TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW of BROMATE (CAS No
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
EPA/635/R-01/002 TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF BROMATE (CAS No. 15541-45-4) In Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) March 2001 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC DISCLAIMER This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Note: This document may undergo revisions in the future. The most up-to-date version will be made available electronically via the IRIS Home Page at http://www.epa.gov/iris. ii CONTENTS—TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF BROMATE (CAS No. 15541-45-4) FOREWORD .................................................................v AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTORS, AND REVIEWERS ................................ vi 1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................1 2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO ASSESSMENTS ....... 2 3. TOXICOKINETICS RELEVANT TO ASSESSMENTS ............................4 3.1. ABSORPTION .......................................................4 3.2. DISTRIBUTION ......................................................4 3.3. METABOLISM .......................................................5 3.4. EXCRETION ........................................................5 3.5. BIOACCUMULATION AND RETENTION ................................6 3.6. SUMMARY .........................................................6 4. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION ................................................6 4.1. STUDIES IN HUMANS—EPIDEMIOLOGY, CASE REPORTS, AND CLINICAL CONTROLS .........................................................6 4.1.1. Clinical Case Studies ............................................6 4.1.2. Summary .....................................................8 4.2. PRECHRONIC/CHRONIC STUDIES AND CANCER BIOASSAYS IN ANIMALS—ORAL AND INHALATION ..................................8 4.3. REPRODUCTIVE/DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES .........................15 4.4. OTHER STUDIES ...................................................16 4.4.1. Acute Toxicity Studies ..........................................16 4.4.2. Carcinogenicity ...............................................17 4.4.3. Genotoxicity ..................................................19 4.4.4. Mechanistic Studies ............................................20 4.5. SYNTHESIS AND EVALUATION OF MAJOR NONCANCER EFFECTS ...... 25 4.6. WEIGHT-OF-EVIDENCE EVALUATION AND CANCER CHARACTERIZATION ...............................................26 4.7. SUSCEPTIBLE POPULATIONS ........................................30 4.7.1. Possible Childhood Susceptibility .................................30 4.7.2. Possible Gender Differences .....................................30 5. DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENTS ..........................................30 5.1. ORAL REFERENCE DOSE ............................................30 5.1.1. Choice of Principal Study and Critical Effect—With Rationale and Justification ..................................................30 5.1.2. Method of Analysis—NOAEL/LOAEL ............................31 5.1.3. RfD Derivation, Including Application of Uncertainty Factors and Modifying Factors .........................................32 iii CONTENTS (continued) 5.2. INHALATION REFERENCE CONCENTRATION .........................32 5.3. CANCER ASSESSMENT .............................................32 5.3.1. Choice of Critical Study: Rationale and Justification ..................... 32 5.3.2. Dose-response Data ...............................................33 5.3.3. Dose Conversion .................................................34 5.3.4. Extrapolation Method .............................................35 5.3.5. Slope Factor .....................................................38 6. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS IN THE CHARACTERIZATION OF HAZARD AND DOSE RESPONSE ........................................................38 6.1. HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION ......................................38 6.1.1. Characterization of Noncancer Hazard .............................38 6.1.2. Characterization of Carcinogenicity ...............................39 6.2. DOSE-RESPONSE CHARACTERIZATION ................................40 6.2.1. Characterization of Noncancer Assessment ..........................40 6.2.2. Characterization of Cancer Assessment .............................41 7. REFERENCES ...........................................................43 Appendix A. External Peer Review—Summary of Comments and Disposition ............ 47 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of bromate .................................3 Table 2. Summary of tumor incidence in male rats ..................................11 Table 3. Tumor incidence for male and female rats ..................................12 Table 4. Tumor incidence in male rats ............................................14 Table 5. Dose-response data ....................................................34 Table 6. Parameter estimates for one-stage Weibull time-to-tumor model ................ 36 Table 7. Cancer potency estimates for bromate based on male rat tumors ................. 36 iv FOREWORD The purpose of this Toxicological Review is to provide scientific support and rationale for the hazard and dose-response assessment in IRIS pertaining to chronic exposure to bromate. It is not intended to be a comprehensive treatise on the chemical or toxicological nature of bromate. In Section 6, EPA has characterized its overall confidence in the quantitative and qualitative aspects of hazard and dose response. Matters considered in this characterization include knowledge gaps, uncertainties, quality of data, and scientific controversies. This characterization is presented in an effort to make apparent the limitations of the assessment and to aid and guide the risk assessor in the ensuing steps of the risk assessment process. For other general information about this assessment or other questions relating to IRIS, the reader is referred to EPA’s Risk Information Hotline at 513-569-7254. v AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTORS, AND REVIEWERS Chemical Manager/Author Ambika Bathija Office of Water U.S. EPA Contributing Authors Joan S. Dollarhide, M.S., M.T.S.C., J.D. Toxicologist Toxicology Excellence for Risk Assessment Cincinnati, OH Jennifer Jinot National Center for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development, U.S. EPA Reviewers This document and summary information on IRIS have received peer review both by EPA scientists and by independent scientists external to EPA. Subsequent to external review and incorporation of comments, this assessment has undergone an Agency-wide review process whereby the IRIS Program Manager has achieved a consensus approval among the Office of Research and Development; Office of Air and Radiation; Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances; Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response; Office of Water; Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation; and the Regional Offices. Internal EPA Reviewers Jennifer Jinot National Center for Environmental Assessment Bruce Rodan National Center for Environmental Assessment Anthony DeAngelo National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory External Peer Reviewers Dr. Paul E. Brubaker Brubaker and Associates vi AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTORS, AND REVIEWERS (continued) Dr. James Edward Klaunig Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology Indiana University School of Medicine Dr. June Dunnick National Institute for Environmental Health Science Summaries of the external peer reviewers’ comments and the disposition of their recommendations are in Appendix A. vii 1. INTRODUCTION This document presents background and justification for the hazard and dose-response assessment summaries in EPA’s Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). The reference dose (RfD) and reference concentration (RfC) provide quantitative information for noncancer dose-response assessments. The RfD is based on the assumption that thresholds exist for certain toxic effects such as cellular necrosis, but may not exist for other toxic effects such as some carcinogenic responses. It is expressed in units of mg/kg-day. In general, the RfD is an estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a daily exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime. The inhalation RfC is analogous to the oral RfD. The inhalation RfC considers toxic effects for both the respiratory system (portal-of-entry) and for effects peripheral to the respiratory system (extrarespiratory or systemic effects). It is generally expressed in units of mg/m3. The carcinogenicity assessment provides information on the carcinogenic hazard potential of the substance in question and quantitative estimates of risk from oral exposure and inhalation exposure. The information includes a weight-of-evidence judgment of the likelihood that the agent is a human carcinogen and the conditions under which the carcinogenic effects may be expressed. Quantitative risk estimates are presented in three ways. The slope factor is the result of application of a low-dose extrapolation procedure and is presented as the risk per mg/kg-day. The unit risk is the quantitative estimate in terms of either risk per µg/L drinking water or risk per µg/m3 air breathed. Another form in which risk is presented is a drinking water or air concentration providing cancer risks of 1 in 10,000; 1 in 100,000;