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The Civil War in Indian Territory, 1861-1865 Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2020 The Civil War in Indian Territory, 1861-1865 Zachery Cowsert West Virginia University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Part of the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Cowsert, Zachery, "The Civil War in Indian Territory, 1861-1865" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7553. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7553 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Civil War in Indian Territory, 1861-1865 Zachery C. Cowsert Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. in History Jason Phillips, Ph.D., Chair Brian Luskey, Ph.D. Tyler Boulware, Ph.D. Max Flomen, Ph.D. Andrew Frank, Ph.D. Department of History Morgantown, West Virginia 2020 Keywords: American Civil War, Native Americans, Indian Territory Copyright 2020 Zachery C. Cowsert ABSTRACT The Civil War in Indian Territory, 1861-1865 Zachery C. Cowsert This dissertation explores the American Civil War in Indian Territory, with a particular focus on the experiences of the Five Tribes—Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. Throughout the dissertation, I offer three overarching arguments. First, the Civil War in Indian Territory was truly an Indian civil war, shaped by Native American politics and culture. Second, the Civil War constituted a forgotten but immensely destructive moment in Native history, the second great trauma endured by the Five Tribes in the 19th century following westward removal. Third, the Civil War marked the violent crescendo of older Southeastern issues of removal and acculturation; by the end of the Civil War, new Western issues challenged Native American sovereignty, including land loss, railroads, allotment, territorial government, white settlement, and finally statehood. The six chapters within this dissertation offer new interpretations of Civil War Indian Territory, and the first three chapters illuminate how Native Americans became mired in the American Civil War and came to take opposing sides in that conflict. Chapter 1 exposes the fraudulent nature of Confederate-Native negotiations in 1861, contending that political intimidation, vigilantism, and fraud were necessary to secure alliance between the Confederacy and the Five Tribes. Theses political tactics harkened back to the fraudulence of the removal era, and also indicate the weakness of Confederate nationalism in Indian Territory. Chapter 2 examines Native backlash to Confederate treaties, charting the mass mobilization and political and military resistance of Creek chief Opothleyahola and his followers in the autumn and winter of 1861. Opothleyahola’s Rebellion constitutes a significant pan-Indian and slave rebellion against Confederate authority and sparked the beginning of years of destructive, intra-tribal civil war. Defeated and exiled to Kansas, the experiences and political power of “Loyal Indian” refugees are explored in Chapter 3. Despite their destitute condition, Native American refugees wielded a degree of political influence that ensured the United States military would attempt to liberate Indian Territory in 1862 and likewise be accompanied by Native Americans enlisted in the Indian Home Guard regiments. The final three chapters document the wartime years between 1862-1865, wherein the Confederate States and United States vied for military control of the region to the detriment of its Native American denizens. Chapter 4 surveys the disastrous 1862 First Indian Expedition, a Federal invasion of Indian Territory that failed due to a difficult environment and poor leadership. Chapter 5 documents the failure of the Confederacy to live up to its treaty obligations, which left Confederate military forces at a decided material disadvantage in the crucial year of 1863. Confederate defeats at First Cabin Creek and Honey Springs permanently shifted the strategic situation in the United States’ favor. Chapter 6 highlights how the war’s final years devolved into an increasingly racialized struggle played out in raids and guerrilla warfare, worsening the refugee crisis and undermining civil society. The conclusion illuminates how the Civil War undermined Native American sovereignty and left them vulnerable to Federal encroachment and westward expansion in the Reconstruction era. ii Acknowledgements I am filled with warmth and gratitude for all the mentors, colleagues, friends, and family who guided me through graduate school and helped me with this dissertation. I must begin with sincere thanks to my advisor Dr. Jason Phillips. His thoughtful, sweeping feedback always broadened my horizons. More importantly, his office door was always open, and he provided support whenever I lost my way or felt overburdened by graduate school. I’m profoundly grateful to have him as a mentor. Dr. Brian Luskey encouraged me that I had something important to say and helped me forge stronger historiographical connections. Drs. Tyler Boulware, Max Flomen, and Andrew Frank sharpened my understanding of Native American history and offered important thoughts on how to “indigenize” my project moving forward. My committee’s suggestions only made this project stronger, and any errors are my own. While countless archivists and librarians aided me, I’d like to especially thanks the staffs of West Virginia University, Gilcrease Museum and Library, and the Texas Heritage Museum. I want to joyfully thank those who journeyed alongside me in graduate school, whom I affectionally call the “Woodburn Club”—Nerissa Aksamit, Alex Burns, Katy Ferrari, Luke Gramith, Tyler Krahe, John Martin McMillan, Justin Power, Marc Sanko, Cole Volman, Jack Weaver, Chuck Welsko, and many more. I couldn’t have done it without you all. To my mother Erin, I thank you for being the positive voice in my head urging me to success. To my father Rick, thanks for the camping trips and battlefield visits of my youth, which are the origins of this project. To my sister Alex, thanks being a role model to your big brother. And finally, to my wife Jeridan, I can only offer my deepest thanks and love. You are my companion and my anchor, and you surely deserve a history degree of your own for your ceaseless support and patience along the way. iii Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter I 14 “We Are Choosing in What Way We Shall Die:” Factionalism and Fraud in Confederate-Native Diplomacy, 1861 Chapter II 58 “Now the Wolf Has Come:” Opothleyahola’s Rebellion, 1861 Chapter III 116 “These Indians Say They Are Not Whipped Yet”: The Kansas Refugee Crisis and the Political Origins of the First Indian Expedition Chapter IV 155 “Sweating, Choking, Broiling”: Environment, Leadership, and the Failure of the First Indian Expedition Chapter V 204 “The Indians Are Not Cared For”: Cabin Creek, Honey Springs, and the Failure of the Confederate-Indian Alliances Chapter VI 260 “The Evils of Disunion, Discord, and War”: Raids, Refugees, and Homefront, 1864-1865 Conclusion “The Ruthless White Man Demanded It”: The Postbellum Era 315 Bibliography 325 iv Introduction Ten year old Smaddie Pidgeon, a young Creek girl, stood on a hilltop in the winter wind and looked back on the chaotic scene below her. Her experiences that evening stayed with her throughout her life, and years later she related the scene to her son. Her party of Native refugees was “overtaken and had refuge on a hill while groups of men had stopped along the way to check the rear attackers.” As twilight set in, Smaddie watched the panicky fight unfold below, which “seemed to be like the flicker of fireflies, with report of guns heard and flashed here and there the shooting.” Smaddie and her party escaped her attackers that evening, and they made their way from that hilltop in northeast Indian Territory to Union Kansas through the harsh winter of 1861-1862.1 The Confederate troopers attacking Creek and Seminole refugees like Smaddie’s party that winter included white Southerners from Texas and Arkansas, men in regiments like the 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles and 3rd Texas Cavalry. Yet also among the Rebel ranks were the 1st Creek Regiment, the 1st Choctaw and Chickasaw Mounted Rifles, and the 1st Seminole Battalion. Less than a year into the conflict, the Civil War in Indian Territory already pitted Creeks against Creeks and Seminoles against Seminoles, tearing Native Americans apart into their own brutal, intra-tribal civil wars. And, as Smaddie Pidgeon’s memories attest, the war in Indian Territory pulled civilians into a vortex of violence, fear, and destruction from its opening moments. --- In 1861, as dark clouds of secession and civil strife gathered on the horizon, Indian Territory was home to the Five Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. After centuries living in their ancestral homelands in the American Southeast, these tribes 1 Interview with Jackman Pidgeon, February 21, 1938, Indian Pioneer Papers, WHC, OU. 1 endured the tragedy of forcible removal westward by the United States in the 1830s and 1840s, the Cherokee most infamously via the Trail of Tears. Suffering immense casualties on their journey west, they were given new lands in Indian Territory—an entity carved from Arkansas Territory in the 1820s whose borders nearly align with the modern state of Oklahoma. In this unfamiliar territory, the Five Tribes found new homelands.
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