THE ISLAMIZATION OF EGYPT Adel Guindy*

This article discusses the recent strengthening of the and the Islamist movements in Egypt. It then looks at the resulting regression in modernization and Westernization efforts in the country. The article also focuses on the adverse effects these changes have had on Egyptian Copts.

The success of the Muslim governance soon led to a clash of Brotherhood to gain a fifth of the interests. As a result, the Brotherhood parliamentary seats in the latest was banned in 1954, and its aspirations elections in Egypt (November 2005) and designs had to be shelved. seemed to have taken many people by However, these aspirations never died. surprise. The recent acceleration in the Following the Nasser years, with number of attacks on Copts in the the wins, losses, and experimentations country may also take some by with Arabism and socialism, those surprise. These two phenomena are in shelved aspirations were revived with fact linked and should be seen as a the arrival of Anwar Sadat. He began natural consequence of relentless his rule by reopening the doors to the efforts over the past few decades to Brotherhood and other off-shoots of Islamize the country. Islamic groups. He then initiated what Six decades ago, Egypt’s ruling one could, in hindsight, term “the system, under a corrupt monarchy and Great Islamic Transformation” of on the verge of collapse, nearly fell Egypt. The first step was to stipulate in into the laps of the Muslim the Second Article of his new Brotherhood. Established only two Constitution, promulgated in 1971 decades earlier (in 1928), the (long before Khomeini embarked on Brotherhood appeared to have garnered his Islamic revolutionary campaign), such strength that to them it seemed that the Principles of Islamic Shari’a natural they would take over the rule in were “a main source” of legislation. In the country and establish an Islamic May 1981, the “a” was replaced with state from the ruins of the “the,” making Shari’a the term of dysfunctional liberal system. reference for the entire constitution, Then came the army’s coup d’état meaning all other articles were to be (later called a “revolution”). Even interpreted in that light.1 though most of the “Free Officers” had That change provided the legal, previously been Brotherhood members political, and “psychological” basis for and, as new rulers, it was clear they the Islamic transformation to proceed had special connections with the in an inexorable fashion. Sadat’s Brotherhood, the realities of famous slogan, “I am a Muslim

92 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 3 (September 2006) The Islamization of Egypt president of a Muslim state” was a At government administration clear indication of this transformation. offices, it is common for employees to spend most of the workday (already THE ISLAMIC among the shortest in the world) TRANSFORMATION performing ritual ablution and . Office managers and senior directors

often double as leaders. It is The society began a gradual Islamic indeed rare to find an office that is not transformation. Consider the following adorned with religious artifacts, such examples of Egypt’s transformation. as framed Koran verses and photos of Not only the hijab, but also the Qa’aba along with photos of the 2 niqab became widespread and a part president—a perfect example of the of a national dresscode of sorts for the amalgamation of religious and state Egyptian women. Beyond the push to symbols. exhibit ever more piety, this trend was The national carrier, EgyptAir, defended, in Orwellian fashion, in the which for years has banned serving name of “personal freedom." If Huda alcohol3 on all flights also recites at Sha’arawi and Qasim Amin—the every take-off and landing the visionary champions of the women’s “Invocation of Travel,” originally liberation movement of the early intended for desert trips on camelback. twentieth century—were still alive, While alcohol is still not totally banned they would find the present scenes on in the country, local authorities in the the streets of Cairo utterly devastating. governorates have over the past several broadcast prayers years gradually restricted its sale to (including at early dawn) over public “tourist” areas. This is done to feign speakers, and religious recordings have public piety or simply to avoid possible replaced popular music in most attacks by Islamists on bars and other transport vehicles (taxis, buses, and places where alcohol is sold. During minibuses) as well as in shops. It is not the fasting month of Ramadan, alcohol unusual to see Metro (subway) cars may be served in tourist locations turned into preaching (proselytizing) outside the fasting hours (i.e. between forums by feverish zealots. Moreover, sunset and dawn), and only to owners of apartment buildings who foreigners. Ironically, an Egyptian non- have transformed even part of their Muslim would not be served a beer, building’s basement into a prayer hall whereas a foreigner (even if Muslim) (equipped with microphones) receive would be. special local property tax exemptions. Even the basic and familiar daily The professional syndicates, greetings of “good organizations, and the Lawyers’ Bar— morning/evening/day,” using mostly dominated by Islamists—have expressions for which Egyptians were been turned into forums for spreading long renowned, were replaced with the an Islamic—and violently anti- standard Islamic “assalamu alaykum.”4 Western—agenda rather than attending The “hello” naturally said in answering to members’ needs and providing them the phone, has equally been replaced services. by the same Islamic expression.

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Likewise, the century-old school of special commission headed by the fine arts is now filled with hijab- speaker of the Council (The wearing girls and bearded men, all “Consultative Council,” or the upper claiming that sculpturing and drawing parliamentary chamber, which has human models is “illicit.”5 Already limited legislative powers). According from the late 1970s, depicting nude to the Parties Law, a new party must models has been banned, and all meet certain criteria in order to become artwork statues showing full or partial eligible. A main criterion is that the nudity once exhibited in the school “party’s principles, objectives, were moved to the school’s storage programs, politics, and approaches in rooms. It is worth noting that the drive performing its activities do not towards such extremist attitudes is contradict the principles of Shari’a; propagated by preachers in the prayer these being the main source of halls of the school itself. legislation in the country.”8 When the Indeed, the Grand Mufti of Egypt new party “Egypt the Motherland” recently declared statues “illicit.”6 In applied in February 2004, the Parties response to criticism by some writers Commission (currently headed by the worried that such fatwas would further secretary general of the ruling National blemish the image of in the Democratic Party) quickly denied its world, the Mufti said that he was only approval, essentially because its reiterating this old fatwa based on a program spoke of the necessity to (a saying by the Prophet)7 and adopt some kind of secularism in the that he was not in a position to deny or country. The party duly challenged the negate “what is established in the decision in the courts in July of the matters of religion” no matter what. same year. After lengthy procedures, Will the treasures of the pharaohs one the Supreme Administrative Court day meet the same destiny as that of decided to uphold the Commission’s the Buddha statutes demolished by the decision, asserting that the party’s Taliban? One woman already smashed program “does not define the statues in the Hassan Heshmat secularism (it calls for), or how to Museum in Cairo following the famous separate between the religious and fatwa. political authorities...” Propagators of extremist thought Egyptian nationalism and patriotism are given a free hand to spread their have receded and have been replaced ideas by all means (as long as they are by a new sense of Pan- in not overly critical of the regime). On which a fellow Muslim from the other hand, efforts by civil society or Malaysia is considered to be much are systematically obstructed, and the closer than a Coptic co-citizen. For defenders of liberal and progressive instance, in a recent interview with the ideas have—until very recently—been Supreme Guide of the Muslim extremely marginalized. The bases of Brotherhood in a government-owned critical thinking and respect for the paper, he stated with no ambiguity: “other” are not even taught in school. “Tuz fi (To hell with) Egypt,” “Our nationality is Islam,” and “The Rule of Establishing political parties in the Ottoman Empire over Egypt was Egypt is subject to the approval of a not an occupation, because it was a

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Muslim .”9 To show his zeal complete without attempting to for Pan-Islamism, he said, “We don’t examine the state of the religious mind to have a Malaysian president for establishment in the country. Egypt (as long as he is Muslim).” In the early years of the 20th Surprisingly, few voices arose to reject Century, Egypt had five religious such abhorrent discourse. (Koranic) schools with about 3,000 It would require volumes to students, some of whom would document the drastic role played over ultimately join al-Azhar the past few decades by the /University to become imams. government-owned media, which are Today, the number of institutes has typically mouth-pieces reflecting the mushroomed to seven thousand, with government’s directives in the process no less than 1.5 million students.11 of Islamic Transformation. Yet one Even considering the population recent example says a great deal. On growth, this is still a huge proportional December 9, 2005, a guest on one of increase, most of it taking place over the regular religious programs the past few decades. broadcast on Cairo’s main television In regards to the religious curricula channel used the opportunity to pour and material taught in these schools, out his wrath on “secularists” in the prominent thinker Lafif Lakhdar 10 Egypt. He emphasized that Islam’s reports12 that the students are taught tenet as “a state and a religion” was under the topic of the “Rules of one of the fundamentals without which Dhimmitude” that “the meaning of the the faith could not be upheld. He went dhimmitude contract is to accept that on to explain that the objectives of some infidels (kuffar) remain in their legislation in the Muslim state must be infidelity (kufr) on the condition that within the boundaries of defining what they pay the tribute (jizzyah) in utter is licit and illicit (as stipulated by the humiliation, according to the Shari’a). commands of the Highest () in This, coming only a few weeks after the Koran.”13 Lakhdar further the “surprise” success of the Muslim identifies examples of flagrant Brotherhood in the parliamentary religious discrimination as he quotes elections may indicate that in essence, from the same book that orders there is little ideological difference “not [to] be buried in our between the government and the …. [T]hey can enter public baths Brotherhood. The main issue, only if porting bells or having their therefore, is who holds the reigns of necks stamped; they ride donkeys power and to what extent (or rather without saddles, not horses; they how fast) the ideology is implemented. should not take a lead position in meetings; one should not stand up [to salute] them, nor be first to greet them THE RELIGIOUS or congratulate them or visit them ESTABLISHMENT when sick; they should not be allowed to ring their (church) bells; and should The examples mentioned above be forced to go through the narrowest demonstrating the Islamic of alleys.” No wonder then, as Lakhdar Transformation of Egypt would not be concludes, that Shaykh Mustafa

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Mash’hur, the (previous) leader of the minister of endowment once boasted Muslim Brotherhood, demanded that (in 2004) that his ministry’s budget had Copts not be allowed into the Army. grown forty times in twenty years to Over 400,000 students in 70 reach 1.5 billion pounds (about US 17 faculties are currently enrolled in al- $270). Showing where the Azhar University,14 and there are over government’s priorities lie, such large 7,000 faculty members. During the expenditures drain the national budget, 2005/2006 academic year it accepted leaving less for vital issues, such as over 83,000 students,15 becoming one education, health, environment, etc. of the largest universities in the world. Another simple calculation would It is only open to “believers,” though then show that the number of Egyptian some of its faculties offer secular who devote their lives to studies in engineering, medicine, or religion—whether studying, teaching, commerce (albeit always tinged with preaching, or attending to other religious teachings). Incidentally, the supporting activities—exceeds a university provides free education to staggering 2.5 million. There are then, some 20,000 Muslim students from when including the families of over 60 countries. A simple calculation employees, some eight to ten percent would show that in all, 1.9 million of Egyptian Muslims whose lives students are enrolled in various stages revolve around religion. It is worth of religious education. noting that such individuals often Egypt boasts over 120,000 know little about those things that are mosques, in addition to some 900,000 not related to Islam and have never had prayer areas. By mid-2005, some any personal acquaintances who are 92,000 mosques16 were run by the not Muslims. “Ministry of Endowments” (which, in It would be difficult to estimate reality, is the Ministry of Islamic accurately national expenditure on Affairs). A plan was under way to religious affairs, including—in integrate an additional 2,500 mosques addition to the above-mentioned in the 2005/2006 fiscal year, offering activities—those related to 10,000 new employment positions for (pilgrimage to ) and foreign imams and preachers (as government religious missions (proselytizing) that employees). The Ministry builds and fan the world. However, it would be runs new mosques and also covers all quite safe to say that these exceed the management costs of privately-built foreign financial aid that Egypt mosques that become integrated under receives from the United States, EU, its auspices. Its vast expenses are and other donors. partially covered by endowments, but At the annual Koran studies largely come from the general state (reciting and rote learning) celebrations budget (i.e. at the tax-payers’ expense). and the Prophet’s Birthday, Egypt’s The budget for building and furnishing president takes it upon himself to hand mosques alone in 2005 was LE 320 out in person awards to students and million (approximately US $60). To scholars, not only from Egypt but also this, one must add the costs of from all over the world.18 A new maintenance and the salaries of over international award 400,000 employees. Indeed, the

96 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 3 (September 2006) The Islamization of Egypt carrying Mr. Mubarak’s name was and lived in its light.”20 Shari’a harbors created last year. In addition there is an several objectionable stipulations annual award to the governorate in according to current human rights Egypt that “excels in the efforts to standards (such as cruel punishments expand the centers of Koran learning to by , amputation, and every village and hamlet.” This occurs ;21 or the prohibition— at a time when there are no competitive through rules—on freedom of efforts across the nation addressing belief). Therefore, it was rather such areas as illiteracy, environment, shocking to see Shaykh reduction of road accidents, Sayid Tantawi—otherwise known for cleanliness, attracting more his moderate views—make such investments, or reducing sweeping statements. They simply unemployment. imply such forms of punishment The special fatwa department in should be put back in the penal code, Egypt issues about 100,000 fatwas more than a century after having been (religious opinions) per year,19 and it removed. has a database containing over one Second, the official website of the million fatwas. In March 2005, Egypt “Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs,” and signed an agreement an official body of the “Ministry of on “cooperation in the domain of Awqaf,” (The Ministry of Endowment da’wa (preaching, proselytizing), and Islamic Affairs)22 posted an article preparation and qualification of imams entitled “Islam versus Ahl al-Kitab: to inform others of Islam and its Past and Present.”23 The author, Dr. tolerance and its stance towards Maryam Jameelah, attempts to answer modern issues… and to the service of the question “how can we be certain Koran and , through publishing that Islam is the only infallible Truth?” and translations….” However, keeping The article concludes by emphatically in mind the reputation of the ’ stating: Wahhabi Islam when it comes to “tolerance” and “modern issues,” the Peaceful relations and mutual prospects for the religious respect among us can only be establishment in Egypt look grim. achieved through strength. We One need not look beyond the must cease indulging in apologetics following two examples for indications and present the Islamic message to of the kind of message the religious the world honestly and forthrightly. establishment currently spreads: Before we can hope to succeed First, the Grand Shaykh of al- with Tabligh (proselytizing) on a Azhar, the highest religious authority large scale, we must first convert in the country wrote recently: “The the nominal Muslims into true belief of the believer and the Islam of a believers. We must establish a full- Muslim would not be complete unless blooded where the he fully believes that all what Islamic world will witness our precepts Shari’a contains, as rules, manners, translated into action. Finally, we orders and prohibitions is the Truth must crush the conspiracies of that must be followed, implemented Zionism, free-masonry,

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Orientalism and foreign missions been lost and/or “tampered with.” The both with the pen and with the message propagated by mosque . We cannot afford peace and preachers is no less derogatory. The reconciliation with the Ahl al Kitab issue does not relate to a (indecent) until we can humble them and gain “theological” debate. Rather, the issue the upper hand. is that such discourse, repeated and hammered incessantly, would only turn an ordinary Muslim into a fanatic, if THE SITUATION OF THE COPTS not a radical. Hence, such harassment and violence against Copts would be Those who have suffered and who rendered perfectly justifiable, if not continue to suffer most from this desirable, indeed becoming a drastic transformation are undoubtedly “religious duty.”25 the Copts. “I can no longer stand the A presidential decree is required for insults and the spitting in my face every permit to build a church (which because I don’t wear hijab. I have unlike a mosque, would be paid for become a stranger in my own country.” entirely by the faithful.) The process, This statement made by a young dominated by the state security Coptic woman from Alexandria, as apparatus, is deliberately entangled and quoted by the correspondent of Le usually takes many years. The Figaro (April 17, 2006) after a series government hailed a recent presidential of quasi-simultaneous attacks on three decree that delegates to provincial churches, speak loudly of the overall governors the power to authorize situation of Copts in Egypt. This rebuilding “a ruined or fallen church statement, however, represents only the on its site.”26 The real power to tip of the iceberg of the Copts’ authorize still remains with the state suffering. security apparatus, with little change in Apart from the scores of violent the painful process. The irony, attacks against them over the past 35 however, is that the decree appears to years, they have been forced into a de- be fully in line with the spirit and letter 24 facto status. In fact, the of the “Chart of ”27 in that it infamous Second Article of the restricts building churches replacing Constitution provides the legal basis to existing ones at their exact site and of discriminate against and marginalize the same size. the Copts in their own homeland. During the most recent There are numerous indications parliamentary elections, the ruling pointing to the status of the Coptic party fielded only two Coptic minority, which makes up around ten candidates. The result was that only million in a country of 74 million. one, who was also a government Following are but a few examples: minister, was elected (with difficulty) The media is not only inundated among 444 members. Not only did the with Islamic religious material, but other candidate fail, but Islamist riots also routinely ridicules and broke out at the district where he ran in Judaism as “falsified” or “perverted” Alexandria and led to attacks on religions whose original “Books” have churches as well as ransacked shops and properties. There were only two

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Copts elected in the previous elections where 21 Copts were massacred on of 2000, and none in 1995. January 2, 2000. Despite arrests of The numbers of Copts accepted to over one hundred persons, nobody was military and police academies, found guilty by the lower, appeal, or judiciary posts and diplomatic corps, Cassation courts. Doubts on the and teaching posts at universities are neutrality of the judiciary system apart, limited to a one to two percent quota. the police investigative authorities Such quotas are obviously never simply never provided sufficiently declared, but are consistent and reliable data to support the case against relatively easy to demonstrate based on the real perpetrators. the published lists of acceptances.28 One successful “technique” often There are no Copts in “sensitive” adopted by the authorities is to declare sectors, such as state security organs or the culprit as “mentally (or the presidency. The entire local psychologically) unstable” and thus not governance system is practically free in a condition to be tried. Another of Copts. Not a single Copt occupies a technique is to force the Copt victims university or faculty dean post. to retract their complaints and enter The curricula of public schools, into “reconciliation” with their established by the Ministry of attackers for the sake of preserving Education, ignore the Coptic era in “National Unity.” In all cases, attacks Egypt’s history. Courses glorifying against Copts are systematically Islam (the “Only True Religion”) and referred to as “sectarian conflict (or its history, while vilifying the sedition),” thus implying that “both crusaders (i.e. Christians) and the , sides” are to blame. are imposed on all students. Religious Organized, and well-dissimulated, (Islamic) references permeate various groups target young girls and women courses, including science. Most to convert them to Islam. The entire schools have replaced the daily salute state is mobilized to facilitate the to the flag with the Islamic conversion procedures, even if those proclamation “Allahu Akbar.” concerned are minors in the eyes of the The city of Alexandria, once the law. On the other hand, a Muslim capital of the Mediterranean culture, choosing to convert to Christianity which as recent as the 1950s was a faces despicable treatment by the flourishing and cosmopolitan city in authorities and often ends up having to which religions and races mixed, has live incognito or to flee the country become a hot point of Islamic altogether, if possible. fanaticism and repeated aggressions In the case of a father of a Christian against Copts. The numerous cases of family converting to Islam, his minor attacks on lives, churches, and property children are forced to follow suit: The of Copts are often conducted under the mother’s custody rights—a well negligent—if not complacent—eyes of established legal principle—are the security apparatus. Culprits, if ignored in this case, as children, caught, are seldom “found guilty” by according to typical court rulings,29 are the courts. A flagrant example is that supposed to follow the “better (or of al-Kosheh village in ‘more noble’) of the two religions.”

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Under current laws, if one partner in a the situation—as part of his Christian marriage changes to another constitutional responsibilities—go denomination (say from Orthodox to unheeded. A call to establish a special Evangelical, or Catholic), the council composed of leading Muslim stipulations of Shari’a immediately and Coptic figures to report issues of apply to the marriage in case of any citizenship rights to the president was intra-marital dispute. totally ignored. On the other hand, It is an obligation to declare one’s such abuses are taking place before the religious affiliation (among a very watchful eyes—with few protests or short list of “recognized” religions) in objections—of the “freedom-loving” all official formalities, including the nations of the world and the various national identity card. Such measures international institutions that are meant facilitate discrimination practices. to correct such wrongs. Furthermore, the Civil Status Department’s “computer system” often CONCLUSION list Christians as Muslims. Attempts to correct such errors invariably prove to be extremely difficult, if not The media has consistently played a impossible, with severe ramifications major role in the process, but when on the lives of those concerned.30 questioned about the excessive religious material in the government Recently, an administrative court media, Egyptian officials usually offer ruled that the Coptic Orthodox Church 31 a pretext that the government, in its remarry a divorced person. Since efforts to defeat the violent Islamist according to Church teachings groups, has been trying to “pull the rug marriage is a sacrament and not merely from under their feet” (by outdoing a civil partnership, this ruling, which them in religiosity). However, the was duly referenced by the court to problem is believed to be deeper than a “constitutional principles,” amounts to simple reaction to Islamist violence; it a license to override the beliefs of the is more likely a deliberate process that Church. The same court would never has continued over the past few dare attempt to order the Islamic decades. authorities in the country to marry a Muslim woman to a non-Muslim, as Nevertheless, and without trying to such unions are prohibited by Shari’a. minimize the potential catastrophic Some years ago, another court ruled risks associated with a possible that polygamy was permissible in establishment of a fully Islamist Christianity. regime in Egypt, it is only fair to conclude that the “Great Islamic Yet what is especially sad about the Transformation,” implemented (and/or abuse of the Copts’ citizenship and tolerated) by the government over the human rights is that, on the one hand, past few decades has paved the way for the Egyptian government still the Muslim Brotherhood to take over adamantly insists that there is no such the rule in a perfectly natural and even thing as a “Coptic problem.” “democratic” fashion. Continuous appeals by numerous Copts to the president to take charge of Indeed, that the Islamists (only) won a fifth of the Assembly’s seats can

100 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 3 (September 2006) The Islamization of Egypt be misleading; one must not forget that they had fielded candidates in no more 2 An all black garment, with only a than a third of the total constituencies. narrow slot for the eyes. In other words, the Brotherhood would 3 Sharing that honor only with Saudi be bound to sweep the vote in fully- Airlines in the . open, fair, and free elections in the 4 This literally means “peace be upon future. ’s recent victory in the you,” which is not at all bad in itself. Palestinian Authority elections is The real issue is that of forced another eye-opener. vestmental and behavioral codes in all Furthermore, Islamization, aspects of life. 5 especially the stipulation in the Reported by Rose-elyoussef Constitution that Shari’a is the main Magazine, April 13, 2006. 6 source of legislation, has also led to a See Dr. Hamed Ammar, al-Kahera, serious deterioration of the Coptic April 4, 2006. 7 minority’s conditions; they have In this particular case, the hadith in become subject to a de-facto dhimmi question infers that “” would status, relegated to second-class never enter a house adorned with citizens. statues or where dogs were. 8 Overall, Egypt, which has According to Article 4 of Law undergone serious modernization and 40/1977 on Political Parties. 9 Roza newspaper, April 17, 2006. Westernization efforts since the days 10 of Muhammad Pasha32 (who ruled The guest was Dr. Mohamed Imara, after the awakening cultural shock among the most popular extremist caused by Napoleon’s Conquest) leaders. He is a regular guest on seems to have regressed. Egypt badly government TV shows and writes a needs a leadership that will reverse the weekly column in the government- owned al-Akhbar newspaper. trend and put the country back on a 11 course of enlightenment and Information based on a series of modernity. articles by Shaykh Ali Goma’a, al- Ahram, July/August 2005. 12 Refer to article: *Adel Guindy is a writer on Middle http://www.metransparent.com/texts/al East issues based in France. afif_hadatha.htm. 13 These ideas reflect the stipulations of the “Chart of Omar.” Refer to endnote NOTES 29 below. 14 Information based on a series of 1 By way of comparison, Article 1 of articles by Shaykh Ali Goma’a, al- the French Constitution states: “France Ahram, July/August 2005. shall be an indivisible, secular, 15 Exactly 83,331 students. Refer to al- democratic and social Republic. It shall Ahram, September 22, 2005. ensure the equality of all citizens 16 Reported in al-Ahram, June 23, before the law, without distinction of 2005. origin, race or religion. It shall respect 17 Al-Ahram, May 10, 2004. all beliefs.” 18 Reported in al-Ahram, April, 15 and 21, 2005, October 30, 2005.

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19 Refer to al-Ahram, August 6, 2005. admitted to the Police Academy, out of 20 Al-Ahram newspaper (government- a total 1,050. owned), May 15, 2006. 29 A recent case at hand: On May 18, 21 Collectively called hudud (penal 2006, the Court of Appeals in limits). Alexandria upheld (in the case 679/43) 22 See article at: http://www.islamic- the ruling of a lower court whereby the council.com/non- (Coptic) defendant mother Camilla muslims_u/Chapter3.asp. Lotfi was ordered to give up her twin 23 People of the Book, Jews and children Andrew and Mario (aged 11 Christians. years) to their father, Medhat Ramses, 24 Under the dhimmitude status, the who had converted to Islam. Ignoring “People of the Book” are allowed to the applicable law, which grants the keep their faiths, while living under custody of children below 15 years to complete submission to the reign and their mother, the court decided to rules of Islam, including the payment implement the precepts of Shari’a of jiziah “in humbleness.” In 1856, that instead. It stated that: “Aged 11, the status was abolished de jure by the children can discern… moreover, there Ottoman Empire (under European is a danger, if left with their Christian pressure), but it still prevails de facto. mother, that their (Islamic) faith would 25 On the other hand, when a few be ‘spoiled.’” cartoons—however offensive they may 30 Numerous cases have been reported have been—were published by a by the Coptic weekly paper Watani Danish paper, it was turned into a during 2005 and 2006. major international crisis (in which 31 Reported by al-Ahram, March, 15, Egypt played a major role), with 2006. The Coptic Church has rejected demands to implement laws in Western and appealed the ruling. countries incriminating “insults” to 32 He ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1847. Islam or any of its sacred figures. The last descendant of his dynasty was 26 Decree 291 of December 7, 2005. deposed in 1954. 27 The “Chart of Omar,” usually attributed to Caliph Omar ibn al- Khattab, is the basis of the dhimmitude status as it stipulates several obligations and prohibitions by dhimmis, and concludes with: “If they break any of their conditions, there is no valid pact with them and they deserve from Muslims whatever the adversaries do.” Refer to article by Lafif Lakhdar at: http://www.metransparent.com/texts/aa hd_omar.htm. 28 One example, reported by al-Kalema Center for Human Rights based in Cairo, in 2004, only 12 Copts were

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