the press. Advantages of UF resins include lower cur- pMDI are required to take special precautionary protective ing temperatures than PF resins and ease of use under a measures because the uncured resin can result in chemical variety of curing conditions. UF resins are the lowest cost sensitization of persons exposed to it. Cured pMDI resin thermosetting adhesive resins. They offer light color, which poses no recognized health concerns. often is a requirement in the manufacture of decorative Bio-Based Adhesives products. However, the release of formaldehyde from products bonded with UF is a growing health concern. Bio-based adhesives, primarily protein glues, were widely used prior to the early 1970s in construction plywood. In the Melamine-Formaldehyde mid-1970s, they were supplanted by PF adhesives, on the Melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resins are used primarily basis of the superior bond durability provided by phenolics. for decorative laminates, paper treating, and paper The move toward “green” products has led to a renewed coating. They are typically more expensive than PF resins. interest in bio-based adhesives. Several soy-protein-based MF resins may, despite their high cost, be used in bonding resin systems, with bond durabilities similar to those pro- conventional wood-based composites. MF resins are often vided by PF resins, have recently been developed and com- used in combination with UF. MF–UF resins are used when mercialized. Durable adhesive systems may also be derived an inconspicuous (light color) adhesive is needed and when from tannins or from lignin. Tannins are natural phenol greater water resistance than can be attained with UF resin compounds that are present in the bark of a number of tree is required. species. The tannins can be extracted from bark, modified, and reacted with formaldehyde to produce an intermedi- Isocyanates ate polymer that is a satisfactory thermosetting adhesive. The isocyanate wood adhesive is a polymeric methylene di- Lignin-based resins have also been developed from spent isocyanate (pMDI). It is used as an alternative to PF resin, pulping liquor, which is generated when wood is pulped for primarily in composite products fabricated from strands. paper or chemical feedstocks. In the manufacture of wet- pMDI resins are typically more costly than PF resins but process fiberboard, lignin, which is an inherent component have more rapid cure rates and will tolerate higher moisture of lignocellulosic material, is frequently used as binder contents in the wood source. pMDI resin is sometimes used (Suchsland and Woodson 1986), although “natural” lignin in core layers of strand-based composites, with slower- bonding is sometimes augmented with small amounts of curing PF resin used in surface layers. Facilities that use PF resin.

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Figure 11–3. Classification of wood composite panels by particle size, density, and process (Suchsland and Woodson 1986). Note that insulation board is now known as cellulosic fiberboard.

Resin Choice water resistance and dimensional stability when the board is Often a particular resin will dominate for a particular prod- wetted. Even small amounts (0.5% to 1%) act to retard the uct, but each has its advantages. Factors taken into account rate of liquid water pickup for limited time periods. These include materials to be bonded together, moisture content improved short-term water penetration properties are impor- at time of bonding, mechanical property and durability re- tant for ensuring the success of subsequent secondary gluing quirements of the composite products, anticipated end-use operations and for providing protection upon accidental wet- of the product, and resin system costs. ting of the product during and after construction. The addition of wax has practically no effect on water vapor sorption PF, UF, and pMDI resins systems are expected to remain or dimensional changes associated with changes in humid- the dominant adhesives used for bonded wood-based ity. Other additives used for specialty products include composites. However, cost and reliable availability of preservatives, moldicides, and fire retardants. Composites petrochemicals may affect the relative predominance of PF, containing additives are more thoroughly discussed in the UF, and pMDI adhesives versus bio-based adhesives. More section on Specialty Composite Materials. stringent regulation concerning emissions from formaldehyde-containing products (driven by concern over indoor air Plywood quality) may affect the continued commercial predominance Plywood is a panel product built up wholly or primarily of of UF resin in interior products. For example, the California sheets of veneer called plies. It is constructed with an odd Air Resources Board (CARB) has established formaldehyde number of layers with the grain direction of adjacent layers emission standards that cover hardwood plywood, particle- oriented perpendicular to one another. A layer can consist board, and MDF. As a result, bio-based adhesive and resin of a single ply or of two or more plies laminated with their systems may gain market share compared with petroleum- grain direction parallel. A panel can contain an odd or even based synthetic resins. number of plies but always an odd number of layers. The outside plies are called faces, or face and back plies. Inner Additives plies are plies other than the face or back plies. The outer A number of additives are used in the production of con- layers and all odd-numbered layers have their grain direc- ventional composite products. The most common additive tion oriented parallel to the long dimension of the panel. The is wax, which is used to provide products with some re- grain in even-numbered layers is perpendicular to the length sistance to liquid water absorption. In flake-, particle-, and of the panel. Inner plies whose grain direction runs parallel fiberboard products, wax emulsions provide limited-term to that of the faces are termed “centers” whereas inner plies

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Figure 11–4. Examples of various composite products. From top left, clockwise: LVL, PSL, LSL, plywood, OSB, particleboard, and fiberboard.

Plywood is also used as a component in other engineered wood products and systems in applications such as prefabricated I-joists, box beams, stressed-skin panels, and panel- ized roofs. Characteristics The properties of plywood depend on the quality of the veneer plies, the order of layers, the adhesive used, and the degree to which bonding conditions are controlled during production. The durability of the adhesive-to-wood bond depends largely on the adhesive used but also on control of bonding conditions and on veneer quality. The grade of the panel depends upon the quality of the veneers used, particu- Figure 11–5. Common wood elements used in wood- larly of the face and back. based composites from top left, clockwise: shavings, sawdust, fiber, large particles, wafers, and strands. Plywood panels have significant bending strength both along the panel and across the panel, and the differences in strength and stiffness along the panel length versus across whose grain direction runs perpendicular to that of the faces the panel are much smaller than those differences in solid are termed “crossbands.” To distinguish the number of plies wood. Plywood also has excellent dimensional stability (individual sheets of veneer in a panel) from the number along its length and across its width. Minimal edge-swelling of layers (number of times the grain orientation changes), makes plywood a good choice for adhesive-bonded tongue- panels are sometimes described as three-ply, three-layer or and-groove joints, even where some wetting is expected. four-ply, three-layer, etc. The center layer may be veneer, Unlike most panels fabricated from particles, it undergoes lumber, particleboard, or fiberboard; however, all-veneer minimal irreversible thickness swelling if wetted. The alter- construction is most common in construction and industrial nating grain direction of its layers makes plywood resistant plywood. to splitting, allowing fasteners to be placed very near the edges of a panel. In uses where internal knotholes and voids Plywood panels are used in various applications, including may pose a problem, such as in small pieces, plywood can construction sheathing, furniture, and cabinet panels. be ordered with a solid core and face veneers.

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Classes of Plywood Two exposure classes of hardwood and decorative plywood Two classes of plywood are commonly available, covered are recognized by ANSI/HPVA HP–1–2004, Exterior and by separate standards: (a) construction and industrial ply- Interior. The standard actually lists two different Exterior wood and (b) hardwood and decorative plywood. classes, Technical and Type I, but the bond performance requirements for these classes, as determined by test proce- Most construction and industrial plywood used in the United dures outlined in the standard, are the same. States is produced domestically, and U.S. manufacturers export some material. The bulk of construction and indus- Plywood Grades trial plywood is used where performance is more important Plywood grades may indicate the intended use, a type of than appearance. However, some grades of construction and surface treatment, or the grades of the face and back ve- industrial plywood are made with faces selected primarily neers, and in some cases, a combination of these. Agencies for appearance and are used either with clear natural finishes that provide quality certification services for plywood mills or lightly pigmented finishes. Construction and industrial have coined their own trademarked grade names for speci- plywood has traditionally been made from softwoods such fied end uses through proprietary product standards. Grade as Douglas-fir and southern yellow pine. However, true firs, stamps are used to identify plywood products (Figs. 11–6 western hemlock, and western pines are also used (Bowyer and 11–7). An example of plywood CARB third-party iden- and others 2007). A large number of hardwoods qualify for tification is also shown in Figure 11–7. use under the standard. PF resin is the primary adhesive type Veneer quality is a factor in construction and industrial ply- used in construction and industrial plywood. Construction wood based on visually observable characteristics. Knots, and industrial plywood is categorized by exposure capability decay, splits, insect holes, surface roughness, number of and grade using Voluntary Product Standard PS 1–07 (NIST surface repairs, and other defects are considered. Veneer 2007). species and characteristics are also a major factor in catego- Hardwood and decorative plywood is made of many dif- rization of hardwood and decorative plywood. ferent species, both in the United States and overseas. Well Specialty Plywood Panels over half of all panels used in the United States are im- ported. Hardwood plywood is normally used in applications Plywood is easily pressure-treated with waterborne preser- including decorative wall panels and furniture and cabinet vatives and fire retardants. Because plywood is not prone panels where appearance is more important than strength. to irreversible thickness swelling, its bond integrity is unaf- Most of the production is intended for interior or protected fected by pressure treatment with waterborne chemicals. uses, although a very small proportion is made with ad- Treatment is typically performed by commercial entities hesives suitable for exterior service, such as in marine ap- specializing in treatment rather than by the plywood manu- plications. A substantial portion of all hardwood plywood facturer. Treatments for plywood have been standardized is available completely finished. Hardwood and decorative (AWPA 2007a,b). This allows specification by reference to plywood is categorized by species and characteristics of a commercial standard. Special grades of plywood are pro- face veneer, bond durability, and composition of center duced for specific uses such as boat construction, concrete layers (veneer, lumber, particleboard, MDF, or hardboard) form work, or special exterior applications such as highway (HP–1–2004, HPVA 2004). signage. Exposure Capability Oriented Strandboard Construction and industrial plywood is classified as either Oriented strandboard (OSB) is an engineered structural-use Exposure 1 or Exterior in Voluntary Product Standard PS panel manufactured from thin wood strands bonded together 1–07 (NIST 2007). Exposure 1 plywood is intended for with water-resistant resin, typically PF or pMDI. It is used applications not permanently exposed to weather, whereas extensively for roof, wall, and floor sheathing in residential Exterior plywood is suitable for repeated wetting and dry- and commercial construction. The wood strands typically ing, or long-term exposure to weather. Bond quality of ply- have an aspect ratio (strand length divided by width) of at wood of either bond classification (Exposure 1 or Exterior) least 3. OSB panels are usually made up of three layers of is evaluated by the same test procedure, but a higher level strands, the outer faces having longer strands aligned in the of performance in the test procedure is required for Exterior long-direction of the panel and a core layer that is counter- plywood. The test procedure involves water saturation, boil- aligned or laid randomly using the smaller strands or fines. ing, and high-temperature exposure (in excess of boiling The orientation of different layers of aligned strands gives temperature). The majority of construction and industrial OSB its unique characteristics, including greater bending plywood sold in North America is of Exposure 1 classifica- strength and stiffness in the oriented or aligned direction. tion. Exposure 1 panels may undergo rain-wetting during Control of strand size, orientation, and layered construction building construction but will be protected from wetting allows OSB to be engineered to suit different uses. after the building is enclosed. OSB technology and the raw material used originally evolved from waferboard technology, for which aspen was

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Figure 11–6. Typical grade stamps for plywood and OSB. (Courtesy of TECO, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, and APA–The Engineered Wood Associa- tion, Tacoma, Washington. Used by permission.) the predominant wood species used. As the industry learned Manufacturing Process to control strand size, placement, and orientation, the per- To manufacture OSB, debarked logs are sliced into long, formance and utility of OSB products improved to the thin wood elements called strands. The strands are dried, point that their performance was similar to that of structural blended with resin and wax, and formed into thick, loosely plywood. As a result, product acceptance and the industry consolidated mats that are pressed under heat and pressure expanded as OSB began to replace softwood plywood in into large panels. Figure 11–8 shows an OSB manufactur- construction applications. ing process. A more detailed description of each individual Raw Materials manufacturing step follows. In North America, aspen is the predominant wood used During stranding, logs are debarked and then sent to a for OSB. Species other than aspen, such as Southern Pine, soaking pond or directly to the stranding process. Long log spruce, birch, yellow-poplar, sweetgum, sassafrass, and disk or ring stranders are commonly used to produce wood beech, are also suitable raw materials for OSB production. strands typically measuring 114 to 152 mm (4.5 to 6 in.) High-density species such as beech and birch are often long, 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) wide, and 0.6 to 0.7 mm (0.023 to mixed with low-density species such as aspen to maintain 0.027 in.) thick. Green strands are stored in wet bins and panel properties (Bowyer and others 2007). dried in a traditional triple-pass dryer, a single-pass dryer, a

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Figure 11–7. Typical grade stamps for hardwood plywood. (Courtesy of Hard- wood Plywood & Veneer Association, Reston, Virginia. Used by permission.)

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Figure 11–8. Schematic of OSB manufacturing process. (Courtesy of TECO, Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. Used by permission.) combination triple-pass/single-pass dryer, or a three-section Once the mat is formed, it is hot-pressed. Hot-pressing conveyor dryer. A recent development is a continuous chain consolidates the mat by heating it at 177 to 204 °C (350 to dryer, in which the strands are laid on a chain mat that is 400 °F), which cures the resin in 3–5 minutes. As many as mated with an upper chain mat and the strands are held in sixteen 3.7- by 7.3-m (12- by 24-ft) panels may be formed place as they move through the dryer. New drying tech- simultaneously in a multiple-opening press. A more recent niques allow the use of longer strands, reducing surface development is the continuous press which presses the mat inactivation of strands, and lowering dryer outfeed tempera- between rollers as it is conveyed. tures. Dried strands are screened and sent to dry bins. OSB Grade Marks and Product Certification Dried strands are blended with adhesive and wax in a highly OSB that has been grade marked is manufactured to comply controlled operation, with separate rotating blenders used with voluntary industry product performance standards. for face and core strands. Typically, different resin formula- Inspection or certification programs also generally require tions are used for face and core layers. Face resins may be that the quality control system of a production plant meet liquid or powdered phenolics, whereas core resins may be specified criteria. OSB panels conforming to product perfor- phenolics or isocyanates. Several different resin application mance standards are marked with grade stamps (Fig. 11–6). systems are used; spinning disk resin applicators are the most common. Particleboard The strands with adhesive applied are sent to mat formers. Particleboard is produced by mechanically reducing the Mat formers take on a number of configurations, ranging wood raw material into small particles, applying adhesive to from electrostatic equipment to mechanical devices contain- the particles, and consolidating a loose mat of the particles ing spinning disks to align strands along the panel’s length with heat and pressure into a panel product. The particle- and star-type cross-orienters to position strands across the board industry initially used cut flakes as a raw material. panel’s width. All formers use the long and narrow char- However, economic concerns prompted development of acteristic of the strand to place it between spinning disks the ability to use sawdust, planer shavings, and to a lesser or troughs before it is ejected onto a moving screen or extent, mill residues and other waste materials. To manufac- conveyor belt below the forming heads. Oriented layers of ture particleboard with good strength, smooth surfaces, and strands within the mat are dropped sequentially onto a mov- equal swelling, manufacturers ideally use a homogeneous ing conveyor. The conveyor carries the loose, layered mat raw material. into the press.

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Particleboard is typically made in layers. But unlike OSB, configurations, specifications for the ideal particle size are the faces of particleboard usually consist of fine wood par- different. For a common three-layer board, core particles are ticles and the core is made of coarser material. The result is longer and surface particles shorter, thinner, and smaller. For a smoother surface for laminating, overlaying, painting, or a five-layer board, the particles for the intermediate layer veneering. Particleboard is readily made from virtually any between surface and core are long and thin, which builds a wood material and from a variety of agricultural residues. good carrier for the fine surface and gives the boards high Low-density insulating or sound-absorbing particleboard bending strength and stiffness. Particleboard used for quality can be made from kenaf core or jute stick. Low-, medium-, furniture uses much smaller core particles. The tighter core and high-density panels can be produced with cereal straw, gives a better quality edge which allows particleboard to which has been used in North America. Rice husks are com- compete more favorably with MDF. mercially manufactured into medium- and high-density The raw materials (or furnish) do not usually arrive at the products in the Middle East. plant at a low enough moisture content for immediate use. All other things being equal, reducing lignocellulosic mate- Furnish that arrives at the plant can range from 10% to rials to particles requires less energy than reducing the same 200% dry basis moisture content. For use with liquid resins, material into fibers. However, particleboard is generally not for example, the furnish must be reduced to about 2% to 7% as strong as fiberboard because the fibrous nature of ligno- moisture content. The moisture content of particles is criti- cellulosics (that is, their high aspect ratio) is not exploited cal during hot-pressing operations and depends on whether as well. Particleboard is widely used in furniture, where it resin is to be added dry or as a solution or emulsion. The is typically overlaid with other materials for decorative moisture content of materials leaving the dryers is usually purposes. It is the predominant material used in ready-to- in the range of 4% to 8%. The main methods used to dry assemble furniture. Particleboard can also be used in floor- particles are rotary, disk, and suspension drying. A triple- ing systems, in manufactured houses, and as underlayment. pass rotary dryer consists of a large horizontal, heated, rotat- Thin panels can also be used as a paneling substrate. Since ing drum. Operating temperatures depend on the moisture most applications are interior, particleboard is usually content of the incoming furnish. The drum is set at a slight bonded with a UF resin, although PF and MF resins are angle, and material is fed into the high end and discharged sometimes used for applications requiring more moisture at the low end. A series of flights forces the furnish to flow resistance. from one end to the other three times before being discharged. The rotary movement of the drum moves the mate- Manufacturing Process rial from input to output. Manufacturing particleboard is a dry process. The steps involved in particleboard manufacturing include particle Frequently used resins for particleboard include UF and, to preparation, particle classification and drying, adhesive ap- a much lesser extent, PF, MF, and isocyanates. The type and plication, mat formation, pressing, and finishing. amount of resin used for particleboard depends on the type of product desired. Based on the weight of dry resin solids Standard particleboard plants use combinations of hogs, and ovendry weight of the particles, the overall resin content chippers, hammermills, ring flakers, ring mills, and attrition can range between 4% and 10%, but usually ranges between mills to obtain particles. Particles are classified and sepa- 6% and 9% for UF resins. The resin content of the outer lay- rated to minimize negative effect on the finished product. ers is usually higher (about 8% to 15%) than that of the core Very small particles (fines) increase particle surface area (about 4% to 8%). UF resin is usually introduced in water and thus increase resin requirements. Oversized particles solutions containing about 50% to 65% solids. Besides res- can adversely affect the quality of the final product because in, wax is added to improve short-term moisture resistance. of internal flaws in the particles. While some particles are The amount of wax ranges from 0.3% to 1% based on the classified through the use of air streams, screen classifica- ovendry weight of the particles. tion methods are the most common. In screen classification, the particles are fed over a vibrating flat screen or a series of After the particles have been prepared, they are laid into an screens. The screens may be wire cloth, plates with holes or even and consistent mat to be pressed into a panel. This is slots, or plates set on edge. Particles are typically conveyed accomplished in batch mode or by continuous formation. by mechanical means. Sometimes damp conditions are The batch system traditionally employs a caul or tray on maintained to reduce break-up of particles during which a deckle frame is placed. The mat is formed by the conveying. back-and-forth movement of a tray or hopper feeder. The production of three-layer boards requires three or more Desirable particles have a high degree of slenderness (long, forming stations. thin particles), no oversize particles, no splinters, and no dust. Depending on the manufacturing process and board In more common continuous mat-forming systems the particles are distributed in one or several layers on traveling

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Figure 11–9. Examples of grade stamps for particleboard. (Courtesy of TECO, Sun Prairie, Wiscon- sin, and Composite Panel Association, Leesburg, Virginia. Used by permission.) cauls or on a moving belt. Mat thickness is controlled volu- Fiberboard metrically. Batch-formed or continuous-formed mats are The term fiberboard includes hardboard, medium-density often pre-pressed to reduce mat height and help consolidate fiberboard (MDF), and cellulosic fiberboard. Several things the mat for pressing. differentiate fiberboard from particleboard, most notably the After pre-pressing, the mats are hot-pressed into panels. physical configuration of the wood element. Because wood Presses can be divided into platen and continuous types. is fibrous by nature, fiberboard exploits the inherent strength Further development in the industry has made possible the of wood to a greater extent than does particleboard. construction of presses for producing increasingly larger To make fibers for composites, bonds between the wood panel sizes in both single- and multi-opening presses. Both fibers must be broken. Attrition milling, or refining, is the of these types of presses can be as wide as 3.7 m (12 ft). easiest way to accomplish this. During refining, material Multi-opening presses can be as long as 10 m (33 ft), and is fed between two disks with radial grooves. As the mate- continuous presses, up to 30 m (100 ft) long. rial is forced through the preset gap between the disks, it is After pressing, panels are trimmed to obtain the desired sheared, cut, and abraded into fibers and fiber bundles. -Re length and width and to square the edges. Trim losses usu- finers are available with single- or double-rotating disks, as ally amount to 0.5% to 8%, depending on the size of the well as steam-pressurized and unpressurized configurations. panel, the process employed, and the control exercised. Refining can be augmented by steaming or chemical treat- Trimmers usually consist of saws with tungsten carbide ments. Steaming the lignocellulosic weakens the lignin tips. After trimming, the panels are sanded or planed prior bonds between the cellulosic fibers. As a result, fibers are to packaging and shipping. Particleboards may also be ve- more readily separated and are usually less damaged than neered or overlaid with other materials to provide a decora- fibers processed by dry processing methods. Chemical treat- tive surface, or they may be finished with lacquer or paint. ments, usually alkali, are also used to weaken the lignin Treatments with fire-resistant chemicals are also available. bonds. Although treatments help increase fiber quality and Particleboard Grade Marks and Product Certification reduce energy requirements, they may also reduce yield and A grade mark on particleboard ensures that the product modify the fiber chemistry. For MDF, steam-pressurized has been periodically tested for compliance with voluntary refining is typical. industry product performance standards. Inspection or certi- Fiberboard is normally classified by density and can be fication programs also generally require that the quality con- made by either dry or wet processes (Fig. 11–3). Dry trol system of a production plant meets strict criteria. Par- processes are applicable to boards with high density ticleboard panels conforming to these product performance (hardboard) and medium density (MDF). Wet processes are standards are marked with grade stamps (Fig. 11–9). applicable to both high-density hardboard and low-density

11–12 Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials cellulosic fiberboard. The following subsections briefly -de smoothly. Water is drawn off through the screen and then scribe the manufacturing of high- and medium-density dry- through a series of press rolls. process fiberboard, wet-process hardboard, and wet-process Wet-process hardboards are pressed in multi-opening press- low-density cellulosic fiberboard. Suchsland and Woodson es heated by steam. The press cycle consists of three phases (1986) and Maloney (1993) provide more detailed and lasts 6 to 15 min. The first phase is conducted at high information. pressure, and it removes most of the water while bringing Dry-Process Fiberboard the board to the desired thickness. The primary purpose of Dry-process fiberboard is made in a similar fashion to par- the second phase is to remove water vapor. The third phase ticleboard. Resin (UF or MF–UF) and other additives are is relatively short and results in the final cure. A maximum applied to the fibers by spraying in short-retention blenders pressure of about 5 MPa (725 lb in–2) is used in the first or introduced as wet fibers are fed from the refiner into a and third phases. Heat is essential during pressing to induce blow-line dryer. Alternatively, some fiberboard plants add fiber-to-fiber bond. A high temperature of up to 210 °C the resin in the refiner. The adhesive-coated fibers are then (410 °F) is used to increase production by causing faster air-laid into a mat for subsequent pressing, much the same vaporization of the water. Insufficient moisture removal as mat formation for particleboard. during pressing adversely affects strength and may result in “springback” or blistering. Pressing procedures for dry-process fiberboard differ somewhat from particleboard procedures. After the fiber mat is Wet-formed composite technology has lost market share formed, it is typically pre-pressed in a band press. The den- compared with dry-formed technology over the past few sified mat is then trimmed by disk cutters and transferred to decades because of processing speed and perceived caul plates for the hardboard pressing operation; for MDF, environmental issues related to process water. However, the trimmed mat is transferred directly to the press. Many wet-formed technology does offer unique opportunities for dry-formed boards are pressed in multi-opening presses. forming geometric shapes that yield enhanced structural Continuous pressing using large, high-pressure band presses performance and decrease weight, elimination of fiber dry- is also gaining in popularity. Panel density is constantly ing prior to forming, and reduced need for adhesive resins. monitored by moisture sensors using infrared light as an It also greatly increases the ability to use recovered paper indicator of panel quality. and some other woody fibers. Recent advances in process wastewater recycling and remediation also bode well for MDF is frequently used in place of solid wood, plywood, wet-formed technologies. Wet-formed composite technol- and particleboard in many furniture applications. It is also ogy may become more important because of reduced energy used for interior door skins, mouldings, and interior trim demands, increased composite structural performance and components. ANSI A208.2 classifies MDF by physical and decreased weight, and the virtual elimination of (or drastic mechanical properties, and identifies dimensional tolerances reduction in) process water concerns. and formaldehyde emission limits (CPA 2009b). An example of an MDF formaldehyde emissions certification tag Several treatments are used to increase dimensional stability is shown in Figure 11–10. and mechanical performance of hardboard. Heat treatment, tempering, and humidification may be done singularly or Wet-Process Hardboard in conjunction with one another. Heat treatment—exposure Wet-process hardboards differ from dry-process fiberboards of pressed fiberboard to dry heat—improves dimensional in several significant ways. First, water is used as the fiber stability and mechanical properties, reduces water adsorp- distribution medium for mat formation. The technology is tion, and improves interfiber bonding. Tempering is the heat really an extension of paper manufacturing technology. Sec- treatment of pressed boards, preceded by the addition of oil. ondly, some wet-process boards are made without additional Tempering improves board surface hardness, resistance to binders. If the lignocellulosic contains sufficient lignin and abrasion, scratching, scarring, and water. The most common if lignin is retained during the refining operation, lignin can oils used include linseed oil, tung oil, and tall oil. Humidifi- serve as the binder. Under heat and pressure, lignin will flow cation is the addition of moisture to bring the board and act as a thermosetting adhesive, enhancing the naturally moisture content to levels roughly equivalent to those an- occurring hydrogen bonds. ticipated in its end-use environment. Air of high humidity is forced through the stacks where it provides water vapor Refining is an important step for developing strength in wet- to the boards. Another method involves spraying water on process hardboards. The refining operation must also yield the back side of the board. Typical hardboard products are a fiber of high “freeness” (that is, it must be easy to remove prefinished paneling, house siding, floor underlayment, and water from the fibrous mat). The mat is typically formed concrete form board. A typical grade stamp for hardboard on a Fourdrinier wire, like papermaking, or on cylinder siding is shown in Figure 11–11. formers. The wet process employs a continuously traveling mesh screen, onto which the soupy pulp flows rapidly and

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Figure 11–10. Example of MDF formaldehyde emissions certification tag. (Courtesy of Composite Panel Association, Leesburg, Virginia. Used by permission.)

Cellulosic Fiberboard out the free water. The wet mats are then dried to the final Cellulosic fiberboards are low-density, wet-laid panel prod- moisture content. Dryers may be a continuous tunnel or a ucts. In the manufacture of cellulosic fiberboard, the need multideck arrangement. The board is generally dried in for refining and screening is a function of the raw material stages at temperatures ranging from 120 to 190 °C available, the equipment used, and the desired end-product. (248 to 374 °F). Typically, about 2 to 4 h is required Cellulosic fiberboards typically do not use a binder, and they to reduce moisture content to about 1% to 3%. rely on hydrogen bonds to hold the board components to- After drying, some boards are treated for specific applica- gether. Sizing agents are usually added to the furnish (about tions. Boards may be given tongue-and-groove or shiplap 1%) to provide the finished board with a modest degree of edges or grooved to produce a plank effect. Other boards are water resistance and dimensional stability. laminated by means of asphalt to produce roof insulation. As in the manufacture of wet-process hardboard, cellulosic Cellulosic fiberboard products include sound-deadening fiberboard manufacture is a modification of papermaking. board, insulation boards, structural and nonstructural sheath- A thick fibrous sheet is made from a low-consistency pulp ings, backer board, and roof decking in various thicknesses. suspension in a process known as wet felting. Felting can An example of a grade mark stamp for these cellulosic fiber- be accomplished through use of a deckle box, Fourdrinier board products conforming to ASTM C 208 (ASTM 2008c) screen, or cylinder screen. A deckle box is a bottomless is shown in Figure 11–12. frame that is placed over a screen. A measured amount of pulp suspension is put in the box and a vacuum is applied to Finishing Techniques remove most of the water. The use of a Fourdrinier screen Several techniques are used to finish fiberboard: trimming, for felting is similar to that for papermaking, except that line sanding, surface treatment, punching, and embossing. Trim- speeds are reduced to 8 to 18 m min–1 (25 to 60 ft min–1). ming consists of reducing products into standard sizes and shapes. Generally, double-saw trimmers are used to saw the Cellulosic fiberboard formed in a deckle box is cold- panels. Trimmers consist of overhead-mounted saws or mul- pressed to remove the free water after the mat is formed. tiple saw drives. If thickness tolerance is critical, hardboard Compression rollers on the Fourdrinier machines squeeze

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Common sizing agents include rosin, wax, and asphalt. Rosin is obtained from living pine trees, from pine stumps, and as a by-product of kraft pulping of pines. Rosin is added in amounts of less than 3% solids based on dry fiber weight. Waxes are high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons derived from crude oil. Wax is used in solid form in dry-process fiberboard production. For wet processes, wax is added in solid form or as an emulsion. Wax tends to lower strength properties to a greater extent than rosin does. Asphalt is also used to increase water resistance, especially in low-density Figure 11–11. Typical grade stamp for hardboard sid- wet-process cellulosic fiberboard. Asphalt is a black–brown ing. (Courtesy of Composite Panel Association, Lees- solid or semi-solid material that liquefies when heated. As- burg, Virginia. Used by permission.) phalt is added to the process water as an emulsion and precipitated onto fiber by the addition of alum. Figure 11–12. Typical grade Flame-Retardant Composites stamp for cellulosic fiber- Two general application methods are available for improv- board. (Courtesy American Fiberboard Association, ing the fire performance of composites with fire-retardant Palatine, Illinois. Used by chemicals. One method consists of pressure impregnating permission.) the wood with waterborne or organic solvent-borne fire retardant chemicals (AWPA 2007a). The second method consists of applying fire-retardant chemical coatings to the wood surface. The pressure impregnation method is usually is sanded prior to finishing. S1S (smooth on one side) panels more effective and longer lasting; however, this technique is require this process. Sanding reduces thickness variation and standardized only for plywood. It is not generally used with improves surface paintability. Single-head, wide-belt sand- structural flake, particle, or fiber composites, because it can ers are used with 24- to 36-grit abrasive. Surface treatments cause swelling that permanently damages the wood–adhe- improve the appearance and performance of boards. Panels sive bonds in the composite and results in the degradation of are cleaned by spraying with water and then dried at about some physical and mechanical properties of the composite. 240 °C (464 °F) for 30 s. Panel surfaces are then modified For wood in existing constructions, surface application of with paper overlay, paint, or stain or are printed directly on fire-retardant paints or other finishes offers a possible meth- the panel. Punching changes panels into perforated sheets od to reduce flame spread. used as peg board. Embossing consists of pressing the un- Preservative-Treated Composites consolidated mat of fibers with a textured form. This process results in a slightly contoured panel surface that can enhance Composites can be protected from attack by decay fungi the resemblance of the panel to that of sawn or weathered and harmful insects by applying selected chemicals as wood wood, brick, and other materials. preservatives. The degree of protection obtained depends on the kind of preservative used and the ability to achieve Specialty Composite Materials proper penetration and retention of the chemicals. Wood Special-purpose composite materials are produced to obtain preservatives can be applied using pressurized or non-pres- enhanced performance properties such as water resistance, surized processes (AWPA 2007b). As in the application of mechanical strength, acidity control, and fire, decay, and fire-retardant chemicals, the pressurized application of wood insect resistance. Overlays and veneers can also be added preservatives is generally performed after manufacture and to enhance both structural properties and appearance is standardized for plywood. Post-manufacture pressurized (Fig. 11–13). treatments are not standardized for all types of flake, particle, or fiber composite due to the potential for swelling. Water-Repellant Composites Preservatives can be added during the composite manu- Sizing agents are used to increase the water repellency of facturing process, but the preservative must be resistant to wood-based composites. Sizing agents cover the surface of vaporization during hot pressing. Proprietary flakeboard and fibers, reduce surface energy, and increase fiber hydropho- fiberboard products with incorporated nonvolatile preser- bicity. Sizing agents can be applied in two ways. In the first vatives have been commercialized. Common preservative method, water is used as a medium to ensure thorough mix- treatments include ammoniacal copper quat (ACQ), copper ing of sizing and fiber. The sizing is precipitated from the azol (CA), and boron compounds. water and is fixed to the fiber surface. In the second method, the sizing is applied directly to the fibers. Performance and Standards Standards for conventional wood-based composite products are typically established under a series of internationally

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Standard PS 2–04 (NIST 2004) is a performance-based standard because it applies to all structural-use wood-based panels, including plywood and OSB. This standard includes performance requirements and test methods suitable for a given application (qualification) and also require that properties of a qualified product remain in control during production over time (certification). With respect to plywood, the PS 2–04 standard is not a replacement for PS 1–07, which contains necessary veneer-grade and adhesive-bond requirements as well as lay-up provisions, but it is broad enough to also include many plywood grades not covered under PS 1–07. PS 2–04 specifies that certification be performed by an independent third party.

Figure 11–13. Medium-density fiberboard with veneer The American National Standards for particleboard and overlay. Edges can be shaped and finished as required MDF (ANSI A208.1 and A208.2 respectively) are sponsored by end product. by the Composite Panel Association (CPA) in Leesburg, Virginia (CPA 2009a, b). These performance standards require the composite products to show certain minimally accredited consensus review processes involving users, pro- acceptable physical and mechanical properties. The test re- ducers, and general interests. Then, commercial wood com- quirements give some indication of product quality, but the posites are manufactured to conform to these commercial tests were not specifically developed to correlate with per- product or performance standards (Table 11–2). These prod- formance of whole panels in specific end uses. uct or performance standards are cited in the International Building Code (IBC) and other similar documents. The IBC Role of Standards in Construction is the model building code produced by the International Conventional wood-based composite panels and lumber ele- Code Council (ICC), a non-profit organization established in ments manufactured in conformance with product standards 1994 dedicated to developing a single set of comprehensive (Table 11–2) are approved under the International Build- and coordinated construction codes. Since the adoption of ing Code. These wood-based composites can be used for the first edition of the IBC in 2000, most building codes in construction applications such as sheathing for roofs, sub- the U.S. are based on the IBC. Previously, there were three flooring, and walls. Similarly, many types of wood-based model code organizations that produced model codes with composite lumber can be used for joists, purlins, stringers, largely regional acceptance. The ICC also produces the In- beams, and columns. ternational Residential Code (IRC) and other related model code documents. Design properties and basic installation guidelines of structural-use panels have become standardized by the ICC. The ICC–Evaluation Service (ICC–ES) issues advisory The ICC requires independent third-party certification of reports on their evaluation of building products, compo- these panels, and several such third-party certification agen- nents, methods, and materials for their compliance with the cies exist, such as APA–The Engineered Wood Association IBC. The ICC–ES was created in 2003 with the merger of (www.apawood.org) and TECO (www.tecotested.com). the four existing evaluation services. ICC–ES also issues These agencies and others offer a variety of technical infor- ICC–ES Acceptance Criteria documents for specific types mation on the proper selection, design, and installation of of products that specify the performance criteria and the structural-use panels. data that needs to be submitted for the evaluations. These evaluation reports and the acceptance criteria documents are Plywood panels conforming to PS 1–07 are marked with available on the web site of the ICC ES (www.icc-es.org). grade stamps (Fig. 11–6a,b). Flake-based composites, such – as OSB, are usually marketed as conforming to a product Types of Product Standards standard for sheathing or single-layer sub-flooring or un- Product standards may be classified as manufacturing derlayment and are also marked with grade stamps (Fig. standards or performance standards. The best example of a 11–6c,d). manufacturing method standard is Voluntary Product Stan- Structural-use panels are also span-rated. Span ratings re- dard PS 1–07 for construction and industrial plywood (NIST fer to on-center spacing of support members (expressed in 2007). Specifications in the standard include which wood inches), with the long panel dimension (in plywood this is species and grades of veneer may be used, what repairs are the same direction as the face grain) placed across the sup- permissible, and how repairs must be made. Limited per- ports, assuming that there are at least two spans (a minimum formance-based evaluations may also be specified in manu- of three supports). Span-rating of construction plywood facturing standards for issues relating to adhesive durability and OSB simplifies materials specification in light-frame and strength.

11–16 Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials construction by allowing specification without resorting to large structural elements is possible. Straight members up specific structural engineering design calculations. Panels in to 30 m (100 ft) long are not uncommon, and some span up PS 2–04 are designated by application (wall, roof, sub-floor, to 43 m (140 ft). Sections deeper than 2 m (7 ft) have been or single floor) and by span rating. Specification by applica- used. Thus, glulam offers the potential to produce large tim- tion and span is more convenient for builders than specifica- bers from small trees. tion by species or species group, veneer grade, and panel Architectural Effects thickness. A panel may be suitable for use as either roof sheathing or sub-flooring, with different span ratings for the By curving lumber during the manufacturing process, a two applications. Such panels will have a dual span-rating, variety of architectural effects can be obtained with glulam the first (and larger) number indicating allowable span when that are impossible or very difficult with other materials used as roof sheathing, the second number indicating the (Fig. 11–14). The degree of curvature is controlled by the allowable span when used as sub-flooring. thickness of the laminations. Thus, glulam with moderate curvature is generally manufactured with standard 19-mm- Glulam Timber (nominal 1-in.-) thick lumber. Low curvatures are possible with standard 38-mm (nominal 2-in.) lumber, whereas Structural glued-laminated timber (glulam) is one of the 13 mm (1/2 in.) or thinner material may be required for very oldest glued engineered wood products. Glulam is an en- sharp curves. As noted later in this chapter, the radius of gineered, stress-rated product that consists of two or more curvature is limited to between 100 and 125 times the layers of lumber that are glued together with the grain of all lamination thickness. layers, which are referred to as laminations, parallel to the length. Glulam is defined as a material that is made from Seasoning Advantages suitably selected and prepared pieces of wood either in a The lumber used in the manufacture of glulam must be sea- straight or curved form, with the grain of all pieces essen- soned or dried prior to use, so the effects of checking and tially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member. The other drying defects are minimized. This allows design on maximum lamination thickness permitted is 50 mm (2 in.), the basis of seasoned wood, which permits greater design and the laminations are typically made of standard 25- or values than can be assigned to unseasoned timber. 50-mm- (nominal 1- or 2-in.-) thick lumber. North American standards require that glulam be manufactured in an ap- Varying Cross Sections proved manufacturing plant. Because the lumber is joined Structural elements can be designed with varying cross end to end, edge to edge, and face to face, the size of glulam sections along their length as determined by strength and is limited only by the capabilities of the manufacturing plant stiffness requirements. Similarly, arches often have varying and the transportation system. cross sections as determined by design requirements. Douglas Fir–Larch, Southern Pine, Hem–Fir, and Spruce– Varying Grades Pine–Fir (SPF) are commonly used for glulam in the United One major advantage of glulam is that a large quantity States. Nearly any species can be used for glulam timber, of lower grade lumber can be used within the less highly provided the mechanical and physical properties are suitable stressed laminations of the beams. Grades are often varied and gluing properties acceptable. Industry standards cover within the beams so that the highest grades are used in the many softwoods and hardwoods, and procedures are in highly stressed laminations near the top and bottom edges, place for including other species. with the lower grades used in the inner section (toward the center) of the beams. Species can also be varied to match Advantages the structural requirements of the laminations. Compared with sawn timbers as well as other structural materials, glulam has several distinct advantages. These in- Types of Glulam Combinations clude size capability, architectural effects, seasoning, varia- Bending Members tion of cross sections, grades, and effect on the environment. The configuring of various grades of lumber to form a Size Capabilities glulam cross section is commonly referred to as a glulam Glulam offers the possibility of manufacturing structural combination. Glulam combinations subjected to flexural timbers that are much larger than the trees from which the loads, called bending combinations, were developed to component lumber was sawn. In the past, the United States provide the most efficient and economical section for resist- had access to large trees that could produce relatively large ing bending stress caused by loads applied perpendicular sawn timbers. However, the present trend is to harvest to the wide faces of the laminations. This type of glulam is smaller diameter trees on much shorter rotations, and nearly commonly referred to as a horizontally laminated member. all new sawmills are built to accommodate relatively small Lower grades of laminating lumber are commonly used for logs. By combining the lumber in glulam, the production of the center portion of the combination, or core, where bending stress is low, while a higher grade of material is placed

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laminations, but the nonselective placement of material often results in a less efficient and less economical member than does the bending combination. As with bending combinations, knot and slope-of-grain requirements apply based on whether the axial member will be used as a tension or compression member. Curved Members Efficient use of lumber in cross sections of curved glulam combinations is similar to that in cross sections of straight, horizontally laminated combinations. Tension and compression stresses are analyzed as tangential stresses in the curved portion of the member. A unique behavior in these curved members is the formation of radial stresses perpendicular to the wide faces of the laminations. As the radius of curvature Figure 11–14. Erected in 1934 at the Forest Products of the glulam member decreases, the radial stresses formed Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, this building is one in the curved portion of the beam increase. Because of the of the first constructed with glued-laminated timbers relatively low strength of lumber in tension perpendicular- arched, designed, and built using engineering prin- to-the-grain compared with tension parallel-to-the-grain, ciples. these radial stresses become a critical factor in designing curved glulam combinations. Curved members are common- on the outside faces where bending stress is relatively high. ly manufactured with standard 19- and 38-mm- (nominal To optimize the bending stiffness of this type of glulam 1- and 2-in.-) thick lumber. Naturally, the curvature that is member, equal amounts of high-quality laminations on the obtainable with the standard 19-mm- (nominal 1-in.-) outside faces should be included to produce a “balanced” thick lumber will be sharper than that for the standard combination. To optimize bending strength, the combination 38-mm- (nominal 2-in.-) thick lumber. can be “unbalanced” with more high-quality laminations Tapered Straight Members placed on the tension side of the member compared with the quality used on the compression side. For high-quality lum- Glulam beams are often tapered to meet architectural re- ber placed on the tension side of the glulam combination, quirements, provide pitched roofs, facilitate drainage, and stringent requirements are placed on knot size, slope lower wall height requirements at the end supports. The of grain, and lumber stiffness. taper is achieved by sawing the member across one or more laminations at the desired slope. It is recommended that For compression-side laminations, knot size and slope-of- the taper cut be made only on the compression side of the grain requirements are less stringent and only lumber stiff- glulam member, because violating the continuity of the ness is given high priority. In the case where the glulam tension-side laminations would decrease the overall strength member is used over continuous supports, the combina- of the member. tion would need to be designed as a balanced member for strength and stiffness because of the exposure of both the Standards and Specifications top and bottom of the beam to tensile stresses. The knot and Manufacture slope-of-grain requirements for this type of combination The ANSI/AITC A190.1 standard of the American National are generally applied equally to both the top and bottom Standards Institute (AITC 2007a) contains requirements for laminations. the production, testing, and certification of structural glulam Axial Members timber in the United States. A standard for glulam poles, ANSI O5.2 (ANSI 2006), addresses special requirements for Glulam axial combinations were developed to provide the utility uses. most efficient and economical section for resisting axial forces and flexural loads applied parallel to the wide faces Derivation of Design Values of the laminations. Members having loads applied parallel ASTM D 3737 (ASTM 2008a) covers procedures to estab- to the wide faces of the laminations are commonly referred lish design values for structural glulam timber. Properties to as vertically laminated members. Unlike the practice for considered include bending, tension, compression parallel to bending combinations, the same grade of lamination is used grain, modulus of elasticity, horizontal shear, radial tension, throughout the axial combination. Axial combinations and compression perpendicular to grain. may also be loaded perpendicular to the wide face of the

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Design Values and Procedures moisture content of each piece of lumber as it enters the Manufacturers of glulam timber have standardized the target manufacturing process. Pieces that have a high moisture design values in bending for beams. For softwoods, these level are removed and redried. design values are given in AITC 117, “Standard Specifica- Grading standards published by the regional lumber grading tions for Structural Glued-Laminated Timber of Softwood associations describe the characteristics that are permitted Species” (AITC 2004a). This specification contains design in various grades of lumber. Manufacturing standards for values and recommended modification of stresses for the glulam timber describe the combination of lumber grades design of glulam timber members in the United States. A necessary for specific design values (AITC 117) (AITC comparable specification for hardwoods is AITC 119, “Stan- 2004). The rules for visually graded lumber are based en- dard Specifications for Structural Glued-Laminated Timber tirely upon the characteristics that are readily apparent. The of Hardwood Species” (AITC 1996). For additional design lumber grade description consists of limiting characteristics information, see the Timber Construction Manual (AITC for knot sizes, slope of grain, wane, and several other char- 2004b). acteristics. Manufacture Manufacturers generally purchase graded lumber and verify The manufacture of glulam timber must follow recognized the grades through visual inspection of each piece and, if E- national standards to justify the specified engineering design rated, testing of a sample. To qualify the material for some values. When glulam is properly manufactured, both the of the higher design stresses for glulam timber, manufactur- quality of the wood and the adhesive bonds should demon- ers must also conduct additional grading for material to be strate a balance in structural performance. used in the tension zone of certain beams. Another option is to purchase lumber manufactured under a quality assur- The ANSI/AITC standard A190.1 (AITC 2007a) has a two- ance system that meets the required tensile strength. Another phase approach to all phases of manufacturing. First is the option practiced by at least one manufacturer has been to qualification phase, in which all equipment and personnel use laminated veneer lumber (LVL) to provide the required critical to the production of a quality product are thoroughly tensile strength. examined by a third-party agency and the strength of samples of glued joints is determined. In the second phase, after End Jointing successful qualification, daily quality assurance procedures To manufacture glulam timber in lengths beyond those com- and criteria are established, which are targeted to keep each monly available for lumber, laminations must be made by of the critical phases of the process under control. An em- end jointing lumber to the proper length. The most common ployee is assigned responsibility for supervising the daily end joint, a fingerjoint, is about 28 mm (1.1 in.) long. Other testing and inspection. The third-party agency makes unan- configurations are also acceptable, provided they meet spe- nounced visits to the plants to monitor the manufacturing cific strength and durability requirements. The advantages process and the finished product and to examine the daily of fingerjoints are that they require only a short length of records of the quality assurance testing. lumber to manufacture (thus reducing waste) and continuous The manufacturing process can be divided into four major production equipment is readily available. Well-made joints parts: (a) drying and grading the lumber, (b) end jointing the are critical to ensure adequate performance of glulam tim- lumber, (c) face bonding, and (d) finishing and fabrication. ber. Careful control at each stage of the process—determin- In instances where the glulam will be used in high-moisture- ing lumber quality, cutting the joint, applying the adhesive, content conditions, the member must also be pressure- mating, applying end pressure, and curing—is necessary to treated with preservative. produce consistent high strength joints. A final critical step in ensuring the quality of glulam is pro- Face Bonding tection of the glulam timber during transit and storage. The assembly of laminations into full-depth members is another critical stage in manufacture. To obtain clear, parallel, Lumber Drying and Grading and gluable surfaces, laminations must be planed to strict To minimize dimensional changes following manufacture tolerances. The best procedure is to plane the two wide faces and to take advantage of the increased structural properties of the laminations just prior to the gluing process. This en- assigned to lumber compared with large sawn timbers, the sures that the final assembly will be rectangular and that the lumber must be properly dried prior to glulam manufacture. pressure will be applied evenly. Adhesives that have been This generally means kiln drying. Matching the moisture pre-qualified are then spread, usually with a glue extruder. content of the glulam timber at the time of manufacture to Phenol resorcinol is the most commonly used adhesive for that which it will attain in application minimizes shrinkage face gluing, but other adhesives that have been adequately and swelling, the main causes of checking. Most manufac- evaluated and proven to meet performance and durability turers use a continuous in-line moisture meter to check the requirements may also be used.

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The laminations are then assembled into the required layup; assembled. Moment splices can be fully fabricated, then after the adhesive is given the proper open assembly time, disconnected for transportation and erection. End sealers, pressure is applied. The most common method for applying surface sealers, primer coats, and wrapping with waterproof pressure is with clamping beds; the pressure is applied with paper or plastic all help to stabilize the moisture content of either a mechanical or hydraulic system. This results in a the glulam timber between the time it is manufactured and batch-type process, and the adhesive is allowed to cure at installed. The extent of protection necessary depends upon room temperature from 6 to 24 h. Some newer automated the end use and must be specified. clamping systems include continuous hydraulic presses and Preservative Treatment radio-frequency curing to shorten the face gluing process from hours to minutes. Upon completion of the face bond- In instances where the moisture content of the finished ing process, the adhesive is expected to have attained 90% glulam timber will approach or exceed 20% (in most or more of its bond strength. During the next few days, cur- exterior and some interior uses), the glulam timber should ing continues, but at a much slower rate. be preservative-treated following AITC 109 (AITC 2007b). Three main types of preservatives are available: creosote, The face bonding process is monitored by controls in the oilborne, and waterborne. Creosote and oilborne preserva- lumber planing, adhesive mixing, and adhesive spreading tives are applied to the finished glulam timbers. Some light and clamping processes. Performance is evaluated by con- oil solvent treatments can be applied to the lumber prior to ducting shear tests on samples cut off as end trim from the gluing, but the suitability must be verified with the manu- finished glulam timber. Thus, the adhesive bonds are ex- facturer. Waterborne preservatives are best applied to the pected to develop nearly the full strength of the wood soon lumber prior to the laminating and manufacturing process after manufacture. because they can lead to excessive checking if applied to Finishing and Fabrication large finished glulam timbers. After the glulam timber is removed from the clamping system, the wide faces are planed to remove the adhesive Structural Composite Lumber that has squeezed out between adjacent laminations and to Structural composite lumber (SCL) was developed in re- smooth out any slight irregularities between the edges of sponse to the increasing demand for high-quality lumber at adjacent laminations. As a result, the finished glulam timber a time when it was becoming difficult to obtain this type of is slightly narrower than nominal dimension lumber. The lumber from the forest resource. Structural composite lum- remaining two faces of the member can be lightly planed or ber products are characterized by smaller pieces of wood sanded. glued together into sizes common for solid-sawn lumber. The appearance requirements of the beam dictate the ad- One type of SCL product is manufactured by laminating ditional finishing necessary at this point. Historically, three veneer with all plies parallel to the length. This product is classifications of finishing have been included in the -in called laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and consists of spe- dustry standard, AITC 110: Industrial, Architectural, and cially graded veneer. Another type of SCL product consists Premium (AITC 2001). Industrial appearance is generally of strands of wood or strips of veneer glued together under applicable when appearance is not a primary concern, such high pressures and temperatures. Depending upon the com- as industrial plants and warehouses. Architectural appear- ponent material, this product is called laminated strand lum- ance is suitable for most applications where appearance is ber (LSL), parallel strand lumber (PSL), or oriented strand an important requirement. Premium appearance is the high- lumber (OSL). These types of SCL products can be manu- est classification. The primary difference among these clas- factured from raw materials, such as aspen or other under- sifications is the amount of knot holes and occasional planer utilized species, that are not commonly used for structural skips that are permitted. A recently introduced classification, applications. Different widths of lumber can be ripped from called Framing, consists of hit-and-miss planing and permits SCL for various uses. Compared with similar size solid- a significant amount of adhesive to remain on the surface. sawn lumber, SCL often provides a stronger, more reliable This finishing is intended for uses that require one member structural member that can often span greater distances and to have the same width as the lumber used in manufacture has less dimensional change. for framing into walls. These members are often covered in Structural composite lumber is a growing segment of the en- the finished structure. gineered wood products industry. It is used as a replacement The next step in the manufacturing process is fabrication, for lumber in various applications and in the manufacture of where the final cuts are made, holes are drilled, connec- other engineered wood products, such as prefabricated wood tors are added, and a finish or sealer is applied, if specified. I-joists, which take advantage of engineering design values For various members, different degrees of prefabrication that can be greater than those commonly assigned to sawn are done at this point. Trusses may be partially or fully lumber.

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Laminated Veneer Lumber orientation and distribution. The pressing operation results Work in the 1940s on LVL targeted the production of high- in densification of the material, and the adhesive is cured strength parts for aircraft structures using Sitka spruce ve- using microwave technology. Billets larger than those neer. Research on LVL in the 1970s was aimed at defining of LVL are commonly produced; a typical size is 0.28 by the effects of processing variables for veneer up to 12.7 mm 0.48 m (11 by 19 in.). This product can then be sawn into (1/2 in.) thick. Since the 1990s, production of LVL uses smaller pieces, if desired. As with LVL, a continuous press veneers 3.2 to 2.5 mm (1/8 to 1/10 in.) thick, which are hot is used so that the length of the product is limited by han- pressed with phenol-formaldehyde adhesive into lengths dling restrictions. from 2.4 to 18.3 m (8 to 60 ft) or more. Today LVL is com- Laminated Strand Lumber and Oriented monly used as the flanges in composite I-joists. Strand Lumber Veneer for the manufacture of LVL must be carefully se- Laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber lected for the product to achieve the desired engineering (OSL) products are an extension of the technology used to properties. Veneers are often sorted using ultrasonic testing produce oriented strandboard (OSB) structural panels. The to ensure that the finished product will have the desired en- products have more similarities than differences. The main gineering properties. difference is that the aspect ratio of strands used in LSL is higher than for OSL (AF&PA 2006). One type of LSL End joints between individual veneers may be staggered uses strands that are about 0.3 m (12 in.) long, which is along the product to minimize their effect on strength. These somewhat longer than the strands commonly used for OSB. end joints may be butt joints, or the veneer ends may over- Waterproof adhesives are used in the manufacture of LSL. lap for some distance to provide load transfer. Some produc- One type of product uses an isocyanate type of adhesive ers provide structural end joints in the veneers using either that is sprayed on the strands and cured by steam injection. scarf or fingerjoints. LVL may also be made in 2.4-m (8-ft) This product needs a greater degree of alignment of the lengths, having no end joints in the veneer; longer pieces strands than does OSB and higher pressures, which result in are then formed by end-jointing these pieces to create the increased densification. Both LSL and OSL are proprietary desired length. products; LSL is sold as TimberStrand®. Applications such Sheets of LVL are commonly produced in 0.6- to 1.2-m as studs and millwork are common. (2- to 4-ft) widths in a thickness of 38 mm (1.5 in.). Contin- uous presses can be used to form a potentially endless sheet, Advantages and Uses which is cut to the desired length. Various widths of lumber In contrast with sawn lumber, the strength-reducing charac- can be manufactured at the plant or the retail facility. teristics of SCL are dispersed within the veneer or strands and have much less effect on strength properties. Thus, Parallel Strand Lumber relatively high design values can be assigned to strength Parallel strand lumber (PSL) is defined as a composite of properties for both LVL and PSL. Whereas both LSL and wood strand elements with wood fibers oriented primarily OSL have somewhat lower design values, they have the along the length of the member. The least dimension of the advantage of being produced from a raw material that need strands must not exceed 6.4 mm (0.25 in.), and the average not be in a log size large enough for peeling into veneer. All length of the strands must be a minimum of 150 times the SCL products are made with structural adhesives and are least dimension. PSL is a proprietary product, sold as Paral- dependent upon a minimum level of strength in these bonds. lam®. It is often used for large beams and columns, typically All SCL products are made from veneers or strands that are as a replacement of solid-sawn lumber or glulam. dried to a moisture content that is slightly less than that for Parallel strand lumber is manufactured using veneer about most service conditions. Thus, little change in moisture con- 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick, which is then clipped into strands tent will occur in many protected service conditions. When about 19 mm (3/4 in.) wide. These strands are commonly used indoors, this results in a product that is less likely to at least 0.6 m (24 in.) long. The manufacturing process was warp or shrink in service. However, the porous nature of designed to use the material from roundup of the log in the both LVL and PSL means that these products can quickly veneer cutting operation as well as other less than full-width absorb water unless they are provided with some protection. veneer (Fig. 11–15). Thus, the process can utilize waste ma- All types of SCL products can be substituted for sawn lum- terial from a plywood or LVL operation. Species commonly ber products in many applications. Laminated veneer lumber used for PSL include Douglas-fir, southern pines, western is used extensively for scaffold planks and in the flanges of hemlock, and yellow-poplar, but there are no restrictions prefabricated I-joists, which take advantage of the relatively on using other species. high design properties. Both LVL and PSL beams are used The strands are coated with a waterproof structural adhe- as headers and major load-carrying elements in construc- sive, commonly phenol-resorcinol formaldehyde, and tion. The LSL and OSL products are used for band joists in oriented in a press using special equipment to ensure proper

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Figure 11–15. Generalized process for manufacturing PSL. (Courtesy of iLevel by Weyerhaeuser, Federal Way, Washington. Used by permission.) floor construction and as substitutes for studs and rafters in The primary impetus for developing such products has come wall and roof construction. Various types of SCL are also from one or more of the following research and develop- used in a number of nonstructural applications, such as the ment goals: manufacture of windows and doors. • Develop “green” or “environmentally benign” products Standards and Specifications with enhanced sustainability. The ASTM D 5456 (ASTM 2008b) standard provides meth- • Reduce material costs by combining a lower cost mate- ods to develop design properties for SCL products as well as rial (acting as a filler or extender) with an expensive requirements for quality assurance during production. Each material. manufacturer of SCL products is responsible for developing • Develop products that can utilize recycled materials and the required information on properties and ensuring that the be recyclable in themselves. minimum levels of quality are maintained during produc- • Produce composite products that exhibit specific prop- tion. An independent inspection agency is required to moni- erties that are superior to those of the component mate- tor the quality assurance program. rials alone (for example, increased strength-to-weight Unlike lumber, no standard grades or design stresses have ratio, improved abrasion resistance, enhance resistance been established for SCL. Each manufacturer may have to fire, decay, and insects). unique design properties and procedures. Thus, the designer Composites made from wood and other non-wood materi- should consult information provided by the manufacturer. als create enormous opportunities to match product performance to end-use requirements. The following discussion Wood–Nonwood Composite includes the most common type of wood–nonwood compos- Materials ites: inorganic-bonded and wood–thermoplastic composites. Wood may be combined with inorganic materials and Inorganic-Bonded Composite Materials with plastics to produce composite products with unique Inorganic-bonded wood composites have a long and varied properties. Wood–nonwood composites typically contain history that started with commercial production in Austria wood elements suspended in a matrix material (for example in 1914. They are now used in many countries in the world, in fiber-reinforced gypsum board, or in thermoplastic mate- mostly in panel form. Applications include panel products, rial), in which the proportion of wood elements may account siding, roofing tiles, and precast building members. for less than 60% of product mass.

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Inorganic-bonded wood composites are molded products or wall by their water repellent additives in the paper facings boards that contain between 10% and 70% by weight wood and gypsum core. The facings of drywall and of gypsum particles or fibers and conversely 90% to 30% inorganic sheathing panels are adhered to the gypsum core, providing binder. Acceptable properties of an inorganic-bonded wood the panels with impact resistance, and bending strength and composite can be obtained only when the wood particles are stiffness. The paper facings of gypsum panels are derived fully encased, and the binder is a continuous matrix materi- from recycled paper fiber. al. This differs considerably from conventional wood-based An alternative to adhered facings is to incorporate lignocel- composites, where flakes or particles are “spot welded” by lulosic fiber (typically recycled paper fiber) in the gypsum a binder applied as a finely distributed spray or powder. core to make what are termed fiber-reinforced gypsum pan- Because of this difference and because hardened inorganic els. In the production process, a paste of gypsum and water binders have a higher density than most thermosetting is mixed with the recycled paper fiber and extruded into a resins, the required amount of inorganic binder per unit panel without facings. Shortly after formation, the panel is volume of composite material is much higher than that of dried in an oven. Bonding occurs between the gypsum and resin-bonded wood composites. The properties of inorganic- the fiber as hydrate crystals form. bonded wood composites are significantly influenced by the amount and type of the inorganic binder and the wood ele- Fiber-reinforced gypsum panels are typically stronger and ment as well as the density of the composites. more resistant to abrasion and indentation than paper-faced drywall panels and also have a moderate fastener-holding Inorganic-bonded composites include gypsum-bonded, capability. They are marketed for use as interior finish pan- cement-bonded, and ceramic-bonded composites. Magnesia els (drywall). Additives can provide a moderate degree of and Portland cement are the most common cement binders. water resistance, for use as sheathing panels, floor underlay- Gypsum and magnesia cement are sensitive to moisture, ment, roof underlayment, or tile-backer board. and their use is generally restricted to interior applications. Composites bonded with Portland cement are more durable Cement-Bonded Composite Materials than those bonded with gypsum or magnesia cement and are The properties of cement-bonded composites are influenced used in both interior and exterior applications. Inorganic- by wood element characteristics (species, size, geometry, bonded composites are made by blending wood elements chemical composition), cement type, wood–water–cement with inorganic materials in the presence of water and allow- ratio, environmental temperature, and cure time (Jorge and ing the inorganic material to cure or “set up” to make a rigid others 2004). They are heavier than conventional wood- composite. Some inorganic-bonded composites are very re- based composites but lighter than concrete. Therefore they sistant to deterioration by decay fungi, insects, and vermin. can replace concrete in construction, specifically in applica- Most have appreciable fire resistance. tions that are not subjected to loads. Wood–cement com- An advantage of inorganic-bonded composites is that their posites provide an option for using wood residues, or even manufacture is adaptable to either end of the cost and tech- agricultural residues. However, species selection can be im- nology spectrum. This is facilitated by the fact that no heat portant because many species contain sugars and extractives is required to cure the inorganic material. This versatility that retard the cure of cement (Bowyer and others 2007). makes inorganic-bonded composites ideally suited to a va- Magnesia-Cement-Bonded Composite Materials riety of lignocellulosic materials. With a very small capital Fewer boards bonded with magnesia cement have been investment, satisfactory inorganic-bonded lignocellulosic produced than Portland-cement-bonded panels, mainly be- composite building materials can be produced on a small cause of price. However, magnesia cement does offer some scale using mostly unskilled labor. If the market for such manufacturing advantages over Portland cement. First, the composites increases, technology can be introduced to in- various sugars in lignocellulosics do not have as much ef- crease manufacturing throughput. The labor force can be fect on the curing and bonding. Second, magnesia cement is trained concurrently with the gradual introduction of more more tolerant of high water content during production. This sophisticated technology. opens up possibilities to use lignocellulosics not amenable Gypsum-Bonded Composite Materials to Portland cement composites, without leaching or other Paper-faced gypsum boards have been widely used since the modification, and to use alternative manufacturing processes 1950s for the interior lining of walls and ceilings. They are and products. Although composites bonded with magnesia commonly called drywall because they often replaced wet cement are considered water sensitive, they are much less so plaster systems. These panels are critical for good fire rat- than gypsum-bonded composites. ings in walls and ceilings. Paper-faced gypsum boards also One successful application of magnesia cement is a low- find use as exterior wall sheathing. Gypsum sheathing pan- density panel made for interior ceiling and wall applications. els are primarily used in commercial construction, usually In the production of this panel product, wood wool (excelsi- over steel studding, and are distinguished from gypsum dry- or) is laid out in a low-density mat. The mat is then sprayed

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The largest volume of cement-bonded wood-based composite materials manufactured in North America is fiber-cement siding. Fiber-cement siding incorporates delignified wood fiber into a Portland cement matrix. Problems and Solutions of Cement-Bonded Composite Materials The use of cement for wood-based composites involves lim- itations and tradeoffs. Embrittlement of the lignocellulosic component is known to occur and is caused by the alkaline environment provided by the cement matrix. In addition, hemicellulose, starch, sugar, tannins, and lignin, each to a varying degree, affect the cure rate and ultimate strength of these composites. To make strong and durable composites, measures must be taken to ensure long-term stability of the lignocellulosic in the cement matrix. To overcome these problems, various schemes have been developed. The most common is leaching, whereby the lignocellulosic is soaked in water for 1 or 2 days to extract some of the detrimental components. However, in some parts of the world, the water containing the leachate is difficult to dispose of. Low water– Figure 11–16. Commercial cement-bonded composite cement ratios are helpful, as is the use of curing accelerators panel. (Courtesy of Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd., UK. Used by like calcium carbonate. Conversely, low-alkali cements have permission.) been developed, but they are not readily available throughout the world. Two other strategies involve the use of natu- with an aqueous solution of magnesia cement, pressed, and ral pozzolans and carbon dioxide treatment. cut into panels (Fig. 11–16). Pozzolans—Pozzolans are defined as siliceous or siliceous Other processes have been suggested for manufacturing and aluminous materials that can react chemically with magnesia-cement-bonded composites. For example, a slurry calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) at normal temperatures in of magnesia cement, water, and lignocellulosic fiber may be the presence of water to form cement compounds. Some sprayed onto existing structures as fireproofing. Extrusion common pozzolanic materials include volcanic ash, fly ash, into a pipe-type profile or other profiles is also possible. rice husk ash, and condensed silica fume. All these materials can react with lime at normal temperatures to make a natural Portland-Cement-Bonded Composite Materials water-resistant cement. The most widely used cement-bonded composites are those In general, when pozzolans are blended with Portland ce- bonded with Portland cement. Portland cement, when ment, they increase the strength of the cement but slow the combined with water, reacts in a process called hydration cure time. More importantly, pozzolans decrease the alkalin- to solidify into a solid stone-like mass and bind aggregate ity of the product. materials. Successfully marketed Portland-cement-bonded composites consist of both low-density products made with Carbon Dioxide Treatment—In the manufacture of a excelsior and high-density products made with particles and cement-bonded lignocellulosic composite, the cement hy- fibers. dration process normally requires from 8 to 24 h to develop sufficient board strength and cohesiveness to permit the Low-density products may be used as interior ceiling and release of consolidation pressure. By exposing the cement to wall panels in commercial buildings. In addition to the carbon dioxide, the initial hardening stage can be reduced to advantages described for low-density magnesia-bonded less than 5 min. This phenomenon results from the chemical composites, low-density composites bonded with Port- reaction of carbon dioxide with calcium hydroxide to form land cement offer sound control and can be decorative. In calcium carbonate and water. some parts of the world, these panels function as complete wall and roof decking systems. The exterior of the panels Reduction of initial cure time of the cement-bonded ligno- is coated with stucco, and the interior is plastered. High- cellulosic composite is not the only advantage of using car- density panels can be used as flooring, roof sheathing, fire bon dioxide injection. Certain species of wood have various doors, load-bearing walls, and cement forms. Fairly com- amounts of sugars and tannins that interfere with the hydra- plex shapes, such as decorative roofing tiles or non-pressure tion or setting of Portland cement. Research has shown that pipes, can be molded or extruded. the use of carbon dioxide injection reduces the likelihood that these compounds will inhibit the hydration process,

11–24 Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials thus allowing the use of a wider range of species. In addi- in using wood–thermoplastic composites for interior panel tion, research has demonstrated that composites treated with parts and is leading the way in developing furniture ap- carbon dioxide can be twice as stiff and strong as untreated plications. Manufacturers in Asia are targeting the furniture composites (Geimer and others 1992). Finally, carbon- industry, in addition to interior construction applications. dioxide-treated composites do not experience efflorescence Continued research and development will expand the avail- (migration of calcium hydroxide to surface of material), able markets and each application will penetrate the global so the appearance of the surface of the final product is not marketplace. changed over time. Materials Ceramic-Bonded Composite Materials Broadly defined, a thermoplastic softens when heated and In the last few years a new class of inorganic binders, non- hardens when cooled. Thermoplastics selected for use with sintered ceramic inorganic binders, has been developed. wood generally melt or soften at or below the thermal deg- These non-sintered ceramic binders are formed by an acid– radation temperature of the wood element, normally 200 to base aqueous reaction between a divalent or trivalent oxide 220 °C (392 to 428 °F). These thermoplastics include poly- and an acid phosphate or phosphoric acid. The reaction slur- propylene, polystyrene, vinyls, and low- and high-density ry hardens rapidly, but the rate of setting can be controlled. polyethylenes. With suitable selection of oxides and acid-phosphates, a The term wood–thermoplastic composites is broad, and the range of binders may be produced. Recent research sug- class of materials can include fibers derived from wood or gests that phosphates may be used as adhesives, cements, or other natural sources. Geographical location often dictates surface augmentation materials to manufacture wood-based the raw material choice. In North America, wood is the most composites (Jeong and Wagh 2003, Wagh and Jeong 2003). common raw material, in Europe natural fibers such as jute, As adhesives, the reaction slurry resulting from the acid– hemp, and kenaf are preferred, while rice hull flour and base reaction may be used as an adhesive similar to the cur- bamboo fiber are typical in Asia. The wood is incorporated rent polymer resins. Thus, phosphate adhesives can be used as either fiber bundles with low aspect ratio (wood flour) or to coat individual fibers and form a composite by binding as single fibers with higher aspect ratio (wood fiber). Wood the fibers to each other. The adhesives will behave much flour is processed commercially, often from post-industrial like current polymer resins and may be used with existing materials such as planer shavings, chips, and sawdust. Sev- equipment. The binder content is typically 15% to 20 % by eral grades are available depending upon wood species and weight. particle size. Wood fibers, although more difficult to process than wood flour, can lead to superior composite proper- As a cement, phosphate binders can be used to produce bulk ties and act more as a reinforcement than as a filler. A wide composites. When conventional cement is used in fiber- variety of wood fibers are available from both virgin and based products, typical cement loading is approximately recycled resources. 30% or higher; phosphate cements may be used in a similar manner. The slurry formed by the acid–base reaction may Other materials can be added to affect processing and prod- be mixed with fiber or any other extender to produce solid uct performance of wood–thermoplastic composites. These composites (Jeong and Wagh 2003). additives can improve bonding between the thermoplastic and wood component (for example, coupling agents), prod- Phosphate binders may also be used for coating wood-based uct performance (impact modifiers, ultraviolet (UV) light composite panels to enhance surface properties. The phos- stabilizers, flame retardants), and processability (lubricants). phate slurry is very smooth; thin (<1 mm) coatings can be applied, suitable for providing fire or water resistance. Wood–thermoplastic composites are of two main types. In the first type, the wood element serves as a reinforcing agent Wood–Thermoplastic Composite Materials or filler in a continuous thermoplastic matrix. In the second In North America and Europe, wood elements have been type, the thermoplastic serves as a binder to the wood ele- combined with thermoplastics for several decades. How- ments much like conventional wood-based composites. The ever, it is only in the past decade that wood–thermoplastic presence or absence of a continuous thermoplastic matrix composites have become a widely recognized commercial may also determine the processability of the composite ma- product in construction, automotive, furniture, and other terial. In general, if the matrix is continuous, conventional consumer applications (Oksman Niska and Sain 2008). thermoplastic processing equipment may be used to process Commercialization in North America has been primarily due composites; however, if the matrix is not continuous, other to penetration into the construction industry, first as decking processes may be required. For the purpose of discussion, and window profiles, followed by railing, siding, and roof- we present two scenarios—composites with high and low ing. Interior molding applications are also receiving atten- thermoplastic content. tion. The automotive industry in Europe has been a leader

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Composite Materials with High Thermoplastic Content The vast majority of commercially available wood–thermoplastic composites have high thermoplastic content. In composites with high thermoplastic content, the thermoplastic component is a continuous matrix and the wood element serves as a reinforcement or filler. The wood content is typically less than 60% by weight. In the great majority of reinforced thermoplastic composites available commercially, inorganic materials (for example, glass, clays, and minerals) are used as reinforcements or fillers. Wood-based materials offer some advantages over inorganic materials: they are lighter, much less abrasive, and renewable. Wood elements reinforce the thermoplastic by stiffening and strengthening and can improve thermal stability of the product compared with that of unfilled material. The manufacture of thermoplastic composites is usually a Figure 11–17. Extruded wood–thermoplastic compos- two-step process. The raw materials are first mixed together ites being evaluated for a siding application (Clemons and Stark 2007). in one step, and the composite blend is then formed into a product in the second step. The combination of these steps is called in-line processing, and the result is a single processing step that converts raw materials to end products. In-line processing can be very difficult because of control demands and processing trade-offs. As a result, it is often easier and more economical to separate the processing into a compounding step and a forming step (Clemons 2002). Compounding is the feeding and dispersing of the wood element in a molten thermoplastic to produce a homogeneous material. Various additives are added and moisture is removed during compounding. Compounding may be accomplished using either batch mixers (for example, internal and thermokinetic mixers) or continuous mixers (for example, extruders and kneaders).

The compounded material can be immediately pressed or Figure 11–18. Injection-molded wood–thermoplastic shaped into an end product while still in its molten state composites in a variety of shapes and forms. or pelletized into small, regular pellets for future reheating and forming. The most common types of product-forming methods for wood–thermoplastic composites involve forc- pre-dried or vented equipment must be used to remove ing molten material through a die (sheet or profile extrusion) moisture. The low thermal degradation temperature of wood or into a cold mold (injection molding), or pressing in cal- must also be considered. As a general rule, melt tempera- enders (calendering) or between mold halves (thermoform- tures should be kept below 200 °C (392 °F), except for short ing and compression molding). Most wood–thermoplastic periods. Higher temperatures can result in the release of composites in North America are formed using profile extru- volatiles, discoloration, odor, and embrittlement of the wood sion. Products such as decking, siding, railings, and window component. Although processing wood flour in thermoplas- profiles readily lend themselves to extrusion through a two- tics is relatively easy, the low bulk density and difficulty of dimensional die (Fig. 11–17). Injection-molded applications dispersing fibrous materials in thermoplastics is more dif- such as consumer household goods and furniture parts are ficult. More intensive mixing and the use of special feeding gaining importance (Fig. 11–18). Thermoforming or com- equipment may be necessary to handle longer fibers. pression molding is the forming method of choice for the automotive industry. Composite Materials with Low Thermoplastic Content In composites with low thermoplastic content, the thermo- Several factors must be considered when processing plastic component is not continuous, acting more as a binder wood with thermoplastics. Moisture can disrupt many for the fiber much the same way as binders in conventional thermoplastic processes, resulting in poor surface quality, wood-based composites. Thermoplastic content is typically voids, and unacceptable parts. Either materials must be

11–26 Chapter 11 Wood-Based Composite Materials less than 30% by weight. In their simplest form, lignocellu- Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and losic particles or fibers can be dry-blended with thermoplas- Materials. tic granules, flakes, or fibers and pressed into panel prod- ASTM. 2008b. ASTM D 5456–03. Standard specification ucts. An alternative is to use the thermoplastic in the form of for structural composite lumber. Annual Book of ASTM a textile fiber. The thermoplastic textile fiber enables a vari- Standards. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing ety of lignocellulosics to be incorporated into a low-density, and Materials. non-woven, textile-like mat. The mat may be a product in itself, or it may be consolidated into a high-density product. ASTM. 2008c. ASTM C 208–08a. Standard specification for cellulosic fiber insulating board. Annual Book of ASTM Because the thermoplastic component remains molten when Standards. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing hot, different pressing strategies must be used than when and Materials. thermosetting binders are used. Two options have been developed to accommodate these types of composites. In AWPA. 2007a. Commodity specification H: fire retardants. the first, the material is placed in the hot press at ambient AWPA Standard U–1: USS: User standard for treated wood. temperature. The press then closes and consolidates the ma- Birmingham, AL: American Wood Protection Association. terial, and heat is used to melt the thermoplastic component, AWPA. 2007b. Commodity specification F: wood compos- which flows around the lignocellulosic component. The ites. AWPA Standard U–1: USS: User standard for treated press is then cooled, “freezing” the thermoplastic so that the wood. Birmingham, AL: American Wood Protection Asso- composite can be removed from the press. Alternatively, the ciation. material can be first heated in an oven or hot press. The hot material is then transferred to a cool press where it is quick- Bowyer, J.L.; Shmulsky, R.; Haygreen, J.G. 2007. Forest ly consolidated and cooled to make a rigid panel. Some Products and Wood Science. 5th ed. Ames, IA: Blackwell commercial nonstructural wood–thermoplastic composite Publishing Professional. 558 p. panels are made in this way. Clemons, C.M. 2002. Wood-plastic composites in the Unit- ed States: the interfacing of two industries. Forest Products Literature Cited Journal. 52(6): 10–18. AF&PA. 2006. Structural composite lumber & glued laminated timber awareness guide. Washington, DC: American Clemons, C.; Stark, N. 2007. Use of saltcedar and Utah Forest & Paper Association. juniper as fillers in wood-plastic composites. Res. Pap. FPL RP–641. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, AITC. 1996. Standard specifications for structural glued Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 17 p. laminated timber of hardwood species. AITC 119. Centen- nial, CO: American Institute of Timber Construction. CPA. 2004a. Basic hardboard. ANSI A 135.4–2004. Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. AITC. 2001. Standard appearance grades for structural glued laminated timber. AITC 110. Centennial, CO: Ameri- CPA. 2004b. Prefinished hardboard paneling. ANSI can Institute of Timber Construction. A 135.5–2004. Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. AITC. 2004a. Standard specifications for structural glued CPA. 2006. Hardboard siding. ANSI A 135.6–2006. laminated timber of softwood species. AITC 117. Centen- Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. nial, CO: American Institute of Timber Construction. CPA. 2009a. Particleboard. ANSI A 208.1–2009. Leesburg, AITC. 2004b. Timber Construction Manual. American Insti- VA: Composite Panel Association. tute of Timber Construction. 5th ed. New York: John Wiley CPA. 2009b. Medium density fiberboard (MDF). ANSI & Sons. A 208.2–2009. Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. AITC. 2007a. Standard for wood products: structural glue- Geimer, R.L.; Souza, M.R.; Moslemi, A.A.; Simatupang, laminated timber. ANSI/AITC 190.1. Centennial, CO: M.H. 1992. Carbon dioxide application for rapid production American Institute of Timber Construction. of cement particleboard. In: Moslemi, A., ed. Proceedings, AITC. 2007b. Standard for preservative treatment of inorganic bonded wood and fiber composite materials con- structural glued laminated timber. AITC 109. Centennial, ference. Spokane, WA. September 27–30, 1992. CO: American Institute of Timber Construction. HPVA. 2004. American national standard for hardwood and ANSI. 2006. Structural glued laminated timber for utility decorative plywood. ANSI/HPVA HP–1–2004. Reston, VA: structures. ANSI 05.2. New York: American National Stan- Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association. dards Institute. IRC. 2009. International residential code for one- and two- ASTM. 2008a. ASTM D 3737–08. Standard practice for family dwellings. Washington, DC: International Code establishing allowable properties for structural glued lami- Council. nated timber (glulam). Annual Book of ASTM Standards.

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Jeong, S.; Wagh, A. 2003. Cementing the gap between ceramics, cements and polymers. Materials Technology. 18(3): 162–168. Jorge, F.C.; Pereira, C.; Ferreira, J.M.F. 2004. Wood-cement composites: a review. Holz als Roh-und Werkstoff. 62: 370–377. Kretschmann, D.E.; Winandy, J.; Clausen, C.; Wiemann, M.; Bergman, R.; Rowell, R.; Zerbe, J.; Beecher, J.; White, R.; McKeever, D.; Howard, J. 2007. Wood. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 60 p. Maloney, T.M. 1986. Terminology and products defini- tions—a suggested approach to uniformity worldwide. In: Proceedings, 18th international union of forest research organization world congress; September. Ljubljana: Yugosla- via. IUFRO World Congress Organizing Committee. Maloney, T.M. 1993. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. San Francisco, CA: Miller Free- man Publishing, Inc. 681 p. NIST. 2004. Voluntary product standard PS 2–04. Perfor- mance standard for wood-based structural-use panels. Na- tional Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce. NIST. 2007. Voluntary product standard PS 1–07. Structural plywood. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce. Oksman Niska, K.; Sain, M., eds. 2008. Wood-polymer composites. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, Ltd. 384 p. Suchsland, O.; Woodson, G.E. 1986. Fiberboard manufacturing practices in the United States. Agric. Handb. 640. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 263 p. Wagh, A.S.; Jeong, S.Y. 2003. Chemically bonded phosphate ceramics: I, a dissolution model of formation. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 86(11): 1838–44.

11–28 CHAPTER 12

Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Composite Materials Zhiyong Cai, Supervisory Research Materials Engineer Robert J. Ross, Supervisory Research General Engineer

The term composite is used to describe any wood material

Contents bonded together with adhesives. The current product mix Elastic Properties 12–2 ranges from fiberboard to laminated beams and components. Modulus of Elasticity 12–2 In this chapter, wood-based composite materials are classi- Shear Modulus 12–3 fied into the following categories: panel products (plywood, oriented strandboard (OSB), particleboard, fiberboard, Strength Properties 12–3 medium-density fiberboard (MDF), hardboard); structural Panel Products 12–3 timber products (glued-laminated timber (glulam), lami- Plywood 12–3 nated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber, paral- Oriented Strandboard (OSB) 12–4 lel strand lumber); and wood–nonwood composites (wood fiber–thermoplastics, inorganic-bonded composites). Particleboard 12–4 Hardboard 12–4 Wood-based composites are used for a number of structural and nonstructural applications. Product lines include panels Medium-Density Fiberboard 12–5 for both interior and exterior uses, furniture components, Timber Elements/Structural Composite Lumber 12–5 and support structures in buildings. Knowledge of the me- Glued-Laminated Timber 12–5 chanical properties of these products is of critical impor- Structural Composite Lumber 12–6 tance to their proper use. Wood–Nonwood Composites 12–7 Wood-based composites are made from a wide range of Wood–Plastic Composite 12–7 materials—from fibers obtained from underutilized small- diameter or plantation trees to structural lumber. Regardless Inorganic-Bonded Composites 12–9 of the raw material used in their manufacture, wood-based Testing Standards 12–9 composites provide uniform and predictable in-service Literature Cited 12–10 performance, largely as a consequence of standards used to monitor and control their manufacture. The mechanical properties of wood composites depend upon a variety of factors, including wood species, forest management regimes (naturally regenerated, intensively managed), the type of adhesive used to bind the wood elements together, geometry of the wood elements (fibers, flakes, strands, particles, veneer, lumber), and density of the final product (Cai 2006). A wide range of engineering properties are used to charac- terize the performance of wood-based composites. Mechani- cal properties are typically the most frequently used to eval- uate wood-based composites for structural and nonstructural applications. Elastic and strength properties are the primary criteria to select materials or to establish design or product specifications. Elastic properties include modulus of elasticity (MOE) in bending, tension, and compression. Strength properties usually reported include modulus of rupture (MOR, bending strength), compression strength parallel to surface, tension strength parallel to surface, tension strength perpendicular to surface (internal bond strength), shear strength, fastener holding capacity, and hardness. Model

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Table 12–1. Static bending properties of different wood and wood-based composites Static bending properties Modulus of elasticity Modulus of rupture Specific Material gravity GPa (×106 lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) Clear wood White oak 0.68 12.27 (1.78) 104.80 (15,200) Red maple 0.54 11.31 (1.64) 92.39 (13,400) Douglas-fir (Coastal) 0.48 13.44 (1.95) 85.49 (12,400) Western white pine 0.38 10.07 (1.46) 66.88 (9,700) Longleaf pine 0.59 13.65 (1.98) 99.97 (14,500) Panel products Hardboard 0.9–1.0 3.10–5.52 (0.45–0.80) 31.02–56.54 (4,500–8,200) Medium-density fiberboard 0.7–0.9 3.59 (0.52) 35.85 (5,200) Particleboard 0.6–0.8 2.76–4.14 (0.40–0.60) 15.17–24.13 (2,200–3,500) Oriented strandboard 0.5–0.8 4.41–6.28 (0.64–0.91) 21.80–34.70 (3,161–5,027) Plywood 0.4–0.6 6.96–8.55 (1.01–1.24) 33.72–42.61 (4,890–6,180) Structural timber products Glued-laminated timber 0.4–0.6 9.00–14.50 (1.30–2.10) 28.61–62.62 (4,150–9,080) Laminated veneer lumber 0.4–0.7 8.96–19.24 (1.30–2.79) 33.78–86.18 (4,900–12,500) Wood–nonwood composites Wood plastic 1.53–4.23 (0.22–0.61) 25.41–52.32 (3,684–7,585) building codes in the United States stipulate that plywood this chapter primarily focuses on presenting fundamental used for structural applications such as subflooring and mechanical property information for wood-based composite sheathing must meet the requirements of certain U.S. De- materials. For design procedures and values, the reader is partment of Commerce standards. Voluntary Product Stan- encouraged to contact the appropriate industry trade asso- dard PS 1–07 for construction and industrial plywood (NIST ciation or product manufacturers. Current design informa- 2007) and Performance Standard PS 2–04 for wood-based tion can be readily obtained from their websites, technical structural-use panels (NIST 2004) spell out the ground rules handbooks, and bulletins. for manufacturing plywood and establishing plywood or The organization of this chapter follows closely that of OSB properties, respectively. These standards have evolved Chapter 5. Basic mechanical property information is pre- over time from earlier documents (O’Halloran 1979, 1980; sented following a brief background discussion of these APA 1981) and represent a consensus opinion of the mak- products. A discussion of performance and testing standards ers, sellers, and users of plywood products as well as other covering their manufacture and use is also presented. concerned parties. Many of the questions that arise with wood-based compos- Elastic Properties ites have to do with their mechanical properties, especially how properties of one type of material compare with those Modulus of Elasticity of clear wood and other wood products. Although an ex- Elasticity implies that deformations produced by low stress tensive review that compares all properties of wood-based below the proportional limit are completely recoverable materials and products is beyond the scope of this chapter, after loads are removed. When loaded to stress levels above Table 12–1 provides some insight to how static bending the proportional limit, plastic deformation or failure occurs. properties of these materials vary and how their properties Typically, the stress–strain curve for wood-based compos- compare with those of solid, clear wood. Although the me- ites is linear below the proportional limit. The slope of the chanical properties of most wood composites might not be linear curve is the MOE. In compression or tensile tests, this as high as those of solid wood, they provide very consistent slope is sometime referred to as Young’s modulus to differ- and uniform performance. entiate it from bending MOE. Bending MOE is a measure of the resistance to bending deflection, which is relative to The mechanical property data presented in this chapter were the stiffness. Young’s modulus is a measure of resistance obtained from a variety of reports of research conducted to elongation or shortening of a member under tension or to develop basic property information for a wide range of compression. The procedure to determine MOE is fully de- wood-based composite materials. The wood-based com- scribed in ASTM D 1037 for fiber- and particle-based panel posites industry is very dynamic, with changes occurring products, ASTM D 3043 for structural wood-based panels, frequently in the manufacture of these materials and cor- ASTM D 5456 for structural composite lumber products, responding changes in design information. Consequently,

12–2 Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Composite Materials

ASTM D 7031 for wood–plastic composites, and ASTM D Tension strength perpendicular-to-surface (internal bond 7341 for glulam products. strength) is the maximum stress sustained by a specimen from a test with tension forces applied perpendicular to the Shear Modulus surface. Tests are made on specimens in the dry condition Shear modulus, also called modulus of rigidity, indicates to determine the resistance of the specimen to delamination the resistance to deflection of a member caused by shear or splitting in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the stresses. Shear stress is different from tension or compres- board. sion stress in that it tends to make one side of a member slip past the other side of a member adjacent to it. There are two Compression strength parallel-to-surface is the maximum main types of shear in different planes of wood-based pan- stress sustained by a specimen from a test with compres- els: interlaminar shear and edgewise shear or shear through- sion forces applied parallel to the surface. Tests are made the-thickness. Interlaminar shear is also commonly called with the long dimension of the specimen cut both parallel planar shear (or rolling shear, or horizontal shear) in ply- and perpendicular to the long dimension of the board to de- wood panels to describe stress that acts between the veneers termine the material’s resistance to crushing in each of the that are glued with grain direction in adjacent pieces per- primary panel directions. pendicular to one another. For example, when the plywood Interlaminar shear (planar shear) indicates the ability to panel is loaded in the middle with its two ends simply sup- resist internal slipping of one layer upon another within the ported, the layers or veneers tend to slip horizontally past panel. It is used to describe the glue line or bonding perfor- each other as the panel bends. The glue-bonding between mance inside or between the test materials. the laminates of veneers resists the slipping and often dictates the panel stiffness. Edgewise shear is also commonly Hardness is measured as resistance to indentation using a called racking shear. The moduli of rigidity vary within and modified Janka hardness test, measured by the load required between species, resin application, moisture content, and to embed an 11.3-mm (0.444-in.) diameter ball to one-half specific gravity. The procedure to determine different shear its diameter. moduli for fiber- and particle-based panels is described in Fastener holding strength is the maximum resistance to ASTM D 1037 and for structural panels in ASTM D 3044. separate or withdraw a fastener in a plane normal to the testing face. It usually contains three tests: nail withdrawal, Strength Properties nail-head pull-through, and direct screw withdrawal. Strength refers to the maximum stress that can be developed in a member due to applied loads prior to failure. Mechani- Panel Products cal properties most commonly measured and represented as Plywood “strength properties” for design include modulus of rupture Plywood is separated into two general classes: (a) construc- in bending, tension strength parallel-to-surface, tension tion and industrial plywood and (b) hardwood and decora- strength perpendicular-to-surface, compression strength tive plywood. Construction and industrial plywood are parallel-to-surface, shear strength, fastener holding strength, covered by Product Standard PS 1–07 (NIST 2007), and and hardness. Strength tests are typically made on speci- hardwood and decorative plywood are covered by Ameri- mens at moisture equilibrium under prescribed conditions can National Standard ANSI/HPVA–1–2004 (HPVA 2004). or after soaking. The procedures to determine strengths for Each standard recognizes different exposure durability clas- wood-based composites are described in ASTM D 1037, sifications, which are primarily based on moisture resistance ASTM D 3044, ASTM D 5456, ASTM D 3737, and of the adhesive and the grade of veneer used. In addition, ASTM D 7031. model building codes require that plywood manufacturers Modulus of rupture reflects the maximum load-carrying be inspected and their products certified for conformance capacity of a member in bending and is proportional to max- to PS 1–07, PS 2–04, APA PRP–108, or TECO PRP–133 imum moment borne by the specimen. Modulus of rupture (TECO 1991) by qualified independent third-party agencies is an accepted measure of strength, although it is not a true on a periodic unannounced basis. With PS 1–07, as long as stress because the formula by which it is computed is valid a plywood panel is manufactured using the veneer grades, only to the elastic limit (McNatt 1973). adhesive, and construction established in the standard’s pre- scriptive requirements, the panel is by definition acceptable. Tension strength parallel-to-surface is the maximum stress sustained by a specimen from a test with tension forces ap- All hardwood plywood represented as conforming to Ameri- plied parallel to the surface. Tests are made with the long di- can National Standard ANSI/HPVA–1–2004 (HPVA 2004) mension of the specimen cut both parallel and perpendicular is identified by one of two methods: by marking each panel to the long dimension of the board to determine the strength with the Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association (HPVA) in each of the primary panel directions. plywood grade stamp or by including a written statement with this information with the order or shipment.

12–3 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190

Table 12–2. Selected properties of plywood sheathing productsa Static bending Fiber stress at proportional Rail shear Glue line shear MOE MOR limit strength strength Specific (×106 Species gravity GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) GPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) Baldcypress 0.50 7.58 (1.10) 39.23 (5,690) 29.4 (4,260) 5.6 (805) 2.7 (389) Douglas-fir 0.53 7.45 (1.08) 41.37 (6,000) 39.3 (5,700) 3.8 (556) 1.4 (207) Lauan 0.44 7.43 (1.08) 33.72 (4,890) 28.1 (4,070) 4.3 (628) 1.3 (192) Western 0.41 8.55 (1.24) 37.37 (5,420) 33.3 (4,830) 4.6 (674) 1.7 (240) redcedar Redwood 0.41 6.96 (1.01) 42.61 (6,180) 37.4 (5,420) 5.3 (769) 1.5 (220) Southern Pine 0.57 7.70 (1.12) 37.09 (5,380) 26.2 (3,800) 5.5 (800) 1.6 (233) aFrom Biblis (2000).

If design calculations are desired, a design guide is provided made of the coarser material (Chap. 11). Particleboard is by the APA–The Engineered Wood Association in Plywood used for furniture cores and case goods, where it is typically Design Specification(PDS) and APA Technical Note N375B overlaid with other materials for decorative purposes. Par- (APA 1995a,b). The design guide contains tables of grade ticleboard can be used in flooring systems, in manufactured stamp references, section properties, and allowable stresses houses, for stair treads, and as underlayment. Requirements for plywood used in construction of buildings and similar for grades of particleboard and particleboard flooring prod- structures. Table 12–2 shows selected properties of various ucts are specified by the American National Standard for species of plywood. Particleboard A208.1-1999 (CPA 1999). Table 12–4 repre- sents some of selected properties of different particleboard Oriented Strandboard (OSB) manufacturers. Oriented strandboard is an engineered, structural-use panel manufactured from thin wood strands bonded together with Hardboard water-resistant adhesive under heat and pressure. It is used Basic hardboard physical properties for selected products extensively for roof, wall, and floor sheathing in residential are presented in ANSI A135.4–2004 (CPA 2004a). The uses and commercial construction. Design capacities of perfor- for hardboard can generally be grouped as construction, fur- mance-rated products, which include OSB and waferboard, niture and furnishings, cabinet and store work, appliances, can be determined by using procedures outlined in Techni- and automotive and rolling stock. Typical hardboard prod- cal Note N375B (APA 1995a). In this reference, allowable ucts are prefinished paneling (ANSI A135.5–2004 design strength and stiffness properties, as well as nominal (CPA 2004b)), house siding (ANSI A135.6–2006 (CPA thickness and section properties, are specified based on the 2006)), floor underlayment, and concrete form board. span rating of the panel. Additional adjustment factors Table 12–5 shows selected physical and mechanical proper- based on panel grade and construction are also provided. ties of hardboard from different manufacturers. Hardboard Table 12–3 shows selected properties of OSB obtained from siding products come in a great variety of finishes and tex- the literature. tures (smooth or embossed) and in different sizes. For application purposes, the Composite Panel Association (CPA) Under PS 2–04, a manufacturer is required to enter into an classifies siding into three basic types: agreement with an accredited testing agency to demonstrate that its panels conform to the requirements of the chosen Lap siding—boards applied horizontally, with each board standard. The manufacturer must also maintain an in-plant overlapping the board below it quality control program in which panel properties are Square edge panels—siding intended for vertical applica- regularly checked, backed by a quality assurance program tion in full sheets administered by an independent third-party. The third-party agency must visit the mill on a regular unannounced basis. Shiplap edge panel siding—siding intended for vertical ap- The agency must confirm that the in-plant quality control plication, with the long edges incorporating shiplap joints program is being maintained and that panels meet the mini- The type of panel dictates the application method. The CPA mum requirements of the standard. administers a quality conformance program for hardboard Particleboard for both panel and lap siding. Participation in this program Particleboard is typically made in three layers. The faces is voluntary and is open to all (not restricted to CPA mem- of the board consist of fine wood particles, and the core is bers). Under this program, hardboard siding products are

12–4 Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Composite Materials

Table 12–3. Selected properties of oriented strandboard (OSB) products Bending MOE Bending MOR Internal Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular bond Mill Specific (×106 (×106 Reference Species no. gravity GPa lb in–2) GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) Biblis Southern 1 0.80 4.41 (0.640) 2.89 (0.419) 23.8 (3,445) 24.2 (3,515) 0.57 (83) (1989) Pine 2 0.70 4.78 (0.694) 2.61 (0.378) 26.0 (3,775) 22.1 (3,205) 0.28 (41) 3 0.68 5.75 (0.834) 3.17 (0.460) 32.0 (4,645) 23.8 (3,445) 0.32 (47) Pu and Southern 4 0.51 4.41 (0.640) 2.40 (0.348) 21.8 (3,161) 25.4 (3,685) 0.23 (34) others Pine 5 0.60 5.67 (0.822) 2.61 (0.378) 27.8 (4,039) 27.1 (3,925) 0.28 (41) (1992) 6 0.58 4.41 (0.640) 2.97 (0.431) 23.9 (3,473) 28.7 (4,165) 0.26 (38) Aspen 7 0.65 6.28 (0.911) 2.03 (0.294) 32.2 (4,672) 30.4 (4,405) 0.43 (62) 8 0.66 5.69 (0.825) 1.92 (0.278) 31.6 (4,584) 32.0 (4,645) 0.41 (60) 9 0.74 6.31 (0.915) 2.79 (0.404) 34.7 (5,027) 33.7 (4,885) 0.34 (50) Wang and Southern 10 0.63 5.01 (0.726) 2.26 (0.327) 30.2 (4,379) 16.8 (2,436) 0.36 (52) others Pine 11 0.66 5.30 (0.769) 2.32 (0.336) 28.1 (4,075) 14.4 (2,088) 0.43 (62) (2003a) 12 0.67 5.12 (0.742) 2.56 (0.371) 30.7 (4,452) 21.1 (3,060) 0.32 (46) 13 0.66 4.91 (0.712) 2.24 (0.325) 28.3 (4,104) 19.8 (2,871) 0.38 (55) Hardwood 14 0.68 5.15 (0.747) 1.77 (0.257) 26.9 (3,901) 11.8 (1,711) 0.28 (40) mixture 15 0.67 5.87 (0.851) 1.40 (0.204) 33.9 (4,916) 7.8 (1,131) 0.23 (33) 16 0.70 6.73 (0.976) 2.25 (0.326) 36.9 (5,351) 15.8 (2,291) 0.45 (66) Aspen 17 0.63 6.50 (0.943) 3.10 (0.450) 38.0 (5,510) 21.5 (3,118) 0.28 (41) 18 0.62 7.90 (1.146) 3.10 (0.450) 38.8 (5,626) 23.2 (3,364) 0.46 (66) 19 0.61 6.10 (0.885) 2.50 (0.363) 30.7 (4,452) 19.7 (2,857) 0.34 (49) 20 0.61 6.50 (0.943) 1.80 (0.261) 35.5 (5,148) 13.7 (1,987) 0.25 (36) 21 0.66 6.75 (0.979) 2.45 (0.356) 37.3 (5,409) 19.3 (2,799) 0.38 (55) 22 0.63 5.80 (0.840) 2.40 (0.348) 26.9 (3,901) 17.9 (2,596) 0.40 (58)

Table 12–4. Selected properties of industrial particleboard productsa Static bending properties Tensile properties Modulus of Modulus of Modulus of Ultimate tensile elasticity rupture elasticity stress Internal bond Moisture content Specific (×106 (×106 Mill (%) gravity GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) A 8.7 0.71 3.0 (0.44) 16.8 (2,430) 2.2 (0.32) 7.72 (1,120) 0.79 (115) B 9.1 0.72 3.5 (0.51) 20.6 (2,990) 2.6 (0.38) 9.38 (1,360) 1.07 (155) C 9.8 0.76 3.5 (0.51) 18.9 (2,740) 2.3 (0.34) 8.27 (1,200) 1.00 (145) H 8.0 0.77 4.0 (0.58) 22.8 (3,310) 3.0 (0.44) 10.89 (1,580) 1.17 (170) J 8.5 0.72 3.0 (0.43) 17.2 (2,500) 1.9 (0.28) 7.45 (1,080) 0.45 (65) K 9.1 0.68 2.8 (0.40) 15.2 (2,206) 1.6 (0.23) 5.58 (810) 0.31 (45) L 9.3 0.62 3.2 (0.46) 17.0 (2,470) 1.8 (0.26) 6.69 (970) 0.48 (70) M 9.7 0.65 3.6 (0.52) 18.9 (2,740) 2.2 (0.32) 8.07 (1,170) 0.69 (100) N 8.3 0.60 3.1 (0.45) 17.0 (2,470) 3.7 (0.54) 8.00 (1,160) 0.31 (45) aFrom McNatt (1973). tested by an independent laboratory in accordance with substrate, and interior trim components (Cai and others product standard ANSI A135.6. 2006, Youngquist and others 1993). Medium-Density Fiberboard Timber Elements/Structural Minimum property requirements for MDF are specified by the American National Standard for MDF, ANSI A208.2- Composite Lumber 2002 (CPA 2002), and some of selected properties are given Glued-Laminated Timber in Table 12–6 from different manufacturers. Medium-densi- Structural glued-laminated timber (glulam) is an engineered, ty fiberboard is frequently used in furniture applications. stress-rated product that consists of two or more layers of It is also used for interior door skins, moldings, flooring lumber that are glued together with the grain of all layers,

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Table 12–5. Selected properties of hardboard productsa Modulus of Modulus of Ultimate tensile elasticity rupture stress Internal bond Moisture Type of content Specific (×106 Mill hardboard (%) gravity GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) A 1/8-in. 4.6 0.9 3.83 (556) 31.44 (4,560) 23.24 (3,370) 1.24 (180) B standard 6.5 1.02 4.36 (633) 33.92 (4,920) 23.17 (3,360) 2.76 (400) C 5.2 0.94 4.20 (609) 45.85 (6,650) 37.58 (5,450) 2.17 (315) D 5.6 0.9 3.32 (482) 38.75 (5,620) 28.61 (4,150) 1.55 (225) E 6.5 0.95 3.55 (515) 47.50 (6,890) 32.96 (4,780) 3.52 (510) F 7.7 0.91 3.23 (468) 37.85 (5,490) 25.72 (3,730) 1.93 (280) B 1/4-in. 6.4 1.02 4.45 (645) 33.85 (4,910) 22.61 (3,280) 1.86 (270) E standard 6.0 0.90 3.88 (563) 38.96 (5,650) 23.65 (3,430) 1.65 (240) A 1/4-in. 4.9 0.99 5.30 (768) 53.02 (7,690) 31.58 (4,580) 1.79 (260) tempered F 1/4-in. 6.9 0.98 5.14 (745) 55.57 (8,060) 30.61 (4,440) 1.86 (270) tempered aFrom McNatt and Myers (1993).

Table 12–6. Selected properties of medium-density fiberboard productsa Screw- Modulus of Modulus of holding rupture elasticity Internal bond edge Capacity face Mill Density (×106 no. (g cm–3) MPa (lb in–2) GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) kg (lb) kg (lb) 1 0.73 33.6 (4,873) 3.21 (466) 0.86 (125) 117 (257) 148 (326) 2 0.90 34.0 (4,932) 3.97 (576) 0.94 (136) 147 (325) 185 (407) 3 0.79 23.2 (3,366) 2.98 (432) 1.94 (282) 150 (330) 202 (445) 4 0.82 39.3 (5,703) 4.38 (635) 0.83 (121) 114 (252) 148 (326) 5 0.95 24.6 (3,565) 3.56 (517) 0.92 (133) 184 (405) 231 (509) 6 0.80 36.4 (5,278) 3.99 (578) 0.71 (103) 143 (315) 183 (404) 7 0.77 37.4 (5,421) 3.94 (572) 1.23 (179) 163 (360) 210 (464) 8 0.71 35.2 (5,107) 3.34 (485) 1.09 (158) 147 (324) 189 (416) aFrom Suchsland and others (1979). which are referred to as laminations, parallel to the length. followed in structural design of glulam timbers (AF&PA Table 12–7 provides some selected properties of glulam 2005). APA–The Engineered Wood Association has also de- products from different research studies. veloped design values for glulam under National Evaluation Report 486, which is recognized by all the building codes. Douglas–Fir–Larch, Southern Pine, yellow-cedar, Hem–Fir, and Spruce–Pine–Fir are commonly used for glulam in the Structural Composite Lumber United States. Nearly any species can be used for glulam Structural composite lumber (SCL) products are character- timber, provided its mechanical and physical properties are ized by smaller pieces of wood glued together into sizes suitable and it can be properly glued. Industry standards common for solid-sawn lumber. One type of SCL product is cover many softwoods and hardwoods, and procedures are manufactured by laminating veneer with all plies parallel to in place for using other species. the length. This product is called laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and consists of specially graded veneer. Another type Manufacturers of glulam timber have standardized the target of SCL product consists of strands of wood or strips of ve- design values in bending for beams. For softwoods, these neer glued together under high pressures and temperatures. design values are given in “Standard for Wood Products: Depending upon the component material, this product is Structural Glued-Laminated Timber” (AITC 2007). This called laminated strand lumber (LSL), parallel strand lum- specification contains design values and recommended mod- ber (PSL), or oriented strand lumber (OSL). ification of stresses for the design of glulam timber members in the United States. The National Design Specification for In contrast with sawn lumber, the strength-reducing charac- Wood Construction (NDS) summarizes the design informa- teristics of SCL are dispersed within the veneer or strands tion in ANSI/AITC 190.1 and defines the practice to be and have much less of an effect on strength properties. Thus,

12–6 Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Composite Materials

Table 12–7. Selected properties of glulam products Static bending properties Modulus of Modulus of elasticity rupture Moisture content Number of (×106 Reference Species (%) laminations GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) Manbeck Red maple 12 8 12.3 (1.78) 62.6 (9,080) and others 12 12 12.2 (1.77) 55.0 (7,980) (1993) 12 16 12.3 (1.78) 54.2 (7,860) Moody Yellow 8.2 8 13.0 (1.89) 55.6 (8,060) and others poplar 7.5 12 13.4 (1.94) 52.1 (7,560) (1993) 8 17 12.3 (1.79) 45.3 (6,570) Shedlauskus Red oak 12.8 8 13.0 (1.88) 60.5 (8,770) and others 11.1 18 12.8 (1.86) 46.0 (6,670) (1996) Janowiak Red maple 12.6 12 12.2 (1.77) 55.0 (7,980) and others 8.9 5 12.8 (1.86) (1995) 8.9 5 12.9 (1.87) 45.7 (6,630) Hernandez Ponderosa 8.8 8 9.44 (1.37) 31.4 (4,560) and others pine 8.8 13 9.07 (1.32) 29.6 (4,290) (2005) Hernandez Southern — 10 14.1 (2.04) 61.7 (8,950) and Moody Pine — 17 13.5 (1.96) 49.8 (7,230) (1992) Marx and Southern 10 4, 8, 10 11.2 (1.63) 46.5 (6,740) Moody Pine 10 4, 8, 11 10.8 (1.56) 33.9 (4,920) (1981 a,b) Douglas-fir– 11 4, 8, 12 13.9 (2.02) 47.2 (6,840) larch 11 4, 8, 13 13.6 (1.97) 40.7 (5,910) Moody Southern 11.8 17 9.3 (1.35) 28.6 (4,150) (1974) Pine 11.9 17 10.3 (1.49) 31.4 (4,560) relatively high design values can be assigned to strength Common applications in North America include decking, properties for both LVL and PSL. Whereas both LSL and railings, window profiles, roof tiles, and siding. These lum- OSL have somewhat lower design values, they have the ad- ber products are generally manufactured using profile extru- vantage of being produced from a raw material that need not sion. Some generalizations can be made regarding the per- be in a log size large enough for peeling into veneer. formance of wood–plastic composites, but there are excep- tions. Flexural and tensile properties of wood–plastic com- All types of SCL products can be substituted for sawn lum- posite lumber generally fall between those of solid wood ber products in many applications. Laminated veneer lum- lumber and unfilled plastics. Most commercial wood–plastic ber is used extensively for scaffold planks and in the flanges composites are considerably less stiff than solid wood but of prefabricated I-joists. Both LVL and PSL beams are used are stiffer than unfilled plastic (Clemons 2002). Compared as headers and major load-carrying elements in construc- with solid wood lumber, wood–plastic composites have bet- tion. The LSL and OSL products are used for band joists in ter decay resistance and dimensional stability when exposed floor construction and as substitutes for studs and rafters in to moisture. Compared with unfilled plastics, wood–plastic wall and roof construction. Various types of SCL are also composites are stiffer and have better dimensional stability used in a number of nonstructural applications, such as the when exposed to changes in temperature. manufacture of windows and doors. Table 12–8 provides some selected properties of LVL products from different Table 12–9 shows mechanical properties of unfilled poly- research studies. propylene and several wood–polypropylene composites. One of the primary reasons to add wood filler to unfilled Wood–Nonwood Composites plastics is to improve stiffness. Strength of the unfilled plastic can also increase but only if the wood component acts as Wood–Plastic Composite reinforcement with good bonding between the two compo- The use of wood–plastic composite lumber in North Amer- nents. Table 12–9 illustrates how wood–plastic composite ica has experienced tremendous growth in the past decade, properties can vary with changing variables. For example, largely because of residential construction applications. adding wood fiber instead of wood flour to polypropylene

12–7 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 ) –2 7,100) 7,430) 6,700) 5,650) 5,520) (4,080– stress Ultimatetensile ) ) MPa (lbin 6 –2 Tensileproperties (×10 lbin elasticity Modulusof 8.5–12.8 (1.24–1.86) 20.8–49.19.6–13.6 (3,020– (1.39–1.97) 36.6–51.2 (5,310– 15.6–20.3 (2.27–2.94) 37.9–46.2 (5,500– ) ) GPa –2 9,270) 9,650) 9,060) Flat 47.8–66.5 (6,940– 33.8–63.9 (4,900– 54.2–62.5 (7,860– ) ) MPa (lbin –2 9,850) 10,190) 10,400) Modulusof rupture Edge 11.1–12.4 (1.61–1.80) 18.3–38.1 (2,660– ) ) MPa (lbin 6 –2

(×10 lbin lumber for structural composite lumber products Staticbending properties Flat

) ) GPa 6 –2 (×10 lbin Modulusof elasticity Edge

GPa Red maple 10.8 (1.56) 11.3 (1.64) 83.3 (12,081) — — — — — — Douglas-fir 9.0–12.8 (1.30–1.86) 9.0–13.7 (1.30–1.98) 37.9–67.9 (5,500– Douglas-fir 15.9 (2.31) Douglas-fir — 16.1 (2.34) — — — — — 78.8 (11,430) — 14.1 — (2.04) 44.4 — (6,435) — 14.3 (2.07) 37.6 (5,450) Douglas-fir 15.5–19.2 (2.25–2.79) 15.4–19.3 (2.23–2.80) 58.0–71.7 (8,420– Douglas-fir — — — — — — — — 14.0–15.0 (2.03–2.17) 28.1–39.0 Douglas-fir — — — — — — — — 15.2 (2.20) 28.99 (4,205) SouthernPine 9.8–13.7 (1.34–1.98) 8.8–13.0 (1.27–1.89) 51.9–70.3 (7,530– SouthernPine SouthernPine — 14.1 — (2.04) 14.7 SouthernPine — 15.8 (2.13) — (2.29) 80.8 17.4 (11,720) — 86.0 (2.54) (12,480) — — — — — — — — — 13.5 — (1.96) — 34.6 — (5,025) — — — SouthernPine 13.2 (1.91) 0.0 0.00 64.2 (9,310) — — — — — — Moody andPeters (1972) Wangand others (2003b) Hindmanand others(2006) Kretschmann andothers (1993) Moody (1972) Koch (1973) Kunesh (1978) Jung (1982) Bohlen (1974) Table 12–8. Selected properties of laminated veneer of properties laminated TableSelected veneer 12–8. Reference Species Youngquist andothers (1984)

12–8 Chapter 12 Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Composite Materials

Table 12–9. Selected properties of wood–plastic productsa Tensile properties Flexural properties Izod impact energy Strength Modulus Strength Modulus (J m–1) Specific (×106 (×106 Composite gravity MPa (lb in–2) GPa lb in–2) MPa (lb in–2) GPa lb in–2) Notched Unnotched Polypropylene 0.90 28.5 (4,134) 1.53 (0.22) 38.30 (5,555) 1.19 (0.17) 20.9 656 (PP) PP + 40% wood 1.05 25.4 (3,684) 3.87 (0.56) 44.20 (6,411) 3.03 (0.44) 22.2 73 flour PP + 40% wood 1.05 32.3 (4,685) 4.10 (0.59) 53.10 (7,702) 3.08 (0.45) 21.2 78 flour + 3% coupling agent PP + 40% wood 1.03 28.2 (4,090) 4.20 (0.61) 47.90 (6,947) 3.25 (0.47) 23.2 91 fiber PP + 40% wood 1.03 52.3 (7,585) 4.23 (0.61) 72.40 (10,501) 3.22 (0.47) 21.6 162 fiber + 3% coupling agent aFrom Stark and Rowlands (2003). improved the strength and stiffness. Generally, adding a particles are “spot welded” by a binder applied as a finely coupling agent to the mix also improved mechanical prop- distributed spray or powder. Because of this difference and erties. Adding wood to polypropylene was not without because hardened inorganic binders have a higher density tradeoffs. Impact resistance of such composites decreased than that of most thermosetting resins, the required amount compared with that of unfilled polypropylene. of inorganic binder per unit volume of composite material is much higher than that of resin-bonded wood composites. In addition to these commercial deck products, wood–plas- The properties of inorganic-bonded wood composites are tic composites are being developed for structural applica- significantly influenced by the amount and nature of the -in tions such as foundation elements, deck substructures, inorganic binder and the woody material as well as the density dustrial decking, and shoreline structures (Bender and others of the composites. 2006). Table 12–10 shows the range of average mechanical properties of extruded wood–plastic composites by polymer Inorganic binders fall into three main categories: gypsum, type. In general, polyvinylcholoride and polyethylene for- magnesia cement, and Portland cement. Gypsum and mag- mulations produce higher mechanical properties than those nesia cement are sensitive to moisture, and their use is produced from polyethylene alone. Formulations that use generally restricted to interior applications. Composites coupling agents with either polypropylene or high-density bonded with Portland cement are more durable than those polyethylene result in improved strength, stiffness, and re- bonded with gypsum or magnesia cement and are used in duced moisture absorption properties. both interior and exterior applications. Inorganic-bonded composites are made by blending proportionate amounts of Properties of wood–plastic composites can vary greatly de- lignocellulosic fiber with inorganic materials in the presence pending upon such variables as type, form, weight fractions of water and allowing the inorganic material to cure or “set of constituents, type of additives, and processing methods up” to make a rigid composite. All inorganic-bonded com- (Stark and Rowlands 2003, Wolcott and others 2006). Be- posites are very resistant to deterioration, particularly by cause formulations from each commercial manufacture are insects, vermin, and fire. Typical properties of low-density proprietary, design data should be obtained directly from the cement-wood composite fabricated using an excelsior-type manufacturer. particle are shown in Table 12–11. Inorganic-Bonded Composites Inorganic-bonded wood composites are molded products or Testing Standards boards that contain between 10% and 70% by weight wood The physical and mechanical properties of wood-based particles or fibers and conversely 90% to 30% inorganic composite materials are usually determined by standard binder. Acceptable properties of an inorganic-bonded wood ASTM test methods. The following are the commonly used composite can be obtained only when the wood particles are methods described in ASTM (2009): fully encased with the binder to make a coherent material. This differs considerably from the technique used to manu- ASTM C 208–08. Standard specification for cellulosic facture thermosetting-resin-bonded boards, where flakes or fiber insulating board.

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Table 12–10. Selected properties of extruded wood–plastic products Compression Dowel bearing Tensile strength strength Bending strength Bending modulus Shear strength strength Composite (MPa (lb in–2)) (MPa (lb in–2)) (GPa (×106 lb in–2)) (MPa (lb in–2)) (MPa (lb in–2)) (MPa (lb in–2)) Polypropylene 20.0 (2,900) 55.2 (8,000) 3.49–5.97 22.2–60.8 22.0 (3,190) 84.8 (12,300) (PP)a, b (0.506–0.866) (3,220–8,820) High-density 5.5–15.2 11.7–26.9 1.79–5.17 10.3–25.5 7.79–10.3 35.7 (5,180) polyethylene (800–2,200) (1,700–3,900) (0.260–0.750) (1,500–3,700) (1,130–1,500) (HDPE)c Polyvinylchloride 25.1 (3,640) 61.2 (8,880) 4.81–7.58 35.9–54.5 20.2 (2,930) 72.4–128.2 (PVC)c (0.697–1.100) (5,200–7,900) (10,500–18,600) aFrom Slaughter (2004). bFrom Kobbe (2005). cFrom Wolcott (2001).

Table 12–11. General properties of low- ASTM D 5456–09. Specification for evaluation of density cement–wood composite fabricated structural composite lumber products. using an excelsior-type particlea,b ASTM D 7031–04. Standard guide for evaluating me- Value range (MPa (lb in–2)) chanical and physical properties of wood-plastic com- Property Low High posite products. Bending strength 1.7 (250) 5.5 (800) Modulus of 621 (90,000) 1,241 (180,000) ASTM D 7032–08. Standard specification for establish- elasticity ing performance ratings for wood-plastic composite Tensile strength 0.69 (100) 4.1 (600) deck boards and guardrail systems. Compression 0.69 (100) 5.5 (800) strength ASTM D 7341–09. Standard practice for establishing Shearc 0.69 (100) 1.4 (200) characteristic values for flexural properties of structural E/G ratiod 40.0 100.0 glued laminated timber by full-scale testing. aData present compilation of raw data from a variety of sources for range of board properties. Variables include ASTM E 1333–96 (2002). Test method for determining cement–wood mix, particle configuration, density, and formaldehyde concentration in air and emission rate forming and curing method. from wood products using a large chamber. bSpecific gravity range from 0.5 to 1.0. cShear strength data are limited to small samples having a specific gravity of 0.5 to 0.65. Literature Cited bE/G is ratio of bending modulus of elasticity to shear modulus. For wood, this ratio is about 16. AF&PA. 2005. Guideline—wood I-joist ASD manual for engineering wood construction. ANSI/AF&PA NDS–2005. National Design Specification® (NDS®) for Wood Construc- ASTM D 1037–06a. Standard test methods for evalu- tion. Washington, DC: American Forest & Paper Associa- ating the properties of wood-based fiber and particle tion. panel materials. AITC. 2007. Standard for wood products: structural glued- ASTM D 2718–00 (2006). Standard test method for laminated timber. ANSI/AITC 190.1–2007. Centennial, CO: structural panels in planar shear (rolling shear). American Institute of Timber Construction. ASTM D 2719–89 (2007). Standard test methods for APA. 1981. Performance standards and policies for APA structural panels in shear through-the-thickness. structural use panels. Tacoma, WA: American Plywood As- ASTM D 3043–00 (2006). Standard test methods of sociation. 1 p. testing structural panels in flexure. APA. 1991. Performance standards and policies for struc- ASTM D 3044–94 (2006). Standard test method for tural use panels. APA PRP–108. Tacoma, WA: APA – The shear modulus of wood-based structural plywood. Engineered Wood Association. ASTM D 3500–90 (2003). Standard test methods for APA. 1995a. Design capacities of APA performance-rated structural panels in tension. structural-use panels. Tech. Note N375 B. Tacoma, WA: APA – The Engineered Wood Association. 12 p. ASTM D 3501–05a. Standard test methods of testing plywood in compression. APA. 1995b. Plywood design specification. Tacoma, WA: APA – The Engineered Wood Association. 10 p. ASTM D 3737–08. Standard practice for establishing allowable properties for structural glued laminated tim- ASTM. 2007. Annual book of ASTM standards. Philadel- ber (glulam). phia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

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Bender, D.A.; Wolcott, M.P.; Dolan, J.D. 2006. Structural utilization of red maple in glued-laminated timber beams. design and applications with wood–plastic composites. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–541. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Wood Design Focus. 16(3): 13–16. Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 23 p. Biblis, E.J. 1989. Properties of commercial OSB from three Southern Pine mills. Forest Products Journal. 39(1): 55–57. Jung, J. 1982. Properties of parallel-laminated veneer from stress-wave tested veneers. Forest Products Journal. 32(7): Biblis, E.J. 2000. Effect of weathering on surface quality 30–35. and structural properties of six species of untreated commercial plywood siding after 6 years of exposure in Alabama. Kobbe, R.G. 2005. Creep behavior of a wood–polypropyl- Forest Products Journal. 50(5): 47–50. ene composite. MS Thesis. Pullman, WA: Washington State University. 96 p. Bohlen, J.C. 1974. Tensile strength of Douglas-fir laminated-veneer lumber. Forest Products Journal. 24(1): 54–58. Koch, P. 1973. Structural lumber laminated from 1/4-inch rotary-peeled Southern Pine veneer. Forest Products Journal. Cai, Z. 2006. Selected properties of MDF and flakeboard 23(7):17–25. overlaid with fiberglass mats. Forest Products Journal. 56(11/12): 142–146. Kretschmann, D.E.; Moody, R.C.; Pellerin, R.F.; Bendtsen, B.A.; Cahill, J.M.; McAlister, R.H.; Sharp, D.W. 1993. Ef- Cai, Z.; Muehl, J.H.; Winandy, J.E. 2006. Effects of panel fect of various proportions of juvenile wood on laminated density and mat moisture content on processing medium veneer lumber. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–521. Madison, WI: U.S. density fiberboard. Forest Products Journal. 56(10): 20–25. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Clemons, C.M. 2002. Wood-plastic composites in the Unit- Laboratory. 35 p. ed States: the interfacing of two industries. Forest Products Kunesh, R.H. 1978. MICRO-LAM: structural laminated Journal. 52(6): 10–18. veneer lumber. Forest Products Journal. 28(7): 41–44. CPA. 1999. Particleboard standard. ANSI A 208.1–1999. Manbeck, H.B.; Janowiak, J.J.; Blankenhorn, P.R.; Labosky, Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. P.; Moody, R.C.; Hernandez, R. 1993. Red maple glulam CPA. 2002. MDF standard. ANSI A 208.2–2002. Leesburg, timber beam performance. FPL–RP–519. Madison, WI: VA: Composite Panel Association. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 32 p. CPA. 2004a. Basic hardboard. ANSI A 135.4–2004. Lees- burg, VA: Composite Panel Association. Marx, C.M.; Moody, R.C. 1981a. Bending strength of shal- low glued-laminated beams of a uniform grade. Res. Pap. CPA. 2004b. Prefinished hardboard paneling. ANSI A FPL–RP–380. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agricul- 135.5–2004. Leesburg, VA: Composite Panel Association. ture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 19 p. CPA. 2006. Hardboard siding. ANSI A 135.6–2006. Lees- Marx, C.M.; Moody, R.C. 1981b. Strength and stiffness burg, VA: Composite Panel Association. of small glued-laminated beams with different qualities Hernandez, R.; Moody, R.C. 1992. Improved performance of tension laminations. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–381. Madison, of Southern Pine structural glued-laminated timber. Res. WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Pap. FPL–RP–514. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agri- Products Laboratory. 48 p. culture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 22 p. McNatt, J.D. 1973. Basic engineering properties of particle- Hernandez, R.; Green, D.W.; Kretschmann, D.E.; Verrill, board. Res. Pap. FPL–206. Madison, WI: U.S. Department S.P. 2005. Improved utilization of small-diameter ponderosa of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. pine in glulam timber. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–625. Madison, McNatt, J.D. Myers, G. 1993. Selected properties of com- WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest mercial high-density hardboards. Forest Products Journal. Products Laboratory. 38 p. 43(4): 59–62. Hindman, D.P.; Janowiak, J.J.; Manbeck, H.B. 2006. Com- Moody, R.C. 1972. Tensile strength of lumber laminated parison of ASTM D 198 and five-point bending for elastic from 1/8-inch-thick veneers. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–181. Madi- constant ratio determination. Forest Products Journal. son, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 56(7/8): 85–90. Forest Products Laboratory. 28 p. HPVA. 2004. American national standard for hardwood and Moody, R.C. 1974. Flexural strength of glued-laminated decorative plywood. ANSI/HPVA–1–2004. Reston, VA: timber beams containing coarse-grain Southern Pine lumber. Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association. 35 p. Res. Pap. FPL–222. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agri- Janowiak, J.J.; Manbeck, H.B.; Hernandez, R.; Moody, culture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 42 p. R.C.; Blankenhorn, P.R.; Labosky, P. 1995. Efficient

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Moody, R.C.; Peters, C.C. 1972. Strength properties of Wang, X.; Ross, R.J.; Brashaw, B.K.; Verhey, S.A.; Fors- rotary knife-cut laminated Southern Pine. FPL–RP–178. man, J.W.; Erickson, J.R. 2003b. Flexural properties of Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- laminated veneer lumber manufactured from ultrasonically vice, Forest Products Laboratory. 1 p. rated red maple veneer. A pilot study. Res. Note FPL–RN–0288. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Moody, R.C.; Hernandez, R.; Davalos, J.F.; Sonti, S.S. Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 1993. Yellow poplar glulam timber beam performance. Res. 5 p. Pap. FPL–RP–520. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agri- culture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 30 p. Wolcott, M.P. 2001. Final report: engineered wood composites fro naval waterfront facilities. Contract Nooo14- NIST. 2004. Voluntary product standard PS 2–04. Perfor- 97-C-0395. Arlington, VA: Office of Naval Research. mance standard for wood-base structural-use panels. Na- tional Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, Wolcott, M.P.; Smith, P.M.; Englund, K.R. 2006. Technol- MD: U.S. Department of Commerce. ogy and market issues driving wood–plastic product development. Wood Design Focus. 16(3): 3–5. NIST. 2007. Voluntary product standard PS 1–07. Construc- tion and industrial plywood. National Institute of Standards Youngquist, J.A.; Laufenberg, T.L.; Bryant, B.S. 1984. End and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: U.S. Department of jointing of laminated veneer lumber for structural use. For- Commerce. est Products Journal. 34(11/12): 25–32. O’Halloran, M.R. 1979. Development of performance speci- Youngquist, J.A.; Myers, G.E.; Muehl, J.M. 1993. Compos- fications for structural panels in residential markets. Forest ites from recycled wood and plastics. Final Rep., U.S. Envi- Products Journal. 29(12): 21–26. ronmental Protection Agency, Project IAG DW12934608–2. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- O’Halloran, M.R. 1980. The performance approach to ac- vice, Forest Products Laboratory. 3 p. ceptance of building products. In: Proceedings, 14th Wash- ington State University particleboard symposium. Pullman, WA: 77–84. Pu, J.; Tang, R.C.; Davis, W.C. 1992. Creep behavior of commercial oriented strandboard under high relative humidity. Forest Products Journal. 42(4): 49–54. Shedlauskas, J.P.; Manbeck, H.B.; Janowiak, J.J.; Hernan- dez, R.; Moody, R.C.; Labosky, P., Jr.; Blankenhorn, P.R. 1996. Efficient use of red oak for glued-laminated beams. Transactions of ASAE. 39(1): 203–209. Slaughter, A.E. 2004. Design and fatigue of a structural wood–plastic composite. MS Thesis. Pullman, WA: Wash- ington State University. 150 p. Stark, N.M.; Rowlands, R.E. 2003. Effects of wood fiber characteristics on mechanical properties of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood Fiber Science. 35(2): 167–174. Suchsland, O.; Lyon, D.E.; Short, P.E. 1979. Selected properties of commercial medium-density fiberboard. Forest Products Journal. 29(9): 45–49. TECO. 1991. Performance standards and policies for structural-use panels. TECO PRP–133. Eugene, OR: Timber Engineering Company. Wang, S.; Gu, H.; Neimsuwan, T.; Wang, S.G. 2003a. Layer thickness swell and related properties of commercial OSB products: a comparative study. In: Proceedings, 37th international particleboard and composite materials symposium. 2003 April 7–10. Pullman, WA: Washington State Univer- sity. 65–76.

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