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Ics-Elementary-Chemistry.Pdf International Correspondence Scbool'l Scranton, Pa. Elementary Chemistry PREPARED ESPEClALLY FOR HOME STUDY By I. C. S. STAFF 5367 EDmON 1 85847 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY Serial 53fi Edition COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES INTRODUCTORY EXPLANATIONS 1. Definition of Chemistry.-Chemistry is the science that treats of the composition of substances and of the changes that affect their composition. 2. Kinds of Substances.-Anything that occupies space CGpJriabt, 19•0. by hTEaHATIONAL TaxTeooK CoMPAifY. Copyright in Great and has weight is known as matter. There are many kinds of Britain. All rigbts re;erved matter. and each kind is a particular substance. Thus. steel, 5367 Printed in U. S. A. iron, wood. stone, water, and air are substances. The Yarious ·- substances are of three general forms. namely, solid. liquid. and 1943 Edition gaseous. A solid substance is one that holds its shape under ordinary cnnditions. For example, iron in its usual form, wood. and stone are solids. A liquid substance is one that has no shape of its own hut takes the shape of the container that holds it. \Yater and oil are liquids. A gaseous substance is one that has no particular shape or volume but tends to fill the container in which it is kept. Air. illuminating gas, and carbon dioxide are gases. The form of a substance can be changed by merely changing the te1pperature of the substance. For example, water, ice. and steam are three forms of the same substance. Ice is obtained by freezing water, and steam is obtained by boiling water; also. either ice or steam can be transformed into water by changing the temperature sufficiently. Similarly. a solid block of steei can be melted. or liquefied, by raising its temperature to a suf­ ficiently high point. 3. Physical Properties of Substances.-The characteristics or peculiarities by which a substance can be recognized or C:OP'YRIGHT!:O 8Y 1-NTIEI'HATIO... AL T IXTBOOJ( COM ...\NY . ALL RIGHTS ftES£RVt:O ELE::\IE0ZTARY CHE~IISTRY 2 ELEMENT ARY CHEMIST RY 3 identified or by which it is rendered suitable for a certain pur­ ordinary temperatures, they will form a mixture. The iron pose are known as the physical properties of the substance. All may be separated from the mixture with a magnet. If, how­ substances have the general physical properties known as weight ever heat is applied to the mi:<ture, the uon and the sulfur and volume. Each substance also has special physical prop­ combine chemically so as to form a single substance, which is a erties, or propE-rties that are not possessed by all other sub­ compound and does not resemble either element. stances. For example, since iron is bard while lead is soft as compared with other substances, hardness and softness are spe­ 6. Molecules and Atoms.-Theoretically, a mass of any cial properties of substances. Similarly, since glass is brittle compound may be divided by physical means until an extremely while clay is plastic, brittleness and plasticity are also special small particle, called a molecule, is obtained. In other words, properties. There are numerous other special properties. a molecule is believed to be the smallest amount of a particular compound that retains the distinctive physical properties of the 4. Physical and Chemical Changes.-A change in the form compound. It is also believed that each molecule of a com­ of a substance without producing a new substance is called pound is composed of two or more still smaller particles which a physical change. Thus, if a lump of lead is melted. or a are atoms of the elements that make up the. compound. Each piece of cast iron is broken up and ground into a fine powder, of these atoms, however, does not possess the same physical or water is changed to steam by boiling, the change is only a properties as does a molecule of the compound. Elements also physical change. Any change that affects the composition of a are composed of molecules, and each molecule of an element is given substance and produces a different substance is a chemical made up of one or more atoms of that element. In order to change. For instance, if a match is burned, a chemical change break up a molecule into its atoms, chemical methods must be takes place. The substances that are burned cease to exist employed. The general definitions of a molecule and an atom but are changed into entirely different substances which appear may be given as follows: in the form of the ash that remains and the gas that escapes A molecule is the smallest particle that may be imagined into the air as smoke. A chemical change is usuaUy called a to be obtainable from the division of a substance by physical cltcmical reaction. means and that will exist by itself and will retain the distinc­ tive physical properties of the substance. An atom is the 5. Chemical Elements and Compounds.-A chemical ele­ smallest particle that may be imagined to be obtainable from ment, or simply an element, is a substance that cannot be broken the division of an element by chemical means and that will up into other substances by chemical methods. For example, retain the chemical properties of the element. pure gold is an element, because it contains nothing but gold. A substance that is composed of two or more elements in chemi­ ELEMENTS cal combination is called a chemica l compound, or simply a com­ 7. Names of Elements and Their Chemical Symbols.- T here pound. \Vater is a compound that is made up of the elements are sound reasons for believing that the total number of elements hydrogen and oxygen. is ninety-two. However, only ninety have been discovered so To form a compound, elements must combine chemically far. The names of the ninety known elements, together with with each other. \Vhen elements simply mix without combin­ other information concerning them, are given in Table I. ing, they form a mixture. For example, if iron filings and Many of these elements are of interest mainly to a chemist. powdered sulfur*, or sulphur, are merely shaken together at To aid in indicating the composition of a substance in a simple manner, abbreviations are often used instead of the names •The name sulfur was formerly spelled sulphur and this spelling is still used in many books and some current literature. of the elements. Thus, oxygen is abbreviated 0 ; hydrogen, H ; 4 ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY 5 and nitrogen, N. These abbreviations are known as the of the several elements whose names begin with the letter C chemical symbols for the elements. The symbol for each are carbon, cobalt, chlorine, and copper. Carbon has the letter element is given in Table I opposite the name of the element. C alone for its symbol; cobalt has the symbol Co; chlorine has In general, the symbol for each element begins with the first the svmbol Cl; and copper, the Latin name for which is cupmm, letter of either the English or the Latin name for the element. has the symbol Cu. Other examples of symbols that are based As there are many more elements than there are letters in the on Latin names are Fe for iron, the Latin name being ferrum; alphabet, most of the symbols are composed of the first letter and Pb for lead, the Latin name being plumbum. and another distinctive letter of the name. For example, four 8. Structure of Atoms.-The exact structure of the atoms TABLE I NAMES, SYMBOLS, ATOMIC NUMBERS, AND ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF ELEMENTS of the various elements is not definitely known, but the theory that seems to agree best with the observed facts is as follows: 0 .!!] 0 .!!] .0 Atomic t:> Name Ee Name At~mic Each atom is assumed to be composed of a number of units of ~ 2" W•ight [ §~ Weight (J) <Z en <Z --- electricity, which are of two kinds and are known as eleclro11s Actinium .••••..•..• Ac 89 229* Mercury ..•..• . ... fig 80 200.61 and protons. An electron may be considered as the unit of Aluminum ••.•.•..•• AI 13 26.97 Molybdenum .•.•.. 3/o 42 95.95 Antimony •.•..•...• Sb 51 121.76 Neodymium ..•.... Nd 60 144.27 negative electricity, and the proton as the unit of positive Argon ..•..•..•. .. A 18 39.9-14 Neon ............. Ne 10 20.183 Arsenic.•..••••..•.• As 33 74.91 Xickel ...........• .v; 28 58.69 electricity. It is further assumed that all the protons in an Barium ............. Ba 56 137.36 Nitsogen .•....••.• N 1 14.008 Beryllium ....•.••.• Be 4 9.02 Osmium..........• Os 76 190.2 atom and also some of the e1ectrons are concentrated in a Bismuth ..••........ Bi 83 209.00 Oxygen . ........... 0 8 16.0000 central nucleus, while the remaining electrons revolve about that Boron •.•....•.....• B s 10.82 Palladium .••.••.•. Pd 46 106.7 Bromine ............ Br 35 19.916 Phosphorus........ p 15 31.02 nucleus along various paths. The electrons in the nucleus are Cadmium ..•••...... Cd 48 112.41 Platinum .......... PI 18 195.23 Calcium .......•.... Ca 20 40.08 Polonium .....•..•. Po 84 210* associated with an equal number of protons, which are called Carbon ........•..•. c 6 12.010 Potassium......... K 19 39.096 Cerium •...•.•.....• Ce 58 140.13 Praseodymium ..... p, 59 140.92 bon11d protons, to form proton-electron pairs. The remaining Cesium .....•......• Cs 55 132.91 Protactinium....... Pa 9 1 231 Chlorine .•••...••... Cl 17 35.457 Radium .........•• Ra 88 226.05 protons in the nucleus are called free protons, and the electrons Cluomium ...•..... • Cr 24 52.01 Radon ....•.•..... R11 86 222 Cobalt............. C<> 27 58.94 Rhe.n.ium .......... Re 15 186.31 outside the nucleus are called exterior electrons.
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