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phone 12021872 Dements & Company Insures It. Fax (202)466-9064* jecialists in Insurance for the Foreign Service at Home and Abroad Telex 64514 F30 K Street, NW, Suite 701, Washington, DC 20006 Cable Clements/Washington AFSA VIEWS Calling Up Our Own Reserves No one doubts the value of efforts to build the foreign affairs constituency, but we need to review frequently whether AFSA is making the best use of very finite resources and reserves in the process. Assessing our program to organize conferences and recruit business firms as “international associates” AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION figured high on the agenda of the AFSA board’s retreat in September. Our next Governing Board major effort in this program is a conference on November 13 and 14 about the President: THEODORE S. WILKINSON Uruguay Round. Both President Bush and Secretary Baker have the event State Vice President: RICHARD MILTON penciled in on their calendars. We will put the program in the “achievements AID Vice President: WENDELL MORSE USIA Vice President: VANCE PACE column” if this conference is as successful as we hope and if we can reach our goal Retiree Vice President: CHARLES A. SCHMITZ ofbringing up our “international associate” membership to 75 (i.e., doubling our Secretary: MICHAEL COTTER Treasurer: MICHAEL DAVILA current list) in 1990. State Representatives: PURNELL DELLY The board also felt strongly that AFSA should reflect on the 1989-1990 sea DAVI D T. JONES AID Representatives: PAULA BRYAN changes in international affairs. How should we organize for the conduct of SAMUEL SCOTT diplomacy in these new circumstances? At this point we don’t have any answers; USIA Representative: BERNARD HENSGEN we’re still groping to frame the questions. But all agree that we should consult the Retired Representatives: JOHN J. HARTER L. BRUCE LAINGEN best minds in rethinking the durable structure that George Marshall and Dean DAVID SCHNEIDER

Acheson erected 45 years ago. A provocative speaker series is proposed (see page Staff 60); we plan to synthesize the sessions and produce a report with some action Executive Director: SABINE SISK General Counsel: TURNA LEWIS proposals. We can do the job even better if our applications for foundation Controller: CATHY FREGELETTE funding for this project are fruitful. Member Sendees We began this effort (and our retreat) with a seminar drawing together senior Director: CHRIS BAZAR Member Services: management, academic, legislative, and business commentators on September 7. Representatives: AMY L. MACEACHIN, The discussion was off the record, but some valuable general ideas emerged: the CATHERINE SCHMITZ Director for State Department operates “flat out” all die time. It has no personnel reserves for Membership: JANET L. HEDRICK emergencies and is probably unique among federal agencies in this regard, Membership Assistant: IRENE LOWY Legal Assistant: MARKW. SMITH although USIA and AID have similar problems. Law Clerk: CHRISTIE E-LOON WOO Nevertheless, it would be unrealistic to expect substantial budget increases, Conference Coordinator: BRIAN HENNESSEY even without today’s severe austerity. Our needs are known, but our constituency Executive Assistants: BARBARA THOMPSON, DEBORAH M. LEAHY is not mobilized, our legislative lobbying is inexpert, and U.S. foreign affairs Administrative Assistant: CHAMPA JARMUL agencies are no more immune than those in other countries to an apparent trend Professional Issues toward decentralization of their functions (i.e., to defense, energy, or commerce RICHARD S. THOMPSON Congressional Liaison agencies, etc.). Practically speaking, any structural change would have to start ROBERT M. BEERS, RICK WEISS from the premise that the $5-6 billion now being spent to staff and operate the Scholarship Programs government’s foreign affairs agencies is probably a constant. GAIL VOLK

One alternative to the current state of affairs would be to recoup once divested The American Foreign Service Association, founded operations like information programs and commercial support into a central in 1924, is the professional association of the Foreign Service and the official representative of all Foreign foreign affairs agency. Another would be to shed all operations, including visas, Service employees in the Department of State and the Agency for International Development under the terms and turn State into an ivory tower brain trust for the president, supplanting the of the Foreign Service Act of 1980. Active or Retired NSC. Recommendations for significant changes in either direction would be membership in AFSA is open to all current or retired employees of the U.S. foreign affairs agencies. Associate most credible if they came from outside the government, perhaps from a study membership is open to persons having an interest in or commission that would be appointed by Congress. close association with the Foreign Service. Annual dues: Active Members—$80-165; Retired Members— Although the seminar was inconclusive on most points, one AFSA idea that $45-55; Associate Members—$45. All AFSA mem¬ bers are members of the Foreign Service Club. Please everyone seems to like is the formation of a Foreign Service reserve corps. The note: AFSA dues and Legislative Action Fund donations initial idea would be simply to dignify and to consolidate all the various “when may be deductible as an ordinary and necessary busi¬ ness expense for federal income tax purposes. Scholar¬ actually employed” arrangements that Foreign Service retirees now have with ship and AFSA Fund donations may be deductible as individual bureaus. Eventually, we would like to see the corps expanded to all charitable contributions. AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION, 2101 Foreign Service agencies, conceivably even to include Americans with no E Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20037. Executive government experience, but with the requisite skills. State Department leadership offices, membership, professional issues, scholarship programs, insurance programs, JOURNAL offices: has now endorsed our proposal, and the director general is developing a plan to (202 ) 338-4045. Governing Board, standing commit implement it. A Foreign Service reserve isn’t going to create any new resources tees, general counsel, labor-management relations, member services, grievances: (202)647-8160.• FAX: where none exist, but it should help to put the ones we have to better avail. (202) 338-6820 • Foreign Service Club (202) 338 —Ted Wilkinson 5730. 2 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 FOREIGN SERVICE

NOVEMBER 1990 VOL. 67, NO. 11

Editorial Board Chairman HOWARD SCHAFFER

RICHARD AH ERNE WILLIAM BEECHER C. STUART CALLISON GEORGE FLORES HELEN STROTHER FOUCHE BENJAMIN LOWE ROBERT A. POLLARD LYNN SEVER THEODORE WILKINSON

“The Independent Voice of the Foreign Service” FEATUKES

Associate Editor Diplomats and Trade 14 ANNE STEVENSON-YANG Assistant Editor/Advertising Manager An interview with Deputy Secretary Lawrence Eagleburger JULIA T. SCHIEKEN Applying Economic Sanctions: A Symposium 21 The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is published monthly by the American Foreign Service Eight experts comment on the pros and cons of using trade to influence Association, a private non-profit organization. other nations. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and does not necessarily represent the GATT and the Uruguay Round 29 views ofAFSAor the JOURNAL. Writer queries are invited. ERNEST H. PREEG JOURNAL subscriptions: AFSA Members— The United States enters with high hopes—and some conflicting goals. included in annual dues; others, $25. Overseas subscriptions (except Canada), $35 peryear. Airmail How to Win Friends and Influence Congress 33 not available. Second-class postage paid at Washington, D.C., RALPH REGULA and at additional post office. Postmaster: Send Friendly advice from a congressman on cultivating die Foreign Service’s address changes to AFSA, 2101 E Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20037. natural constituency Microfilm copies: University Microfilm Library Services, Ann Arbor Michigan 48106 (October Books 39 1967 to present). Indexed by Public Affairs Charles Maechling Jr. on international law; Jerrold Keilson on Henry Information Service (PAIS). Advertising inquiries invited. The appearance of advertisements herein Kissinger; Henry E. Mattox on the bloc that failed; John J. Crowley Jr. does not imply AFSA endorsement of the services or on Latin America’s cities in crisis goods offered" • FAX: (202) 338-6820 •Telephone: (202) 338-4045 or 338-4054 State’s Transformation 44

American Foreign Service Association, 1990 WILLIAM Z. SLANY ISSN 0015-7279 History shows the department loosening its grip on foreign policy. November 1990, Vol. 67, no. 11 Essay: The Patras Bathtub 48 BART N. STEPHENS

COVER: DEPARTMENTS The end of the Cold War suggests new configurations in AFSA Views 2 Clippings 10 world trade. Washington artist Letters 4 AFSA News 60 John Michael Yanson did the 10*25.50 8 cover illustration for the Realtors 54 Advertisers’ Index/ JOURNAL. Classified 58 Marketplace 51 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL * NOVEMBER 1990 3 Letters

History with integrity that on one or two occasions before political affairs, is available if PA be¬ 1980 some material was shared with lieves the principles governing To THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL: committee members, but that this was publication have been violated. For The undersigned are staff members not a formally established procedure. these reasons the Advisory Committee’s of the Office of Historical Documents Since 1980 the committee has never charter, last approved in 1988, says Review (HDR) who have been involved been given regular access to deleted nothing about protecting integrity or in declassification reviews of the series classified material. That is the verifying accuracy. In fact, there is not Foreign Relations of the United States department’s policy and reflects the a single mention of declassification. (FRUS). We are retired senior FSOs position of bureaus responsible for the Professor Cohen acknowledges that and have served in positions ranging conduct of our relations with other the major problem does not lie within from ambassador to the direction of nations. Those in the department re¬ the State Department. All agencies must regional bureaus. A number of us have sponsible for reviewing the material deal with information that is protected academic credentials and experience as selected for the FRUS were not by special laws and regulations (e.g. well. Our current mission is to declas¬ unmindful of the committee’s desire to intelligence, nuclear weapons). For sify the historical record to the maxi¬ be reassured concerning the complete¬ some, such as CIA and Defense, these mum extent possible, and we take pride ness of the record. In 1985, therefore, regulations impose special restraints on in the key role we have played since we initiated briefings of the committee what they can release, and tire depart¬ 1985 in accelerating release of record on recently completed volumes. In these ment cannot compel them to interpret numbers of FRUS volumes. briefings the committee members were the regulations under which they op¬ We have read Professor Warren able to query the officers who had erate in a particular manner. An addi¬ Cohen’s article “Gaps in the Historical worked on the volumes in question tional constraint on the kinds of material Record” (see AugustJOURNAL, page 27) concerning the criteria used in decisions that can be released arises from the fact and share fully his goal of producing a on material to be withheld. The briefers that some documents that would be credible documentary record within a were able to give them a good idea of desirable to publish in the FRUS were reasonable time after the events have the amount and nature of this material. furnished to the U.S. in confidence by transpired. We also appreciate the high Our impression has been that these foreign governments. In some cases regard he expresses for the Foreign briefings were well received by the these governments do not wish to see Sendee, as well as the credit he gives committee. It must be said here that, their documents made public. Obvi¬ those serving in HD R for their assistance for documents whose content lies ex¬ ously, we must respect those washes. in intervening with others to assure clusively within the purview of the The undersigned wish it clearly un¬ that as much relevant information as Department of State, only a minuscule derstood that we are wholeheartedly possible sees the light of day in the percentage of information usually has committed to the proposition that the FRUS. been withheld. public record of the formulation of our There are, however, some aspects in Professor Cohen also argues that foreign policy and the conduct of our Professor Cohen’s account of his ex¬ greater access was necessary for his relations with other nations must be as periences with the Historical Advisory committee to protect the integrity of open and detailed as possible. Given Committee with which we would take the FRUS volumes and to verify their the realities of the situation, what al¬ issue. It is clear that given the accuracy. But that basic responsibility ternatives are available? Clearly the government’s responsibility for can only be assumed by the present situation has gotten out ofhand. protecting classified information, ac¬ department. Only the department’s The legislation that has been introduced knowledged by Professor Cohen, and official historians see all the files from in the Senate Foreign Relations Com¬ the historians’ desire to know every¬ which documents are selected; and se¬ mittee would pose serious legal, op¬ thing, there can be no solution to the lection is critical to integrity and accu¬ erational, security and resource prob¬ declassification question that will be racy. At the other end of the process lems for the government; and the time completely satisfactory from the these historians are responsible for de¬ and effort drained over a decade of historians’ point of view. termining whether or not each com¬ sparring need to be devoted instead to Cohen’s argument for greater pilation, as it emerges from the restoring the flagging acceleration pro¬ access by the committee rests in pan on declassification process, meets the gram to produce a better and more an assertion that previously the mem¬ publication principles set forth in each timely FRUS series. Since we appear to bers had been permitted to see the preface. Appropriately, the assistant share a common goal, we believe a documents selected for inclusion in the secretary for public affairs has the final system would work best in which each FRUS prior to publication, including say in whether or not a volume should group contributes what it is best the material withheld for security rea¬ be released; and an appeals procedure, equipped to contribute: the sons. The Historical Office informs us reaching up to the under secretary for department’s historians, their exper-

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tise in compiling and editing the vol¬ constitute a plea of nolo contendere. umes and ensuring their comprehen¬ Ms. Hoggard promised measures in siveness; the declassifiers, their skills the future that “can result in the with¬ and experience in facilitating release of holding of sensitive material that does the maximum amount of information not distort the historical record.” No possible consistent with the laws and record can remain undistorted when regulations; and advisory committee sensitive material is withheld from his¬ members, their unique knowledge as torians by bureaucrats overly concerned representative users from a variety of with “security.” They are doing the perspectives, in advising on major sub¬ president, his secretary of state, and stantive questions such as the kinds of others dedicated to effective analysis of issues that should be given priority in foreign affairs no favors by bowdleriz¬ the FRUS of die future. In our view this ing the official accounts of past years. would best ensure a timely, compre¬ Isn’t it about time for a healthy hensive and credible series. injection of glasnost? As a first step, Come to American Signatories: let’s restore the integrity and credibility Service Center for diplomatic Charles C. Flowerree of the Foreign Relations of the United immunity from high prices. If Norman B. Hannah States series and insure that there are no you are on an overseas Dwight R. Ambach more instances of such blatantly dis¬ assignment, and carry a Lewis M. Purnell honest reporting as evidenced in the diplomatic or official passport, Charles K. Johnson volume titled Iran 1952-1954. you can save on the purchase Philip H. Valdes Richard Patrick Wilson of a new Mercedez-Benz with Theodore A. Tremblay TJSIA, retired U.S. equipment, shipped Stuart H. McIntyre Mobile, Alabama directly to the United States or T. George Tsukahira for pick up in Stuttgart*. William G. Hamilton What about a retiree? James H. Bahti Contact Erik Granholm, John K. Dexter our Diplomatic and Tourist To THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL: Robert Zimmermann Sales Manager. I can sympathize with the singles Edward W. Schaefer (see Kitty Thuermer, August FSJ, page William J. Galloway 16) who feel they have been discrimi¬ Sidney Sober nated against because of their marital status. I once lost a DCM assignment To THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL: because I was separated. The ambassa¬ Just as I was beginning to think that dor, who had approached me thinking the State Department bureaucracy I was still living in wedded bliss, re¬ might arrest its slow slide toward ir¬ gretfully informed me that his wife relevance, evidence to the contrary absolutely had to be able to count on comes along in history Professor War¬ the DCM’s wife in connection with her ren I. Cohen’s account of how hide¬ many community activities. bound concepts of censorship are I have an idea for the single female crippling institutional effectiveness in FSOs who would like a partner but Foggy Bottom. 585 North Glebe Road find it difficult to locate an appropriate Arlington, Virginia 22203 Although I majored in history dur¬ one. There are many retired FSOs, 703/525-2100 ing an academic furlough from 22 years divorcees or widowers, who are well in the Foreign Service, I claim no ex¬ short of being over the hill. The *Car must be imported into US. within 6 months after taking delivery in Europe. pertise in this discipline. But one does Washington area is well-stocked with not have to be an expert to recognize retirees of all descriptions. Marry an

Mercedes-Benz-Registerd Trademarks of Daimler-Benz AG, that the department’s rebuttal, which older man? I can see the eyebrows Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany the JOURNAL also printed, one written shooting up. Well, it’s an option. Think by V. Kim Hoggard, senior deputy about it. assistant secretaiy at the Bureau of J. Edgar Williams Public Affairs, was weak enough to Carrboro, North Carolina

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Today it is not necessary to convince Congress that the United States’ foreign 4801 Massachusetts representatives need adequate funds to carry out their functions properly and Avenue, NW profitably. It is recognized at the State Department, even emphasized, that the Suite 400 political parsimony with which the Department had once to contend is given way to notable improvement in the situation of the Untied States’ diplomatic corps. Washington, DC 20016 ... Though, today, happily, the story is no longer one of “diplomacy in rags,” (202) 364-3066 it is still one of diplomacy often in patches. But nowadays the average citizen rather than the Congressman needs the talking-to on this matter, say the gentlemen behind the white shutter-like doors that open off the almost too Serving 'Washington, DC, venerable corridors of the State Department building. Maryland & Virginia The Wide Horizons by Carlyle W. Morgan

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WRITE TO: DIPLOMATIC SALES NAME FORD MOTOR COMPANY ADDRESS P.O. Box 600 CITY STATE 28801 Wixom Rd. COUNTRY _ZIP Wixom, MI 48393-0600 PHONE NO. J Tel: (800) 338-5759 or area code 313) 344-6578 FAX/TELEX NO. J On the eve of the GATT’s Uruguay Round, the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL asked Deputy Secretary Lawrence Eagleburger to reflect on the perceived decline of U.S. economic power, how differing political and economic goals can be reconciled, and the Foreign Service’s role in promoting U.S. exports. The deputy secretary spoke with Teresita Schaffer, deputy asssistant secretary for Near Eastern and South Asian Af¬ fairs. A transcript of the interview follows, edited for length.

Teresita Schaffer: We have read I would argue strenuously that the in the past. But most important of all— your November 30 speech on the im¬ one thing the U.S. can take credit for in and this is where the U.S. remains portance of exports. As an econ officer, the post-war period, when we were absolutely essential to global stabil¬ this is something I grew up on. But I economically and politically domi¬ ity—-it is only the United States that can wanted to pursue a bit some of the nant—at least within the West—was at this stage, at least, lead some of those thoughts you articulated there, and to that we had a sense of responsibility. other growing economic powers to start by picking up the statement you We used our strength essentially for the accept and play their role of responsi¬ made that the U.S. has to adjust to a good. We played a major role in bring¬ bility in the way in which they ought to. situation in which we no longer hold the dominant economic position in the world. How do you think changing trends and the distribution of economic power have affected our strategic outlook on our overall view of the world? Deputy Secretary Eagleburger: In Dl PLOW IATS the first place, they haven’t affected them enough yet. It ought to be obvious to everybody that the period in which all of us have grown up and lived with of U.S. eco¬ nomic, military, political—you name ID TR it—dominance is, in fact, over, or is in JU ADE: the process of ending. It is, in my judgment, far healthier in terms of both the United States and global stability to have a better balance. But the Japanese An Interview with and the Germans, to cite just two ex¬ amples—really the Japanese and the European Community—clearly have far greater economic clout than they used Lawrence Eagleburger to. It isn’t half so much that the United States is diminished in its economic ing the countries that are now our A classic case is the Gulf crisis. power. It is that others have grown. competitors into a position of strength. SCHAFFER: You anticipated my Inevitably that is going to require a It is damn well time that some of those next question. Can you elaborate a bit recognition on our part that we have to who benefited from 50 years of Ameri¬ more on this concept of the responsible be far more competitive internation¬ can leadership recognize that they need role that economic growth is going to ally. It also means we have to recognize to accept, in the same spirit we did, a far thrust on the Europeans, the Japanese? that our ability to dominate events and greater sense of responsibility for glo¬ EAGLEBURGER: Sure. But take to throw resources at problems is going bal stability. this case right now where, clearly, no to be increasingly limited. I don’t think we recognize as much other country in the world could have It means as well—and this is the as we will have to the changing circum¬ mounted this sort of military response toughest part of the issue—that the stances. in the Gulf. Japanese and the European Commu¬ We must use resources more care¬ At the same time, it is very clear that nity that are, in fact, substantially stron¬ fully. We have to get more for every the response we have generated is ter¬ ger economically, as responsible world dollar we spend. ribly expensive and it is also very clear powers, are going to have to start act¬ We also have to recognize that we’re that our ability to affect events in the ing far more responsibly than they have going to have to be prepared to share Gulf is going to have a major impact— in the past. Indeed, with their eco¬ the decision-making on a whole host of a beneficial impact—on the economies nomic strength comes responsibility. issues that we have largely dominated of a whole host of other countries, not

14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 least of which is Japan. All of these with this idea of sharing the costs? in export promotion? How do you countries would have to face, as would EAGLEBURGER: It’s going to distinguish, if you can distinguish, be¬ we, substantially increased oil prices, at be tough. It’s one of the things that’s tween our job and that of the company a minimum, if Saddam Hussein suc¬ going to be toughest for us, I think, to that has decided it’s in the export busi¬ ceeded. accommodate to, in two directions. ness and is trying to move ahead? Although we have had to take the One, we’re used to being able to EAGLEBURGER; I think you can major share of the military burden, we make decisions and having them stick. distinguish because no matter what we shouldn’t have to pay for it. At least, we On the other hand, those who are do as a government—or as the State shouldn’t have to pay for it all. going to have a greater role in the Department, or Foreign Service or the So, in a way, what you saw with the decision-making process are used to Commerce Department, or whatever— Brady-Baker trips to try to generate not having to make decisions. We see if American business itself is not pre¬ financial support is, I think, in micro¬ time and again how difficult it is for pared to meet the minimum conditions cosm, an example of the kinds of things some of these newly wealthy, powerful necessary to compete, we can’t do it for that are going to become more com¬ entities to find ways to adapt to the fact them. mon in the years ahead; namely, that as of their new wealth and influence in So I would start by saying the pri¬ long as the United States is the only real terms of their ability to make decisions mary responsibility has to rest with American business. These are all cliches you’ve heard a million times. If you’re going to sell in the Japanese market, you better have some people who know how to speak Japanese and know some¬ thing about Japanese culture. The product has to be a good quality prod¬ uct. So all of those things are obvious and necessary before we could help. There are two parts to your ques¬ tion, as far as I’m concerned, with regard to what we do as an institution and what the U.S. government does. As far as the U.S. government is concerned, there is, first of all, the “level playing field.” There are still any number of activities by the govern¬ ments of those countries to which we ought to be exporting more that are just not right. We’re going to have to be much tougher on that. That, I have to say, is going to run contrary to a whole tendency in the past to try—because we had other fish to fry internationally—to take the edge superpower, it’s going to have to be that match their responsibilities. That’s off of that. We’re going to have to get counted upon to provide the military going to take some time. tougher, but I don’t mean that we’ve muscle when necessary to maintain sta¬ We have the opposite side of the got to go to a trade war every time. We bility. It ought to be a community coin, in a way, in the U.S., namely, we must be more conscious of those kinds effort in terms of assuming some of the are going to have to recognize that of problems and do what we can to help costs of maintaining that stability. That’s these partners have to be taken into support business. just one example. account in more institutionalized ways. Secondly, I think, frankly, we are The president is absolutely right, I think we’re trying hard to accommo¬ going to have to look at increasing the that what we’re seeing is the beginning date to that. role of the Export-Import Bank. This, of a new security system. I don’t mean Our own domestic political system by the way, is a personal view. It is not that it’s going to look the way it does in is going to have to accommodate to it, necessarily anybody else’s view, but the Gulf right now, but it does mean as well. That’s tougher. I can’t give you we’re going to have to try to find ways that it’s going to have to be a far more any magic formula for it. to help finance exports. Aid most fun¬ common and joint effort than it has SCHAFFER: Shifting slightly to damentally, we’re simply going to have been in the past. another aspect of this, you said that one to be prepared, as a government, and as SCHAFFER: How is our political of the things we will have to do is to be institutions of the U.S. government, to system likely to cope with the need for more competitive. become more actively engaged in try¬ a shared decision-making which, goes What is the U.S. government’s role ing to help American businessmen

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 15 abroad when they need it. and in this business yourself, the ten¬ Now, that is what I call “changing That leads to my next point, which dency has been that it’s not the glam¬ the culture.” It ain’t easy to change is our role—the State Department’s orous part of the Foreign Service. That’s cultures. Let me add that the Foreign role. I hope we are over the issue of going to change. We have got to do Commercial Service and the Depart¬ fighting with the Commerce Depart¬ more in this building to make it clear to ment of Commerce have to find ways ment about who does and who does the institution that promotion of U.S. to better integrate their process and not have authority over the Foreign economic interests abroad is at least as ours. We have to provide educational Commercial Service. If FCS is in the important as any other activity of and training opportunities for those Commerce Department, we ought to the Foreign Service establishment and, people. We have to provide reciprocal forget that as an issue and accept it and indeed, the promotion possibilities are assignment opportunities for FSOs and make it work. The State Department to some degree more clearly related to FCS officers which enhance promotion ought to be doing everything it can to political and military issues than they prospects lor both. help the Commerce Department; and have been in the past. The long and short of what I’m the Commerce Department and the people abroad in the field have got to understand how the ambassador runs his embassy. I don’t think those are hard issues to come to grips with. What I think is important—in this sense, if it sounds critical of the State Department and the Foreign Service, so be it. We have basically as an institu¬ tion spent the better part of 50 years principally being concerned about po¬ litical and military issues because those were the questions that most faced most Foreign Service officers. That fo¬ cus is going to have to shift. If you were in the economic section

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16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 saying is that it is also necessary that, thing we can to set common rules of sions as to when to weigh in and how to while we in the State Department have behavior on as broad a basis as is pos¬ weigh in has to be given more weight to think about how we change our sible, but I don’t think that’s enough. than it has in the past. cultural approach to these kinds of So what I am really saying to you is SCHAFFER: The other theme that questions, the Commerce Department that I think there is also for some time you’ve developed was the need for the has to recognize that their people are to come—far into the future as I can department’s culture to place greater going to have to be expert, ready to see—a need for being in a position to weight on economic factors. work hard—just as hard as we have to deal with some of these issues bilater¬ Do you think that we need to move be ready to work—and we and Com¬ ally. I recognize that that can lead to more toward a system in which officers merce need to sit down together, as we contradictions with the first principle. who have had a political track will need are already doing in fact, and try to It is therefore never going to be easy to to do some time in economic work and figure out ways to make the system settle, but I do not think we can walk vice versa? Are there those kinds of better integrated titan it has been in the away from the fact that we are going to institutional devices we need to develop. past. have to deal with a lot of these issues EAGLEBURGER: Yes. There’s SCHAFFER: Fd like to pick up a bilaterally. that. There is the need, as I said before, couple of the points you just men¬ A multilateral system is by no means to look at the promotion system in tioned and start perhaps with the con¬ so perfect, so insulated from, for ex¬ terms of who gets promoted; look at cept of needing to be tougher. ample, subsidies to Airbus or protec¬ the system of ambassadorial appoint¬ Are we looking at a world in which tion of a product such as rice, which we ments in terms of the backgrounds of legislating bilateral remedies for our could sell Japan cheaper than they can those who get nominated from the trade problems is a permanent feature grow it. There is no way we can avoid Service; look at tire degree to which of the landscape? And how does that fit bilateral remedies as well, and we’re economic officers in each of the bureaus in with the kind of multilateral trade going to have to pursue them. have access to the assistant secretary, world that we tried to create after World I can’t give you a formula other than and the assistant secretary’s knowledge War II? to say, as we pursue the bilateral course, of or ability to draw on the expertise of EAGLEBURGER: I think the we are going to have think about its economic officers. fundamental basis on which we have to impact on the multilateral system. But If we are going to be able to demon¬ operate is that we want a multilateral it does seem to me that in the coming strate in Washington that foreign policy trading world. We’ve got to do every¬ years the economic factor in our deci¬ issues must continue to be pre-emi-

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How is this going to affect our ELECTRONICS those agencies not direcdy involved in foreign relations, and how is it going to foreign policy but direcdy involved in relate to our export promotion? £H Offering the Best 50 trade, finance, and so forth, that our EAGLEBURGER: With regard to M cycle appliances expertise is as strong and as capable as the first question, it obviously means theirs, and that we have an ability to 05* □ Top rated by leading that the ability to grant aid as a means consumer magazine bring foreign policy factors into the of leading countries to make decisions 2 □ Adjustable split glass mix in ways that nobody else can. we would like to see them make is not O shelves SCHAFFER: In your November going to be quite as great as it was in the D Automatic defrost 30 speech, you referred to the U.S.- past. It means we’re going to have to be ^ □ Dual Humidity controlled Canada Free Trade Agreement as a better diplomats. It means we’re going W , crispers □ Refrigerated metal drawer model. What’s it a model for? How to have to be more persuasive. does this more regional or bilateral I think it is also fairly clear, however, approach to die world mesh with the as statistics would already demonstrate, multilateral system? that there are some other countries EAGLEBURGER: Good ques¬ around the world that can pick up some. tion. Obviously, we’re looking for more. of that slack, and indeed certainly ought We’re now sitting down to start talking to. Japan is one, and they have been with the Mexicans. The president’s doing so. It would be far better if we proposal of looking toward some sort could see those aid efforts done in an of free trade arrangements for the untied way, but aid is, I think, going to hemisphere would indicate that this have to become an increasingly impor¬ administration, I think absolutely tant example of the kind of responsibil¬ rightly, is looking toward broadening ity I was talking about earlier when I the kind of experience we have with the said the Japanese and the European Canadian case. Community need to develop a greater I do not think those need to be sense of responsibility for global sta¬ looked upon as alternatives to a multi¬ bility. lateral trading system that increasingly One of the things that I find very opens up world markets to free and interesting about what we’re trying to unfettered competition. I do think you do in Eastern Europe—and in many have to look at them as—let me almost ways it’s an experiment, and we’ll make say “steps in a process.” If indeed we some mistakes, and we’ll learn some can manage to work out arrangements lessons—is the new kinds of devices □ 10 cookmatic levels with the various countries I’ve talked that we’re trying to develop to transfer □ stainless steel cavity about, for example, that lead toward resources and experience and teach □ 700 watts □ exclusive rotowave system some sort of free trade arrangement, some lessons. that doesn’t mean that we’ve put down The enterprise funds in Poland and our pen and that’s the end of the effort. Hungary are two examples of where It does mean that this can be seen as you get some really first-class business a step in the direction of opening up talent to run the funds with some money worldwide free trade. I don’t think it but not necessarily a great deal, and to needs to be viewed as contradictory. make their decisions on how that money And, you know, the GATT has recog¬ will be used on the basis of business nized the validity of regional arrange¬ criteria and with vast experience in the ments, if they can be arrived at within past in a free-market economy. the context that permits at the same The ways in which they can develop time the operation of a worldwide sys¬ those funds and use them to encourage tem. the building of free-market economies That is not to say I think the United in Poland and Hungary, for example, Also offering Frigidaire, May¬ States is going to go out and look for are interesting to watch and probably tag, Philips Sansui and Sony free trade arrangements with every more easily managed than if they were country around the world. I do say, done through a government bureau¬ FREE gifts & local delivery however, that I think it’s fairly clear this cracy. Not that I’m complaining about with your purchase when you administration is aiming at moving the bureaucracy, but we can’t think in mention this ad beyond simply the Canadian example. the same way, and the constraints on SCHAFFER: I think we have been how we operate are somewhat greater.

18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 SCHAFFER: Do you think that decisions on high-tech transfer. It will the need for improved finance for our never be totally free, nor should it be. exports, which you referred to earlier, is But the best I can tell you here is I think CeaVe your going to lead us to create tighter links die reality of the world competitive between our aid money and U.S. ex¬ situation, the reality of the changes in ports, and how do you mesh this with the strategic picture, is malting us move most the kind of flexibility you’ve just been toward a less restrictive list, and recog¬ talking about? nize that we have to make decisions on EAGLEBURGER: I think that whether or not to move technology in important there will be some increased linkage. a much faster way. We’ve already experimented in one case And I think American business would with putting some aid money into a by and large say that the efforts that investment package to try to get some export pro¬ [Under Secretary for International Se¬ motion for a fairly large project in the curity Affairs] Reg [Bartholomew] and Far East. others have gone through over the I don’t see anything wrong with course of the last year have begun to With the that, again if it’s kept within bounds, make a difference. Internationally, and I don’t think it should affect flex¬ clearly, within COCOM and so forth, ibility if we do not look upon aid as the there has been some relaxation, and management critical element in trying to sell a prod¬ there will be more. It’s not a perfect uct abroad, but instead as an additional world, but I tiiink it’s moving in die piece that can be brought into play, on right direction. occasion, when you’re in close compe¬ SCHAFFER: Where is the eco¬ tition and when the American exporter nomic relationship with the Soviet needs an extra bit of help. Union headed? you trust. But, again, like everything else, you EAGLEBURGER: I don’t know. have to do it in moderation. I do not SCHAFFER: A potentially giant think we have any business getting into economy that’s in a desperate situa¬ Rental and Management the business of simply having the tion. oj Tine Properties in EAGLEBURGER: I don’t know. American government finance U.S. Northwest “DC, CheVy Chase, exports. I think we ought to be in a I think it’s clear that the president and position to help when it’s a close call. the secretary of state are interested in “Bethesda and Potomac SCHAFFER: What about high trying to assist the Soviets in learning tech exports? It seems to me those may about how a market economy should pose another one of those unresolvable be managed, and what it is, and what it dilemmas, and I’d welcome your takes to make one. thoughts on that. On the one hand, we I suspect that over time trade rela¬ want to promote them, because it’s tions between the Soviet Union and always been a dynamic export sector. the United States and the West in gen¬ On the other hand, we want to prevent eral will increase. I think that is a pro¬ a lot of the same ones, because they cess very much dependent upon the involve dual-use technology. degree of change in the Soviet Union EAGLEBURGER: Things are and how fast that moves, and how tough all over—those kinds of ques¬ readily available to the Soviets is the tions. There will never be a complete necessary hard currency to pay for these answer. Obviously, there are always imports and so forth. going to be questionable calls. But I SCHAFFER: What about Eastern Executive Housing think what is clear is that we are moving Europe? You have the tremendously Consultants, Inc. exciting developments, both politically toward less restrictions, faster decision¬ 7315 Wisconsin Avenue making, and recognizing that the world and economically. To what extent is into which we are moving is going to their lack of foreign exchange going to Suite 1020 East require that we have a more relaxed— act as a damper on the potential there? Bethesda, Maryland 20814 I don’t say totally relaxed, but a more EAGLEBURGER: Oh, I thinklack 301/951-4111 relaxed view on high tech transfer. of foreign exchange is a problem right Obviously, one can hope that as the now. I think there are a lot of other global situation changes and the Cold problems that are equally difficult and “We care Jor your home War diminishes and disappears, that have to be dealt with, the first of which as if it Were our on>n. ” some of those dangers disappear with is how do you build a market economy it. That makes it easier for us to make after 50 years of not having one? How

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBI 1990 19 do you get competitive, how do you president’s proposals on Latin America. open up opportunities for investment? And the debt issue is not something And that’s moving reasonably well in that can be dealt with just in terms of Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, the word “debt.” It is terribly compli¬ by the way. cated, as [Treasury] Under Secretary But, again, this is a process that’s [David] Mulford has taught me, and going to take several years, and it’s also he’s right. It’s just terribly complicated. going to depend on the degree to It is difficult, and we can’t find one which economic pain deriving from formulation for dealing with all of it, reform pinches. We can take the edges but we’re going to have to deal with it. off that. We can help, for example, in The “have/have not” issue within the process of teaching them what a the Gulf states right now, within the market economy means, and how you states of that area, has demonstrated manage an enterprise in a market that there are some related political economy, and all of that we’re trying to problems, and we’re having to face do. those as we deal with the Gulf crisis at I, myself, am of the view that the the moment. East Europeans—though there will be There are also environmental ques¬ a couple of tough years—will increas¬ tions which can only be dealt with on a ingly find their economies tied into global basis and which are going to Western Europe and the United States, require sacrifice on the part of both and I’m reasonably optimistic about developed and developing nations. where that will go. best American product. These are going to force all of us to be SCHAFFER; Can you turn for a So I think over time, with some talking in one forum or another—the moment to Japan? We’ve talked a lot in patience and with some hard push¬ UN or elsewhere. general about trade relations, but Ja¬ ing—no question about it—I think But we’re going to have to focus our pan is kind of in a class by itself. we’re going to find that that process attention on some questions more than EAGLEBURGER: It sure is. changes in ways that will make it easier on others. One of the dangers we all SCHAFFER; Are we going to be for us. But it’s not going to be fast, and run into—and I’ve run into it in the able to manage that one without a it’s not going to be easy. way I’ve answered your question—is collision between our trade goals and SCHAFFER: In the past, it was that this is not simply a problem for the our political goals? commonplace to speak of the develop¬ United States. And it is again an ex¬ EAGLEBURGER: Yes. I think ing world, and that has become, I think, ample of why we in the developed we’re going to run into any number of quite out of date, since you have differ¬ world—and largely I mean by that the occasions where the two will be in ent pieces of the developing world. U.S., the Japanese and the European conflict, and we’re going to end up How does this affect us? Are we going Community—are either going to have having to sort through particular deci¬ to see our relationships with the eco¬ to learn to deal with these issues co¬ sions. I’m certainly not an expert on nomically strong as parts of the devel¬ operatively, or we’re not going to be Japan, but I am of the view that we’re oping world take on added importance able to deal with them at all, which seeing the beginnings of some real in and of itself? How is this going to again leads back to our earlier discus¬ change in Japan. relate, for example, to our approach to sion about the interdependent role of I think the Japanese decision to put regional conflicts and to countries which at least the highly developed industrial $4 billion into this Gulf exercise is an may not be particularly economically democracies. example of a growing Japanese recog¬ strong but which are significant in a And some form of burden-sharing is nition of a need to integrate themselves regional context? going to be necessary. That and 25 more into the world. I think we’re EAGLEBURGER: You know, cents and an aspirin will get you a cup going to see trade practices in Japan that’s a question that requires a six- of coffee, but it’s the best I can do. It’s take a lot longer to change, but even hour answer. You’re right. The con¬ a very complicated question, and we there, through the SII [Structural Im¬ cept of developing world, period, run terrible risks if we ignore it. We run pediments Initiative] exercise and so doesn’t really fit any more, because terrible risks if we’re too simplified in forth, I think the dialogue is working. there are so many variations. Having our concept of what the problem is, Now let me make a real leap of faith. said all of that, there is still some reality and we certainly run terrible risks if we I think Japanese culture is changing in to the North/South, developed/de¬ think we can deal with this individually terms of moving more and more to¬ veloping dimension. One of the issues rather than collectively. ward a consumer economy, and I think that weighs on me a lot is the whole Am I through? inevitably with that process comes what question of debt—developing world SCHAFFER: Ae you out of time? happened in the United States, which is debt, and how that needs to be dealt EAGLEBURGER: Yes. I really am. that consumers want the best product, with. Aid we’re moving to address this Ae you out of questions? not necessarily the best Japanese or with the Brady Plan and with the SCHAFFER; Never. ■ 20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 IN THIS ISSUE, THE ERAL SANCTIONS

JOURNAL HAS IMPOSED BY THE

BROUGHT TOGETHER U.S. GOVERNMENT

A GROUP OF LEGIS¬ IN THE ABSENCE OF

LATORS, CONSULT¬ ANY UN CONSEN¬

ANTS, ACADEMICS SUS, OR FORCED ON

AND OTHER EXPERTS A RELUCTANT U.S.

TO EXAMINE THE GOVERNMENT BY

UTILITY OF ECO¬ CONGRESS? WE

NOMIC SANCTIONS LEVIED AGAINST COUN¬ WANTED, MOREOVER, TO DETERMINE

TRIES WHOSE POLICIES THE UNITED STATES WHETHER THE CASE OF IRAQ SIGNALS A NEW

WOULD LIKE TO INFLUENCE. To THESE ROLE FOR ECONOMIC SANCTIONS IN FOR¬

EIGHT WE POSED THE QUESTIONS: HAVE EIGN POLICY, OR WHETHER THE IRAQ CRISIS

COLLECTIVE SANCTIONS EVER WORKED? is UNIQUE. THE FOLLOWING COMMENTS

WILL THEY EVER? WHAT ABOUT UNILAT¬ EXPLORE SOME OF THESE QUESTIONS.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 21 ECONOMIC SANCTIONS IN THE 20m CENTURY

KIMBERLY ANN ELLIOTT

FOR ABOUT SIX DECADES AFTER WORLD WAR I, ECONOMIC the sanctions episodes worldwide succeeded. In the sanctions were a relatively effective foreign policy tool. period 1973 to 1989, the success rate fell to just under Since the early 1970s, however, the conventional wis¬ a quarter. However, this general trend needs to be dom that sanctions “never work” has been closer to the qualified: the decline in the utility of sanctions can be mark. The end of the Cold War and U.S.-Soviet coop¬ attributed entirely to U.S. experience. Other countries eration in the Middle East offer only faint hope that both reduced reliance on sanctions and improved their sanctions may be restored to their earlier luster. record, from 10 successes in 28 attempts prior to 1973 Of 115 documented sanctions episodes, 90 percent to six of 13 since then. By contrast, after the United have occurred since the second World War, and three- States posted a better than .500 average earlier, the quarters of those were initiated by the United States. In success rate has slipped to only 17 percent since 1973. some instances—particularly situations involving small The most obvious reason for this dismal record is the target countries and relatively modest policy goals— declining U.S. dominance of the world economy, com¬ sanctions have helped alter foreign behavior, achieving bined with reduced vulnerability of potential targets. at least modest success in 34 percent of the 115 cases. The recent UN sanctions against Iraq have raised the However, the success rate importantly depends on question of whether the post-Cold War world will be the type of goal sought. Episodes involving destabilization more amenable to economic sanctions. Will the UN of a target government succeed in half the cases, usually finally be able to play a significant peacekeeping role in against target countries diat are small and shaky, such as the world, and can sanctions be an effective weapon in Chile toward the end of Salvador Allende’s rule. Cases that task? Unfortunately, that prospect seems only slightly involving modest goals—such as human rights, nuclear more likely than before. The source of near unanimity in nonproliferation, and anti-terrorism—and attempts to the Iraq case was widespread fear and loathing of disrupt minor military adventures are successful about Saddam Hussein, not a newfound commitment to inter¬ one-third of the time. Efforts to impair a foreign national law with multilateral sanctions as die enforcer. adversary’s military potential, as in the COCOM sanc¬ Without that commitment, the “sanctions never work” tions against the Soviet Union, or otherwise to change school is likely to return to the fore. its policies in a major way, for example dismantling Kimberly Ann Elliott is co-author with Gary Clyde Hufbauer apartheid in South Africa, generally fail. and Jeffrey J. Schott of Economic Sanctions Reconsidered Success has been even more elusive in recent years. (Institutefor International Economics), on which this comment Taking the pre-1973 period as a whole, not quite half of is based.

they don’t hold much promise of producing an immedi¬ A CASE BY CASE ate change in the policies of the targeted country, in order to express American dismay or to reinforce a policy that has global implications. In the aftermath of the APPROACH Tiananmen Square massacre, for instance, sanctions provided a useful means of expressing U.S. outrage at the brutality the Chinese government employed against its STEPHEN J. SOLARZ own citizens. In deciding whether or not to impose sanctions, we UNDER SOME CIRCUMSTANCES, SANCTIONS CAN BE A USEFUL should consider matters on a country-by-country, case- instrument of U.S. foreign policy, but it is naive to by-case basis. Among the criteria to be considered are expect sanctions to work in all cases. It seems clear that what those individuals we wish to help in the targeted sanctions played a critical role in leading the South country want us to do, whether our friends in the region African government to the conclusion that fundamental think sanctions would be useful, and whether other political change was necessary. Similarly, sanctions seem countries will join us in imposing sanctions. Generally to have contributed to the Sandinista decision to hold speaking, sanctions will always be more effective when elections in Nicaragua, to the release of our hostages multilateral, though there may be situations when we from Iran, and in the case of the Jackson-Vanik amend¬ choose to impose them on a unilateral basis, in order to ment, to more liberal Soviet immigration policies. persuade others to follow our lead or to demonstrate In other cases, sanctions may be necessary even when extreme concern.

22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 The most significant test of sanctions as a means of inducing a country to respect international norms will come in the case of Iraq. If successful, the sanctions against Iraq will set a useful precedent which can be used to resist aggression elsewhere around the world. But if they fail, the international community may have no other choice but to use force to liquidate the conse¬ quences of Iraqi lawlessness. Representative Stephen J. Solarz (D-NY) chairs the House Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee. THE POWER OF PREVOPIES

JOSEPH R. BIDEN JR. Illustrations by Randy Lyhus ECONOMIC SANCTIONS ARE A DIPLOMATIC TOOL WITH A WIDE range of uses and effects. While it is logical to look first at the economic impact of sanctions, experience shows that sanctions also further the moral and political inter¬ ests of the United States. Economic effectiveness History suggests that governmental sanctions rarely have a decisive impact if evaluated strictly in economic terms. The sanctioned country can usually find other sources of investment or avenues for trade; it may experience a marginal decline in economic well-being, GOVERNMENT ACTIONS CAN CATALYZE MARKET but the economic viability of the sanctioned country is rarely so threatened that it decides to change its offen¬ FORCES. FOR IF GOVERNMENTS, ALONE OR IN sive behavior. Perhaps the most effective sanctions are those im¬ MULTILATERAL FORA SUCH AS THE IMF CANCEL posed by businesses. Either by retrenching from a country beset by injustice and violence, or by pressing the leaders of a given country to undertake reforms, PLANS TO OFFER NEW CREDITS OR DELAY TRADE private investors and manufacturers can speak directly to the self-interest of host governments. Such market NEGOTIATIONS, BUSINESSES WILL PROCEED MORE pressures are, in effect, more powerful than governmen¬ tal sanctions. CAUTIOUSLY AND HALTINGLY IN THE SANCTIONED Government actions, however, can catalyze market forces. For if governments, alone or in multilateral fora such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), cancel COUNTRY. . . THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN plans to offer new credits or delay trade negotiations, businesses will proceed more cautiously and haltingly in GOVERNMENT SANCTIONS AND PRIVATE BUSINESS the sanctioned country. Since many elements of foreign trade between developed and developing countries in¬ BEHAVIOR IS OFTEN DIRECT. volve governmental guarantees or subsidies, the rela¬ tionship between government sanctions and private business behavior is often direct. Avoiding ‘passive relativism’ The rationale for sanctions should not rest on eco¬ nomics alone, however. The United States contem¬ plates and occasionally employs sanctions, not because we think they will bring a targeted nation to its knees, but rather because we must affirm our identity as a

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 23 country that believes in certain principles. We are a on the offending country may be modest. Certainly the world leader, and we want the world to operate as justly effect of UN sanctions on Iraq was not immediately and decendy as possible, according to recognized stan¬ visible, but the sanctions were the appropriate and dards of human rights and freedom. When a country strong reaction of that body to express outrage at Iraq’s grossly violates these standards—such as South Africa aggression against Kuwait. with its system of apartheid, or China with its slaughter It would be a grave mistake to underestimate the of peaceful demonstrators, or Iraq with its chemical power of principles. By sanctioning a country, we and, assault on its own citizens and its attack on Kuwait—we we hope, our allies declare that country to be an outcast. should act. Over time, this judgment wears on a society and its This is not abstract moralism, but rather a self- leaders; few people welcome the aspersion of sanctions. interested commitment to creating an orderly world. And so pressure for reform usually builds within the Failure to state and act upon the principles of freedom country, among the population at large or among and justice for which courageous men and women have political and economic elites who seek acceptance in the struggled over the centuries would be to accept a passive international community. This sometimes subtle effect relativism that invites more violence and more injustice of sanctions should not be forgotten. around the world. In short, the challenge of creating and Senator Joseph Biden, Jr. (D-DE) chairs the Senate Judiciary maintaining a hospitable international order sometimes Committee and the Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Euro¬ requires sanctions even when the initial economic effect pean Affairs.

ership can use the sanctions to develop popular support against outside forces. A siege mentality arises under THE PROBLEM WHH which sacrifice becomes a national venture. The leader¬ ship is thus better able to stifle dissent and marshal support for all its policies. SANCTIONS In sum, sanctions are difficult to initiate and enforce, and, if successful, they may have unintended results.

HOWARD M. FISH Howard M. Fish is vice president, international, for the LTV Aerospace and Defense Co. (LTVAD). He is a retired lieutenant

SANCTIONS HAVE HAD A CHECKERED HISTORY. THE PROBLEMS general of the U.S. Air Force. with sanctions are threefold. The first problem is getting a critical mass of coun¬ tries to agree to sanctions. Participation is often a matter of degree, and the degree is difficult to define. Multilat¬ eral agreement to impose sanctions in principle is easier THECASEFORHUMAN than giving the principle concrete meaning. What may seem to be a critical mass of participants tends to erode when concrete measures must be defined and enforced. RIGHTS LINKAGE The second problem with sanctions is enforcement. The classical concept of a blockade had merit. It held HOLLY BURKHALTER that a blockade could not be officially invoked unless the blockading (sanctioning) powers demonstrated the ca¬ IN THE PAST YEAR THE ISSUE OF U.S. SANCTIONS AGAINST pability to enforce the blockade. In today’s world, the foreign governments in response to human rights abuses vast airlift available presents a real enforcement chal¬ has been at the forefront of disputes between Congress lenge. Moreover, even without the problems of inter¬ and the executive branch, from Iraq, to China, to El dicting air transport (airplanes cannot be pulled up for Salvador. In these and other cases, the critical questions boarding and inspection) there is usually significant for U.S. policy-makers are: how can the United States seepage through the blockade over both land and sea best promote human rights abroad, and how can hu¬ routes. The seepage is not limited to the physical move¬ man rights interests be squared with other U.S. ment of goods; satellite transmissions, electronic fund concerns? transfers, faxes, and video also make isolation of a Sanctions, that is, restrictions and prohibitions on country difficult. military, economic, or diplomatic relations, are war¬ The third problem arises if sanctions are, in fact, ranted when governments commit a “consistent pattern effective. The burden of “success” affects not the lead¬ of gross abuses of internationally recognized human ership or elite but the weakest segments of a society. It rights.” This is the language used by the U.S. Congress is the leadership, the military, and ruling elites that will in several laws that restrict U.S. military and economic have priority access to the necessities of life in the assistance to foreign governments. The purpose of isolated nation. Furthermore, and perversely, the lead¬ sanctions in such circumstances is threefold: 1) to ex-

24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 press revulsion for the abuses; 2) to distance the United States from the abuses and the governments that com¬ mit them; 3) to encourage an end to abuses by depriving the abusing governments of desired contacts with the United States, such as aid or diplomatic support. The key to a successful human rights sanctions policy is that it be accompanied by a clear statement of what the abuses were, why the United States is taking the action that it has chosen, and what the offending government must do for sanctions to be revoked. In this regard, the Reagan Administration’s sanctions against Poland fol¬ lowing the imposition of martial law in December 1981 are a model of an excellent sanctions policy. The administration’s clear identification to the Polish au¬ thorities of what steps must be taken for sanctions to be lifted was particularly effective. Following each positive development in Poland, the administration responded by lifting a portion of the sanctions. But some sanctions remained in place until the Polish authorities had re¬ sponded to virtually all of the United States’ human rights concerns. Contrast the case of Poland with the Bush Administration’s policy toward China. President Bush’s announcement of some sanctions in the weeks following Tiananmen Square was welcome, though in our view at Human Rights Watch, far stronger measures were war¬ ranted. But the biggest disappointment of the Bush Administration’s sanctions policy is that the president began undercutting his own measures almost immedi¬ ately, when no significant human rights improvements had been made by Beijing. For example, the president’s THE KEY TO A SUCCESSFUL HUMAN RIGHTS ban on military sales was immediately diluted with the sale of Boeing aircraft in July of 1989. And the U. S. policy of opposing all World Bank loans to China was SANCTIONS POLICY IS THAT IT BE ACCOMPANIED abandoned in January 1990, when the administration began supporting World Bank loans for “basic human BY A CLEAR STATEMENT OF WHAT THE ABUSES needs” projects. And at no time did the president or secretary of State firmly state what the Chinese would have to do for sanctions to be lifted. WERE, WHY THE UNITED STATES IS TAKING THE People of good will may disagree on the appropriate mix of sanctions to be considered for governments ACTION THAT IT HAS CHOSEN, AND WHAT THE engaged in gross abuses of human rights. Human Rights Watch insists, however, that U.S. human rights laws OFFENDING GOVERNMENT MUST DO FOR mean what they say and that at a bare minimum the executive branch should comply with legislative restric¬ tions on bilateral and multilateral assistance. Yet there SANCTIONS TO BE REVOKED. are few cases where the law is applied properly—and Congress is as much to blame as the executive branch. Nowhere can the failure of human rights law be seen more clearly than in the case of El Salvador. If Congress had insisted on applying Section 502B of the Foreign Assistance Act (which prohibits military assistance to governments engaged in gross violations of human rights) to El Salvador, military assistance to that country would not have been supplied—neither 1980 nor in 1990. It took the slaughter of the country’s six leading religious intellectuals for Congress at last to seriously debate for the first time the wisdom of supplying a brutal military with unlimited U.S. assistance.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 The failure of Congress to implement its own human further in condemning Iraq in international fora such as rights laws properly, and the failure of the executive the UN Human Rights Commission. The Bush Admin¬ branch to state a human rights policy firmly, and to istration was not silent about Iraqi human rights abuses: refrain from lifting sanctions until abuses have ended, the Human Rights Bureau presented hard-hitting testi¬ are the chief weaknesses of human rights sanctions mony before Congress. The Bush Administration’s against China, El Salvador, and other countries where policy would have been improved if the Near East the United States has done little to exert its influence on Bureau had joined in. And certainly the Bush Adminis¬ behalf of human rights. tration squandered opportunities to exert pressure on In some cases, Human Rights Watch advocates going China in the past year. The embarrassing performance of beyond U.S. domestic law to bring sanctions against National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft when he governments for gross abuses of human rights. In the visibly and fulsomely toasted Deng Xiaoping during his case of Iraq, for example, legislative restrictions on December visit to China and appeared to denounce the bilateral assistance and on U.S. votes in the multilateral regime’s student opponents was a low moment for financial institutions were irrelevant, because Iraq re¬ human rights. ceived neither multilateral nor bilateral assistance. Since The State Department’s country reports on human Iraq did receive significant support from the United rights, which are generally a clear and unbiased portrayal States in the form of Export-Import Bank credits and of human rights around the world, are one way to agricultural credits under the commodity credit pro¬ express U.S. concern in a public way. In the cases of Iraq, gram, we advocated restricting such assistance, though China, and most other countries the reports were excel¬ those programs are not limited by U.S. human rights lent. In a few exceptional cases, however, such as the laws. report on El Salvador, the State Department has pulled There is one particular “sanction” that should always its punches in its annual report, thus neglecting an be considered against gross violators of human rights. important opportunity to expose human rights prob¬ And that is the “sanction” of public condemnation by lems. the United States. In this regard, Human Rights Watch Holly Burkhalter is theWashington director of Human Rights believes that the executive branch could have gone Watch.

disguised in modern parlance as a “quarantine” or “interdiction”—risks the combat that economic sanc¬ SEEKING tions were meant to avoid. The efficacy of economic sanctions, unless the of¬ INTERNATIONAL fending state is highly dependent on international com¬ merce concentrated in one or two products that it must export or import to survive, has also become more questionable. Land and air transport are, almost every¬ CONSENSUS where, sufficient to reduce the consequences of naval blockades, particularly in the short term. The group of DANIEL N. NELSON states attempting to impose an embargo must have an absolute and binding consensus about the stringency ECONOMIC SANCTIONS HAVE LONG BEEN EMPLOYED TO DENY and duration of the embargo as well; if not, a subsistence the benefits of trade to a state behaving illegally and level of commerce will be maintained around the edges thereby to cause punitive losses to the well-being of that of international sanctions. Finally, of course, the mod¬ country. The route of economic sanctions, first by ern interdependence of economies will mean that any prohibiting the departure of ships from one’s own ports imposition of sanctions will be enormously costly at least if carrying cargo bound for the offending state, i.e., an to some, and probably all, of the states attempting to embargo, is chosen to avoid an immediate resort to apply such coercion against an offending country. warfare. American usage of economic sanctions has rarely But economic sanctions are plagued by ambiguities produced intended or decisive results. Castro survived and inefficiency. Unlike military action against the armed decades despite a U.S. embargo because other nations forces of another state, economic sanctions invoke the (especially the USSR) subvented the Cuban economy. moral ambiguity of harming another state’s population; The USSR itself bought grain elsewhere after President policy-makers and those with guns will not begin to Carter tried to deny corn and wheat from the United starve if grain shipments are cut off. Further, there is a States after the Afghan invasion. definitional ambiguity: military action is almost always United States experiences suggest several important required to make economic sanctions even somewhat lessons regarding the utility of economic sanctions. effective, invariably involving a naval blockade. Such First, embargoes without blockades will produce few military action in addition to an embargo—even if punitive consequences, particularly on large economies.

26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 By implication, economic sanctions applied because Where the issue of hypocrisy rests is another concern. there are no other options available in response to an Western democracies do not invade and annex small illegal action (because the offending state is too power¬ neighbors. Yet, there are many acts of Western de¬ ful to accept the risk of a naval “quarantine” or logisti- mocracies and their businessmen that raise troublesome cally immune from such action to accompany an em¬ questions about who ought to be the world’s gendarme. bargo) will surely be ineffective. Economic sanctions will retain a place in the arsenal Second, unilateral sanctions are useless, and only a of means to enforce international law. We should strive, strong, binding international consensus can today sus¬ however, to ensure that these coercive measures are tain effective sanctions against anyone other than the imposed out of an international consensus for clear, weakest state. The sole consequence of unilateral efforts strategic interests. We should also take care that we and to punish another state via economic sanctions will be our friends do not compromise our justifications for the self-imposed loss. use of coercive means in international affairs through Third, sanctions without strategy will be counterpro¬ actions that the international community would never ductive. If sanctions are imposed merely to express have condoned. indignation, as when an offending state’s behavior, Daniel N. Nelson is a senior associate at the Carnegie although illegal, does not seem to warrant the display of Endowment for International Peace. military force or breaking of diplomatic relations, then the sanctions will be perceived as a tactical move to be “waited out,” not part of critical long-term goals. The inauguration of binding, multilateral economic sanc¬ tions must be envisioned as integral to the strategic INEXORABLE interests of nation states advocating and, potentially, enforcing such actions. Finally, and perhaps most important, the states im¬ PRESSURE: SANCTIONS posing sanctions must live within the same principles they are trying to enforce. If recent policies of states trying to use coercion against another exhibit parallel or AGAINST IRAQ identical breaches of international law, multilateral con¬ sensus is unlikely to last, and submission to the embargo and/or blockade will not be quiescent. AN INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD MURPHY Taken together, these observations suggest the prob¬ lematic environment in which economic sanctions are AMBASSADOR RICHARD MURPHY, SENIOR FELLOW FOR THE employed today. Against Iraq, there is now arrayed both Middle East at the Council on Foreign Relations in New a multilaterally imposed embargo and an accompanying York, believes that the sanctions imposed on Iraq will be naval blockade, both with the United Nations’ impri¬ highly effective and ultimately will force Iraq’s leaders to matur. Military deployments by the United States and reassess their gamble in Kuwait. “I’m optimistic about others are large enough to be credible deterrents against the effect; it’s just how quickly the Iraqis will come to the pre-emptive Iraqi attack. A strategic interest for Europe, decision that there’s an inexorable pressure on their Japan, and North America is the oil and gas of the economy,” Murphy says. Middle East, and Kuwait in particular, and there can be Since the sanctions became effective in August, Iraq’s no question of a lasting interest in seeing that such a oil pipelines to Turkey and Saudi Arabia have been cut, valuable resource does not fall into the hands of one which Murphy says will bite deeply into Iraq’s economy. malevolent leader. A. strategic interest also exists in “Turkey and Saudi Arabia have the political will to keep reinforcing the international principles of the inviolabil¬ the lines closed, which stops 90 percent of oil exports. ity of frontiers and non-use of force. In all these respects, The U.S. and allied naval blockade interdicts the rest, economic sanctions as a multilateral instrument of coer¬ cutting off about 98 percent of the country’s export cion for clear strategic interests have a greater chance of income.” Thus, Iraq will spiral deeper into debt. “The success in this case than in many other cases in recent assumption is that Iraqi foreign exchange holdings were memory. not large on the eve of the inva¬ But there remain the uncertainties and ambiguities of sion. I presume they’re starting all efforts to impose economic coercion. The sanctions from a low level, and there’s no will impose suffering on all of the Iraqi population, income at all now.” especially those who are guiltless. There is, as well, the The rapid effect of the sanc¬ clear potential for economic instruments, because they tions can be attributed both to must be enforced by military means, to provoke a clash their focus on a single commodity that leads to a wider conflagration. And countries par¬ and to their multilateral charac¬ ticipating in the UN embargo are certain to feel recip¬ ter, according to Murphy. In this, rocal economic harm that may, collectively, depress the they contrast with the sanctions world economy. MURPHY levied against Rhodesia and South

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 27 Africa in the early 1960s. “The world is acting with a “Iraq is under leadership that has miscalculated in the unity of purpose that didn’t apply in Rhodesia or, if you past and drastically changed course,” for example, by want to go farther back, in Abyssinia in the 1930s [after giving up its claim to the Shatt al Arab—which Iran Italy’s invasion], ... Unilateral sanctions are worthless. disputes—to relieve pressure from the Iranian border. There’s always someone who’s willing to step into the “Iraq is not totally inflexible. They made a terrible breach.” mistake, and they misjudged world reaction.” The only recent precedent for economic sanctions in the Middle East is the embargo on Iranian oil during the Gulf War: in that case, the oil simply went to other markets. Iran had to sell on the spot market, making LAYING GROUNDWORK terms less attractive and bringing prices down, but ultimately, the oil was sold. Additionally during the war years, “there was pressure to be very careful of what went FOR SANCTIONS to combatants. Military equipment was not sold, and ‘chemical precursors’ were blocked, although without much success, since some ‘chemical precursors’ are ALICE H. AMSDEN common in pesticides and have many sellers and many buyers. The sanctions helped, but they weren’t water¬ ECONOMIC SANCTIONS DON’T ALWAYS WORK, BUT MILITARY tight.” interventions don’t always work either. Even the United With Iraq, the effect of sanctions was almost imme¬ States sometimes loses military interventions, and wars are diate. But how long the action wall take to register on the more deadly and costly than sanctions. minds of Iraq’s political leaders is uncertain. “There’s an The widening consensus between the United States old question of whether nations go bankrupt. They and Soviet Union increases the chances drat sanctions will certainly don’t go bankrupt as individuals and corpora¬ succeed against third world countries, but for sanctions to tions do; at least, they don’t recognize it. It’s a question supersede wars, “sanctions preparations” must be taken as of Saddam’s political computer getting all this informa¬ seriously as war preparations. Instead of arms build-up, tion and deciding when to change course and how. You countries must invest in sanctions groundwork. can’t say it will be on a particular date, but at a certain Sanctions against Iraq would be more effective if they time the unbearable point will be reached. I’m confident had not been preceded by American and Russian oppor¬ that the clock is running faster against Saddam than tunistic support of Iraq in its war against Iran, but instead against Bush.” had followed long-range, pro-active multinational plan¬ Murphy does not believe that means other than the ning to withdraw support from any country that aggres¬ economic sanctions could achieve the goal of forcing sively violates human rights. History teaches us that sup¬ Saddam Hussein to the table. “I’m afraid that those who pression of human rights at home is a precondition for talk of an Arab solution do not have much of an waging war overseas. audience, because the Arabs could not forestall the “Sanctions preparations” should include “human invasion. The capability was there in Arab states to do rights conditionality” on International Monetary Fund more.” Nor could international opinion be marshaled in (IMF) loans, for example. The current conditionality of advance to curtail the growth in Hussein’s military “getting the prices right” is probably easier for dictator¬ might. “It took the shock of the invasion to rally ships than democracies to honor. Amnesty International’s international opinion. You can get a warm feeling from country reports should be used as a check on the World declaring sanctions in protest against human rights Bank’s country reports in determining aid and trade violations, but fewer things are less effective.” flows. “Iraq is the military giant in regional terms that it is Strategic resources and the huge income inequalities today because of sales from Russia and France, in they generate (between countries and social classes) are particular. Its financial success can be attributed to funds increasingly likely to be the cause of global conflict. that came from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. ... I would “Sanctions preparations” in the long run should include challenge any critic of U.S. policy to say there was a massive multilateral investments in research and devel¬ chance of getting either the Soviets or the French in the opment to find substitutes for the scarce primary prod¬ mid 1980s to stop selling arms. We didn’t try to stop ucts that underlie both wars and human welfare. These them, but that was based on the assessment that it was investments could be financed with money otherwise impossible.” spent on weapons. If cost-effective substitutes for stra¬ Likewise, Murphy does not accept the charge that the tegic natural resources succeeded in defusing despotic U.S. “tilt” toward Iraq in the Gulf War led the United power but threatened poor producers’ livelihood, the States to turn a blind eye to the threat from Iraq. billions of dollars saved from such substitutes as well as “There’s considerable exaggeration about what the tilt disarmament could be used for economic restructuring. toward Iraq involved We did trade with Iraq and did Alice H. Amsden is professor of economics at the New School for give them some intelligence support, but it’s simply not Social Research in New York and the Massachusetts Institute of true that there was total support for Iraq.” Technology.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 Reckoning Time for the GAIT

ERNEST H. PREEG

inisters from about 100 countries of preparatory analysis and to narrow differences on will meet in Brussels beginning decision issues. December 3 to reach final agree¬ July 1990 was anticipated to be a critical month for ment on tire Uruguay Round of progress in the Uruguay Round. President Bush made multilateral trade negotiations un¬ trade liberalization for agricultural products his top der the General Agreement on priority at the Houston summit, and a high-level GATT , Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The meeting in Geneva the week of July 23 was to be a key negotiations were formally juncture for unblocking negotiations stalled on several launched in September 1986 in issues. In retrospect, however, the Houston summit Punta del Este, Uruguay, and the produced an ambiguous result, and initial preparations date back to The negative consequence of the Geneva meeting was anticli- 1981 to 1982. Thus, this major the July meetings was a mactic. The July events neverthe¬ initiative in commercial diplomacy less did produce significant results spans the entire decade ofthe 1980s, widespread assessment that in both a positive and negative sense. and the outcome at Brussels will the political will is lacking to The positive result was that the establish much of the framework negotiating groups presented clearly for trade relationships in the 1990s. make the decisions necessary defined issue “profiles” as a basis for The purpose of the round is to to achieve a successful the four remaining months of ne¬ reduce trade barriers among all par¬ gotiation. The most striking result ticipants and to broaden greatly the outcome by December. was for agriculture, where the re- mandate of the GATT to cope with port of group Chairman Aart de the new realities of international trade and investment. Zeeuw, of the Netherlands, specified substantial reduc¬ The world economy is going through a period of rapid tions in export subsidies, import barriers, and trade¬ change. A dramatic surge of technological innovation distorting domestic support programs. The report was coupled with private sector strategies more and more “commended” in Houston and adopted at Geneva as a global in scope have deepened economic dependencies means to intensify the final negotiations. Similar reports among national economies. International trade, invest¬ were adopted for the other negotiating groups. This ment, and technology transfer have also become more represented a major accomplishment in synthesizing integrated. The GATT trading system, however, does large amounts of technical material and a myriad of not have competence to deal with this broader range of country proposals. policy relationships. The great irony of the late 1980s The negative consequence of the July meetings was was that just as the world economy was becoming truly a widespread assessment that the political will is lacking global in scope, the multilateral trading system was to make the decisions necessary to achieve a successful losing credibility to deal effectively with trade policy outcome by December. The negotiating group reports issues. indicate that almost all key issues remain unresolved. The Uruguay Round is intended to restore the The Geneva meeting simply adopted the reports and credibility of the GATT, and the agenda for negotia¬ pledged to negotiate on a more intensive schedule in the tions agreed at Punta del Este was wide-ranging. The months ahead. Agriculture again is the best example. negotiations have been technically complex and conten¬ While EC negotiators agreed to the de Zeeuw proposals tious throughout. Fifteen negotiating groups were es¬ as a basis for negotiations, they gave no indication as to tablished to deal with separate clusters of issues, but how export subsidies and import barriers would be re¬ many tactical as well as substantive relationships among duced. Any firm commitments to do so would mean the groups have developed. The mid-term ministerial change in the fundamental structure of the European meeting in Montreal in December of 1988 ended in Common Agricultural Policy, which the EC had not impasse over longstanding U.S.-EC differences as to even begun to consider. Likewise, U.S. actions to re¬ how to liberalize trade in agricultural products. One or duce internal support prices for dairy products and more of the negotiating groups has been meeting almost import barriers on sugar fly in the face of the proposed every week during 1989-90 to complete a vast amount House Agricultural Committee farm bill for increased

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 protection and subsidies for U.S. farmers. • Reduction of trade barriers by developing coun¬ The Uruguay Round has thus reached the time of tries—Many developing countries have very high tariffs reckoning in terms of difficult political-level decisions and freely apply quotas or other restrictions for vaguely that will determine whether or not the outcome is defined balance of payments reasons as condoned by successful. Seven of the most important issues are as GATT Article XVIII B. Any action by industrialized follows: countries on the preceding quota issues will likely be • Agriculture—This issue centers on the U.S.-EC linked to substantial tariff reductions and sharply cur¬ relationship, but Japan will also have to open its totally tailed recourse to balance of payments related restric¬ protected rice market. If substantial liberalization is not tions by the major developing countries. achieved, major farm exporting countries, such as • Anti-dumping procedures—The use of Australia and Argentina, will lose interest in the anti-dumping duties to counter exports round, and the agricultural committees in the “dumped” at less than fair price is fast U.S. Congress have indicated that becoming the preferred vehicle for they will switch from support to a quick protectionist fix. Unilateral opposition when the final agreement restrictive actions are most preva¬ is submitted for congressional ap¬ lent in the United States and the proval in the spring of 1991. What's at Stake: European Community, but the • “New Issues”—The so-called habit is spreading to developing U.S. grain exports - $14.6 billion new issues, namely trade in services, countries as well. The existing protection of intellectual property, U.S. sugar imports - $611 million GATT anti-dumping code is inef¬ and trade-related investment mea¬ SOURCE: DEPT. OF COMMERCE 1989 MERCHANDISE TRADE fective, and the Uruguay Round sures, are currently not included in the GATT mandate objective is to adopt more precise and reasonable criteria and are of particular interest to the United States and for anti-dumping actions. The United States and the other industrialized countries. There is now broad European Community, however, are resisting any sig¬ support among negotiators for general framework nificant changes in existing procedures while seeking agreements on services and intellectual property, but broader authority, under GATT, to use antidumping what really counts for U.S. exporters are more specific duties to control Japanese and other Asian assembly commitments, such as increased market access for par¬ plant investments that “circumvent” protection against ticular service industries, agreed standards for intellec¬ imported products. tual property protection, and prompt dispute settlement • Section 301—This controversial provision of the mechanisms within the GATT. These specific commit¬ U.S. Trade Act, whereby the United States acts unilat¬ ments are being resisted by many developing countries. erally to negotiate the elimination of unfair trading • Import Quotas—Bilateral import quotas by the practices by others, is a direct or indirect target within United States and Western Europe have proliferated several of the above issues, such as a revised safeguards against imports from Japan and the more competitive clause and multilateral dispute settlement procedures exporting nations of Asia and Latin America. Quotas for trade in services and protection of intellectual prop¬ pervade such sectors as steel, automo¬ erty. Restrictions on or elimination of U.S. authority' biles, footwear, semiconductors, and under section 301 would, how¬ consumer electronics. These selec¬ ever, be strongly resisted by many tive quotas are the antithesis of the members of the U.S. Congress. GATT multilateral system and have These are the key issues that will undermined the relevance of the be facing ministers in Brussels and GATT in recent years. The Uruguay which will determine the success Round objective is to revise GATT or failure of the outcome. A com¬ Article XIX, the so-called “safeguards plete breakdown in negotiations is clause,” so that any temporary re¬ highly unlikely, but success will strictions are tightly disciplined and subject to not be judged simply on the pre¬ multilateral review. dictably upbeat ministerial state¬ • Textiles MFA—The textile sector’s longstanding ment that will emerge in Brussels. Rather, the judgment multifiber arrangement (MFA) constitutes the most of success or failure will be based on the degree to which comprehensive set of bilateral import quotas. The Uru¬ firm commitments are undertaken by major trading guay Round objective is to phase out the MFA, with countries and which will have the effect of bringing trade residual restrictions brought within the revised safe¬ practices, and the resolution of trade disputes, back guards clause noted above. Some developing countries within the multilateral GATT framework. It will be a have made this a quid pro quo for agreement on the issues judgment made principally by traders in the private- of services and intellectual property. At the same time, sector, who have become more and more accustomed to 68 U.S. senators and 271 congressmen recently voted dealing with trade problems on a bilateral basis, with the for a textile bill that would make the existing MFA active support of their governments. It is the restoration system far more restrictive. of GATT credibility in very practical terms.

30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL . NOVEMBER 1990 Credible commitments on these and other issues will mous positive potential. It can and should provide the face strong resistance from vested interests in all capitals driving force for increased trade, economic growth, and and will require a level of political support not clearly job creation throughout the world. There is also the evident at this point. The political support needs to be possibility, however, that the three regions will turn based on an assessment of the outcome. inward and become engaged in mercantilist rivalry, with The immediate trade impact will surely receive close particularly negative consequences for non-member, scrutiny by the U.S. Congress. A phaseout of the MFA, smaller economies. A critical factor influencing the restrictions on the use of Section 3 01, reduction of sugar direction of the tripolar relationship in the 1990s will be and dairy support prices, and more circumscribed the degree of commitment and constraint imposed by antidumping procedures will face, in the multilateral trading system, as the aggregate, considerable oppo¬ Trade In Services defined by the outcome of the Brus¬ sition within the Congress. To sels meeting in December. garner counterbalancing support What's at Stake: The Brussels meeting is a cred¬ for the anticipated agreement, the U.S. exports of ible deadline for resolving the Uru¬ administration is belatedly assem¬ services guay Round one way or another. A $106 billion bling detailed information on which few loose ends could spill over into U.S. export industries, and which U.S. imports of January, but U.S. legislative author- services congressional districts, would $78 billion ityrunsoutinMayofl991,andthe benefit from specific actions by president must notify the Congress other participants in the round. of the agreement by March first in This exercise is also demonstrating order to proceed under the “fast that most of such projected benefits have yet to materi¬ track” authority: no amendments and an up or down alize in terms of firm commitments by other countries. vote within 60 days. The president does have the option, within the 1988 Trade Act, to request a two-year Beyond 1991 extension of authority from the Congress, but this would put off congressional review of the final Uruguay The longer term systemic questions revolve around Round agreement to 1993, into the next administra¬ the role of a strengthened multilateral trading system to tion. Such a request would make U.S. Trade Represen¬ further U.S. commercial and foreign policy interests in tative Carla Hills an instantaneous lame duck as far as the a rapidly changing world. There is an amazing transfor¬ Uruguay Round is concerned. In any event, the nego¬ mation under way in national economic strategies, from tiations have gone on for more than four years, the issues Asia to Latin America to Eastern Europe and the Soviet are now clearly posed, and if ministers cannot make the Union, toward a market-oriented, open trade approach. necessary political decisions now, why would they be A reinforced GATT system would provide the multilat¬ expected to do so a year or two hence? The die is firmly eral foundation for supporting this transformation, while and rightly cast for Brussels. the inability to achieve significant results Reckoning time for the Uruguay in the Uruguay Round would raise Round means difficult decisions in questions about a commitment to PNINSCR if Washington and other capitals dur¬ economic liberalism on a global ing an exceptionally busy time in basis. world affairs. Immediate develop¬ The key systemic issue for the ments of momentous consequence, trading system in the 1990s, in fact, such as in the Persian Gulf and the is the relationship between the mul¬ U.S. companies Soviet Union, tend to crowd the tilateral framework for trade, as em¬ claim $43-61 schedule of President Bush and his billion of losses bodied in the GATT, and the gathering each year senior advisors. The longer-term momentum for regional free trade in prospects for the United States as a Europe, North America, and East Asia. SOURCE: NATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION, 1988 great power, however, will depend About 70 percent of exports by West European coun¬ largely on the ability to manage the transition from a tries are now to each other, and this share will grow as framework of relationships based on mutual political/ the European Community deepens and broadens to¬ security interests to one of mutual political/economic ward economic union. A U.S.-Canada-Mexico free interests. An investment of political capital now for a trade agreement could broaden to include other west¬ truly successful Uruguay Round would constitute a ern hemisphere countries. Deepening trade and invest¬ significant step forward in this transition. ment dependencies within a Japan-centered East Asian economy are being fueled by Japanese economic aid, Ernest H. Preeg holds the William M. Scholl chair in export credits, and other forms of official finance. international business at the Center for Strategic and This tripolar orientation of industrial development, International Studies in Washington, D.C. and is particularly for high-technology industries, is a central author of The American Challenge in World Trade reality of international trade and investment, with enor- (1989).

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How to Win Friends and Influence Congress

RALPH REGULA From the Tower of Babel to the spawning distrust among members and constituency is composed of Congress success of our 40-year policy to break their staff of information from the de¬ and itself. down the Iron partment. Meanwhile, the department Allow me to begin with the issue of Curtain with overlooks the mundane tasks that en¬ the department as its own constitu¬ information, gender alliances. ency. Every department employee, ev¬ the power of As a member of the appropriations ery Foreign Service officer has two communica- subcommittee that funds the Depart¬ senators and one representative in tion to make ment of State, I am one of the commu¬ Congress. I would assume that there change is dra- nicants. Unfortunately, Congress is no are Foreign Service officers from my M-UM jmjm:':-- mane, Com- more innocent for this situation than district, although I can’t be certain BEJMET'"-- ' the department; all of us are aware of because I’ve never heard from them. ^brought about Congress’ share of tartuffery and At the very least, I would urge every many turnarounds in 1989 and contin¬ demagoguery. The intent of this article Foreign Service officer to write his or ues to be the sine qua non of global is to impress upon my readers which her representative and senators. Addi¬ change. The role of the Department of facets of tite relationship can and can¬ tionally, during stopovers or tours in State as the chief communicator for not be changed, what is worth the Washington, I would suggest request¬ U.S. policy will grow exponentially as effort and what is not. This article deals ing an appointment with your repre¬ the world moves toward economic and with the real world and leaves to sentative. I believe most members of political competition and away from academia the philosophical debates on Congress would enjoy meeting con¬ military. And, as the important role of the Constitution, power-sharing and stituents who are so involved in the department expands in the world of the role of Congress in foreign policy. implementing our country’s foreign tomorrow, improving the health of the So let us begin this discussion with the policy. These meetings should be used State-congressional partnership be¬ premise that Congress is a legitimate as an opportunity' to share information comes more critical. and important partner in the policy regarding events at an officer’s last Just as communication is recognized formulation process. posting or general working conditions. as an essential component of interna¬ The thrust of the problem is the I would be very pleased to know that a tional relations, it is also essential be¬ department’s lack of a constituency, a constituent of mine just got back from tween departments and branches of point constantly cited to explain State’s Budapest, Bucharest, or Beijing. It government. While very few on the claim that we lack understanding. My would be a great opportunity for me to Hill would doubt the professionalism, argument, surprising as it may be, is learn more about history in the making intelligence, and integrity of our diplo¬ that this situation can be changed. and for the constituent to learn more matic corps in its work overseas, many When I won a seat to the House of about how Congress operates. And it is would also counsel to apply that same Representatives in 1972, I won a ma¬ just as important that contact be made expertise toward Congress. The rela¬ jority of votes of the eligible voters in even if an officer’s last posting was in a tionship between Congress and the the 16th district—considerably fewer country that receives little media at¬ State Department has gone through than the 530,000 people who make up tention. Just because it doesn’t make many changes, especially as Congress my constituency. Regardless ofwhether die front page doesn’t mean it’s un¬ began asserting its role in the foreign or not they voted for me, or voted important. policy process decades ago. More often period, I am their representative and I Also remember that Hill staff can than not, the relationship has, unfortu¬ work just as hard to assist Democrats as become valuable allies. Depending on nately, been antagonistic. The effects I do Republicans. In fact, it is impor¬ the office or position, they have much of this situation are felt by everyone, tant to my re-election that voters, authority and know-how. Developing complicating compromise between the without regard to party affiliation, a relationship with staff members is speaker and the secretary; delaying a support me. important, because whereas the mem¬ decision on the Moscow Embassy while Although I have a ‘natural con¬ ber may only be able to spend 10 appropriators and management debate stituency,’ the residents of the 16th minutes with an appointment as he or security versus cost effectiveness; and district, I never cease trying to build she dashes off to a vote, staff members and solidify it. Believe it or not, the most often can devote more time to the Ralph Repjula, Republican repres¬ State Department has a ‘natural con¬ subject at hand. entative from Ohio, is a member of the stituency,’ but one which continuously As for the issue of Congress as a House Appropriations Committee. needs to be built and solidified: its constituency, you may cringe at the

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 33 Speaking Out Moving to very idea, but you’ve got to play the hand that’s dealt you. Let’s face it, the afJ\[ezv City... State Department will never have a very strong constituency among the general population. For the most part, people can 6c gCamorous think the department just hands out foreign aid money, and we all know and editing. how popular foreign aid is. However, Congress does understand the work of Don't let the hassles the department even though it may not of packing and moving your ] belongings spoil your itflaHjl As for the issue your excitement. awlHilall r of Congress as a constituency, ■T you may cringe at the very idea, but you’ve got to play the hand that’s dealt you...

always agree with how it carries it out. There never will, and never should, be complete agreement between State and the Hill. In our constitutional form of government, there is an inherent ten¬ sion between the unique expertise of foreign policy professionals and the democratic mandate of a broad-based public consensus behind complicated and sometimes emotionally charged issues. But there are ways to establish a working relationship with the Hill based on mutual respect and understanding. I have often heard it said by the ‘When the cad comes to move, department that it is difficult if not impossible to conduct foreign policy CaCC (guardian with 535 secretaries of State. This is a legitimate beef. I do not doubt the difficulties involved, but you must also understand that back in my district I am sort of a secretary of State, as well as a secretary of Agriculture, Transporta¬ tion, Defense, etc. This is particularly true when the president and I are of the GUARDIAN STORAGE, INCORPORATED same party. OLD WASHINGTON ROAD, WALDORF, MARYLAND 20601 At every town meeting, during ev¬ Telephone (301) 645-4040 Metro (301) 843*6606 ery radio show, at every speaking en¬ gagement I am expected by my con-

34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 stituents to explain government policy and I am always hopeful that I can NATIONAL WINNER-INN OF THE YEAR defend it. When the National Weather Service proposes to close a weather SUBWAY TO STATE DEPARTMENT station in my district, I am looked upon as the director of the National Oceanic ARLINGTON VIRGINIA and Atmospheric Administration. I am expected to either explain the closure or better yet, to prevent it. When the Comfort Comfort Inn administration sends high-level del¬ Inn Ballston egations to China months after the massacre in Tiananmen Square, my •LOCATION Walk 7 min. to Ballston Monorail; Diivct access to city on 1-fifi: 1 miles to Stale Department: 2 miles constituents want an explanation. In from Man mount University: .’> miles from Arlington Cemetery: M I'2 miles from the Pentagon, and both cases, unless you have made your Vietnam and Lincoln Memorials: I 12 miles from National Airport, the White House. Washington Monument and -Jefferson Memorial. case to me explaining the policy deci¬ •RATES Single l)hl sion, I will most likely be reluctant to 7fi.00-H2.00 support it. My opposition will come, Hack 85.004)2.0(1 Friday-Suturday fit).00-75.00 not because you did not give me a Off season and long-term stay discounts availahh policy justification, but because I like •FACILITIES. ACCOMMODATIONS neither the idea of a weather station 120 rooms and suites with climate control Restaurant and Lounge offers room service from AM to 10 I’M closing nor high-level meetings with Free Underground Parking, no in out charges China so soon after the events of last Free color cable TV including CNN. FSPN and Showtime (lift Shop.Travel Agency June. But, the department may have information that convinces me of the Comfort Inn Ballston need to hold these meetings, which I in 1211 N. Glebe Road Arlington, Virginia 22201 turn can use to educate my constitu¬ For reservations call 703-247-3399 or toll-free ents. 800-221-2222 However, while NOAA will be re¬ sponsive to my concerns, in fact going out of its way to help me, the State Department is slow to respond, espe¬ cially to members like myself who do Key Questions To Ask Yourself not serve on the Foreign Affairs or Before Insuring An Automobile Overseas Intelligence committees. Do I expect Secretary' Baker to personally brief ev¬ If I'm transferred, am I still covered at my new post? ery member of Congress? Of course ■® When I'm transferred, can I collect a claim not. But, briefings at the assistant sec¬ if I'm Insured by a foreign carrier? retary level, deputy assistant secretary Most of all, how can you help me level or even chief desk officer for protect my investment? members and/or staff do help us un¬ derstand the situation and would help In business for 34 years, the Harry M. Jannette, Jr. & Company has provided the department garner the support it dependable coverage with U.S. carriers to thousands of Foreign Service personnel worldwide. Thus, you gain the broadest U.S. terms and conditions and flexible value limits needs. often not available from other Insurance carriers. Let me give you examples for how it should work and how it should not. It Worldwide Coverage is well known that I was uncomfortable Fire, theft, comprehensive and collision protection with funding the Contras during the are available at all foreign posts. mid-1980s, and on several occasions U. S. Auto Liability voted against funding. During a period Available for short term on home leave, change of assignment, and preceding a crucial vote, a high-level new auto purchase prior to foreign departure. State Department team headed by the secretary held meetings with groups of Contact us today for "The Embassy Plan" Brochure. It explains common pitfalls and provides all the answers to assure you dependable coverage, members where they presented all of low-cost premiums and peace of mind. the administration’s arguments in favor of aid. Harry M. Jannette, Jr. & Company At the same time, we were able to 3530 Forest Lane #305 Telephone: 214-350-5141 voice our concerns about the direction Dallas, Texas 75234-7955 FAX: 214-352-7022 of U.S. policy. It was a good exchange. INSURING WORLDWIDE SINCE 1956 The secretary learned what our limits

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 37 Speaking Out

sues are managed vis-a-vis Congress. dirty in the political process. We have tor international events and to create For whatever reasons, it appears that all been in this business long enough to sound policies. It is Congress’ job to the department is sensitive to congres¬ know that regretfully some policies monitor domestic opinion and to cre¬ sional criticism of foreign policy initia¬ don’t stand or fall on their own merits. ate sound policies. Since I believe we tives and does very little to prevent such Proposals need to be managed. Even agree that foreign policy will not suc¬ criticism. An initiative is presented, the most brilliantly conceived policy ceed without broad-based public sup¬ congressional criticism follows— will not stand without public support. port, it is ill-conceived for the depart¬ sometimes more harsh than need be— Rarely is there much prior consulta¬ ment to omit consultations with the accusations of bad faith multiply and tion between State and Congress where very people who have the best under¬ consequently a policy initiative turns the department could address potential standing of the limits of public toler¬ into a ping pong ball flying between concerns and even change some mem¬ ance. Therefore, when information is tournament-aspiring rivals. Department bers’ opinions. Instead, the department shared openly, members have a real officials appearing before congressional opportunity to be ahead of the curve committees become defensive, giving and to influence how the public per¬ the appearance that of all government ceives a proposal. In short, an informed policies, foreign policy alone should member is an asset. As the department not be questioned. Members think the Some policies don’t stand or fall knows, the lack of knowledge regard¬ department doubts their ability to un¬ on their own merits. Proposals ing its mission and the animosity that derstand foreign policy, so they dig exists with Congress do it little good deeper into the issue to prove their need to be managed. Even the during the budget and appropriations worthiness to participate. If department process. This will be another tough witnesses would display an openness to most brilliantly conceived policy year. The department cannot sit back listen, a genuine interest in congres¬ will not stand without public and expect that the correctness of its sional concerns and a sense of humor, positions or the depth of its responsi¬ much venomous criticism of policy support. bilities will shine through. It must take could be allayed. We very well could a more active role, just like every other reach a point where a genuine give and department and agency. It must show take exists and where foreign policy is Congress that, far from resenting our no more sacred (notwithstanding le¬ interference, it welcomes our input. gitimate national security issues) than puts itself in a position of reacting to The department needs to get the agricultural policy. congressional opposition, often an¬ word out: where is the best place for In fact, members must have a good nounced in front of a TV camera, after staff to get information on a particular working knowledge of international which a change of position becomes country or region; who is the best affairs especially since our constituents nearly impossible. Granted there are contact for a member trying to help a are interested and organized. They politicians who will oppose the admin¬ constituent with a visa problem during watch the news, they form pressure istration simply to oppose it, but most the weekend; what is the best way to groups, they lobby, they protest, they members genuinely want to develop express an opinion regarding a policy? sign petitions and they vote. They do sound policies regardless of party affili¬ And if we are really serious about im¬ all the things that active, aware, in¬ ation. In a great power, elected officials proving this relationship, then calls need formed constituents are supposed to have an obligation to defend a policy to be answered, civility in conversation do in our democratic system. Even if I they know is right when political ex¬ needs to reign, and thoughtful responses disagree with their position, I still meet pediency makes an opposing position to input need to be rendered. I never with them, answer their mail, exchange more attractive. promised it would be easy, but it needs information and try to change their Rarely does the department try to to be done. In a true partnership, position. Sometimes it works, some¬ solicit congressional support either be¬ communication is the key to success times it doesn’t, but they do respect me fore, during or sometimes even after a and the right to disagree is respected for maintaining an open and thought¬ proposal is presented. For most foreign without rancor or animosity. ful relationship with them. The same policy initiatives, legislators are the ones Congress is the most democratic openness from the department would most interested and the ones most branch of the government. It both help me in my job to educate my con¬ knowledgeable as to what the public reflects and influences the public. The stituents and when appropriate to try will support. When legislators are democratic process takes a lot of work. and change their opinion of certain brought in at the beginning, a compact As many new foreign leaders are policies. is formed whereby everyone has an learning, democracy isn’t always pretty, A second type of perceived arro¬ equal stake in a successful outcome. but we know it certainly beats the al¬ gance is not wanting to get one’s hands It is the department’s job to moni¬ ternative. ■ 38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 Books Playing by the Rules

ON THE LAW OF NATIONS the real or perceived foreign policy By Daniel Patrick Moynihan, needs of successive presidents. Until Harvard University Press, 1990, $22.50 the advent of the Reagan administra¬ hardcover tion, Moynihan argues, the United States led the way in promoting world¬ Reviewed by Charles Maechling Jr. wide adherence to international norms. But in 1980, Reagan arrived in Wash¬ The United States has traditionally ington accompanied by a coterie of been the most legalistic of major pow¬ embittered intellectuals like Jeane ers in the conduct of its foreign policy. Kirkpatrick, with the same narrow, provincial view of the world as himself. Treaties formed the basis of the young republic, and under the constitution They had only contempt for interna¬ treaties are the supreme law of the land. tional law and were ignorant of Ameri¬ can diplomatic traditions. For The United States was the pathfinder Moynihan, this bigoted rejection of in the use of arbitration to settle boundary disputes. It took the lead in civilized values has not only foreclosed drafting the UN charter and the inter- an important avenue for solving inter¬ American treaties. It has always set national crises but fostered the trend to great store on strict observance of the an imperial presidency at odds with the constitution. laws of war, rights of neutrals, and sanctity of human and property rights. American attitudes to international law Charles Maechling Jr., an international The last 20 years have seen steady since the turn of the century and how lawyer, is aguest scholar atthe Brookings erosion of these principles at the hands these attitudes have been shaped by Institution in Washington, D.C. of U.S. policy-makers, who have not only discounted international law as a policy factor but actively undermined it Another Look at Kissinger lomatic relations with Communist in word and deed. The low point was China, and a general shift from un¬ the Reagan administration with its in¬ HENRY KISSINGER; derstanding global politics in bipo¬ vasion of Grenada, secret war against DOCTOR OF DIPLOMACY lar terms to a more multipolar frame¬ Nicaragua and mining of Nicaraguan By Robert D. Schulzinger, Columbia work. He successfully manipulated the harbors, withdrawal from the compul¬ University Press, 1989, $27.95hardcover media to enhance his own celebrity. sory jurisdiction of the World Court, Yet in 1976 he was reviled by some of sabotage of the Law of the Sea conven¬ THE NIXON-KISSINGER YEARS: his own party’s presidential candidates, tion, and disparagement of the United and to this day many politicians con¬ THE RESHAPING OF AMERICAN Nations and other international insti¬ demn the fruits of his policies. tutions. The Bush Administration did FOREIGN POLICY The controversy over Kissinger’s little to restore the balance, before its By Richard C. Thornton, Washington place in history is reflected in the way he exemplary reaction to the Iraqi invasion Institute Press, 1989, $24.95 hardcover is treated by historians. To some he is a of Kuwait. Even today there is little hero who recognized important global realization at the highest levels of Reviewed by Jerrold Keilson power shifts and moved U.S. foreign government of what a priceless asset policy to retain influence around the American legalism was to its moral Henry Kissinger was possibly the world. Others, from both the right and leadership in world affairs. most powerful secretary of state in our the left, condemn Kissinger for lying, In this idiosyncratic but useful and history, particularly when this position manipulating U.S. foreign policy and important work, Senator Daniel Patrick was combined with his role as national the American public, and for dissipat¬ Moynihan has tried to restore interna¬ security advisor. The Kissinger years ing U.S. power and influence. tional law to its rightful place in U.S. came at a time of significant change in In Henry Kissinger: Doctor of Diplo¬ policy-making. Not in any sense a U.S. foreign policy; including both the macy, Robert Schulzinger attempts to treatise or history of the law of nations, escalation and withdrawal from the war delve beyond the rhetoric to answer it is rather a personal interpretation of in Vietnam, the establishment of dip- basic questions: how did Henry

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which he operated hamper the long¬ term success of his foreign policy? In this generally well-balanced book, IMAGINATION Schulzinger argues that Kissinger’s STATION comprehensive approach to foreign v CaU policy was preferable to the more reac¬ tive style of many predecessors. For for any Kissinger, foreign policy was not a Manichean struggle between the book United States and die Soviet Union » Immediate shipment but an intricate dance among a range of worldwide • Credit cards or partners, including adversarial coun¬ check • Ask about our overnight gift delivery tries; he was willing to trade political nationwide • Free monthly rapprochement with China and the new title forecast • Mail Soviet Union, for example, in return orders welcome • Open 24 for progress on a settlement in Vietnam hours every day • Free holiday gift catalog and detente. Kissinger also worked to - A Children’s consolidate foreign policy-making in 1^800^255^2665 Bookstore - the executive branch, so that he and a InCT or Worldwide (203)966-5470 few others could execute it without FAX 1-203-966-4329 l Children’s Books, Audio Cas¬ being affected by domestic political settes, Video Sales • Shop at concerns. home at U.S. prices • VISA, MC, Schulzinger uses specific foreign checks accepted • policy events to illustrate how Kissinger 59 Elm Street implemented his vision, focusing on a New Canaan. 4530 Lee Highway CT 06840 Arlington, VA 22207 range of examples that runs from Viet¬ (703) 522-2047 nam and Cambodia, the approach to China, the birth of detente, arms con-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 41 Books

trol, and Mideast shuttle diplomacy to conflict between the two that lies at the concert and saw eye-to-eye on most the Vietnam peace settlement, Chile, heart of the book. This thesis results in things. Pakistan, and Angola. The number of a peculiar chapter in which Thornton Schulzinger’s book is by far the bet¬ issues that Kissinger dealt with is im¬ writes that Watergate was a plot con¬ ter of the two and worth reading for the pressive, as are some of the short-term cocted by the Eastern establishment of balanced perspective it brings to the results. Schulzinger acknowledges that the Republican Party to get Nixon out impact of Henry Kissinger on U.S. the long-term impact of Kissinger’s of office and keep Kissinger in control foreign policy. Thornton, on the other initiatives also must be evaluated, how¬ of foreign policy. According to hand, typifies the vicious, undocu¬ ever, and perhaps not as favorably. The Thornton, John Mitchell ran Watergate mented, and shallow anti-Kissinger collapse of detente, the failure of the as a sting operation to entrap Nixon. screeds. Vietnam peace settlement, the debacle The evidence that Thornton musters in Chile, and the failure of the Mideast for this argument is scant and is not J err old Keilson, a Foreign Service officer peace process demonstrate how supported by other works on Kissinger. for six years, is director of Delphi ephemeral success can be. In Roger Morris’s 1977 book, Uncer¬ International Services, an inter¬ Throughout the book, Schulzinger tain Greatness, Morris makes a strong national training consulting firm in depicts Kissinger as a complex man case that Nixon and Kissinger acted in Washington, D.C. driven to achieve his objectives. He had a large ego, was difficult to work for, and did not protect his subordinates, as illustrated by his authorization of wire¬ Goodbye to All That section of this useful book to an analy¬ tapping. His skills at bureaucratic in¬ sis of the reforms of 1985-88 and a THE BLOC THAT FAILED: fighting, self-preservation, and self¬ following section to the upheavals of promotion also are frequently on dis¬ SOVIET-EAST EUROPEAN 1989. The bloc that failed—Moscow’s play. The end result is a carefully RELATIONS IN TRANSITION empire in Eastern Europe—began to balanced portrait of a man who had a By Charles Gati, Indiana University come apart in Poland and continued at major impact on U.S. foreign policy. Press, 1990, $10.95softcover a quickened pace throughout the re¬ In contrast, Richard Thornton has gion. The USSR’s own moves toward written a diatribe, portraying Kissinger FROM THE FINLAND STATION: economic reforms and military re¬ as a devious and disloyal advisor to THE GRAYING OF REVOLUTION IN trenchment made possible this poten¬ Richard Nixon. In The Nixon-Kissitiger tially dangerous process. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Tears Thornton focuses on changes in From the Finland Station, by histo¬ By Theodore S. Hamerow, Basic Books, America’s policy of containment and rian Theodore S. Hamerow, while ob¬ the U.S. loss of hegemony growing out 1990, $24.95 hardcover viously pertinent to the failed Eastern of the failure to decisively fight com¬ bloc, covers much more intellectual munism in Vietnam. Reviewed by Henry E. Mattox ground than any survey of recent events. Thornton writes that Nixon and Professor Hamerow’s title derives from Kissinger were working to create a new In June 1990, the JOURNAL reviewed Edmund Wilson’s To the Finland Sta¬ foreign policy in the aftermath of Viet¬ no fewer than seven works on the tion (1940), a classic account of Euro¬ nam, but that they were working in Gorbachev revolution and noted the pean socialism prior to Lenin’s arrival opposite directions. Nixon was trying “avalanche of books” on changed su¬ at St. Petersburg in 1917. Loaded with to revitalize and recreate containment, perpower relations. The rush to pub¬ statistical data and illustrative examples, whereas Kissinger, his chief foreign lish continues. Among this year’s bloc From the Finland Station treats sche¬ policy advisor, was working to create a books have been The Shattered Bloc: matically the several stages, as Hamerow structure that would accommodate Behind the Upheavals in Eastern Eu¬ sees them, of the rise and eventual communism. Thornton believes rope, by the journalist Elie Abel and decline of successful revolutionary Kissinger’s general approach and spe¬ Between the Blocs: Problems and Pros¬ movements. His case studies come from cific policies were mistaken and un¬ pects for Europe’s Neutrals and Non- the 20th century Russian, Chinese, necessary, and that a more principled aligned States, edited by Joseph Kruzel Cuban, and Vietnamese experiences. foreign policy stand would have better and Michael H. Haltzel. “Within a generation,” he observes, served American interests. Now we have The Bloc That Failed, the radical new order “begins to show Thornton believes that an intense in which political scientist Charles Gati the same signs of senescense . . . that conflict raged between Nixon and surveys the post-World War II Soviet had characterized the ancien regime.'” Kissinger, his erstwhile loyal aide, dur¬ development of satellite states, from This highly recommended study ing Nixon’s first term over the direc¬ Stalin’s time to the brief reign of certainly will take its place in the field tion of U.S. foreign policy. It is this Chernenko. He then devotes one whole with Crane Brinton’s The Anatomy of

42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 Revolution, to which Hamerow refers. some observers thought the differences “It is more difficult to administer a city Somewhat curiously, however, no¬ would gready outweigh the similari¬ than to govern a country.” where does he cite R.R. Palmer’s famed ties. These essays (which were pre¬ An American participant covers the two-volume study, The Age of the sented in a series of colloquia) show, New York fiscal crisis and the lessons it Democratic Revolution (1959, 1964) however, that many problems are may hold for others. Among these are or Chalmers A. Johnson’s insightful common to both ends of the hemi¬ that budget cuts must be well-planned but less well-known Revolutionary sphere. Housing shortages, to avoid serious, long-range damage to Change (1966), not even in his other¬ overborrowing by municipal govern¬ the capacity to provide municipal ser¬ wise impressive essay on sources. ments, coordination between cities and vices. Also, since there will always be suburbs, the role of the mayor, and the political opposition to any reduction in Henry E. Mattox, a retired Foreign participation of local business groups services, the government must try to Service officer, is currently a Fulbright are a few topics of common concern to balance competing demands. (The lecturer in Nigeria. North and South Americans. author asserts that in recent years, with The collection is strengthened by its widening income and consumption the contributions of several Latin disparities, its visible homelessness, its Sister Cities American authors. Thus, the reader growing informal economic activity and CITIES IN CRISIS: THE URBAN will find scholarly studies of urban its deteriorating public services, New problems in Mexico City, Sao Paulo, York City increasingly resembles a Latin CHALLENGE IN THE AMERICAS and Buenos Aires, as well as of public American city). Edited by Matthew Fdel and Ronald G. health services in Medellin. Jose In presenting this hemispheric view Heilman, Bildner Center for Western Francisco Pena Gomez, former mayor of selected urban problems, the editors Hemisphere Studies, City University of of Santo Domingo (and unsuccessful have demonstrated that, despite many New York, 1989, $26.95 hardcover presidential candidate in recent elec¬ obvious differences, there is more than tions), describes the arduous job of enough common ground to justify a Reviewed by John J. Crowley Jr. running a municipal government fresh and untraditional approach. during a period of declining revenues When the Bildner Center set out to and living standards. No wonder he JohnJ. Crowley, aretiredForeign Service compare urban problems in Latin approvingly quotes Spanish Prime officer, served as U.S. ambassador to America with those in the United States, Minister Felipe Gonzalez’s remark that Suriname.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 43 States Shifting Responsibilities History shows the department relinquishing part of its role in foreign polity

This article is adapted from a talk ship, Congress created the National than rely entirely on their diplomatic delivered on September 26th at the Foreign Security Council (NSC) and Central advisers. Service Club as part ofAFSA’s luncheon Intelligence Agency and gave birth to For its first 100 years or more the speaker series. the modern foreign affairs community, department was a relatively tiny agency WILLIAM Z. SLANY comprising intelligence, economic serving essentially as the support staff The beginning ofthepost-ColdWar matters, military affairs, and atomic for die secretary of State—his attorney, era is a time to look forward and see if energy policy. In these Truman years a executive secretariat, and his adminis¬ we can determine the future shape of reorganized, expanded, and modern¬ trative backup. America’s entry into American foreign relations. Before we ized State Department assumed the the world imperialist scene at the turn undertake this assessment of the future, structure that has essentially persisted of the century began the transforma¬ we might briefly look backward and into the present. Truman was wary of tion of the State Department into a review the evolution of the State the NSC system and leaned on a pre¬ truly operational agency of expanding Department’s role in the foreign affairs eminent State Department, but size. community. The emergence of the Eisenhower and Dulles built up the In the period between the two world American foreign affairs community NSC structure and allowed the State wars there prevailed a spirit of isola¬ and the modern Department of State Department to lose ground to other tionism. The conventional wisdom of deserves a book-length explanation and ambitious agencies in the policy wars. the time was that conducting foreign documentation. For now, however, I The Kennedy-Johnson years were the policy was an elite activity that would will venture only to hit some of the last great period of search for a mecha¬ not benefit from popular involvement. highest of the high points and skip over nism that would assure the leadership But the department grew, reaching a much more that is relevant. of the State Department in foreign force of more than 1,200 persons in Let me put it first in a nutshell. The affairs. 1940 compared with 91 at the begin¬ modern Department of State and the In the last 20 years major reorgani¬ ning of the century. More important, foreign affairs community are strictly zations of the State Department have the diplomatic service had been post-World War II phenomena. If there been avoided. Ad hoc arrangements professionalized in the 1920s, the rota¬ was a “golden age” when the depart¬ have been resorted to in managing the tion of diplomatic officers from over¬ ment and the Foreign Service domi¬ foreign affairs community and the State seas posts into leadership positions into nated foreign affairs policy-making, it Department, and the department re¬ the department was firmly established, was the generation between the two organizations have been confined to and a Foreign Service of more than 850 world wars. Franklin Roosevelt invented the seventh floor. The post-Cold War officers was serving President Roosevelt the foreign affairs community when he international scene is more likely to and Secretary of State Cordell Hull. created a host of emergency wartime continue and intensify the trends of die agencies in order to circumvent the past 20 years rather than reverse them. New Deal to New State State Department. The department had For the first 15 0 years of our nation’s President Roosevelt had laid the basis a brief opportunity immediately after history, the presidents and their secre¬ for the postwar foreign affairs com¬ World War II to dominate foreign af¬ taries of State were the foreign affairs munity with his expansion of the fed¬ fairs but opted instead to remain a decision-makers and policy formula- eral government and his resort to New small, traditional foreign relations tors. They were the foreign affairs com¬ Deal agencies outside the existing agency. In the absence of State leader- munity. Various presidents, of course, governmental structure to carry out had significantly different manners of new tasks of government. During the William Z. Slany has served in the working with their secretaries of state, war, the president resorted to this State Department since 1956 and has and the balance of who actually made technique to circumvent a conservative been department historian since 1982. big decisions tended to move back and and tradition-bound State Department The views expressed here are the author’s forth. And presidents always could—- by creating a variety' of new agencies to and not those of the Department of and many did—seek outside advice on administer aspects of the new U.S. State. important foreign affairs issues rather presence abroad. These included the

44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 Office of War Information, the Lend- affairs. A major office was formed to tional responsibilities. By 1950 the Lease Agency, the Foreign Economic administer occupation responsibilities Foreign Service modernized under the Administration, and the Office of Stra¬ in Germany, Austria, and Japan. 1946 Foreign Service Act. With these tegic Services. By 1947 Secretary George C. reorganizations in the immediate post¬ After the war, the State Department Marshall carried out a second wave of war years, the State Department took proved unable and unwilling to digest department reorganization, whose key on the basic shape it has had ever since. all these agencies, personnel, and tasks. innovation was to establish the execu¬ During World War II and the first It could not or would not become a tive secretariat to act as the official year or so thereafter, foreign affairs single, all-encompassing foreign affairs point of contact with other depart¬ policy coordination was confined to agency, largely because the ments, agencies, and the White House. the formula “State-War-Navy.” In department’s traditional leadership was Marshall also set up the policy planning 1947, Congress established the NSC, reluctant to have stemming in large State diverted into measure from re¬ so many non-dip- action to Roos¬ lomatic activities. evelt’s strong and The creation of highly personal new and powerful diplomacy. Many agencies such as of the president’s the CIA and NSC decisions, par¬ in 1947, USIA in ticularly at Yalta 1952, and the in 1945, came Economic Coop¬ under close con¬ eration Adminis¬ gressional scru¬ tration in 1948 set tiny and serious the pattern for an popular criticism. expanding foreign As a result, the affairs community legislature at¬ with which the tempted to su¬ State Department perimpose on the had to contend. It executive branch was not just a a mechanism for matter of new formal discussion agencies. By the and inter-agency 1950s the Trea¬ cooperation on sury, Commerce, important issues and Agriculture of national secu¬ departments had New State under construction in 1957 rity. also embarked on Initially, Presi¬ significant international programs. And, staff to formulate the long-range poli¬ dent Truman’s reaction to the NSC with the armed forces stationed around cies and goals. was less than enthusiastic. He saw it as tiie world, the joint chiefs of staff be¬ Two years later, Secretary Dean encroachment by Congress on execu¬ came key players in nearly all foreign Acheson implemented the recommen¬ tive privilege, and he feared that the affairs decisions. dations made by the Hoover Commis¬ military was being given undue weight Even with all these competitors as¬ sion on the organization of the execu¬ in international affairs. Truman did not suming responsibilities for much of the tive branch of the United States gov¬ attend the early NSC meetings. How¬ U.S. interests abroad, the State ernment. In a major department reor¬ ever, tiie outbreak of the Korean war in Department’s mission of conducting ganization, the policy divisions were June 1950 thrust Truman into crisis, foreign policy and protecting and pro¬ elevated in 1949 to the level of bureaus and thereafter he regularly presided at moting U.S. interests abroad had greatly for intef-American affairs, Far Eastern council sessions. From this time, the expanded. The department grew to affairs/European affairs, Near Eastern NSC began to take on an expanding 7,000 persons, developing a structure and African affairs, international orga¬ responsibility for high-level crisis man¬ capable of administering the assign¬ nization affairs, and congressional rela¬ agement. ments and coordinating policy-making tions. By the end of his first year in over a vast range of overseas interests office in 1949, Acheson had a reconsti¬ Eisenhower-Dulles and involvements. A first wave of reor¬ tuted management team consisting of The State Department structure set ganizations was carried out in 1944. an under secretary of State; two deputy in place by Acheson changed little un¬ Overall economic responsibilities were under secretaries; and 10 assistant sec¬ der President Eisenhower’s secretaries assigned in 1946 to a newly created retaries in charge of the then major of state, John Foster Dulles and Chris¬ under secretary of state for economic regional geographic bureaus and func¬ tian A. Herter. Dulles personally domi-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 45 nated policy-maldng and, as some advice of close advisers, with an ex¬ eign affairs community. complained, worked the department ecutive committee of a scaled-back The State Department yielded what “out of his hat.” The personal quality NSC, and with a national security ad¬ remained of its preeminent role in the of his tenure was emphasized by his viser who enjoyed great flexibility and foreign affairs community in the 1960s. extensive foreign travels (700,000 latitude to frame issues and coordinate This change did not occur without miles) together with his very close per¬ quick responses to international hot much soul searching during the de¬ sonal and policy relationships with the spots. cade—a period of much thoughtful president. Only minor department re¬ President Lyndon Johnson made an attention to strengthening State. alignments were carried out. The deputy effort to work within a system that gave Secretary Rusk’s tenure was marked under secretaries for political affairs the State Department the lead role in a by unprecedented planning for radical and for management were elevated to more structured approach to crisis changes in the management of foreign full under secretary rank. The number management. The center of gravity for affairs. It was apparent early in the of bureaus was increased to 12, as func¬ high-level policy coordination flowed, Kennedy presidency that the depart¬ tional groupings of offices headed by however, ineluctably to the White ment could not respond to the mount¬ assistant secretaries were raised to full- House. A crisis center was established ing tempo of crises around the world fledged bureau status. in the White House in 1968 that gave without some internal modifications. The NSC was built up into a highly the president and his advisers direct Under Secretary Chester Bowles was a structured, formal policy-coordinating access to all international communica¬ powerful advocate of change in the center of the emerging foreign affairs tions and allowed for far more direct department, but he fell from favor early community. While the State Depart¬ presidential intervention in both the in the Kennedy Administration. ment held key positions in this NSC most major and even the more minor Thereafter, Kennedy, Johnson, and system, the roles and influence of other pressure points. Events like the war in Rusk established a variety of commit¬ agencies gained formal status. Vietnam forced the president to turn to tees and commissions to investigate President John F. Kennedy exer¬ his military and intelligence leaders as measures to improve policy-making and cised his constitutional responsibilities well as to the Department of State to the coordination of American activities in foreign affairs to the fullest. Kennedy manage crisis. These arrangements al¬ overseas. greatly modified the elaborate lowed for complete airing of all national Unsuccessful presidential candidate Eisenhower NSC system and supple¬ interests, but the tendency generally Adlai Stevenson recommended to mented it by informal recourse to the undermined State initiative in the for¬ President-elect Kennedy a host of

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46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 changes in the top level of the depart¬ presented a report on “Organization of ing. Instead of major organizational ment, including the creation of a deputy the Management and Coordination of changes, the political leadership found secretary and the designation of senior Foreign Affairs” in October 1967 that it more convenient and effective to officials to coordinate military-political pointed to numerous divergences and alter the policy-making chain of com¬ affairs. In 1961, former Deputy Under internal inconsistencies in the formula¬ mand on a case-by-case basis in re¬ Secretary of State Carlisle Humelsine tion and conduct of American foreign sponse to felt needs rather than on any described the department’s problem as policy. The Heineman Task Force broad programmatic basis. Such reor¬ “an organizational proliferation and recommended that the secretary of State ganizations as did occur were confined operational complexity that has in¬ be the president’s first adviser on for¬ to the seventh floor. The long-urged creased points of interest and work eign affairs and that a substantial por¬ establishment of a deputy secretary of clearance, established what may be du¬ tion of the secretary’s workload be state and several under secretaries by plicated or overlapping functions and shifted to a deputy secretary. The re¬ the early 1970s led to the emergence of reviews, extended the lines of com¬ port also urged grouping together sev¬ department “principals” as the secre¬ mand, and diluted the authority and eral department functional units under tary of state acquired a collective alter effectiveness of the regional assistant ego. secretaries of state.” Senator Henry The spirit of institutional modern¬ Jackson headed a special congressional ization shifted toward making the ex¬ subcommittee that studied national se¬ Dulles personally isting system work better. Significant curity machinery and found in No¬ dominated policy-making and, personnel and management reforms vember 1961 that “no task was more aimed at humanizing the Department urgent than improving the effectiveness as some complained, of State were tried by Deputy Under of the Department of State.” Secretary of State William Macomber The Humelsine and Jackson reports worked the department in the early 1970s. Former Under Sec¬ had significant results. George Ball “out of his hat.” retary of State Robert D. Murphy became Secretary Rusk’s under secre¬ chaired a congressionally mandated tary and his true alter ego. Men with commission on the conduct of foreign the president’s confidence were ap¬ policy whose report in 1975 recom¬ pointed to key department policy¬ the supervision of under secretaries for mended a range of personnel, organi¬ making positions. A Bureau of the economic and security affairs. In 1968 zational, and procedural changes. Budget special survey in 1962 recom¬ the American Foreign Service Associa¬ Department structure continued to mended strengthening the tion prepared and published its own expand. The total number of assistant department’s foreign economic policy¬ report, “Toward a Modem Diplomacy,” secretaries and bureaus reached nearly making function, a change finally which sought to strengthen the foreign 30 in the 1980s with many functional completed in 1972 with the creation of policy role of the career service. bureaus arising to deal with interna¬ the under secretary for economic affairs. tional programs. State sought to expand Former Secretary of State Herter headed Increased pragmatism its expertise ever further to match the a distinguished Committee on Foreign While the reform efforts of the 1960s expanding involvement of federal, state, Affairs Personnel, whose 1962 report generally failed to achieve any signifi¬ and local governments as well as of the to Rusk, entitled “Personnel for the cant lasting results, they testified to a private sector in overseas matters. At New Diplomacy,” provided much of persistent respect for the traditional the same time, shrinking budgets sub¬ the basis for the extensive administra¬ role of the State Department. The stress jected the department to stringent tive and personnel reforms carried out and discord arising from the Vietnam management streamlining in order to by Deputy Under Secretary for Man¬ war ended efforts to fundamentally accomplish more with less. agement William J. Crockettfrom 1963 reform the State Department. In place The end of the Cold War is not likely through 1967. Armed with the new of the longstanding consensus on ma¬ to see a reversal of the current rela¬ insights and tools of modern corporate jor foreign policy goals there was per¬ tionship between the foreign affairs management, Crockett accelerated the sistent, sometimes bitter, contentious¬ community and the Department of pace of internal administrative change, ness from determined interest groups. State. If anything, the bipolar world asserted department leadership in the Congress intervened in foreign affairs and the rivalry with the Soviet Union foreign affairs community, and directed to an unprecedepted extent. In the may have prolonged the special role of the creation of a unified State-USIA 1970s came a more cautious, pragmatic, the State Department in the expanding foreign affairs personnel system, as well step-by-step approach to institutional foreign affairs community. Multilateral as the country director systems, re¬ reform and change. Secretaries William and multi-dimensional issues of the gional policy paper process, and for¬ P. Rogers, Henry Kissinger, Cyrus future are more likely to continue the eign affairs programming system. Vance, and Edmund Muskie were patterns of the last 20 years in spread¬ Although President Johnson did not generally content with the department’s ing foreign affairs decision-making over have time to act upon it, his Task Force structure, as long as the “seventh floor” an ever broader spectrum of agencies on Government Organization, headed staff provided prompt and effective and institutions of which State is only by businessman Ben H. Heineman, support for the top-level policy-malt¬ one. ■

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 47 BART N. STEPHENS

tlj0 ttd'lj forshipmentto Greece,” I should go back to explain this unusual cargo, back to I said, writing out a check for $25. Greece. “Greece?” The owner of die plumbing supply store What could be more glorious for a young Foreign looked at me as if I were indulging in a silly April Fool’s Service officer and his wife assigned to Athens in 1950 joke. We were standing in the middle of a grassy vacant than to live in the Plaka, that old and enchanting section lot behind his Georgetown store, surrounded by dozens of the capital? The narrow street on which our house of white used bathtubs, basins, and bidets. We were in stood ran directiy into the base of the Acropolis. At that the plumbing industry’s equivalent of die elephant’s time no stereos blared. Tavernashad notyetproliferated. graveyard. Tourists did not clog the streets. The air was clear; the “My wife and I are stationed in provincial Greece and light, luminous. Pollution was unknown. need a bathtub just like this one.” I pointed to the large, So when we learned the embassy was transferring us wide, claw-footed beauty at our feet, only disfigured by to Patras, the largest city of the Peloponnesus, we a tiny rust stain. “The U.S. despatch agent will give you wondered what could possibly replace our jewel of a shipping instructions,” I said. house tucked away in a courtyard on Odos Kydathineon. Who else, I thought, has shipped such a large cast- We soon visited Patras, a port known for the martyred iron object across the Adantic and through the Mediter¬ Saint Andrew and its export of currants. It was a five- ranean, malting use of his excess weight allowance? But hour drive from Athens in those days. I inspected the branch office I was to head, and we saw the house Bart N. Stephens, who retired from the Foreign Service reserved for us. We were greatly relieved to discover a as a cultural attache, served in Greece from 1950 to delightful, white, two-story, flat-roofed villa on the 1954. outskirts of the city, in the village of Mintilogli. The

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 house stood scarcely 100 feet from the pebbly shore of curves to accommodate one’s back or posterior. It was— the Gulf of Corinth, and behind it grew an orchard of how can I describe it? a rectangular box. No, it was like a orange trees. The weather was balmy; the skies, blue; narrow marble coffin. Once wedged into the mb it was our future Greek neighbors, friendly. difficult to extricate oneself. Even worse, when the hot Some months later, as we unpacked and setded into water, heated in buckets on the kitchen, kerosene stove, our new home with its marble floors, we discovered was poured into the mb, the marble seemed to absorb there were a few drawbacks to our new paradise. There instantly the heat from the water. This peculiarity of the was no telephone. We needed 15 or 20 telephone poles mb was particularly noticeable in January. to run a line from the main road to our seaside villa. Each We became increasingly dissatisfied with our bathing pole cost something on the order of $200, a total of arrangements. We yearned for a real tub in which we about, if I remember the exchange rate, 6 million could comfortably soak. We inquired in the city about a drachma. Neither my bank account nor the office’s suitable, low-cost, secondhand tub. No luck. But suc¬ budget had that kind of money. But then, without a cess greeted us during home leave at that Georgetown phone, impatient embassy officers in Athens would not store. There in the empty lot stood the tub of our be making urgent midnight calls. dreams, and for only $25. Perhaps Clyde’s or Mr. Smith’s restaurant stands on that spot today. In the hot summer, when we had Three months after our special Washington pur¬ first visited our attractive villa, we had given little chase, four muscular Greek laborers carried the crated thought to heating our home. In fact, there was no mb into our front yard, knocked the crate apart before central heat of any kind, nor, for that matter, any an audience of village children, and carried it carefully up running hot water. We depended the stairs to the second floor. on a 40-gallon drum of kero¬ Two sides of the marble mb sene, trucked to us once a month were removed, and the new from Athens. This precious fluid The old tub was like a American import was con¬ filled the tanks of our smelly nected to the drain. space heaters, our cooking stove, narrow marble coffin. My wife and I would often and our temperamental refrig¬ take guests upstairs to see the erator. After, I should add, I had Once wedged in, it was footed mb, and they would wrestled the 300-pound drum express their admiration at its onto its trestle. I then drew off difficult to extricate elegance and our ingenuity. the kerosene from a spigot There were comments on our cleverly inserted into the top of oneself. probable cleanliness, a tribute the drum. to the American Foreign Ser¬ Rather than subject ourselves vice and its people. to the noxious fumes of the The tale of the Patras bath¬ heaters, we often sat with guests at the diningroom table tub only needs this brief conclusion. It falls under the in December wearing our overcoats. heading of “You never go home again.” We had not given the question of water much thought either. There was running cold water, but we could not We had left Patras, and it was 19 drink it. It was brackish and unpalatable. To provide us years later. We had served at many other posts during with potable drinking water the office jeep delivered that interval. It was time, we decided, to revisit Greece, every morning four or five small barrels filled with cold our first post. The family, now six, drove from Stuttgart mountain spring water that gushed out of a roadside into Italy and then reached Greece byway of the Brindisi pipe. car ferry. In Athens we were anxious to visit our old Our piped house water, good only for flushing toilets home in the Plaka. After several false turns we located it. and scrubbing floors, came from a tank on the flat roof. Surprise. Entrepreneurs had converted our house into a In order to replenish the water in the tank I would climb Japanese restaurant. the stairs to the roof and shout in Greek toward the In Patras my wife and I very much wanted to show tine gardener’s house in the orange grove, “Andreas! Start children our other Greek home, our villa by the gulf the motor!” After a few minutes I would hear the putt- where we had held evening fourth of July parties on the putt of the motor, and soon water rushed from a pipe flat roof and where we had installed the Georgetown into the tank. bathmb with claw feet. How was the enamel holding All these charming little characteristics of our domes¬ up? My Greek friend advised against it when I broached tic life were bearable. We loved our house. As the the subject. Your former dwelling, he said, is now a Germans say, “No rose without thorns.” (Keine Rose home for the mentally... He didn’t finish the sentence. ohne Dornen.) But there was one more thorn. Our hopes were crushed once again, but I must Our first day in our new home we had been introduced believe that the old mb continues to give service to the to our bathtub, or what was designed to be a bathtub. residents of that home, or elsewhere in Patras. I cannot It was made of slabs of marble. There were no gentle believe that it stands abandoned in a grassy Greek field.*

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AFSPA page 50 Federal City Real Estate page 56 Martens Volvo page 53 Air Animal page 52 Ford page 13 McGrath Mgt. Corp page 49 Allied Realty page 57 Frazee Realtors page 54 Mercersburg Academy page 51 American Service Ctr page 6 The Garden Cafe page 43 MGMB page 54 American Service International ..page 19 General Electronics page 10 Mt. Vernon/In Town page 54 Book Call page 41 Gill, Cathie page 8 Morgan RX page 52 Chrysler/Jeep insert Ginn, Mary page 52 Neill, Mullenholz & Shaw page 53 Chrysler/Jeep cover 4 GM-OASC page 7 Network Realtors page 57 Clements & Company page 1 GM-OASC insert Noffsinger page 56 Coldwell Banker page 46 Guardian Storage page 34 Planned Parenthood page 68 Colonial Storage cover 2 Hirshorn/Chubb page 11 Prime page 55 Columbia Plaza RX page 51 Huntington T. Block page 17 Prof. Property Mgmt ...page 43 Comfort Inn page 35 Mr. Real Estate page 56 Property Specialists page 55 Complete Paperback page 52 Imagination Station page 41 Remington Associates page 52 Cotterman page 32 Interstate cover 3 Sandoz and Lamberton page 54 Don Beyer Volvo page 52 Pardoe&Graham page 12 Sandoz and Lamberton insert Diplomat Properties Inc page 55 Jannette & Co page 35 Security Storage page 36 Dupras, Connie page 53 JKJ/Lincoln Mercury page 16 State Plaza Hotel page 68 Euromotor Cars page 53 Kamins, Larry page 56 Stuart & Maury page 57 Executive Club page 40 Laughlin Inc page 56 Swierczek, Patricia page 56 Executive Housing page 18 Laulor, Dick page 56 Taylor, Edward page 9 Executive Lodging page 37 Lewis & Silverman page 55 The Towers Inn page 12 Export Electronics page 53 Mark Tracz Real Estate page 56 TLC page 41

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 51 Marketplace

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Hampshire Ave., N.W. pletely furnished including long-term/short-term, TSR APARTMENTS. Short or Washington,D.C. 20009 CATV, all utilities, telephone, or private auto-vault, division long term. Decorator FAX: (202) 265-1474 Tel: linens, etc. Short term leases ofHUMCO, Inc. Tel: (301) furnished, fully equipped: (202) 667-5111. of 2+ months available .Write 327-4000 microwave, cable, phone, Foreign Service Associates, pool, spa. Two blocks FSI and AUTOMOTIVE PARTS P.O. Box 12855, Arlington, REAL ESTATE Metro, 5 min. State, & ACCESSORIES: Original VA 22209-8855. FAX 1-703- Georgetown. Photos. (703) equipment and aftermarket for 636-7603. Children welcome. VIENNA/TYSONS 522-2588 or write Adrian most makes. Serving FSO’s Please send us dates. Clean townhouse, 3 bed¬ B.B. Templar, 1021 Arlington and embassies. A.S.A.P. rooms, 2 1/2 +1/2 baths, Blvd., PH1214, Arlington, EXECUTIVE CLUB AUTO PARTS, DIVISION rec. room with fireplace. VA 22209. Member AFSA. ARLINGTON AND OLD OF HUMCO, Inc. 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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 59 AFSA ♦ NEWS

the program on September 26 with To improve career ladders for U.S. diplomacy an address on “45 Years of Continu¬ Foreign Service secretaries, the ity and Change” in the U.S. foreign department proposes to band after the Cold War affairs community (see page 44). together the seven current Foreign Other issues identified for attention Sendee grades into four “levels.” John J. Harter in the series include: Promotion rates within these levels • Foreign policy and the would be determined administratively An AFSA program will focus “information revolution” after fulfillment of certain conditions. attention on “A New Diplomacy for • A congressional view of Promotions into levels II and I a New World Order” in the coming foreign affairs in a rapidly would be competitive, although the months. The program will feature changing world department says that “virtually all” prominent experts known as chal¬ • National security after the secretaries would be assured of lengers of traditional assumptions on Cold War reaching level II if their work was U.S. foreign policy. • The role of an embassy in the satisfactory. The department is quick The purpose of the new emphasis new era to point out, however, that this will be to encourage innovative • Human rights and democracy banding system cannot be imple¬ thinking by AFSA members—and • Drugs and international affairs mented until a comprehensive others—regarding possible improve¬ • International trade in the training program is developed for ments in the formulation and imple¬ 1990s each level and specific assignment mentation of U.S. foreign policy in • The Third World and eco¬ requirements are determined; it will light of the virtual dissolution of nomic development also be necessary to revise existing Communist systems, die apparent • The United Nations and other promotion precepts for secretaries. demise of the Cold War, the global international organizations The package also recommends a trend toward democracy, the rising • The environment and foreign step increase for all secretaries who priority of the economic dimension affairs successfully complete training for of foreign affairs, the recent invasion • Hostages, terrorism, and the positions requiring communicator of Kuwait by Iraq, and die response protection of American skills. The department expects to of the international community to citizens implement this program shortly but diat crisis. • International law claims that it does not have the legal As the only non-government • The media and foreign affairs authority to provide compensation professional organization represent¬ We welcome comments from for shorthand skills. To improve the ing U.S. career diplomats, AFSA is readers. amount of information new secretar¬ uniquely qualified to be in the ies receive, various offices will draft forefront of those considering “fact sheets.” These packets will improvements in die conduct of New proposal provide detailed information on foreign affairs. In the coming for secretaries matters such as salaries, allowances, months, AFSA will seek extra- benefits, training, and employment budgetary resources to finance the The department’s long-awaited conditions. program’s expansion. If additional proposal on secretarial issues was Because the package proposed by funds become available, a core staff finally made available to AFSA on the department is far from complete will be mobilized, special efforts will July 30. and does not address many important be made to attract larger audiences, The package consists of four issues, AFSA has solicited input from public debates on some relevant principal components: 1) improved the membership and plans to submit issues will be arranged, and other career ladders for Foreign Service and a counterproposal to the department. steps will be taken to strengthen the Civil Service secretaries; 2) incentive Among the issues not addressed in impact of the program. pay for special skills; 3) better the department’s proposal are the Dr. William Z. Slany, historian of information flow to new hires; and 4) following: the upgrading of posi¬ the Department of State, launched revised promotion precepts. tions; the establishment of secondary

60 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 skill codes; the possibility of secre¬ The department projects that 50 tarial positions at the FP-2 level; title more FP-3 positions would be Don’t throw them changes; expanded training opportu¬ created over the next several years nities; and inclusion of secretaries in (compared to the current eight to 10 away! management planning that relates to FP-3 positions). This would have a If you haven’t yet thrown out your secretaries. cascade effect, increasing the number 1990 issues of the FOREIGN SERVICE AFSA’s Secretarial Subcommittee of positions at all levels. Unfortu¬ JOURNAL, don’t! We have at least 10 met with management in early nately, there appears to be some requests from newly subscribing August to discuss the department’s degree of uncertainty about the libraries for the entire 1990 volume, package. Representing the director availability of funding for the and we need additional copies of the general’s office was Lauralee Peters, department’s proposals. AFSA stands January and February 1990 issues to deputy assistant secretary for person¬ committed not only to expanding the fulfill these requests. nel, who stated that with the pro¬ scope of the secretarial reform Please write or call the JOURNAL if posed banding system average time package, but to ensuring that man¬ you can help. to reach FP-3 would be 24 years agement adheres to and implements rather than the current 35 years. any agreements that are reached.

News Briefs

USIA career management changes: After negotiations with AFGE, USIA announced time-in-class and related changes on August 24, modeled on changes agreed to by State and AFSA late in the spring. The USIA rules vary from State’s in several respects: • Middle-grade USIA officers will have the option of changing their “multi-class” time limits from the current 20/ 22-year limits in classes 3, 2, and 1 to 27 years from the date of their initial appointments as career candidates. The 15- year time-in-class limit remains for any single grade. • The new senior “multi-class” limit for classes OC and MC will be 12 years (14 years in State). Limited career extensions (LCEs) will be continued. • The seven-year “window” for promotion from O-l to OC will be abolished. During negotiations with AFSA, State management took the view that the 1980 Foreign Service Act makes such a “window” mandatory. Clearly USIA’s lawyers do not read the act the same way, and AFSA plans to pursue this issue with State management. Effect of changed selection board timing on promotion opportunities: During negotiations, AFSA was assured that the deferred convening of selection boards (from June 1 to September 1) would not reduce the number of promotion reviews that any Foreign Service officer would receive. The director general made this more explicit in a column in the July Newsletter. If your time-in-class expires between July 1 and September 1, 1990, he wrote, you will still receive a final review for promotion this year. We wrote to say that we had understood this assurance to apply to future years as well, and got an answer that: “We are disinclined to take any firm position without knowing the parameters of any future problems.” We suspect that there are, in fact, very few Foreign Service officers whose time-in-class anniversary dates are in the summer, but please let AFSA’s member services department know if yours is. Your promotion opportunities may be affected. Correcting PARs: Most members will recall having been reminded often how important personnel audit reports (PARs) are for assignment panels and selection boards, and being encouraged to keep them up to date and accurate. In an all-posts cable on January 2, the department promised a forthcoming “open season” during which PARs could be expeditiously updated. A circular instruction on May 17 offered a number of essential options for making the PARs more informative. For instance, the instruction made clear that officers on detail to other agencies could specify their working titles and the overseas posts to which they were assigned. Despite these good intentions, the PAR office remains just as backlogged as it ever was, and a number of personnel have run into stone walls trying to get their PARs corrected in accordance with the instructions. If you have a similar experience, please let AFSA member services know, in order to help us build a case to induce management to honor its own PAR commitments.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 61 New AFSA vice president State Standing Committee for State Pinching pennies require revision to conform with the On Septem- Foreign Sendee Act of 1980, and ber 5 the Richard Milton AFSA plans to improve them as well, AFSA board State Vice President particularly provisions involving accepted the movement into and out of the resignation of Appointed by AFSA’s board to fill medical complement and in regional George Jones, the remaining 10 months of George assignments. who served for Jones’ term as State vice president, I Secretarial issues: Tentative the past year as entered office just as AFSA con¬ progress was made by the special vice president fronted the threatened government¬ committee of Foreign Service for the State wide furlough of all employees. State, secretaries when management agreed Dick Milton Department. after first thinking it could delay to modifications in the personnel Jones was nominated by the White issuing any furlough notices until at system and to compensation for House as ambassador to Guyana and least mid-October, notified AFSA communicator skills. There is still a was scheduled for confirmation August 29 that it hadbeen directed to long way from words to deeds, hearings in the Senate Foreign issue notices immediately for fur¬ unfortunately (see page 60). Relations Committee in the last week loughs to begin as early as October 1. The coming fiscal year will be a of September. His accomplishments AFSA was inundated with cables, difficult one for the Foreign Service. at AFSA include landmark labor- faxed messages, and telephone calls The State Standing Committee will management negotiations and skilfull during the first week of September. be meeting every week to look after contract arrangements to maintain Members expressed their outrage members’ interests as State manage¬ smooth operations at the Foreign that a failure of our political leader¬ ment makes adjustments to adapt to Service Club. The AFSA board ship should result in such a mistreat¬ dramatic changes in international expressed sincere regret at his ment of employees. Many also asked affairs while reducing expenditures. departure. for clarification of what the furlough More for less, again? George Jones was succeeded by entailed and what could be done to Dick Milton, who until this summer obtain relief. After concluding that was political advisor at the U.S. Space the furloughs mandated under Journal staff Command in Colorado Springs. Gramm-Rudman-Hollings sequestra¬ Milton is a consular officer whose tion could probably not be chal¬ changes foreign tours have included lenged legally, AFSA met with On September 10 AFSA’s Managua, Warsaw, Bangkok, and management to negotiate equitable Executive Committee accepted Guayaquil. He has also served with and fair regulations for furlough with regret the resignation for ACDA and the U.S. Coast Guard implementation. personal reasons of JOURNAL and is a former president of the Although an agreement was Editor Ann Luppi. Ann Luppi’s Consular Association. The AFSA signed September 5, it became clear tenure as JOURNAL editor spanned board took pleasure in appointing almost immediately that the em¬ two years in which members Milton to the State vice presidency ployee rights agreed upon were not noted continued improvements in through the summer of 1991, when really available with respect to the style and content of the magaizine current incumbents will be replaced furlough notice that had been issued and during which regular editions by winners of next spring’s regular August 30. State refused to recognize were supplemented by the AFSA elections. that rights which cannot be exercised publication of the bicentennial are rights denied, so AFSA was “American Diplomacy and the forced to seek judicial relief from die Foreign Service” and of a 12th inadequate furlough notification. As (August) edition in the summer of this is written, AFSA is hoping the 1990. budget impasse will be resolved and The JOURNAL editorial board has furloughs made unnecessary. designated Associate Editor Anne Assignments: Negotiations have Stevenson-Yang to fill the senior also begun with management for a editorial position temporarily, George F. Jones complete rewrite of 3 FAM 140 pending decisions on a permanent (Assignments). The regulations replacement for Ann Luppi.

62 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 F S N E W S

upon retirement, AFSA assisted the Member Services employee in appealing the decision to OPM. Good news and bad news longest delay would then be slightly In this particular case, the em¬ about the pouch more than a day. ployee had voluntarily canceled his The guarantee of an eight-hour FEHBP coverage to enroll under his Chris Bazar turnaround for the reprocessing of spouse’s insurance plan. Seven Director of Member Services AID mail is equally applicable to mail months later, the officer re-enrolled being processed for the first time. under FEHBP. Less than one year after A change in diplomatic pouch This should ease the concerns of re-enrolling, his time-in-class (TIC) procedures for users in agencies other employees who feared that the new ran out, and he was forced to retire. than the State Department has raised system—under which each agency It was at this point that he was told a number of concerns among AID must sort its own mail before delivery by the department that he could not employees. These have centered to the new pouch facility at Dulles carry his FEHBP coverage over into around two issues: 1) the require¬ Airport—would add substantially to retirement. ment that employees utilize a new transit time. Any delays due to To assist the employee in his five-line address for pouch mail, and agency-specific sorting should be appeal, AFSA provided evidence to 2) the possibility of delays resulting more than offset by the improvement OPM on the nature of the Foreign from the new procedures. in pouch service resulting from the Service retirement system. AFSA The good news is that AID has opening of the Dulles facility. demonstrated that retirement due to agreed to revise its policy on the five- A dramatic change in delivery time the expiration of one’s TIC cannot line address. This was a concern has already been seen by some properly be viewed as “voluntary.” because many commercial establish¬ JOURNAL readers: a new pre-sorting OPM concluded that the employee’s ments (e.g., credit card companies, system instituted in August has failure to meet the five-year require¬ mail order houses, banks) use already sped delivery by as much as ment stemmed from matters he could computerized data bases that cannot two weeks to certain posts. not have foreseen, and he was accommodate a five-line address. As a granted the waiver. result, AID is now allowing employ¬ ees to use a three-line alternative. AFSA wins health The bad news is that AFSA was benefit case Tax Issues not able to obtain an extension of the “grace period” preceding implemen¬ Amy MacEachin Official residence expenses tation of the new address format. The Member Services Representative new pouch procedures went into Deborah Leahy effect on September 1, 1990; any AFSA recently helped a retired Member Services mail not using the new address Foreign Service officer obtain a format as of October 1 will be waiver from the Office of Personnel The IRS has ruled that employees returned to AID for proper process¬ Management in order to continue his who receive official residence ex¬ ing. Unfortunately, AID did not coverage under the Federal Employ¬ penses (ORE) may no longer reduce inform employees of these changes ees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP). their reportable income by 5 percent. until August 7, making it impossible The department had dropped the The ruling, effective October 1, will for many employees to get their employee’s FEHBP coverage because not disallow the 5 percent reduction addresses changed prior to the he had not been enrolled for the five for the first nine months of 1990. October 1 deadline. Any “improp¬ years of service immediately preced¬ The IRS acknowledges that erly” addressed AID mail sent ing retirement, which is required expenses a principal representative subsequent to the deadline will under Chapter 89 of title 5 of the incurs in maintaining a suitable experience only minimal delays, U.S. code. official residence that exceed the however. Any such mail would first However, AFSA was aware of representative’s usual expenses are be identified by State and sent back OPM’s authority under Public Law not taxable. to AID for reprocessing. State assures 99-251, which allows for a waiver of Unfortunately, the IRS does not us that this would take 24 hours at the five-year participation require¬ consider the 5 percent deduction to most (and probably considerably less ment. Since it was clear that the entail “unusual” expenses. The IRS time). AID has promised that all mail department had no intention of contends that the deduction is used will be reprocessed and routed back reversing its initial decision to drop to cover ordinary, day-to-day living to State in eight hours or less. The the officer from the FEHBP coverage expenses (e.g. supplies, houseclean-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 63 ing, laundry, and trash removal) legislative agenda, but such a mea¬ this burden. One such option would regardless of what sort of housing the sure will certainly face a long and be to propose that management do employee has. uncertain route to enactment. away with the current percentage- AFSA believes the 1984 IRS AFSA further recognizes that in based system and instead adopt fixed decision permitting the 5 percent addition to the burden of additional charges for the ordinary expense reduction of income for ORE was taxes, Foreign Service personnel deduction that would not exceed a correct and that the 1990 decision receiving ORE will be faced with a specified dollar figure. AFSA will should be overturned. This could be larger salary' contribution when 1991 keep its members apprised of all achieved through legislation, and pay raises go into effect. We are developments on this front. AFSA has placed this proposal on its currently investigating ways to lessen Call for award nominations An effective Foreign Service demands recognition for excellence. AFSA’s board strongly urges you to submit nominations for the 1991 AFSA awards to recognize outstanding performance. We are especially pleased to announce the establishment of a new annual award for Foreign Service secretaries, in recognition of the important contribution secretaries make to effective operations and the implementation of American foreign policy. Group nominations will be given consideration in an effort to recognize and encourage collective contributions on the part of Foreign Service secretaries. You may send in a nomination on the form being mailed to all AFSA members or type the nomination following the format below. It should be returned by pouch or internal mail to Awards Committee, AFSA, Room 3644 NS, Department of State or mailed to AFSA, 2101 E Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, no later than January 31, 1991. Description of awards Three awards are for Foreign Service officers who have “exhibited extraordinary accomplishment involving initia¬ tive, integrity, intellectual courage, and creative dissent.” The Christian A. Herter Award is for members of the Senior Foreign Service and includes $1,000 cash. The William R. Rivkin Award is for mid-career officers (FS 1-3) and includes $1,000 cash. The W. Averell Harriman Award is for junior officers (FS 4-6) and includes $2,500 cash. The new Foreign Service Secretary Award is for a group of Foreign Service secretaries or an individual secretary who has made a significant contribution to post or office effectiveness and morale beyond the framework of his or her job responsibilities. This additional contribution might include some or all of tire following elements: A. Unusual initiative and leadership in contributing to improved management and morale. B. Intellectual courage and/or integrity. C. Outstanding contributions to improving the morale and professionalism of the Foreign Service secretarial corps. D. A positive and helpful attitude in all matters, on and off the job, which improves post or office efficiency and morale. E. Serving as a role model for other secretaries. F. Contributions to the American community through involvement in community activities, for example those of a social, charitable, or cultural nature. G. Contributions to better relations with the local community, die host government, other embassies, or the private American sector. This award includes $2,500 cash. The Avis Bohlen Award is presented by Mrs. W. Averell Harriman in memory of Avis Bohlen (wife of the late Ambassador Charles E. Bohlen) to a member of the family of a Foreign Service employee whose relations with the American and foreign communities at a Foreign Service post have done the most to advance the interests of the United States. This award includes $2,500 cash. Format for Award Nominations Please indicate for which award the nomination is made and then provide the following information: Part I: Biographic Data: name and identification of nominee (grade, agency, position, or relationship to a member of the Foreign Service). Part II: Name and identification of nominator and description of association with the nominee (limit 250 words). Part III: Justification for nomination (500-700 words): summary of reasons for nomination. The narrative should discuss the performance and qualities that qualify the nominee for the award, including specific examples of the nominee’s accomplishments that meet the criteria.

64 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 AFSA colleges delayed applicant’s aid 1991-92APPLICA TIONA VAILABLE awards because of incomplete Eligibility : Dependent students Scholarships applications. Those who miss die first of all Foreign Service personal in cycle of financial aid funding that State, AID, USIA, Commerce, or When you have an application for takes place in most colleges during Agriculture who are serving or have an AFSA scholarship under consider¬ the spring may miss out on the more served abroad. ation, please touch base with Scholar¬ favorable aid, such as grants, college Merit Awards: For graduation ship Programs Administrator Gail work-study, and low-interest loans, high school students in 1991 only, Volk every now and then. Fax, drop a leaving only the option of taking out based on academic merit. note, or call, but please let her know higher-interest loans. Although Financial Aid Awards: For full¬ where you can be reached. keeping in touch can be difficult, it time undergraduate students in the AFSA scholarships are coordinated pays off. United States, based on need. with college aid. Therefore, appli¬ To receive an application, contact: Deadline: Applications must be cants and their parents are also AFSA Scholarship Programs 2101 E completed and returned to AFSA strongly urged to keep in contact Street N.W. Washington, D.C. 20037 before February' 15, 1991. with the college financial aid office. Tel: 202/338-4045, Fax:202/338- In the last funding cycle, several 6820. Strength in numbers

Janet L. Hedrick Director for membership

Even if no furloughs materialize, Foreign Service employees can no longer afford unquestioning faith in “the system” that is supposed to protect them from arbitrary practices. To make sure that all your concerns are heard and understood, all full-time, salaried Foreign Service personnel and all retirees are urged to become members. The voice of Foreign Service needs to be heard both within the administration and in Congress. The closer our membership comes to being universal, the more effective we can be in representing your interests. AFSA membership brings a host of benefits, including publications, insurance, legal aid, scholarships, and a number of services for retirees. As an AFSA member you will receive the FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL monthly and have access to personal property, accident, in- hospital income, and long-term disability insurance at attractive rates. AFSA maintains a legal staff to answer inquiries, represent members in administrative or IG investigations, and file suit against unfair labor practices. Members can also seek assistance from member services staff, who provide grievance representation, voucher and payroll assistance, and regulation interpretation. If you are overseas and need immediate consultations, you can speak with the post representative at one of the 160 active AFSA chapters. The scholarship program awards Foreign Service dependents financial aid and merit scholarships, and AFSA represents the retired community on Capitol Hill, monitoring changes in legislation and sending a bimonthly newsletter. Retired members also receive a directory' of retired members, allowing them to keep in touch with Foreign Service colleagues. As an AFSA member you are part of a vital network of employees who are working to improve the Foreign Service. Consider becoming an AFSA member today. Contact AFSA’s membership department at 202/625-7153 or write 2101 E Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20037 for more information. CALENDAR

November 13-14: AFSA Conference on “New Dimensions in International Trade” to be held at the Mayflower Hotel. December 6: AFSA’s annual meeting , Foreign Service Club January 31, 1991: Deadline for AFSA Conference on National Implications of State and Local Government Involve¬ ment in International Commerce. February 15,1991: Deadline for AFSA scholarship applications April 1991: AFSA conference on Business Opportunities with Mexico May 3,1991: Foreign Service Day May 4,1991: AFSA Dinner Dance

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 65 available last year—provides monthly benefits to age 65 for disability due to accident and up to two full years if due to a covered illness. In either case these payments are made only in case of total disability due to sickness or injury or both. Spouses are not eligible for Plan II. The cost of this insurance is very reasonable, much less than the prevailing rates for comparable coverage purchased on an individual basis. However, with the increase in benefits, applicants are required to Hugh Wolff (right) presents a certificate of appreciation to Manlio DeAngelis provide brief medical histories and may be denied acceptance into the Salute to a of AFSA’s membership are served. program. In grateful acknowledgement of Interested members are urged to retiring trustee his years of dedicated service and his write or phone for a brochure and important contributions to AFSA, application forms from Albert H. Hugh W. Wolff the Governing Board and the Board Wohlers & Co., 1440 N. Northwest Insurance Board of Trustees joined in awarding Highway, Park Ridge, Illinois 60068- Manlio DeAngelis, a founding Manny a certificate of appreciation 1400. Tel: 1/800/323-2106 or 1/ member of AFSA’s Board of Trustees that was presented to him at the 708/803-3100 in Illinois. for Insurance Programs, was honored luncheon by Hugh Wolff, chairman by his fellow trustees at luncheon in of the Board of Trustees. the Foreign Service Club September AFSA annual 13 on the occasion of his retirement from the board. Manny was instru¬ Improved membership mental in establishing the Board of Trustees in 1980 as a specialized benefits available meeting body charged by the Governing Board widi die management and for disability December 6, 1990 4:45 p.m. oversight of AFSA’s group insurance Foreign Service Club programs. In subsequent years he insurance Wine and Cheese continued to serve as a wise and Cash Bar also available resourceful member while the board AFSA’s new disability income The AFSA membership is worked to make major improvements insurance plan is now available with invited to the 1990 annual in these programs. As a result AFSA higher monthly benefits payable for meeting on Thursday, December members now have access to four longer periods than when this group 6, 1990 in the East-West Confer¬ insurance programs that are insurance was first offered a year ago. ence Room of the AFSA build¬ unexcelled in the range of benefits All members and spouses under 60, ing. The Governing Board and provided and in the relative cost including retirees, who are working staff will report briefly to you, compared with competing programs. at least 30 hours a week and have not and members may raise questions Manny brought to our Board of been hospitalized in six months, may about any of AFSA’s activities. A Trustees a wealth of knowledge and now apply for up to $3,000 in cash bar will remain open experience in public administration as monthly benefits. The initial offering afterward. well as personal familiarity with die of this insurance was limited to Members may propose and management of group insurance for $1,000 a month. Furthermore, vote on motions and recommend the American Society for Public members now may choose among a course of action to the board. Administration. For more than 10 different durations of benefits. Plan I Proposed agenda items must be years he has been a principal figure provides monthly benefits for up to received by AFSA no later than on our board, always thoughtful, fair- five years if the disability is due to December 1. Please let us know minded, and imbued with a sincere accident and up to one full year if in advance at 647-8160 if you desire to ensure that the best interests due to a covered illness. Plan II—not plan to attend.

66 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 1990 Trade conference will assess Uruguay Round

AFSA will hold a major conference outlook for U.S. business? what will be the resulting new November 13-14 1990, featuring a Senior officials of AT&T, opportunities for U.S. business? point-by-point assessment of the Citicorp, Arthur Anderson, and Ambassador Alexander oudook for a successful conclusion of Fluor Corp. will participate in Bessmertnykh of the Soviet the Uruguay Round of trade negotia¬ the panel. Union has been invited to tions. ■ Should the international discuss this topic. The conference will take place community adopt new interna¬ ■ How is the world trading about three weeks before the sched¬ tional protections for holders of system changing, and how uled conclusion of the most sweeping national copyrights and patents should U.S. companies respond international effort in history to against piracy in other coun¬ to tiie changes? Ambassador reduce barriers to world trade (see tries, and if so, would U.S. Michael Smith will be among Ernest Preeg, page 29). It will competitiveness in other the experts discussing this highlight the opinions of negotiators markets be improved? Former topic. and businessmen on the issues still to Ambassadors Joseph Greenwald A final plenary session, to be be negotiated, the potential for and Nicholas Veliotes as well as moderated by Isaiah Frank, will compromise, and the probable Jack Valenti of the Motion permit the six panel moderators to bottom line for U.S. negotiators. Six Picture Association of America explore possible interactions between expert panels will consider, respec¬ will be featured. developments in different areas, tively: ■ Should governments agree on looking toward a broad evaluation of ■ Should governments around the the acceptability of specific new opportunities for U.S. business world reduce farm subsidies measures relating to the export in the 1990s. The conference has and, if so, how would American and import of investment been designed to facilitate open imports and exports be af¬ capital related to trade, and if dialogue between participants and fected? This panel, to be they do, will the United States panel experts. Ample time has been chaired by Orville Freeman, will benefit? Fred Bergsten will built into the program for questions include Dwayne Andreas, chief moderate this panel. and comments from the attendees. It executive officer of Archer ■ What is the outlook for inte¬ will take place at the Mayflower Daniels Midland, and Senator grating the Soviet Union, Hotel in Washington, D.C. The Patrick J. Leahy. Eastern Europe, and the Conference Board of New York is co¬ ■ Would international rules on People’s Republic of China into sponsoring the conference. trade in services improve the the world trading system, and New Dimensions in World Trade

November 13-14, 1990 Mayflower Hotel Washington, D.C. To register, send this coupon or u facsimile. NAME, TITLE COMPANY ADDRESS CITY STATE ZIP TELEPHONE Registration fees (payable in advance) Send to: The Conference Board Inc. CONFERENCE FEE: $475 Conference Registrar 845 Third Avenue CONFERENCE AND DINNER FEE: $600 Hew Tbrk NT. 10022 AFSA members receive a 50 percent discount, and the conference is free to international associates. *The dinner on November 13 will be held in the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, Department of State

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