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Military-Civilian Interactions in Early Roman Palestine and the Gospel of Mark

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Military-Civilian Interactions in Early Roman Palestine and the Gospel of Mark Military-Civilian Interactions in Early Roman Palestine and the Gospel of Mark by Christopher Zeichman A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Emmanuel College and the Biblical Department of the Toronto School of Theology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology awarded by the University of St. Michael’s College © Copyright by Christopher Zeichman 2017 Military-Civilian Interactions in Early Roman Palestine and the Gospel of Mark Christopher Zeichman Doctor of Philosophy in Theology University of St. Michael’s College 2017 Abstract Despite the rise in academic interest about the Roman imperial context of early Christian writings, the social-historical question of the military in Palestine has remained almost entirely neglected by biblical scholars. When the topic is discussed, it makes use of broad stereotypes that seem more to serve a normative function condemning contemporary imperialism than a careful examination of data from antiquity. The present thesis aims to rectify this problem in three stages. The first part aims to contextualize the Gospel of Mark as specifically as possible, suggesting a provenance of Capernaum in Galilee in the mid-70s CE. A precise consideration of Mark’s provenance is a necessary starting point if one is to make claims about the evangelist’s experience with men of the military. The second part offers a thorough account of the military in early Roman Palestine, attending both to Mark’s compositional context (i.e., post-War Galilee) and the context which Mark depicts (i.e., Palestine 20s and 30s CE). This part has chapters encompassing both the demographic makeup of the military in Palestine and their function. The third part of the dissertation begins with consideration of three theories of violence that may elucidate Mark’s interactions with the military: Slavoj Žižek’s work on objective-structural violence, Pierre Bourdieu’s work on symbolic violence, and Michel Foucault’s work on violence and subjectivation. These theories are then deployed in the interpretation of Mark, drawing ii attention to how the military not only features at several pivotal moments in the Gospel, but looms in the background in many other locations. Here, it is shown that Mark is ambivalent about the military in a manner typical of his context: low-level officers are depicted positively, whereas common soldiers are understood as cruel bullies. iii Acknowledgments Labour, whether intellectual or otherwise, never occurs in a vacuum. Leif Vaage, who has supervised my studies throughout my doctoral program, has been beyond helpful every step of the process. My initial interest in the military of first-century Palestine first came about in his seminar on the Sayings Gospel Q, wherein I found myself drawn to The Healing of the Centurion’s Slave (Q 7:1-10). Leif’s encouragement, insight, and advocacy on my behalf are only the most obvious instances of how he has aided me in my time in Toronto; if I had been paired with any other supervisor, it is difficult to imagine that they would have played a more substantial role in my studies than Leif has. Other professors in Toronto have helped in different ways, including Terry Donaldson, John Kloppenborg, Scott Lewis, Colleen Shantz, and Natalie Wigg-Stevenson. Their conversations, support, and feedback are deeply appreciated. Thanks also to William Arnal for partaking in the defense as an external examiner – my beard expresses thanks to him for his role in its genesis. Others at Toronto also deserve to be mentioned, especially John Egger, who has been a loyal friend and dialogue partner since my first days in Toronto. John was immensely helpful in navigating Emmanuel College and the biblical studies program at Toronto. His willingness to engage whatever strange ideas came to my mind has helped act as a preliminary quality control for this dissertation. Also at Emmanuel College, Dianne Everitt, Kieren Williams, Trent Voth, Ren Ito, Lelia Fry, Jen Weetman, and Allison Murray deserve thanks for their support and in some cases for feedback on the contents of this thesis. At TST’s “cousin” of UofT’s Department for the Study of Religion, Michelle Christian has graciously provided feedback and I am indebted to her knowledge of coinage and economy. Several residents at Knox College have been important support and conversation partners in the writing process, most especially Helen Baxter, Bill Wu, and Tianna Uchacz. Thanks also to Robert Peacock and Matt Eaton for their help with research concerning the battle of Xin-Shalast. I would like to passive-aggressively thank Monique Matelski for not mentioning me in her dissertation acknowledgments; I hope she feels guilty. iv Russell McCutcheon, Maurice Sartre, and Danny Syon were all gracious enough to both offer bibliographic suggestions and in some cases also drafts of forthcoming publications. Fred Baxter supplied English translations of several Latin inscriptions in Database One and I am thankful for his kindness. Thanks also to Michael C. A. Macdonald for help procuring articles, translation of Safaitic inscriptions, and bibliographic suggestions. Down south, Laura, Jim, Colleen, and my parents have been supportive throughout my graduate programs, neither of which was especially close to “home.” It is always exciting to see them, though my pleasure has less to do with their presence than the fact that I am on vacation when we see each other. The exception to this is when we convene at Laura and Jim’s house, where I am glad to see them primarily because they have brewed a new stout or IPA. Please do not mistake my enthusiasm upon arrival in Grand Rapids for the possibility that I enjoy their company in the least. Come to think of it, my ceaseless housing of family members on their visits to “exotic Toronto” means they should probably be thanking me. Finally, it is necessary to thank my occasional writing partner, Nathanael Romero. Nathanael has been singularly helpful in thinking about state violence as a theoretical problematic needing redress, particularly vis-à-vis mundane practices. I end these acknowledgments with a quotation from Nathanael that also summarizes the orientation in the following pages: “My own politics are less centered on the extraordinary violence of so-called ‘extremists’ and those positioned as threats to ‘our way of life’ and more on the everyday violences that function to maintain that way of life.” This dissertation is dedicated to Johann Zeichmann, known most of his life as the eldest John Zeichman. Were it not for his refusal to submit to the draft, the Zeichman family would not exist. v Table of Contents Chapter 1: The Problem of the Military in the Gospel Tradition....................................................1 Outline of Dissertation.........................................................................................................9 A Few Matters of Definition..............................................................................................11 Chapter 2: The Provenance and Date of Mark’s Gospel...............................................................15 The Date of Mark’s Composition......................................................................................16 The Provenance of Mark’s Gospel: A Case against Rome................................................26 The Provenance of Mark’s Gospel: A Case for Palestine..................................................33 The Provenance of Mark’s Gospel: A Location within Palestine......................................41 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................51 Chapter 3: Who Were the Soldiers in Palestine?...........................................................................53 The Demographic Makeup of Palestinian Recruits before the Judaean War....................54 The Benefits of Service for Palestinian Recruits...............................................................61 Legionaries Serving in Judaea before the Bar Kokhba War..............................................68 Recruitment and Promotion of Centurions in Palestine before the Judaean War..............71 Chapter 4: What Did the Military Do in Early Roman Palestine?.................................................76 Excursus: Palestine in Rome’s Grand Strategy.................................................................76 Official Functions of the Military in Palestine..................................................................79 Informal Functions of the Military in Palestine.................................................................91 Case Study: Masada.........................................................................................................101 Chapter 5: Ambivalence towards State Violence........................................................................109 Objective-Structural Violence.........................................................................................113 Symbolic Violence...........................................................................................................116 Violent Subjectivities.......................................................................................................123 Conclusion: Theories of Violence in Rome.....................................................................127 Chapter 6: The Military in the Gospel of Mark...........................................................................130 Sweep One: Directly
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