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Gender Equality in Top Management (C-Suite): a Christian-Ethical Perspective

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Gender Equality in Top Management (C-Suite): a Christian-Ethical Perspective Gender equality in top management (C-suite): a Christian-ethical perspective C. Bøsterud 0000-0001-5437-5682 Previous qualification (Cand. Jur.) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Ethics at the North-West University . Promoter: Prof Dr JM Vorster Co-Promoter: Prof Dr AL Rheeder Graduation: July 2019 Student number: 30114020 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am genuinely thankful for all the support, guidance and inspiration that my two generous supervisors at North-West University have shared with me on my journey through this dissertation. Their capable supervision has been invaluable. First, I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor J. M. Vorster, who through his outstanding authorship has inspired me to embark on this project. His attentive and knowledgeable guidance has ensured that all steps are appropriately researched while never losing track of my research aims. Second, I would like to thank Professor R. Rheeder for his insightful comments and guidance during the whole process, while patiently supporting me through the project, sharing knowledge and inspiring thoughts of scholarship. Mrs. Tienie Buys has been an invaluable support throughout the process, keeping a firm hand and close eye on my progress, while maintaining an overall role in the practical and administrative sphere, supporting every step of this research project. I would also like to extend my most appreciative gratitude to Mrs. Peg Evans at Greenwich School of Theology, for all the timely assistance along the way, always accompanied with a kind and supportive comment. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Morten, for his patient support; without our inspiring discussions on the ethical aspects of our society, this project would never have existed. i ABSTRACT Gender balance in the Western world has made significant progress over the last few decades, and is now reflected in many parts of society, spanning from higher education, legal rights and obligations, and to some extent, access to work life. However, within the corporate world, differences are still reported in areas such as compensation, career progress and leadership roles. In top management, also referred to as the C-suite level in the corporate world, women are still a minority, not reflecting the proportional number of women within higher educational institutions or the number of women in the lower corporate ranks. The number of women in C-suite roles is surprisingly low, despite research showing the benefits of having women in leadership roles, with respect to financial output, overall performance, improved governance, increased talent pool, etc. The corporate world’s commitment to gender balance and change is often shared on paper; however, it is hard to track in real life as progress is slow, and good intentions lack actions. This dissertation focuses on the lack of gender balance at the top corporate echelons from a constructive Christian-ethical point of view. It addresses the biblical support for equality in line with the Reformed paradigm. The path to gender balance at C-suite level includes a strategy ensuring that all corporate processes, internal and external, embed steps that support a recruitment process that appreciates gender diversity. It also includes a commitment to influencing lawmakers and other extra-organisational stakeholders towards awareness of the internal working environment and grooming of talent, including the appointment of candidates to various roles, while balancing the influence of unconscious bias and stereotypy. Principles to guide these steps are proposed under the name Gender Appreciative Recruitment Practice (GARP) offering a constructive process based on the foundations of Scripture, as expressed under the Reformed paradigm. A general recommendation to decision-makers and other relevant stakeholders as to the ways in which GARP might operate in real life is included. ii Key terms: Gender equality, C-suite, leadership, recruitment, women’s careers, female leaders, business ethics, Gender Appreciative Recruitment Practice (GARP). iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... I ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... II CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Background and problem statement ............................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Background .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Problem statement ........................................................................................................... 4 1.1.3. Preliminary literature study ............................................................................................... 4 1.2. Aim and objectives ........................................................................................................... 6 1.2.1. Aim ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.2. Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.3. Central theoretical argument ........................................................................................... 6 1.4. Research design/Methodology ........................................................................................ 7 1.5. Concept clarifications ...................................................................................................... 7 1.6. Ethical considerations ...................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................... 9 2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1. Scope ....................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.2. Terminology ................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.3. The default sex? ........................................................................................................... 10 2.2. From Stone Age to Bronze Age ..................................................................................... 10 2.3. Antiquity ..................................................................................................................... 13 iv 2.4. Early Christian Era .......................................................................................................... 17 2.5. Medieval Era .................................................................................................................... 19 2.6. The Renaissance............................................................................................................. 21 2.7. Modern Era and the Industrial Revolution .................................................................... 23 2.7.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 23 2.7.2. Industrial Revolution ................................................................................................... 24 2.7.3. Socialism / Marxism ..................................................................................................... 26 2.7.4. First wave of feminism and the fight for suffrage ...................................................... 28 2.7.5. Wars and the effect on female’s work participation .................................................. 33 2.7.6. Further waves of feminism .......................................................................................... 35 2.7.7. Current situation .......................................................................................................... 36 2.8. Summary ..................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER 3: EPISTEMOLOGY .............................................................................................. 44 3.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 44 3.2. Theories of knowledge ................................................................................................... 45 3.2.1. Ontology ..................................................................................................................... 45 3.2.2. Epistemology ............................................................................................................... 46 3.2.3. Justification .................................................................................................................. 47 3.2.4. Religious knowledge ................................................................................................... 48 3.2.5. Interpretation and exegesis......................................................................................... 48 3.2.6. Feminist epistemologies ............................................................................................
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