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Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust

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Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal Volume 14 Issue 3 Article 10 12-21-2020 Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust Susan Welch The Pennsylvania State University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp Recommended Citation Welch, Susan (2020) "Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust," Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal: Vol. 14: Iss. 3: 110–128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/1911-9933.14.3.1772 Available at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss3/10 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Open Access Journals at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal by an authorized editor of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust Acknowledgements An earlier version of the paper was presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois, April 3-6, 2019. I would like to thank Emily Kiver and Ron Filippelli, both of Penn State, and previous reviewers of the article for their assistance. This article is available in Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol14/iss3/10 Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust Susan Welch The Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania, USA Introduction Though scholars of genocide have addressed the role of gender in these horrors, scholars of the Holocaust have only recently examined this issue. Fear of seeming to minimize the horrors of the Holocaust for all Jews made discussions of gender differences “irrelevant and even irreverent,” as one writer remarked.1 Death for all Jews was the aim of the Germans and their allies, whether the Jews were male or female, young or old. And yet, as in all other aspects of life and death, gender and age mattered. “Even though the Germans were committed to sending all Jews to their deaths, for a variety of reasons women and men traveled toward that destination on distinct roads,”2 Nechama Tec has written. I will examine those distinct roads by looking at sex differences in deportation and survival of Italian Jews with a particular focus on the intersection of gender with age. Gender and the Holocaust Previous research has illuminated some aspects of the influence of gender on Jewish life and death in the Holocaust. As more survivors came forward to tell their stories and as women’s history became more mainstream, the discussion of the experiences of women in the ghettoes, labor camps, and in hiding became more frequent.3 Most of the work that has been done on the role of gender in the Holocaust is based on personal testimonies through interviews, diaries and autobiographies, ghetto histories, and other textual records and have focused on changes that each stage of the Holocaust brought about in women’s and men’s roles and on sexual violence.4 Very little of what we know about gender is based on larger collections of information. Indeed, until recently, most empirical social science, including political science, has avoided the study of the Holocaust entirely despite its centrality to other interests of political scientists.5 It may be that scholars believed that translating the horrors of the Holocaust into facts and figures somehow diminished the inhumanity of what was done. Or they believe that the overall numbers are so horrific, nothing can be learned by studying them.6 But Tec’s “distinct roads”7 have many branches that need to be explored. Geographers of the Holocaust have described the gendered nature of many of the Holocaust’s important sites and processes, including the transports that carried millions and in so doing led to the 1 Joan Ringelheim, “The Split between Gender and the Holocaust,” in Women in the Holocaust, ed. Dalia Ofer and Lenore J. Weitzman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 344. 2 Nechama Tec, Resilience and Courage: Women, Men and the Holocaust (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 12. 3 Myrna Goldenberg and Amy Shapiro, eds., Different Horrors, Same Hell: Gender and the Holocaust (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013); Raul Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945 (New York: Harper Collins, 1992); Dalia Ofer and Lenore J. Weitzman, eds., Women in the Holocaust (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999); Carol Rittner and John K. Roth, eds., Different Voices: Women and the Holocaust, 1st ed. (New York: Paragon House, 1993); Pascale Rachel Bos, “Women and the Holocaust: Analyzing Gender Differences,” in Experience and Expression: Women, the Nazis, and the Holocaust, ed. Elizabeth R. Baer and Myrna Goldenberg (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2003). 4 See, for example, works cited in footnotes 1, 2, and 3. 5 See Charles King, “Can There Be a Political Science of the Holocaust?,” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 2 (2012), 323–341, accessed November 3, 2020. 6 Lewi Stone, “Quantifying the Holocaust: Hyperintense Kill Rates during the Nazi Genocide,” Science Advances 5, no. 1 (January 2019), accessed November 2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau7292. 7 Tec, Resilience and Courage, 12. Susan Welch. “Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust.” Genocide Studies and Prevention 14, no. 3, 110–128. https://doi.org/10.5038/1911-9933.14.3.1772. © 2020 Genocide Studies and Prevention. Gender, Age, and Survival of Italian Jews in the Holocaust 111 separation of men from women and broke families apart.8 Whether Jews were in ghettos or camps, or on trains, or hiding in forests, gender mattered. In almost every setting, women were more vulnerable and able to be exploited even as they took on new roles outside the home as workers and, often, as representatives of their families.9 Throughout the war, women were at risk for rape and sexual violence. Many were forced to trade sex for survival; and the rape of Jewish women by both German soldiers and rescuers was, if not common, certainly not rare.10 Demography was also at the root of those distinct roads. Jewish women, like gentile ones, were in the majority of their communities in most countries that fought in World War I.11 The “women surplus” was a much-discussed social phenomenon during the interwar years. In Italy, in 1931, there were 792 men for every 1,000 women in the population.12 And women were an increasing proportion of the Jewish population in nations under Nazi control.13 For example, Jewish women were 52% of the German Jewish population in 1933, but 58% in 1939.14 This increasing imbalance occurred partially because women were more likely to stay behind to take care of elderly relatives or other family members, while men had more opportunities and incentives to emigrate.15 A majority of those emigrating from Germany were men.16 Men were subject to greater physical threats during Kristallnacht and in the early part of the war. They were more likely to be rounded up and deported to labor camps. In this early period, men were more likely to commit suicide.17 Gender differences were most striking among the aged. Of elderly widows and widowers left in Germany and Austria in 1939, more than 80% were women.18 8 Tim Cole, Holocaust Landscapes (London: Bloomsbury, 2016). 9 Carol Mann, “The Gender Dimension of the Holocaust in France,” in Women and Genocide, ed. JoAnn DiGeorgio-Lutz and Donna Gosbee (Toronto: Women’s Press, 2016), 73–102; Tec, Resilience and Courage. 10 Myrna Goldenberg, “Sex-Based Violence and the Politics and Ethics of Survival,” in Different Horrors, Same Hell: Gender and the Holocaust, ed. Myrna Goldenberg and Amy H. Shapiro (Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 2013), 99–131; Sonja M. Hedgepeth and Rochelle G. Saidel, eds., Sexual Violence against Jewish Women during the Holocaust, 1st ed. (Lebanon: Brandeis University Press, 2010); Zoe Waxman, “Rape and Sexual Abuse in Hiding,” in Sexual Violence against Jewish Women during the Holocaust, ed. Sonja M. Hedgepeth and Rochelle G. Saidel, 1st ed. (Lebanon: Brandeis University Press, 2010); Alana Fangrad, Wartime Rape and Sexual Violence: An Examination of the Perpetrators, Motivations, and Functions of Sexual Violence against Jewish Women during the Holocaust (Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2013). 11 David V. Glass, “Fertility Trends in Europe since the Second World War,” Population Studies 22, no. 1 (March 1968), 104, accessed November 2, 2020, https://doi.org/10.2307/2173355. 12 Ibid. 13 Raul Hilberg, “Men and Women,” in Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945, Part II Victims (New York: Harper Collins, 1992), 126–130. 14 Marion Kaplan, “Keeping Calm and Weathering the Storm: Jewish Women’s Responses to Daily Life in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939,” in Women in the Holocaust ed. Dalia Ofer and Lenore J. Weitzman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 50. 15 Doris Bergen, “What Do Studies of Women, Gender, and Sexuality Contribute to Understanding the Holocaust,” in Different Horrors, Same Hell: Gender and the Holocaust, ed. Myrna Goldenberg and Amy Shapiro. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013), 16–37; Kaplan, Keeping Calm; Sybil Milton, “Women and the Holocaust: The Case of German and German-Jewish Women,” in When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany, ed. Renate Grossmann et al. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1984). 16 Kaplan, Keeping Calm, 50–51. In 1936–37, 54% of Jewish immigrants to the U.S. were men and during the 1933–1942 period, 52% of immigrants to Palestine were men. More than 92% of immigrants to Palestine in this period were Jewish.
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