sign in sign up
<<
Home , Changbai Mountains, Danxia landform, Greater Khingan, Helan Mountains, Hengduan Mountains, Lanshan (Gansu)

Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. • 6(3) • 2014 • 279-292 DOI: 10.2478/s13533-012-0184-x

Central European Journal of Geosciences

Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

Research Article

Wang Fang1,2, Zhang Xiaolei1∗, Yang Zhaoping1, Luan Fuming3, Xiong Heigang4, Wang Zhaoguo1,2, Shi Hui1,2

1 Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R, China 3 University, Lishui 323000, China 4 College of Art and Science, Beijing Union University, Beijing 100083, China

Received 04 May 2014; accepted 19 May 2014

Abstract: This study presents the Pearson correlation analyses of the various factors influencing the Chinese National Geoparks. The aim of this contribution is to offer insights on the Chinese National Geoparks by describing its relations with geoheritage and their intrinsic linkages with geological, climatic controls. The results suggest that: 1) Geomorphologic landscape and palaeontology National Geoparks contribute to 81.65% of Chinese National Geoparks. 2) The NNI of geoparks is 0.97 and it belongs to causal distributional patternwhose regional distri- butional characteristics may be best characterized as ’dispersion in overall and aggregation in local’. 3) Spatial distribution of National Geoparks is wide. The geographic imbalance in their distribution across and types of National Geoparks is obvious, with 13 clustered belts, including Tianshan-Altaishan Mountain, Lesser Higgnan- Changbai, Western ,Taihangshan Mountain, , Qilianshan- Mountain, Annulus , Dabashan Mountain, Dabieshan Mountain, - Western , Nanling Mountain, Wuyishan Mountain, Southeastern Coastal, of which the National Geoparks number is 180, accounting for 82.57%. 4) Spatial distribution of National Geoparks coincide with latitudinal tectonic zone and longitude tectonic zone of ge- ological structure features, which is consistent with the areas around the Pacific Rim of volcanic tectonic zones. The coupling relationships are obvious between the spatial distributional pattern and the natural and geological conditions. Keywords: spatial distribution • National Geoparks • influencing factors © Versita sp. z o.o.

1. Introduction precious non-renewable natural resource with significant scientific and aesthetic values. Therefore, it is necessary to protect this heritage. The protection of geological heritage has gone through the Geological heritage is the record of the earth’s evolution in different periods: from protection alone to a combination of response to various endogenic and exogenic forces. It is a protection and exploitation. UNESCO’s geoparks combine geological research and protection with heritage tourism ∗ E-mail: zhangxl [email protected] as a way to protect and exploit geological heritage.

279 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

1.1. International geological heritage protec- 1.2. Geological heritage protection in China tion China, with an area of 9.6 million km2, is of great size, has greatly varied geographical conditions and the re- In 1989, a meeting was held by UNESCO, the Interna- gional geological resources have different features. The tional Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) [1] the In- terrain is generally high in the west and low in the east. ternational Geological Correlation Program (IGCP),and Mountains, plateaus and hills account for 67% of the land the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in Washington in area and basins and plains is 33%. Most mountains run recognition of the global importance of geological her- northeast to southwest. The - Plateau is itage. It was decided to implement a plan to produce a the highest major plateau in the world, with the aver- Global Indicative List of Geological Sites (GILGES). In age altitude above 4000 m. It is known as the Roof of 1996, it was renamed the Geological Attractions Plan. the World. , Xinjiang, the , In 1997, a proposal by UNESCO was adopted by the the Basin and the - Plateau are United Nations General Assembly to select representa- to the north and east of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and to- tive and special regions from the recommended geological gether form a second lower step, with an average altitude ∼ heritage sites as Geoparks [2,3]. In April 1999, a project of between 1000 2000 m. The -Qilian to establish geological parks was proposed in the 156th Mountains- form the dividing line Standing Committee meeting of United Nations Educa- between the first and second steps. The Great Khingan- tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). - Mountains- is The aim was to establish 500 geoparks in the world at the dividing line between the second and third steps,with a rate of 20 per year [4, 5]. China was one of the pilot many plains and low hills, and most areas are below countries for this world geoparks program. On 13 Febru- 200 m [21, 22]. ary 2004, UNESCO held a meeting at its headquarters The varied altitudes, terrain types and mountain ranges in Paris to designate the first batch of world geoparks. give rise to diverse combinations of temperature and pre- The meeting unanimously approved 28 world geoparks, of cipitation, forming a variety of climates. Eastern China which 8 were located in China and 20 in European coun- has a monsoon climate, a temperate con- tries, including the UK, France, Spain, Greece, Ireland, tinental climate, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau a alpine cli- Austria, Italy and Germany [6]. So far (in 2012) there are mate, with obvious implications for surficial geology [23– 88 world geoparks distributed in 27 countries around the 25]. world. China has the largest number (26), accounting for Protection of the geological heritage of China began in 30% of the total. In the USA and many countries in Eu- the late 1970s, usually in nature reserves, and developed rope, great importance has also been attached to the pro- rapidly thereafter. The first national geological nature re- tection of geological heritage, and economically advanced serve, Shangyuan Mesoproterozoic stratigraphic section, countries, such as USA, Canada and UK, rules and regu- was located in Ji county, Tianjin, and was established in lations have been worked out, and effective measures have 1985 [23, 26]. ”Provisions on the establishment of ge- been adopted to protect geological heritage [7]. ological nature reserves” was promulgated in 1987. Tai- wan took geological heritage protection seriously and took There are a growing number of studies on the topic of geo- initiatives beginning in 1989 and carried out county by heritage and national geoparks on a global scale. Janice county investigations (ref). On the mainland, the Min- [8] emphasized the positive role of geoparks in the de- istry of Geology and Mineral Resources issued ”Regula- velopment of local economy. Some researchers discussed tions on geological heritage protection” in 1995 [24, 25]. the links between geodiversity, landscape and geotourism In 2000, the Ministry of Land and Resources released a in Britain [9]. Glasser [10], Wolfgang [11] focused more document suggesting criteria for the establishment of Na- on the role of geoparks in aspects of education and pop- tional Geoparks and, in the following year, the first batch ularization of science. Many scholars have studied the of 11 National Geoparks was set up. As of 2013 there are geoparks and geotourism products [12–14]. K´atiaLeite 218, established in 6 batches. Mansur [15] believed the way of Geological Paths would Many researchers discussed the relationship between Na- make the Geoheritages protected in Brazil. Susan [16] tional Geoparks and the , and between geology, studied the Geoheritage and Geoparks in Australian by climate,and socio-economic [24, 25, 27–29]. Li and Jiang virtue of female point of view. With the climate change [30] (2000), Xing [31] (2004) attempted to find the effect are now well recognised by many scholars, much attention of National Geoparks on the local economic development. havebeen given to the effects on geodiversity, geological Several scholars have studied the geotourism carried out heritage and its conservation [17–20]. in many Chinese National Geoparks,and clearly proposed

280 W. Fang et al.

their development ideas [32–34]. Mu [35] (2007) and Wu to the distribution of all sites over a geographical space. [36] (2008) paid close attention on the issues appeared The Nearest Neighbor index is defined as R: when exploiting geoheritage resources. √ Despite national geoparks have unique geological and R = d/dE = D · d: (1) scientific importance, the distribution pattern and influ- encing factors of geoparks within China remains few in In the above formula, d is the average distance value the international literature. Therefore, strengthening the among the Nearest Neighbor points, d = dE , is the Near- research on geoheritage resources in China has important est Neighbor distance (that is the Poisson distribution), meanings. This paper describes the number, types, dis- D is point density. If R = 1 d = dE , the distributional tribution pattern, and influencing factors of geoparks in pattern is considered random; if R > 1 d > dE , the pat- China, which proposes a framework for their interpreta- tern is uniform; if R < 1 d < dE , it is considered casual. tion. The laws of geoparks is also revealed on the bases The value of dE can be calculated as: of resources endowment, climate rock property, and mor- r phometric features and processes. 1 A 1 dE = = √ : (2) 2 n D

2. Materials and methods In the above formula, A is the size of the area, and n is the number of National Geoparks. The types,distribution 2.1. Data sources patterns of geoparks were established according to the features and NNI that they were established to protect. In order to meet the research needs,information on Na- Then, their spatial distribution was examined, initially ac- tional Geoparks was collected from the official websites of cording to their location in the eastern, central and west- the Ministry of Land and Resources of the People’s Re- ern parts of China and, then, the causes of geoparks were public of China and the websites of the Chinese Network analyzed according to the tectonic zones (endogenous fac- of National Geoparks and Global Network of Geoparks tors) that resulted in their main geological characteristics, (GGN). Some data were also collected from the websites as well as the climatic and lithological conditions (exoge- of the 31 provincial-level administrative units in main- nous factors) that impinge upon them. land China, including statistical bulletins, reports and research on geoparks.Other data on National Geoparks were gained from the website of the National Adminis- 3. Types and spatial distribution tration of Surveying, Mapping and Geographic Informa- tion. Many maps were produced by superimposing the 3.1. Types and structure locations of the National Geoparks on geologic and to- pographic maps to create a data base on 218 Chinese China features 218 National Geoparks, which can be National Geoparks for the period from 2001 to 2013. broadly classified into 7 types (Figure1), 25 subtypes and 56 subclasses, according to their geoheritage and the 2.2. Research methods main landscape elements. The 7 broad types of geoparks are grouped under the categories of geological (body, for- The Nearest Neighbor index (NNI) analysis is a method mation) section, geological structure, palaeontology, min- of point mode, it is proposed in the first time by Clark eral and ore deposits, geomorphological landscape, water and Evans [37] (1954) to research point mode distance landscape and environmental geoheritage. Among these, statistics, Dacey [38] (1960) introduced it in geography, the geomorphological landscape and palaeontology con- and its basic ideology is that make the comparison be- tribute to 81.65% of the National Geoparks in China (Fig- tween two kind distances, one distance is between the ure1). adjacent points that belong to point mode, the another distance is between the adjacent points that belong to 3.2. Spatial distribution characters certain theoretical models, and then know the distribution characteristics of the point mode in study area [27]. On the macroscopic scale, the distribution of Chinese Na- The point mode consists of three types of distribution, tional Geoparks assumes a ribbon pattern, cluster pat- i.e., uniform, random, and causal. The Nearest Neighbor tern and continuous distribution, with the main difference index can be used to determine the relative distribution of in spatial distributional being the regional distribution, each site. The Nearest Neighbor index is a geographical which includes East and Central, and West distributions, indicator that shows the proximity of each point relative and the interprovincial distribution.

281 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

tional Geoparks (totalling 37 National Geoparks), con- tributing to 1/4th of the total number of geomorphologi- cal National Geoparks. Followed by ranked the second, , Central China and Northwest China, which rank the second, third, fourth and fifth places, respectively. The number of geomorphological National Geoparks in the abovementioned four geographical zones in China are 84, accounting for about 3/5th of the to- tal. On the other hand, the number of geomorphological National Geoparks in North and are rel- atively low, with a total of 28 Geoparks, contributing to Figure 1. Types of National Geoparks in China Note: I- Geologi- only about 1/5th of the total geomorphological National cal (body, formation) section; II- Geologic structure; III- Palaeontology; IV- Mineral and ore deposits; V- Geomor- Geoparks. The water landscape National Geoparks are phological landscape; VI- Water landscape; VII- Environ- mainly distributed in the River and mental geoheritage landscape. watershed. These regions feature 5 National Geoparks, accounting for 83.34% of the total water landscape Na- tional Geoparks. They are primarily distributed in the 3.2.1. Various types distributional traits Hubei, Sichuan, Shanghai provinces of Yangtze River wa- tershed, and the , and Shandong provinces The spatial and geographical distribution characteristics of Yellow River watershed. The remaining water landscape of the different types of Chinese National Geoparks are National Geoparks are randomly distributed in the other obviously random, as follows: larger rivers watersheds. The environmental geoheritage The geological (body, formation) sections are mainly lo- landscape National Geoparks are primary centralized in cated in the North, East, and Central China, with more Western China, and majority of them are scattered in the concentration of National Geoparks in the provinces of Southwest, Northwest and Tibetan Plateau. In particu- Tianjin and in North, Henan in Central and Jiang- lar, the Sichuan and Chongqing provinces in Southwest sum and East regions. Furthermore, the geo- China, Qinghai and Tibet provinces in Tibetan Plateau, logical National Geoparks are mostly concentrated in the and province in Northwest China show a high North, Northwest and Central China, with an increased population of environmental geoheritage landscape Na- concentration in Northern China, including Hebei and In- tional Geoparks. Mineral and ore deposit National Geop- ner Mongolia, and in Central China, including Henan. In arks are relatively less, and are primarily distributed in particular, Hubei features almost 9 National Geoparks, the Xinjiang province of Northwest China (Table 1). accounting for almost 70% of the total geological National Geoparks. Besides, the Shaanxi province in Northwest 3.2.2. Distributional pattern of National Geoparks in has several geological National Geoparks. Similarly, the East, Central and West China palaeontological National Geoparks are mainly located in the Southwest, North, East, Northwest and North- From the viewpoint of the number of National Geoparks, east China. In particular, the Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, most of them are located in the Eastern and Central China, Chongqing provinces in Southwest feature 9 Geop- accounting for about 60% of the total number of National arks, accounting for about 1/3rd of the total palaeontolog- Geoparks. Although, Western China also has several Na- ical National Geoparks of China. Besides, the Shanxi and tional Geoparks, it accounts for only about 40% of the Inner Mongolia provinces in North house about 1/6th of total number. Among them, a large proportion of National the total palaeontological National Geoparks of China, Geoparks in the Western China is mainly distributed in while the , , Xinjiang provinces in North- the Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and provinces, west account for 1/7th of the palaeontological National contributing to almost 50% of the total number of National Geoparks. The Shandong, Zhejiang, Anhui provinces in Geoparks in Western China. On the other hand, National East China have 5 palaeontological National Geoparks, Geoparks are scarcely found in the vast Northwest regions while the , , provinces in North- of China and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau region, featuring east feature 3 palaeontological National Geoparks. On a total number of 34 Geoparks that contribute to only the other hand, the geomorphological landscape National 15.60% of the total number of National Geoparks. Geoparks are widely distributed in large numbers in all Similarly, from the standpoint of area and density, the the seven geographical zones of China. The Southwest Central region of China ranks the first, featuring an area of China has the highest number of geomorphological Na- 54366.58 km2 that accounts for 3.26% of the Central China.

282 W. Fang et al.

Table 1. Distribution of National Geoparks in Eastern, Central and Western China.

Number of Area of this re- Area of National National Geoparks Number of Na- Density of Na- provinces gion (104 km2) Geoparks (km2) area accounted in tional Geoparks tional Geoparks proportion to the (per 104 km2) regional area (%) Eastern China 11 106.17 14757.53 1.39 60 1.77 Central China 8 166.99 54366.58 3.26 67 2.49 Western China 12 687.87 38958.69 0.57 91 7.56 Total 31 961.03 108082.80 1.12 218 4.41

In terms of density, the Central region ranks second, with total in China, for instance, Songshan (4), Fuping Tian- about 2.49 Geoparks per ten thousand km2. On the other shengqiao (9), Hongqiqu-Linglvshan (191), and Pingshun hand, Eastern China has the smallest Geopark area of Tianjishan (182). 14757.53 km2, which accounts for 1.39% of the Eastern E. Shandong Belt: The number of geoparks in Shandong China. However, the density is the highest, which is the is relatively small, with only 9 of the total in China, in- 1.77 per ten thousand km2. cluding Shanwang (32), Taishan (96), Yimeng-shan (148), The lowest density of National Geoparks is in the Western Changshan archipelago (200). China, featuring 7.56 per ten thousand km2 in the and the F. Qilianshan-Qinling Mountain Belt: There are more area of 38958.69 km2. This accounts for only 0.57% of the than 22 geoparks in this belt, for instance, Pingliang region (Table1). Kongtongshan (115), Bingling (133), Golmud Kunlunshan (215), Zhuoshui Rongdong (183), and 3.3. Spatial distribution Chayashan (98). G. Annulus Tibetan Plateau Belt: There are more than According to the above formula (2), the average Nearest 15 geoparks in this belt, including Volcano Neighbor index of Chinese National Geoparks is 104.9 km. and Geotherm (73), Yulong Snow Mountain (79), However, when this information is used on a digital map, Hailuogou (80), Jigzhi Nyanboyeshizer (82), and Guide irrespective of the size (area) of the sites, with each site (139). representing a specific location for all 218 Chinese Na- H. Dabashan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks in tional Geoparks, a different pattern emerges. Based on this belt is also large, with 15 of the total in China, in- the Geographic Information System (GIS) measurement cluding Huanglong (154), Dabashan (156), Guangwushan tools, the Nearest Neighbor distance between 218 Na- Mountain -Nuoshuihe River (157), and Yangtze Three tional Geoparks show average index of 107.9 km. Accord- Gorges (207). R : < ing to formula (1)), the observed value of is 0 97 I. Dabieshan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks in d < d 1, and E , it suggests that Chinese National Geop- this belt is 14, for instance, Lushan (81), (102), arks tend to exhibit a causal distribution. DabieshanHuanggang (105), and Qiyunshan (121). The causal distribution of Chinese National Geop- J. Chongqing-Western Hunan Belt: More than 16 geop- arks,whose number is 180 accounting for 82.57%, is de- arks within this belt, including Fenghuang National picted in the following 13 spatial belts. Geopar (150), Xingwen Stone (153), Wansheng A. Tianshan-Altaishan Mountain Belt: There are 7 geop- (160), Youyang (185), and Sinan Wujiang (188). arks on the belt, including Fuyun Koktokay (51), Burqin K. Nanling Mountain Belt: There are 17 geoparksin the Kanas Lake (84), Huoyanshan (194), and Wensu belt, for instance, Luoping biogroup (48), Lufeng Dinosaur salt dome (195). (50), Fengshan Karst (164), Luzhai Xiang qiao Karst B. Lesser Higgnan-Changbai Mountain Belt:10 geoparks (165), Danxiashan (129), and Yangshan (142). lies in this belt, including (1), Yichun Lesser Khin- L. Wuyishan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks gan Range (52), Fusong(62), and Fenghuang shan (92). in this belt is also small, with only 8 of the total in C. Western Bohai Sea Belt: There are more than 15 geop- China, including Longhushan Danxia Geomorphy (122), arks in this belt, including Laishui Yesanpo (12), Chaoyang Liancheng Guanzhishan (127), Taining (128), and Swan Fossil (23), Liujiaxia Dinosaur (35), and caverns (174). Danxia landform (135). M. Southeastern Coastal Belt: There are more than D. Taihangshan Mountain Belt: The number of geoparks 16 geoparks in this belt, including Yandangshan (64), in Taihangshan Mountain is relatively large, with 16 of the Weizhoudao Volcano (71), Shishan Volcano Clus-

283 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

Figure 3. Distribution pattern of Chinese mountain ranges and style of National Geoparks.

trending. Many National Geoparks are distributed in the transitional zones from the Western to Eastern declining geomorphic level, and their spatial distribution is also af- Figure 2. Distribution pattern of Chinese mountain ranges and style of National Geoparks. fected by the latitudinal tectonic belts. There are three well-developed latitudinal tectonic zones in China [39]: Firstly, Nanling EW-trending tectonic zones, mainly lo- ◦ ◦ cated at 23:5 ∼ 26:5 N. A series of folded strata in ter (72), (76), and Fuding Taimushan the EW-trending belts of Paleozoic and Mesozoic devel- (90). oped the largest granite basins and rift basins during the Further analysis of each site, it shows the obviously early Mesozoic Age of Southern China. This zone has 25 coupling relationships between causal distribution and Chinese National Geoparks, accounting for 11.46% of the the geological structure, topographical features, geologic total. Secondly, the Qinling–Kunlun tectonic belt, roughly ◦ ◦ types, climatic factor in China, and geoparks in China are located at 32 ∼ 35 N, is mainly constituted by strong ex- depict the following 13 spatial belts (Figure 2). truded fracture zones originating from the Paleozoic Age. The number of National Geoparks in this zone is about 35, with accounts for 16.05% of the total. Thirdly, Yinshan– ◦ ◦ 4. Spatial structure of Chinese Na- Tianshan tectonic zone, basically located at 40 − 43 N, tional Geoparks and its relation with is mainly comprised of extruded fracture zones from an- cient metamorphic rocks. This zone has approximate 15 several geographical factors National Geoparks, contributing to 6.88% of the total. In summary, there are about 75 National Geoparks in the 4.1. Endogenetic agent analysis abovementioned three zones, forming the high concentra- tion zones of National Geoparks (Figure 2, 3). 4.1.1. Identification of latitudinal tectonic zones 4.1.2. Similarities with longitudinal tectonic zones The distribution of National Geoparks in China seems to coincide with the latitudinal tectonic zone of the geologi- The distribution of the Chinese National Geoparks also cal tectonic structure. The main bodies of latitudinal tec- coincides with the longitudinal tectonic zone of geolog- tonic zones in the geological tectonic structure of China ical tectonic structure. The longitudinal tectonic zone are primarily composed of East–West-trending belts of is along the longitudinal direction of the Earth. A se- folded strata along the latitudinal distribution, and ex- ries of giant multi-type structures have been formed in truded fracture zones. Its outstanding performance on the Asian continental margin areas and adjacent sea regions, continental crust is the uplift of mountains, which are EW- ever since the Yanshan movement, and it is short for Neo-

284 W. Fang et al.

cathaysian structural system. It consists of extruded frac- movement. Caledonian movement is the orogeny that oc- ture zones of all sizes, including the NNE-trending and curred in the Early Paleozoic Era. The Variscan move- NE-trending, compressive belts, compressor–shear fault ment is the orogeny in the Paleozoic Era that extends belts and cross within compressor–shear fault belts that from the Paleozoic Carboniferous Period to Permian Pe- run NEE-trending, and compressional fault belts that run riod. Besides, most mountains in the North of China, such NNW-trending. The main body is composed of 3 enor- as , Tianshan Mountains, Greater Khin- mous uplift zones and 3 great subsidence zones that run gan Mountains, Yinshan Mountains, Kunlun Mountains, NNE-trending [39]. Altun Mountains, , Qinling Mountains, Most parts of China fall under the category of the second with a large number of granitic intrusions, is believed and third uplift zones, and the second and third subsidence to have formed during the Variscan movement. The In- zones of Neocathaysian structural system. The second dosinian movement is the orogeny in the Mesozoic Era and third subsidence zones respectively include Northeast that refers to the Triassic Period to Jurassic Period. The Plain– Plain–Yangtze River Plain–Nanling movement is considered to be responsible for the uplift- Mountains, Inner Mongolia Plateau ()– ing of western Sichuan and northwest Yunnan regions to Loess Plateau (Liu pan Mountains)–– become a mountain, and the formation of a chain of moun- Yunnan and Guizhou Plateau (Da lou Mountains). The tains, including Minshan Mountains, , second and third uplift zones respectively include Hing- Snowy Mountains, Yunling Mountains and so on. gan Mountains––Liaodong Hills– The Yanshan movement is the orogeny that is in the Cre- Shandong Hills––Southeast Hills and taceous Period of the Mesozoic Era. This movement has Taihang Mountains–Wu Mountains–Xuefeng Mountains. contributed to the formation of various mountains, in- Among them, the crust movement and uplift of red con- cluding the Yanshan Mountain, Taihang Mountain, Helan glomerate are typically formed in the Danxia landform Mountain, Xuefeng Mountain, Hengduan Mountain, Tan- zones of the second uplift zone, such as Pingjiang Shini- gula Mountain and Mountain. Besides, this uzhai in Hunan, Longhushan in , Chishui danxia in movement shaped a series of intramontane down-faulted Guizhou and Taining jinhu in Fujiang. There are signifi- basins, and accumulated rather thick sandstone layers in cant differences between the up and down movements of the basins. The Himalayan movement is the youngest piedmont faults in the third uplift zone, forming criss-cross orogeny that occurred in the Cainozoic era. During this landform, staggering majestic mountains and low Basins, movement, many mountains and plateaus have uplifted to and magnificent plateaus and hills. The two uplift tectonic a large extent, such as , Kailash, Nyainqen- zones that are formed due to the Yanshan movement are tanglha, Changbai, Wuyi Mountains and Qinghai–Tibet typical and rich in geoheritage resources. The agglomer- Plateau and the mountainous regions of Taiwan that have ation zones of National contribute to about 1/4th of the been exposed from the sea surface. The Himalayan move- total located in the two zones. ment has different effects on a number of ancient moun- The typical, extruded and longitudinal tectonic belts in tains. A lot of mountains have become natural demarcation China are the Sichuan–Yunnan belt, Sichuan–Guizhou lines of China terrains. Therefore, this movement is con- belt, Hunan–Guangxi belt. Among them, the most signif- sidered as the transition zone of the third-level steps and ◦ ◦ 0 icant part is located between 102 ∼ 103 30 E. Its main ladders terrains. body is the Snowy Mountains and Hom Gong Mountains In general, the terrain characteristics of China is low in in western Sichuan, which has been extended to the cen- the west and high in the east. The formation of roughly tral Yunnan province. The number of National Geoparks three-steps (ladders), the geological environments are rel- in the tectonic zones that run NS-trending is about 1/4th atively more active in the ladder transitional zones, re- of the total. Besides, there are some scattered and less taining typical geoheritages. In addition, the transitional obvious NS-trending tectonic zones, fold belts and other zones feature more junctions of geological structures than structural systems, such as the , Lvliang others, diverse tectonic types, a variety of land- Mountains, southern Taihang Mountains, which show a scapes including criss-cross mountains, plateaus, plateaus higher distributed of National Geoparks. and basins and basins and plains within the range of each 4.1.3. Coincidence with geologic structure zones and ladder. There are several zones within the transition zones three-steps topography of China and each ladder offers excellent resources for the estab- lishment of National Geoparks. The number of National Chinese orogenesis can be divided into the following five Geoparks located in the first range terrain ladder is about episodes: Caledonian movement, Variscan movement, In- 10, accounting for 4.59% of the total. At the same time, dosinian movement, Yanshan movement and Himalayan the number of National Geoparks in the second step is 77,

285 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

contributing to a proportion of about 35.32%. Between the 4.2. Exogenic agent analysis first and second terrain ladder, there are about 21 Na- 4.2.1. Climate zones analysis tional Geoparks, accounting for 9.63% of the total. The number of National Geoparks situated in the third step is According to previous studies, the climatic conditions have 70, contributing to a proportion of 32.11%. The number of a significant influence of the distribution of National National Geoparks located in the transitional zone of the Geoparks. In particular, precipitation and temperature are second and third terrain ladder is up to 40, accounting for the most important climatic factors that dominate the style 18.35% of the total (Figure2, 3). of denudation and morphology [25, 40, 41].

Precipitation

The annual average precipitation of China is over 600 4.1.4. Accordance with the circum-Pacific Ocean crust mm per year. Affected by the thermal difference between activities zones land and sea, various topographic factors, and latitude and longitude location, the precipitation spatial distribution pattern in China generally shows a decreasing trend from southeast coastal regions to northwest inland areas. The southeast China coastal areas that are mainly lo- The distribution of Chinese National Geoparks is also cated in the south of the Yangtze River, and east of consistent with the circum-Pacific Ocean crust activities the Tibetan Plateau, including the Yangtze River Basin, zones. China is located in the circum-Pacific tectonic Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and Sichuan Basin, belong to belt of volcanoes and earthquakes, which is the diver- sub-tropical and tropical monsoon climate zone. Besides, gent boundaries of the Eurasian Plates and the Pacific they are humid areas, with an average annual rainfall of Plates. Both of them collide or squeeze each other, fea- more than 1600 mm, and the aridity index of less than 1. turing more active crustal movement. This zone is highly prone to volcanoes, earthquakes and other crustal move- The majority of the north China regions, located in the ments. As a part of global zones around the circum-Pacific north Yangtze River, east Tibetan Plateau, east Greater volcanoes and earthquakes tectonic zones, many a time, Khingan and east Taihang Mountains, including the the Chinese eastern coastal zones that border the Pacific Northeast Plain, the , Jianghuai Plain, Ocean also suffer volcanic activities, with great influences experience an average annual rainfall of approximately from the Cenozoic. Beyond ambiguity, these areas are 400 mm, 800 mm and 1200 mm, respectively. These re- one of the most dramatic zones around the circum-Pacific gions belong to the monsoon climate of medium latitudes volcanoes and earthquakes tectonic belts. A large num- zone, and is also the part of humid and semi-humid re- gion, with aridity index is less than 1. The average annual ber of geoheritages remain after the earthquakes, volcanic ∼ eruptions and other diastrophic activities, thereby provid- precipitation is about 400 1600 mm. ing the material basis for establishing National Geop- Most of the West and Northwest China are situated in arks. The volcanic landscapes in China are mainly dis- the west of 400 mm isohyet, including the Qinghai–Tibet tributed in the northern mountains of Northeast China, Plateau, Tarim Basin and Junggar Basin in the North- Inner Mongolia Plateau, mountains of North China, lower west and Inner Mongolia Plateau and Loess Plateau in reaches of the Yangtze River, coastal areas of and the North. These regions belong to the non-monsoon cli- Zhejiang province, Peninsula, Island, Tai- mate zone, and is classified as the arid and semi-arid wan and the Penghu Islands and western Yunnan province. area with the aridity index of above 1.25. Compared to They are consistent with the collision zones of both the the Northeast, the annual rainfall in the Northwest in- ∼ Eurasian and the Pacific Plate. Therefore, many National land region is less than 50 200 mm. On the other hand, Geoparks belonging to the volcanic landscapes category the hyper-arid areas such as Tazhong area of Tarim basin are found in regions from and Lesser and Toksun region of Turpan basin of Xinjiang receive an Khingan to Changbaishan Mountain, and eastern coastal annual rainfall of less than 20 mm. Therefore, wind action areas of China. These regions have around 23 National plays a main role in semi-arid and arid regions, while flu- Geoparks, accounting for 92% of the volcanic category Na- viation tends to be the most active factors in warm-humid tional Geoparks. The Eastern coastal areas of China are monsoon areas (Figure 4). located in the Pacific volcanic and earthquake activities Temperature zone, the unique geographical location of which has pro- moted the formation of several National Geoparks (Fig- Similar to the trend observed in the variation of pre- ure 2, 3). cipitation, the temperature decreases from the South-

286 W. Fang et al.

Here, the geomorphologies are controlled by chemical de- nudations, including chemical, bio-erosion and water ero- sion, and less likely by mechanical and abra- sion. Karstic and Danxia landforms in the region are the typical examples of chemical denudation. Most Central and North China belong to the temperate and warm temperate zones. The climate is more dry, and features relatively lower rainfall than Southeast China. Mechanical denudation is considered to play an impor- tant role in shaping the landforms, while chemical denuda- tion impacts on landforms are lower than sub-tropical and tropical zones, although their roles are considered equally important. The Northwestern region of China belongs to the tem- Figure 4. Distribution and variation of precipitation across China. perate and warm temperate zones, characterizing semi- arid and arid climate with sparse vegetation coverage. Wind is high almost throughout the year, and has less east coastal regions to the much colder Northwest inland humidity and least precipitation, relative to the Central, China. The Southeast coastal China has a hot and humid North and Southeast China, forming a significant topo- climate, with the high-temperature summer featuring more graphic expression of structural and lithological discon- rain, and winters experiencing lesser rain. The annual av- tinuities. The mechanical denudations play the regnant ◦ erage temperature is typically higher than 20 C. role in the process of forming landforms, and include min- On the other hand, the climate in North and Northwest imized chemical and biological weathering. Loess plateau China is mild and humid, characterized by rain and heat and Yardang landforms are typical examples of mechanical over the same period. It is rainy and humid during the denudations, characterized by the aeolian, glacial erosion high-temperature summer, while it is cold and dry during and water erosion. winter. The annual average temperature is approximately The Tibetan Plateau is the ’Mountains Plateau’, composed ◦ 15 C. of a series of high mountains, with an average altitude over The Northwest China belongs to temperate continental 4000∼5000 m. Overall, the climate is characterized by climate zones, including temperate desert, grassy climate strong radiation, more sunshine and lowest temperature, ◦ and scarce rainfall. It is very cold in winter, extremely with the accumulated temperature being under 2000 C. hot in summer and extremely drought in here. It is colder Most areas do not experience sufficient heat. The contem- than the Southeast and Northwest China, with the aver- porary glaciers and ancient glaciers are developed well, ◦ age winter temperature being below −15 C and the av- with wide distribution of glaciers, glarosion and glacial ◦ erage summer temperature being above 20 C. The annual deposition landforms. The active glacial/peri-glacial pro- ◦ average temperature is less than 10 C. cesses and landforms are characterized by cirques, pyra- The Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau belongs to plateau climate midal peaks and U-shaped valleys. Besides glacial and zone, characterizing high-altitude and extreme cold. It is peri-glacial erosion, most landforms in the region are still the coldest area in China, where the annual average tem- subjected to various geological processes, including post- ◦ perature is about 4 C. In the hottest month, the average glacial stress release, salt and biochemical weathering. ◦ temperature is below 10 C. Differences in rock properties also affect the formation of Although most of the Chinese National Geoparks are dis- landforms in the low-temperature zones (Figure 2-a, Fig- tributed in the Southeast China regions in the east of ure 5). 400 mm isohyet, the annual accumulative temperature is ◦ 4.2.2. Analysis of Lithologic controls 4000∼8000 C. It is obvious that these climatic factors play a significant role in creating a variety of geological land- Rock type is an important and essential constraint affect- scapes to some extent. In the process of geoheritages, ing the development of geologic landforms all over the the consequently natural weathering, erosion, transporta- China. Thus far, several studies have analysed the im- tion and deposition processes were dominated by climate portance of the rock type [25, 40]. The nature of the variations, such as precipitation and temperature. rocks, including the ultrabasic, mafic, neutral, acid rock The Southeast China belongs to the sub-tropical and and the degree of weathering control the rock resistance tropical zones, characterized by warm and humid climate. to erosion. This lays the foundation for the development

287 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

Figure 5. Distribution and variation of climatic zones across China. Figure 6. Distribution and variation of climatic zones across China.

of various geologic landforms. Considering the lithologic mentation, such as fluvial erosion and gravitational col- importance and its wide variability throughout China, we lapse, developing exceptional red beds terrains. These have discussed the relevant landforms as follows. favour the formation of the most typical Danxia landform landscapes, such as Dunhuang Yardang(114), Pingliang Sedimentary rocks Kongtongshan (115), Tianshui Maijishan (116), Jingtai Yellow River (117), Zhangye Danxia (132) Rock products of physical weathering on the earth sur- and Bingling Danxia landform (133) in Gansu; Feitian- face and some volcanic eruptions that undergo weather- shan (123), Guzhang Red Carbonate-Rock Stone Forest ing, erosion, transportation, deposition and diagenesis of (124), Sandstone Peak Forest (125), Langshan the water or glaciers finally form sedimentary rocks. Sed- (126) and Liancheng Guanzhishan (127) in Fujiang; Xiji imentary rocks are often distributed in the surface layer Huoshizhai (118) in Ningxia; Kanbula (119) and Guide of the earth crust, including shale, sandstone and lime- (139) in Qinghai; Guanshan (120) in Henan; Qiyunshan stone. It accounts for about 75% of the land area of China, (121) and Dabieshan Liu’an (138) in Anhui; Longhushan and are responsible for the formation of unique geolog- Danxia Geomorphy (122) in Jiangxi; Taining ical landscapes. China has three major types of sand- (128) in Fujiang; Danxiashan (129) in ; Ziyuan stone rock landforms, namely, the Zhangjiajie Sandstone (130) in Guangxi; Yulong Liming–Laojunshan (131) in Yun- Peak Forest National Geopark (125), which represents nan; Chishui Danxia (134) in Guizhou; Chengde Danxia Mature–Old Stage, the Danxiashan National Geopark landform (135) in Heibei; Yaozhou Zhaojin Danxia (136) (129), which corresponds to Mature Stage and the Zan- in Shanxi; Jiangyou (137) in Sichuan; Zanda Clay For- huang Zhangshiyan National Geopark(10), which stands est (140) in Tibet; Kuqa Great Canyon (141) in Xinjiang for Young Stage. For instance, Danxia landform is a type (Figure 6). of landform that is formed above the thick red glutenite layers in inland basin, and characterized by red cliffs. Soluble rocks Danxia landform is a special type of landform, found and named after its first discovery in Danxia Moun- Soluble rocks mainly including carbonate rocks and sed- tain, which lie in city of Guangdong province, iments, which have been produced from Precambrian pe- during 1920s to 1930s. The landform is widely dis- riod to now, are mainly located in the low latitudes re- tributed with tropical and subtropical zones, temperate gions with clear and warm shallow sea (shelf sea) and humid and semi-humid areas, semi-arid and arid zones shoreland areas. This kind of rock landform is widely and the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau cold area. In partic- distributed in the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, Chongqing ular, it is the most concentrated region in the South- municipality, Guangxi province, Eastern Yunnan province ern China. Due to the humid-hot climatic condition in and partial North and Northwest China. Soluble rocks the Southern China, this region is affected by long-term suffer from long-time water dissolution, and a variety of and complicated forces from the Mesozoic to Cenozoic mechanical actions, forming the Karst landform, which is Eras. The terrestrial red conglomerates and coarse- the most representative of the soluble rock landform. The grained sands suffer from continuous erosion and sedi- Karst landform developed not only on the surface but also

288 W. Fang et al.

in the underground. The geological features of Karst land- guniangshan (108) in Sichuan; Pingtang (109) in Guizhou; forms include peak and isolated peaks on the sur- Guiping (110) and Pubei Wuhuangshan (112) in Guangxi; face, and karst and underground rivers on the un- Baiyunshan (111) in Fujiang; Miyun Yunmengshan (113) derground. The most famous is the in Beijing, are famous for granite rocks landscapes. areas, which are considered the World Natural Heritage, Basalt lava flows in the Quaternary Age are abundant include (159) in Chongqing, Shilin Karst and frequent, the intense activities of which have brought Peak Forest (167) in Yunnan, Libo in Guizhou. Other about plentiful lava and volcanic platforms in the south- National Geoparks that feature the famous Karst land- east China coastal areas, including North China and forms are Shihuadong (144) and Shidu (189) in Bei- Northeast China. Pinggu Huangsongyu (58) in Beijing, jing; Xinglong (145) and Lincheng (168) in Hebei; Za- Arxan (59) in Inner Mongolia; Volcano Cluster ozhuang Xiong’ershan–Bao dugu (146), Qingzhou (147), (60) in Shanxi; Liuhe (61) in Jiangsu; Fushan (63) in An- Yimengshan (148) and Yiyuan Lushan (178) in Shandong; hui; Yandangshan (64) and Linhai (65) in Zhejiang; Dehua Fenghuang (150), Meijiang (151), Wulongshan (152), Ji- Shiniushan (66) Pingnan Baishuiyang (67), ubujiang (170) and Pingjiang Shiniuzhai (184) in Hunan; Littoral Volcanic Geomorphy (68), Pinghe Lingtongshan Xingwen Stone Forest (153), Huanglong (154), Huaying- (74) and Zhenghe Fozishan (75) in Fujiang; Xiqiaoshan shan (155), Dabashan (156) and Guangwushan Mountain- (69) and Huguangyan (70) in Guangdong, Weizhoudao Nuoshuihe River (157) in Sichuan; Yunyang Longgang Volcano (71) in Guangxi; Haikou Shishan Volcano Cluster (158), Wansheng (160) and Youyang (185) in Chongqing; (72) in Hainan; Tengchong Volcano and Geotherm (73) in Wumengshan (161), Xingyi (162), Suiyang Shuanghedong Yunnan are typical examples of volcanic landform. (171), Zhijindong (172) and Sinan Wujiang Karst (188) Metamorphic rocks are the novel rocks that are trans- in Guizhou; Yangshan (142), Fengkai (143) and Yangchun formed by the Earth’s internal forces (temperature, pres- Lingxiaoyan (166) in Guangdong; Dahua Qibainong (163), sure, stress changes, chemical composition, etc.). Meta- Fengshan Karst (164), Luzhai Xiangqiao Karst (165), Leye morphism and sedimentation are the main driving force for Dashiwei Karst (175) and Yizhou Shuishang Stone peaks the formation of metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks (180) in Guangxi; Luxi Alu (179) and Jiuxiang Xiagu dong include the regional metamorphic rocks, dynamo metamor- xue (187) in Yunnan; Fengyang Jiushan (169), Yashan phic rocks, impact metamorphic rocks and so on. Among (177) and Guangde Taijidong (186) in Anhui; Yong’an Tao- them, regional metamorphic rocks are the most widely huadong (173) and Swan caverns (174) in Fujian; Huzhu distributed, and mainly outcrop the shield and mass in Jiading (149) in Qinghai; Yuntai (176) in Henan; all and metamorphic active belts in Phanero- Wufeng (181) in Hubei; Pingshun Tianjishan (182) in zoic Eon, including Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic era. Shanxi; Zhuoshui Rongdong (183) in Shanxi (Figure 6). Due to the difference in the lithology and degree of meta- morphism of the original rock, the metamorphic lithology Metamorphic and magmatic rocks differences vary widely, and form different styles of moun- tain landforms. Many mountain landscapes constituted Metamorphic and magmatic rocks have relatively greater by metamorphic rocks are found in Songshan (4), Taishan resistance. Most are the core of the mountains, and (96), Lushan (81), Wutaishan (196), Wudangshan (19) in widely outcrop in most parts of China. They often give China (Figure 6). rise to steep cliffs, grand and precipitous mountains, and become a significant uplift terrain. Magmatic rocks Aeolian and Loess have two occurrences types, namely, the magma intru- sion activities (intrusive rocks) and the volcanic activ- The formation of Aeolian landform is occurs via the wind ity or ejected activities (volcanic rocks). They typically erosion, transportation and deposition. This includes two emerge from the volcanic fields of plates boundaries zones. categories of landforms formed by wind erosion and wind Granite, andesite and basalt are the most common mag- deposition. The wind is the main driving force in shaping matic rocks. For instance, granite exhibits homogeneous the aeolian landforms, while the material composition and lithology. The vertical joints of the development lead degree of thickness on the ground, vegetation and mois- to steep hillsides and isolated mountain-peaks. Yichun ture status, bedrock lithology, difference in rational fissure Range (52), Yichun Granite Stone-Forest development also contribute to the development of aeolian (93), Fenghuangshan (92) in Heilongjiang; Qimen Guni- landform. Characterized by little precipitation, extremely ujiang (100), Huangshan (101), Tianzhushan (102) and sparse vegetation, strong physical weathering of rocks, Chizhou Jiuhuashan (103) in Anhui; Taihu Lake Xishan bare sandy ground and large and frequent winds in arid (104) in Jiangsu; Dabieshan-Huanggang (105) and Mu- regions, aeolian landforms are developed mostly in arid (106) in Hubei; Sanqingshan (107) in Jiangxi; Si- climate zones [42], such as Zanda Clay Forest National

289 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

Geopark (140). Yardang landform is the most prominent tern of National Geoparks with the natural geolog- representative, which is widely distributed throughout the ical conditions. northwestern China. Zhangye Danxia (132), Bingling Danxia landform (133) Yaozhou Zhaojin Danxia (136) and 4. As the factors influencing the formation of geoher- Kuqa Great Canyon National Geopark (141) are famous itage resources are quite complex, and the estab- from this landform. lishment of National Geoparks are affected not only Loess landforms are the earthy deposits formed during the by natural but also human factors, further analyses Quaternary Age, that are mainly scattered in the dry or are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding semi-dry continental climate zone. Loess soil is loose, of the factors influencing the distribution of Na- vulnerable to intense water and river erosions in the pro- tional Geoparks. The scientificity and rationality of cess of formation. Transportation and deposition of wind spatial pattern regionalization of Chinese geoher- are the main driving force of the loess accumulation. Flu- itage resources still need to be analysed further. vial erosion is yet another indispensable factor that is responsible for the generation of loess landforms types in this area, such as loess tableland, loess ridge and loess Acknowledgements hill. The Loess landform shows discontinuous zonal dis- tribution in China, with Loess Plateau being the most The paper is supported by National Sci- and unique representative example. In addition, abundant ence and Technology Support Program loose Quaternary earthy sediments are found out in the (No: 2012BAH48F01; 2012BAH48F03), National Natural vast deserts and sandy dune fields of Northern China [43], Science Foundation of China (No.41171165), and Chinese such as Luochuan Loess National Geopark (190) (Fig- Academy of Sciences Visiting Professorship for Senior ure6). International Scientists (No. 2013T2Z0004).

5. Conclusion and discussion References

This study probes into Chinese National Geoparks from different aspects, such as the types, spatial distribution [1] Barretino D., Wimbledon W. A. P., Gallego E. (Eds), characteristics, influencing factors and also illustrates the Geological heritage: its conservation and manage- spatial pattern regionalization of Chinese geoheritage re- ment.Sociedad Geologica de Espana/Instituto Tech- sources. Therefore, the main conclusions are summarized nologico GeoMinero de Espana/ ProGEO, Madrid, as follows: 2000 [2] Farsani N. T., Coelho C., Costa C., Geotourism and 1. There are various types of Chinese National Geop- geoparks as novel strategies for socio- economic de- Int. J. Tour. Res. arks, among which the geomorphologic landscape velopment in rural areas, , 13(1), 68– and palaeontology National Geoparks contribute 81, 2011 to a maximum of 178, accounting for 81.65% of the [3] Frey M. L., Sch¨aferK., B¨uchelG., Patzak M., Geop- total number of National Geoparks. arks: a regional, European and global policy. In: Dowling R.K., Newsome D. (Eds) Geotourism, sus- 2. The NNI of geoparks is 0.97 and it belongs to tainability, impacts and management, Elsevier Sci- causal distributional pattern whose regional distri- ence, Oxford 95–117, 2006 butional characteristics present ’dispersion in over- [4] Hose T. A., Geotourism in Almeria Province, South- Prelim Commun. all and aggregation in local’. The geographic im- east Spain, , 55(3), 259–276, 2007 balance of National Geoparks’ distribution is obvi- [5] Kiernan K., Human impacts on geodiversity and asso- ous with 13 clustered locations. ciated natural values of bedrock hills in the Delta, Geoheritage, 2, 101–122, 2010 3. Results suggest that the spatial distributional pat- [6] Leite Mansur K., de Souza C., Characterization and tern of the 218 National Geoparks coincides with valuation of the geological heritage identified in the the latitudinal tectonic zone and longitude tectonic peródune field, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Geo- zone of geological structure features, which is con- heritage, 3, 97–115, 2011 sistent with the areas around the Pacific Rim of [7] Zhao T., Zhao X., The geoscientific significance and volcanic tectonic zones. The coupling relationships classification of the national geoparks of China, Acta are obvious between the spatial distributional pat- Geologica Sinica, 78(3), 854–865, 2004

290 W. Fang et al.

[8] Janice E. Bowers, Robert H. Webb, et al., Succes- [24] Zhao T., Zhao X., The basic features and geological sion of desert plants on debris flow terraces, Grand setting of the European Geoparks, Geological Bul- Canyon, Arizona, USA, Journal of arid environments, letin of China 22(8), 637–649, 2003 36, 67–86, 1997 [25] Zhao X., Zhao T., Geological background of national [9] Cleal C. J., Thomas B.A., Bevins R. E., Wimbledon W. geoparks of China and construction of world geoparks. A. P., GEOSITES-an international geoconservation Geological Bulletin of China, 22, 620–630, 2003 initiative, Geology Today, 3, 64–68, 1999 [26] Zhao T., Zhao X., Geological heritage taxonomy and [10] Glasser N., Conservation and management of the application. Proceedings of the Second International earth heritage resource in Great Britain, Journal Symposium on Development within Geoparks, Geo- of Environmental Planning and Management, 44(6), logical Publishing House, Beijing, 26–97, 2007 889–906, 2001 [27] Wu J. G., Landscape ecology -pattern, process, scale [11] Wolfgang E., Patzak M., Geoparks-geological attrac- and level, Higher Education Press 99–105, 2000 tions: tool for public education, recreation and sus- [28] Chen A. Z., Some problems about the construction tainable economic development, Episode, 7(3), 62– of National geological park of China. Resources & 164, 2010 Industries 5(1), 58–64, 2003 [12] William C.M., Derek E. D., Optical properties of [29] Huang J. H., The spatial structure of national geop- aerosols at Grand Canyon National Park, Atmo- arks and its relation with some factors of geography spheric Environment 34, 3373–3391, 2000 in China, Journal of Mountain Science, 23(5), 527– [13] Jacob Johannes Smit, Geotourism in South : 532, 2005. Problem and Prospects, Rand Afrikaans University [30] Li M. L., Jiang J. J., Geological remains in China and 34–39, 2003 its protection, Chinese Geology, (6), 31–34, 2000 [14] Zouros N., The European Geoparks Network, Ge- [31] Xing L. C., On the protection of geological vestige ological heritage protection and local development, resources and natural and cultural heritage, Journal Episodes 27(3), 165–171, 2004 of Hefei University of Technology, 18(3), 105–108, [15] Mansur K.L., Soares da Silva A., Society’s Response: 2004 Assessment of the Performance of the ”Caminhos Ge- [32] Li X.Q., Zhao X.Y., Construction and development of ológicos” (”Geological Paths”) Project, State of Rio Geopark, Geography and Geoinformation Science, de Janeiro, Brazil. Geoheritage, 3(1), 27–39, 2011 19(5), 96–99, 2003 [16] Susan T., Geoheritage and Geoparks: One (Aus- [33] Wei X., Theories and Practices of National Geopark, tralian) Woman’s Point of View, Geoheritage 5, 249– Beijing: Peking University 6–13, 2005 264, 2014 [34] Peng Y. X., Wu C. J., Harmonious relationship between [17] Gray M., Geodiversity: valuing and conserving abi- protection and utilization of geological remains: The otic nature, Wiley, Chichester, 56–59, 2004 case of Shanxi Province, Resources Science, 26(1), [18] Gordon J. E., Kirkbride V., Rennie A. F., Bruneau P. M. 69–75, 2004 C., Climate change: why geodiversity matters, Earth [35] Mu G. S., Li D., The problem and countermeasure of Heritage, 30, 8–10, 2008 the construction of Chinese geopark, Areal Research [19] Prosser C., Murphy M., Larwood J., Geological con- and Development, 26(4), 79–81, 2007 servation: a guide to good practice, English Nature, [36] Wu M., Fu G., The problem and countermeasure of Peterborough, 144–149, 2006 the management of geopark, Acta Agriculture Jiangxi, [20] Colin D. Prosser, Cynthia V. Burek, David H. Evans et 20(5), 141–143, 2008 al., Conserving Geodiversity Sites in a Changing Cli- [37] Clark P. J., Evans F.C., Distance to nearest neighbor mate: Management Challenges and Responses, Geo- as a measure of spatial relationships in populations, heritage, 2, 123–136, 2010 Ecology, 35, 445–453, 1954 [21] Wang H.Z., X.X., An outline of the tectonic evo- [38] Dacey M. F., A note on the derivation of nearest lution of China, Episodes, 18(1-2), 6–16, 1995 neighbor distances, Journal of Regional Science, 2, [22] Zhang Y.Q., Ma Y.S., Yang N. et al., Cenozoic ex- 81–88, 1960 tensional stress evolution in North China, Journal of [39] Li S. G., The main reason of the earth’s surface images Geodynamics,36, 591–613, 2003 changes, Geological Society Records of China, 5, 13– [23] Jiang Y.B., Guo F.S., Liu L.Q. et al., A study on the fea- 14, 1926 tures of Danxia landform in Longhushan World Geop- [40] Pan J., World culture and nature heritage of China, ark and comparing with others in China. Journal of Beijing: Geological Publishing House 88–125, 1995 Mountain Science, 27(3), 353-361, 2009 [41] Wu S.M., Geological book of China:records from 21

291 Analysis on spatial distribution characteristics and geographical factors of Chinese National Geoparks

national geoparks, Jinan: Shandong Pictural Pub- Press, 231–286, 1985 lishing House, 25–76, 2005 [44] Wu C.J., Han L. Y., Tao Y. K. et al., The goordinative [42] Wang F.Y., Wang F.B., Wang X.Y., Geomorphology operation of National Geoparks based on the protec- and Quaternary Geology. Beijing: Higher Education tion and utilization of geological remains, Journal of Press 24–130, 1991 Mountain Science, 22(1), 17–21, 2004 [43] Liu D., Loess and environment, Beijing: Science

292